Urban informality, housing insecurity, and social ...

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Urban informality, housing insecurity, and social exclusion; concept and case study assessment for sustainable urban development Oluwole Soyinka∗, Kin Wai Michael Siu School of Design, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong

A R T I C LE I N FO

A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Urban informality Housing insecurity Social justice Social exclusion Urban equity and equality Hong Kong Lagos metropolis

The challenge of sustainable urban development is a global one and it affects the quality of livelihoods. This study investigates urban informality, housing insecurity, and social exclusion (UHS) in Hong Kong and Lagos metropolis to understand the concept and the characteristics of this threat for sustainable development. The aim of this study is to develop strategies for integrating UHS for urban sustainability. In achieving this, the study conceptualized and investigates UHS for development strategies. It adopts case study methodology, triangulation method of data collection and mixed method data analysis. The findings identify several factors contributing to this issue as socio-economic, environmental, unequal distribution of urban resources, and the wide gap between the rich and the poor. Recommendations to ensure sustainable urban development based on the case considered includes economic empowerment, adequate and affordable housing strategies, social and environmental interaction design strategies, regularization and integration of urban informality with infrastructure design in the study areas.

1. Introduction In the quest to achieve sustainable urban development in cities and countries around the world, there exist several urban challenges which include but not limited to urban informality, housing insecurity and social exclusion (UHS) which are identified as a significant universal menace (Roy, 2012, pp. 691–705; UN-Habitat, 2015). Kennett and Mizuuchi (2010); Lawanson and Fadare (2015); Tanasescu, Wing-tak, and Smart (2010) note that these challenges exist in both developed (e.g. Japan, Hong Kong and Canada) and developing (e.g. China, South Africa and Nigeria) countries from different research perspectives. Urban informality is described in different ways and used in different contexts such as urban informal settlement, illegal settlement, and squatter settlement just to mention few. However, the terms are always used to describe inadequate or substandard housing conditions that are usually not taxed and/or regularized (not-formalized) by the government agencies (Inam, 2015; Roy, 2012, pp. 691–705). Tanasescu et al. (2010) described the dynamics of this menace by comparing the nature and characteristics of urban informality in rooftops and basement suites (tops and bottoms) in Hong Kong and Calgary, Canada. Housing insecurity also is a complex term commonly used to describe a state of inability to secure adequate and affordable housing based on several factors which are diverse in different countries. Kennett and Mizuuchi (2010) by defining and measuring this menace, identify it

∗

with the roofless-ness, living in insecure housing (eviction, insecure tenancy) and street sleepers among other terms adopted. Similarly, social exclusion from several literature debates of what constitutes inclusion and exclusion, identify that it varies from society to society but with factors reflecting cultural, economic, and political disadvantage of individuals or group of individuals in a society. Kennett and Mizuuchi (2010); Lawanson and Fadare (2015) describes this situation from the settlement and housing perspective with emphasizes on inadequate capacities for an adequate living condition which is associated with culture, economic, political and/or systemic issues. Several factors have been identified in previous research as causatives of this menace with different perspectives and strategies to ease its significance. For instance, in a study focused on Lagos metropolis, Lawanson and Fadare (2015) highlighted inequality between the rich and the poor, unequal distribution of resources (financial/economic, social and natural resources), inadequate regional development and political issues as most significant factors. In fact, the social stratification aspect of this challenge is very evident from a glimpse of the landscape of these areas with sprawl development, squatter settlements, haphazard building arrangement, slum development and general environmental collapse (Soyinka, 2014). Similarly, in a study focused on developed cities such as Hong Kong and Calgary, Canada, Tanasescu et al. (2010), highlighted economic and government tolerance as one of the common causative factors of this issues with severe consequences.

Corresponding author. E-mail addresses: [email protected] (O. Soyinka), [email protected] (K.W.M. Siu).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ccs.2018.03.005 Received 20 April 2017; Received in revised form 23 November 2017; Accepted 22 March 2018 1877-9166/ © 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Please cite this article as: Soyinka, O., City, Culture and Society (2018), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ccs.2018.03.005

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domain describes urban informality relative to its inadequate physical characteristics. This is the assessment of the visible dwelling space of a person or family in relation to the quality of the building materials and the living environment. The social domain criteria are the ability of a person or family to relate and maintain his relationships within a community. The social capacity of a person or family to reside and maintain a minimum quality of social standard of living required in a geographical space. The legal domain criteria include the lawful possession or occupancy of a dwelling unit and the location of the dwelling unit. This is the exclusive right to domicile. The policy and/or the nonregularise domain relate to the influence of government and policy on a dwelling units or settlement as urban informal settlement. Lastly, the aftermath of both housing insecurity cum urban informality is the third stage on the spectrum, which is identified as the cluster of deprived people subjected to social exclusion by all or either of the criteria described above (Jianfa, 2005; Roy, 2012, pp. 691–705). Sadly, these groups are often neglected by the political class, lack representation in the governance and policy-making in their region. Lawanson and Fadare (2015) from the perspective of environmental health disparities states that “research has identified socioeconomic status as a fundamental cause of the observed inequalities in health. It states that there is a mounting evidence that the widening gap between the rich and the poor contributes to health disparities” in low-income communities (Lawanson & Fadare 2015, p. 46). Fig. 1 further illustrates the literature conceptualization of urban informality, housing insecurity and social exclusion based on previous literature for further investigation, analysis, and recommendation in this study.

While previous studies around the world have rightly described the cause of this challenge and make recommendations to ameliorate it from different perspectives without conceptualizing it from developed and developing cities for sustainable development (Kennett & Mizuuchi, 2010; Tanasescu et al., 2010). This study within this context identifies the need to conceptualize this problem from both developed and developing cities perspectives to adequately assess the challenge for sustainable development strategy. This study, therefore, conceptualized and investigates UHS in two case study areas; a developed (Hong Kong) and a developing (Lagos metropolis) cities and highlight strategies for sustainable urban development. 1.1. Conceptualizing urban informality, housing insecurity, and social exclusion Although not equal, the terms: urban informality, housing insecurity, and social-exclusion (UHS) might be used interchangeably based on their relationship and association with urban development. This study conceptualizes the menace of UHS based on the description and criteria set by previous studies and UN-Habitat, 2015 report (Habitat, 2013; Hernández, Kellett, & Allen, 2010; Rufina & Canham, 2009; UN-Habitat, 2015; UN). Apparently, one leads to the other and many at times it starts with housing insecurity which is also termed housing inequality in some cases, and it has been identified as the parameter that represents the shortfall and inadequate provision of quality residential houses. The main criteria for defining housing insecurity/inequality are basically attributed to economic factors among others. This could either be related to provision or availability of public housing by the Government and/or the socio-economic capability of individuals to afford such apartments where available. Therefore, the most used measurement technique of housing insecurity is availability (i.e. the difference in the supplied housing and its demand) and affordability. That is where housing is available and if the cost is high and/or is not affordable by most of the populace, there is housing insecurity because most people have tendencies of becoming homeless. This is obviously excruciating to the high rate of urban poor and unemployed workforce. In a bid for survival, the option of illegal development and migration to unregulated urban areas or suburbs is rather inevitable, leading to what is generally known as urban informality (informal settlement, squatter settlement) which is the second stage of UHS process in this study and depicted in Fig. 1. UN-Habitat (2015), described it as the residential areas with one or more of the following characteristics: 1) Insecurity of tenure vis-à-vis the land use and/or the dwelling structures. The occupants are squatters living in informal rented or owned sheds/structures; 2) Lack of basic facilities, services, and city infrastructure; and 3) Non-compliance with urban planning building regulations, standards and is often situated within a geographically hazardous area. These criteria encompass the entire living environment which includes the social, economic and physical condition of the individual or entire population in a giving geographical area. This definition as also been adopted by several other previous studies such as (Inam, 2015; Lai, 2015; Nwokoro et al., 2015). In these studies, criteria for conceptualizing urban informality have been further explicitly identified based on 1) physical characteristics or nature of the structure, 2) the quality of life and living condition of a giving geographical area, and 3) the current use of the area as either residential, commercial and/ or industrial area contrary to the designated, approved, and/or zoned use of the area. Furthermore, the European Typology of Homelessness and Housing Exclusion (ETHOS) describes urban informality to include the following condition of roofless-ness, houseless-ness and insecure housing (Kennett & Mizuuchi, 2010). This standpoint is similar to that of Edgar (2004, 2009); Edgar, Doherty, and Meert (2004) even though the context of use is different, the identified criteria were subdivided into “physical, social, legal, economic, policy and non-regularise domains”. The physical

1.2. Research objectives and framework Having described and conceptualized UHS based on previous literature in this research, this study goes further to investigate and operationalize this concept for sustainable urban development strategies. The specific objectives to achieve this is to understand its nature and characteristics from a developed and a developing city perspective and recommend strategies to reduce or eradicates the identified menace for sustainable urban development. The research hypothesis tested states that: Ho: there is no significant relationship between the resident's socioeconomic condition of living and housing condition. Hi: there is a significant relationship between the resident's socioeconomic condition of living and housing condition. The measurable variables adopted to test this hypothesis include the socioeconomic variables such as level of education, occupation, income, household size and exclusive room available for household use.

Fig. 1. Concepts of urban informality, housing insecurity, and social exclusion. Source: Author 2017. 2

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size table at 95% confidence level of continuous data. The sampling techniques adopt the multi-stage sampling procedures, simple random selection approach within the study area and a purposive selection of the respondents. The first stage of the multi-stage sampling method is the stratification of the study areas into regions such as New Territories, Kowloon Peninsula, and Hong Kong Island for the Hong Kong SAR and Lagos metropolis stratified to Lagos Island region and Lagos Mainland region. Adopting 20% of the eighteen districts in Hong Kong and sixteen Local Government Areas (LGA) in Lagos metropolis with the practical and theoretical evidence of UHS in the study areas. This study investigates seven areas in four districts of Hong Kong and seven areas in three LGA of Lagos metropolis. The mixed method data analysis includes the qualitative and quantitative data analysis through the descriptive statistics and inferential method of data analysis. The data presentation and discussion adopt the use of pictures, descriptive statistical tables, charts and Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) test retrieved from Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS). The selected study areas for this study is presented in Table 1 and further discussion on these selected study areas with justification for selection is discussed in the study area below. Table 1 Hong Kong SAR and Lagos metropolis case study areas. Source: Author (2017).

Fig. 2. Comprehensive sustainable urban development framework. Source: Authors 2017.

Hong Kong SAR

The environmental variables include types of building construction materials and the residential status. These variables assist in assessment and operationalization of these issues in the study areas. It also helps to describe the findings of the area within the context of UHS for adequate recommendations. The research framework is based on this identified global menace, research gap, research objectives, and the hypothesis tested in this study. The framework as adopted and depicted in Fig. 2 illustrates the perspectives of this study to investigate the two study areas, identify strategy gaps and recommend comprehensive sustainable development strategies for sustainable development.

New Territories

Kowloon Peninsula

Tai Po District •Tai Po Market

Kowloon City District •Hung Hom •Homan Tin

Hong Kong Island Sham Shui Po District •Sham Shui Po •Shek Kip Mei

Wan Chai District •Wan Chai North •Wan Chai South

Lagos metropolis, Nigeria Lagos Island region Eti-Osa LGA

Lagos Mainland region Obalende area Ilado/Eti-Osa Environs Badore

2. Methods This study adopts case study methodology with triangulation method of data collection and mixed method data analysis. The primary data adopted are the first-hand data (pictures and survey questionnaire) collected from the study area, while all other data obtained from previous studies are the secondary data. The triangulation method includes the collection of data using two or more data collection techniques to ensure the validity and reliability of the data collected. This comprises of site observation, pilot study, and questionnaire survey (online, email using Microsoft-word developer, survey monkey and on-site survey administration) administered in the study area. The questionnaires are structured in open and closed-end system with both the numeric and the Likert scale questions. The numeric questions are questions without any order or scale, while the Likert scale questions are the questions that require the respondent to rank questions from a range of 1–5, where 1- represents very inadequate, 2 - inadequate, 3 - neutral, 4 – adequate and 5 – very adequate. The question covers the UHS factors such as socio-economic and environmental with variables that include the level of education, income, household size, type of housing and construction materials just to mention few. A total of three hundred and ninety (390) questionnaire survey was retrieved and analyzed in Hong Kong Special Administrative Region (SAR), while a total of four hundred and sixty-nine (469) questionnaire survey was retrieved and analyzed in Lagos metropolis using the different methods of data collection techniques adopted. The sample frame includes the total population of the selected areas based on the sampling techniques. The sample size adopts the research advisors sample

Lagos Mainland LGA

Iwaya Makoko

Ikeja LGA

Ipodo/Seriki Area Alausa/Oregun/ Olusosun

2.1. The study area The study area is Hong Kong SAR and Lagos metropolis. These study areas are adopted as two separate metropolitan cities in developed and developing country to understand and assess UHS, and to ameliorate these challenges for sustainable urban development. Although, there exist identified differences between these two metropolitan cities, however, this paper is not comparing the two cities to select the best or the most critical issues. But the study seeks to understand the concept, the nature and the characteristics of urban informality, housing insecurity and social exclusion in a developed and a developing metropolitan city for development strategy. The study areas are adopted based on theoretical and practical evidence of these challenges in these areas. These areas are adopted to validate or negate the hypothesis stated that there is no significant relationship between the resident's socio-economic condition of living and the housing condition. This study investigates the socio-economic and environmental characteristics of UHS in these areas to understand these issues for adequate improvement strategies. Fig. 3 presents the map of the city with highlights of the study areas. The significant relationship between Hong Kong's population in relation to its land uses, its experience with high rate of housing challenges, the theoretical and practical evidence of squatter's settlement in the SAR justify the region for this study (Alan, 2001; Rufina & Canham, 3

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Fig. 3. Map of Hong Kong highlighting the study areas. Source: Adapted from https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_Hong_Kong_18_Districts_en.svg#/media/File:Map_of_Hong_Kong_18_Districts_en.svg (April 2016).

justify the significance of these menace in Lagos metropolis with significant practical evidence in the area. Fig. 4 presents the map of the metropolis with highlights of the study areas. The coastal city of Lagos, the fifth largest city in the world, is situated within the latitude 6° 23′N and 6°41′N and longitude 2°42′E and 3°42′E on the south-western Nigerian coastal plain. It's located on the Bight of Benin, with a geographical area of 3577 km2. Lagos metropolis is adopted because of the practical and theoretical evidence of these challenges in the metropolis. According to Aluko and Amidu (2006) and other studies that opined that more than half of Lagosians are tenants and homeless in both slum and non-slum areas of Lagos metropolis. More than 40% occupy informal core areas and less than 20% occupy formal areas of the metropolis (Aluko & Amidu, 2006; Omole, 2001). There are no significant differences between the slum and non-slum areas of Lagos metropolis in terms of house ownership, quality of housing and living conditions within the metropolis (Lawanson & Fadare, 2015).

2009; Tam, 2012; Tanasescu et al., 2010). Also, the statement of the Hong Kong Department of Lands (2016) on some areas of this problem region that: “There are currently 12 surveyed squatters in Tung Ah Pui Village, all of which are located on government land. Per the squatter survey records in 1982, these squatter's structures were built mainly with permanent materials such as concrete, tiles, and bricks … Moreover, as these squatter structures were covered in the Squatter Control Survey (SCS) in 1982, they are “tolerated” and “allowed to exist” on government land” (Hong Kong Department of Lands, 2016. Pg1) The acknowledgment of Tung Ah Pui Village among several other areas of Hong Kong, the theoretical evidence and physical indications of this issue in the region justify the area suitable as a case study in a developed country. Hong Kong is located on approximately 1104 km2 land area at 22° 15′N latitude and 114°10′E longitude on the Tropic of Cancer. Approximately 45% of its landmass is developed, and above 50% is covered with natural features (relief, hydrology etc.) and flora. Hong Kong is characterized by its compact urban landform, high-density buildings with characteristics of UHS in specific areas of the city. Hong Kong was adopted as a case study due to its past and present experience of the menace, its rapid urbanization, and its current crisis in housing affordability and public housing provision (Cuthbert & McKinnell, 1997; Ng, Chen, Wang, & Yuan, 2012). The socio-economic, physical and environmental characteristics of Lagos metropolis without much emphasis reflects the existence of this menace. Although, there is no significant government report of the challenge in Lagos metropolis from the relevant decree (Nigerian Urban and Regional Planning Law Decree 88 of 1992 and the Lagos State Urban and Regional Planning and Development Law of 2005) adopted in the metropolis. However, the study of Aluko and Amidu (2006); Lawanson and Fadare (2015); O. Olajide (2010); O. A. Olajide (2015)

3. Case study 3.1. Case 1: urban informality, housing insecurity and Social-Exclusion (UHS) in Hong Kong Although UHS is not very pronounced in Hong Kong it exists (Tam, 2012). Hong Kong Department of Lands (2016); Rufina and Canham (2009) and other literature described the significance of this threat in the region. The 2009 press release of the Hong Kong SAR government statistics and Kennett and Mizuuchi (2010), reflects that the statistical history of UHS in Hong Kong from the estimated number of 179,000 households (460,000 persons) in 1997 to 100,000 households (274,000 persons) in 2002 is a significant challenge in the region. Their statistics also reflect that there were 1399 street sleepers in February 2001, 785

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Fig. 4. Map of Lagos metropolis Highlighting the Study Areas. Source: Adapted from (Lawanson, 2011; Soyinka, 2014).

population housed in public housing and another 15% housed in government flats sold to corporate and individual citizens, yet the state of Hong Kong housing is governed by complicated policies that are related to stringent eligibility criteria, the wide gap between the poor and the rich, urbanization and globalization that drives many into the challenges of UHS. This complexity has impeded the efforts of Hong Kong government to eradicate these challenges of UHS completely from the country. The people deprived of public housing and cannot afford decent private accommodation rely on illegal roof-top housing and other types of illegal housing in Hong Kong (Tanasescu et al., 2010). The data published in 2008 according to Kennett and Mizuuchi (2010) indicate that the official number of people in stable accommodation cubicles, bedstead spaces or other forms of single accommodation spaces in Hong Kong in 2007 was 53,200. This figure includes people in all age categories 0–14, 15–24, 25–49 and 50 years and

in December 2002 and 335 in 2007. Between February 2008 and January 2009, the number of street sleepers was estimated to be 358. It seems that the statistics are reducing every year, but Rufina and Canham (2009) and Tam (2012) further described these challenges in Hong Kong from more critical perspectives that require attention because of it hidden characters. Tanasescu et al. (2010), states that UHS challenges and illegal housing in Hong Kong are policy related issues. The research states that the government since post-colonization has a center-right administrative philosophy that supports economic liberalism, privatization of state assets and individualism (individual self-reliance). This trend is evidence in the reduction of government social spending and increasing pressure on public housing with citizens faced with poverty and homelessness. Although Hong Kong is recognized as one of the world's largest providers of public housing, with an estimated 30% of its

Fig. 5. Characteristics of informal housing in Hong Kong. Source: Adapted from (Rufina & Canham, 2009).

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above, which account for 3,400, 6,700, 23,000 and 20,100, respectively. The Society for Community Organization (SCO) estimated that 100,000 people inhabit cage homes and flats divided into cubicles in Hong Kong (Kowloon, Sham Shui Po, and Tai Kok Tsui) according to (Reuter, 2010; South China Morning Post March 2009 in (Kennett & Mizuuchi, 2010)). The Hong Kong government argued in 2008 that these people chose to live in those bed space apartments, cage houses, and informal or illegal structures because they preferred to stay in urban centers rather than take advantage of the government's offer of better housing in different locations in suburbs or relocates to their different hometowns for the immigrants (Kennett & Mizuuchi, 2010). The study identified that the illegal rooftop housing, basement squatting, and homelessness in Hong Kong originated from the countries' strengths (economic prosperity, globalization, urbanization) that have been magnified by the countries’ administrative philosophies, and/or policies that thus create a wide gap between the rich and the poor. This challenge is evident in Hong Kong with housing affordability and availability issue in the region as the major concern of the lowincome and vulnerable residents. Kennett and Mizuuchi (2010) infer that these challenges will persist if the growing economic strength of Hong Kong continues to create a wide gap between the rich and the poor citizens. This is because the growth will draw more investors, migrant workers, and tourists which will consequently affect the current housing economy and creates burdens on vulnerable households and forces this large population to cheaper housing and eventually illegal options. This situation of UHS increases and gradually leads to the development of problem urban areas. According to Tanasescu et al. (2010), it should not be surprising that informal settlement and illegal housing exist in Hong Kong SAR because they are global issues and it occurs differently in different countries of the world. This challenge varies per the dynamics of interaction that exist between the government and the people, and different countries have their selective tolerance for this illegality challenges with varying size of vulnerable groups. Fig. 5 describes the condition of UHS in Hong Kong SAR with the characteristics of poor urban housing in Hong Kong according to (Rufina & Canham, 2009). This study demonstrates that illegal housing (illegal rooftop and basement structures) do not only exists in developed countries but it's also tolerated. The shift towards neo-liberal policies and the expansion of neo-liberal globalization have supported the rise of this illegal housing. Previous studies such as Chiu (2002); Kennett and Mizuuchi (2010); Tanasescu et al. (2010) have shown that homelessness, housing insecurity, and social exclusion exist in Hong Kong. Hence, the nature and characteristic of UHS based on this study investigation is discussed below to understand these challenges for adequate recommendations.

Table 2 Socioeconomic and environmental characteristics of the study areas in Hong Kong. Source: Author's Fieldwork (2016). Characteristics

Level of Education Total Occupation

Total Average Monthly Income

Total Household Size

Total Household Exclusive Room Use Total Types of Building

Total Construction Materials

3.2. Findings Socio-economic and environmental characteristics: The socio-economic and environmental characteristics of the study area as presented by Table 2 reflects the tertiary education as the highest level of education at 53.8%, private employment and business 34.2%, average monthly income of HKD 15,000–30,000 44.0%, 1–3 household size as the highest household size 85.9%, and 2 rooms for exclusive room use at 76.5%. The environmental characteristics show that the most type of building use is flat between 1 and 10floors at 40.0%, construction materials are permanent materials with concrete blocks 89.3% and most of the respondents are tenant with 30.8% responses. This study infers from this result that socio-economic inadequacy interrelates with an environmental threat to produce UHS. This is significant in the study areas and it requires urgent sustainable strategies to improve the situation. This finding in the region corroborates with the conclusion of the Hong Kong Department of Lands (2016) on the occurrences of this issues with permanent structures and the study of Rufina and Canham (2009); Tam (2012) in the region.

Total Residential Status

Total

No Formal Primary Secondary Tertiary Public/Civil Servant Private Employed Business Street Trader Student Below HKD 15,000 HKD 15,000–30,000 HKD 30,001–60,000 HKD 60,001–90,000 HKD 90,001 above 1–3 4–6 7–9 10 &Above 1 2 3–4 5 &Above Traditional Compound Rooming House Studio/Single Room Duplex Flat between 1 and 10 floor Flat Above 10floors Plank & Bamboo Mud Mud & Cement Burnt Bricks Concrete Blocks Owner Mortgage ownership Public housing Inherited Tenant Squatting

Kowloon District

Sham Shui Po District

Tai Po District

Wan Chai District

Total

%

%

%

%

%

0.0 0.0 57.6 42.4 100.0 10.6

0.0 0.0 0.0 100 100.0 0.0

0.0 0.0 43.5 56.5 100.0 5.9

0.0 0.0 73.3 26.7 100.0 13.3

0.0 0.0 46.2 53.8 100.0 7.7

32.9

23.5

21.2

86.7

34.2

36.5 0.0 20.0 100.0 18.8

35.3 0.0 41.2 100.0 23.5

43.5 9.4 20.0 100.0 40

0.0 0.0 0.0 100.0 43.3

34.2 3.4 20.5 100.0 30.3

43.5

64.7

31.7

56.6

44.0

37.6

11.7

23.5

0.0

24.0

0.0

0.0

4.7

0.0

1.7

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

100.0 89.4 10.6 0.0 0.0 100.0 25.9 74.1 4.9 0.0 100.0 0.0

100.0 76.5 23.5 0.0 0.0 100.0 14.7 85.3 0.0 0.0 100.0 0.0

100.0 81.2 18.8 0.0 0.0 100.0 24.7 75.3 0.0 0.0 100.0 0.0

100.0 100.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 100.0 13.3 86.7 0.0 0.0 100.0 0.0

100.0 85.9 14.1 0.0 0.0 100.0 21.8 76.5 1.7 0.0 100.0 0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

20.0

14.7

15.3

13.3

16.7

0.0 55.3

0.0 38.2

4.7 30.6

0.0 26.7

1.7 40.0

24.7

47.1

49.4

60.0

41.5

100.0 0.0

100.0 0.0

100.0 0.0

100.0 0.0

100.0 0.0

0.0 0.0 0.0 100

0.0 0.0 11.8 88.2

0.0 0.0 20 80

0.0 0.0 13.3 86.7

0.0 0.0 10.7 89.3

100.0 20.0 14.1

100.0 26.5 11.8

100.0 18.8 14.1

100.0 26.7 0.0

100.0 21.4 11.9

38.8 0.0 27.1 0.0 100.0

50.0 0.0 11.8 0.0 100.0

20.0 0.0 42.4 4.7 100.0

26.7 0.0 30 16.7 100.0

32.1 0.0 30.8 3.8 100.0

Housing and residential adequacy: The response in Fig. 6 reflects that the residents are not satisfied with the housing availability and adequacy in Hong Kong. A further question in this regard also indicates

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Fig. 6. Housing and residential adequacy in Hong Kong. Source: Authors' Fieldwork (2016).

3.3. Case 2: urban informality, housing insecurity and social-exclusion (UHS) in Lagos Metropolis

inadequate at 60.87%, very inadequate 21.74%, neutral 13.04%, very adequate 4.35% and adequate 0.0%. These data reflect that housing experience of Hong Kong residents is inadequate despite the status of the country as one of the largest public housing providers in the world. Fig. 6 presents the resident's response to the availability and adequacy of residential accommodation in Hong Kong. Furthermore, ANOVA test of the relationship between the resident's socio-economic condition and the housing condition shows that there is a significant relationship between the socioeconomic status and housing condition in Hong Kong and this corroborates the resident's dissatisfaction response in Table 3. It describes the results of the ANOVA test. The result of Table 3 at alpha 0.05, r (4) = 0.14 and significant level 0.81 also support that there is no enough evidence to accept Ho and thus we accept Hi that there is a significant relationship between the socio-economic status and the housing condition of the resident. Considering this result, this study states that there is no enough evidence to prove that socio-economic status does not affect the critical housing condition and the development of UHS in Hong Kong. This finding also corroborates the conclusion of Rufina and Canham (2009) among other research.

Urban informality, housing insecurity, and social exclusion is a major challenge in Lagos metropolis and has been discussed by different literature from different perspectives in the metropolis (Adetokunbo & Emeka, 2015; Agbola & Agunbiade, 2009; Aluko & Amidu, 2006). Agbola and Agunbiade (2009); Oduwaye (2009); Soyinka (2014), described this challenge from the perspective of urbanization, physical planning, security of tenure and land de-regularization in the region. Lawanson and Fadare (2015) identify injustice, inequalities, and social exclusion as the underlying cause of housing challenges, urban informality and homelessness in the metropolis. ‘The rich reside in picturesque gated communities and Government Reservation Areas, while the poor are confined to the slums, squalor and squatter settlements largely unserved by basic infrastructure and social facilities’ (Lawanson & Fadare, 2015). Socio-economic class or status also contribute to the inequalities in global communities and partially determine the level of Lagos residents' social and environmental vulnerabilities. This implies that there is a significant interaction between socio-economic status, inequality and the environmental health conditions of the Lagos metropolis (Lawanson & Fadare, 2015; Nwokoro et al., 2015).

Table 3 ANOVA between socio-economic condition and housing condition in Hong Kong. Source: Authors' Fieldwork (2016).

df Regression Residual Multiple Regression

1 3

Total

4

SS 105.2134 1552.787 0.251909

MS 105.2134 517.5955

F 0.203273357

alpha

0.05

1658

SS, Sum of Square; MS, Mean Scores; Sign, Significant Level; S, Significant; NS, Not Significant.

7

Sign. 0.682685136

Remarks NS

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Fig. 7. Urban Informality, Housing Insecurity and Social Exclusion Challenge in Lagos metropolis, Nigeria. Source: Authors' Fieldwork (2016).

Although there are no precise figures of urban population living in informal settlements of the metropolis, however, the site investigations and the study of Lawanson (2011) suggests that between 50% and 80% of urban population in Lagos metropolis occupies irregular settlements in the core and suburban areas of the metropolis. Considering the characteristics of this overwhelming challenge, its physical, social, cultural and economic features in Lagos metropolis, UHS can be referred to as absurd, run-down, inhumane and chaotic. Inadequate infrastructure such as poor drainage system with the flooded environment and haphazard structural arrangements are the realities of the metropolis. Fig. 7 further describe urban informality, housing inequality, and social exclusion challenge in Lagos metropolis with rundown infrastructure environment. UHS in Lagos metropolis are entrenched in different sectors of the metropolis, in fact, differentiating between formal and informal housing in Lagos metropolis itself is a challenge. The menace of the physical planning bureaucratic processes on land, outdated physical planning laws and decrees such as the 1978 Land use Decree, NURP Decree 88 of 1992 and several other conflicting Lagos land law without specific policy statement on UHS is also a great challenge in the metropolis (Soyinka, 2013).

Aluko and Amidu (2006) emphasize the role of land deregulation as an inducer of urban informal settlements with critical effects on sustainable development. The study states that 47% of the world population lives in urban areas with approximately 70% of these population living in low-income, poor environment and informal settlement of the metropolis. The study describes how informal settlements evolve over time with informal systems of land tenure and management despite the presence of opposing official land tenure systems in Nigeria (Aluko & Amidu, 2006). further, opine that tenure status in Lagos metropolis is a significant component of the poverty cycle and that lack of tenure security hinders housing improvement and long-term planning and planning activities which degrade the environment and keeps the people in a cycle of poverty. Soyinka (2013) states that UHS in Lagos metropolis is characterized by sprawl building development and major building types are bungalows with mixed-use structures built with different materials. The environment is haphazard with informal ownership, squatter settlements and structures disconnected from basic facilities and services in the region. Infrastructure development which includes road facilities, electricity, recreational spaces, car parks, refuse management etc., are generally absent, and when available, it is not up to standard (Soyinka, Siu, Lawanson, & Adeniji, 2016). The UN standard of living described poverty as the individuals living below one dollar per day, however, the analysis of Lagos metropolis reflects that the area is below the UN standard of living (Soyinka, 2014). The analysis of the study areas reflects an environment with inadequate housing quality and pressure on infrastructure with challenges of urbanization (Agbola & Agunbiade, 2009). ‘Urbanization in Lagos metropolis is identified to also encourage the emergence of low-income settlements within the inner-city and outskirt of Lagos metropolis with mostly shanty town structures, squalor and squatter settlements that lack adequate infrastructure. The area can be described with breakdown of law and order, inhuman and insecure habitation.’ Oduwaye (2009, 2013), further examine UHS in Lagos metropolis from the perspectives of economic, socio-cultural and political injustice in relation to the unequal distribution of wealth and resources that are created by urbanization. Both studies conclude that urbanization is also a factor of informal settlement, supported by the unequal distribution of wealth and a wide gap between the rich and the poor. Soyinka (2013) identify perversions of laws related to land regularization and accessibility as a factor of urban informality in the metropolis.

3.4. Findings Socio-economic and environmental characteristics: The condition of the study areas is influenced by so many factors which contribute immensely to UHS in the metropolis. The socio-economic characteristics of the resident across the different study areas reflect the highest level of education with secondary school at 61.7%, business as the most occupation 51.9%, average monthly income #20,000-#50,000, household size and household exclusive room reflects 4–6 person 52.5% and 1 room at 44.1% respectively. The environmental condition of the resident shows traditional compound as the most type of building at 54.9%, concrete blocks 48.1%, and the majority of the respondent are tenant at 34.6%. Table 5 further presents the detailed distribution of the socio-economic and environmental characteristics and gather from this findings that of the area exhibits UHS. For instance, most people in the study areas are engaged in one activity to earn a living, but more than 30% of them live below the poverty margin of 1$ per day by the UN. These socioeconomic issues might be attributed to several factors such as the economic development (poverty level), political/administrative

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structure, the distribution of wealth, and corruption in the study areas. However, for this study, it is evident that socio-economic problem occurs in the study area and its contributes to UHS. Table 4 illustrates the socio-economic conditions of the resident. Housing and residential adequacy: The resident's response to housing and residential satisfaction in Ikeja and Eti-Osa L.G.A reflect that the area is an eyesore and inhumane. The area can simply be described as squatter settlements, slums, and substandard housing with resident's dissatisfaction. The cases of Makoko, Iwaya, and Ilaje in Lagos Mainland LGA are indescribable and are examples of absolute environmental breakdown. The data collected from Eti-Osa and Ikeja reflect that 46.1% of the respondent's housing condition is very inadequate, 28.3% inadequate, 18.5% of the respondent is neutral, 11.6% adequate and 0.0% very adequate. Clearly, the residents are not satisfied with the residential housing in the study area. Table 4 above and Fig. 8 below further describe the residential housing conditions in Lagos metropolis. The relationship between occupation and housing condition to determine how socio-economic factors affect the challenges of UHS is tested below using ANOVA test. Table 5 describes the relationship that exists between socio-economic and housing condition in Lagos metropolis. The result of Table 5 at alpha 0.05, r (4) = 0.25 and significant level 0.68, reflects that there is no enough evidence to accept Ho and thus we accept Hi that there is a significant relationship between the socioeconomic status and housing condition of the resident in Lagos metropolis. This result also supports the opinion of (Lawanson & Fadare, 2015; Nwokoro et al., 2015; Oduwaye, 2009, 2013) on urban challenges such as UHS and how socio-economic factors contributes to these challenges in Lagos metropolis. Considering the findings of this study with the practical and theoretical evidence of UHS in the study areas, there is a significant relationship between the socio-economic factors and the housing factors. Therefore, the resident socioeconomic status is most likely to influence the resident's housing condition and subsequently the quality of the environment. Consequently, the study area requires social and environmental strategies to ameliorate the challenge of poor housing condition, degraded public facilities, inadequate services, and haphazard building conditions which are measurable variables of UHS in the study areas. Thus, this study recommends strategies for sustainable socio-economic and environmental development.

Table 4 Socioeconomic and environmental characteristics of study areas in Lagos metropolis. Source: Author's Fieldwork (2016). Characteristics

Level of Education

Total Occupation

Total Average Monthly Income

Total Household Size

Total Household Exclusive Room Use Total Types of Building

Total Construction Materials

Total Residential Status

Total

No Formal Primary Secondary Tertiary Public/Civil Servant Private Employed Business Street Trader Student Below #20,000 #20,001#50,000 #50,001#80,000 #80,001#110,000 Above #110,001 1–3 4–6 7–9 10 &Above 1 2 3–4 5 &Above Traditional Compound Rooming House Studio/Single Room Apartment Duplex Flat between 1 and 10 floor Flat Above 10floors Plank & Bamboo Mud Mud & Cement Burnt Bricks Concrete Blocks Owner Mortgage ownership Public housing Inherited Tenant Squatting

Eti-Osa

Ikeja

Lagos Island

Lagos Mainland

Total

%

%

%

%

%

7.0 7.0 54.4 31.6 100.0 1.8

4.5 10.7 63.4 21.4 100.0 5.4

7.7 5.1 51.3 35.9 100.0 5.1

0.0 11.5 69.0 19.5 100.0 4.6

4.1 9.5 61.7 24.7 100.0 4.4

19.3

24.1

17.9

14.9

19.7

52.6 15.8 10.5 100.0 40.0

53.6 13.4 3.6 100.0 29.5

53.8 10.3 12.8 100.0 33.3

48.3 18.4 13.8 100.0 33.3

51.9 14.9 9.2 100.0 33.2

46.0

37.5

33.3

54.0

43.3

7.0

14.3

25.6

6.8

12.2

5.2

14.3

5.2

2.5

7.8

1.8

4.4

2.5

3.4

3.4

100.0 31.6 52.6 14.0 1.8 100.0 38.6 26.3 19.3 15.8 100.0 12.3

100.0 37.5 48.2 14.3 0.0 100.0 41.9 16.1 39.3 2.7 100.0 46.4

100.0 28.2 61.5 5.1 5.1 100.0 61.5 0.0 35.9 2.6 100.0 94.9

100.0 28.7 54.0 14.9 2.3 100.0 42.5 3.4 52.9 0.0 100.0 75.9

100.0 32.5 52.5 13.2 1.7 100.0 44.1 12.2 38.9 4.7 100.0 54.9

28.1

29.5

5.1

3.4

18.3

21.1

2.7

0.0

2.3

5.8

5.3 33.3

2.7 18.8

0.0 0.0

17.2 1.1

7.1 13.9

4. Discussion

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

100.0 3.5

100.0 0.0

100.0 0.0

100.0 4.6

100.0 2.0

0.0 0.0

12.5 2.8

25.6 5.1

24.1 8.0

15.3 3.4

0.0 96.5

25.9 60.7

43.6 25.6

52.9 10.3

31.2 48.1

100 21.1 0.0

100 32.1 0.0

100 10.3 0.0

100 26.4 0.0

100 25.4 0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

10.5 64.9 3.5 100.0

15.2 50 2.7 100.0

20.5 15.4 53.8 100.0

40.2 23.0 10.3 100.0

22.4 34.6 17.6 100.0

To ameliorate these challenges, comprehensive sustainable development strategy is proposed relative to the aim of this study, the conceptualization of UHS, the research framework and the findings of this study in the study areas. This strategy promotes the integration of social and environmental sustainable factors to improve the challenge of UHS in the study area. It identifies comprehensive sustainable urban development strategies based on the findings of this study for both the developed and the developing cities. This includes the: 1) housing development by neo-liberal corporate organizations, 2) vertical compact housing development, 3) intense public housing and rented public housing development, 4) policy reform towards land tenure-ship and land bureaucracy, 5) Mortgage policies, 6) Public and private (government and private developer) rent to own housing system, 7) Regularization and integration of urban informality with infrastructure design, 8) Urban informal settlement versus formal housing integration in urban renewal and development strategies. Socio-economic and environmental inclusive regeneration strategy: This design strategy should be people oriented and should involve the

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Fig. 8. Housing and residential adequacy in Lagos metropolis. Source: Authors' Field Work (2016). Table 5 ANOVA between socio-economic condition and housing condition in Lagos metropolis. Source: Authors' Fieldwork (2016).

Regression Residual Multiple Regression Total

df

SS

MS

F

1 3

105.2134 1552.787 0.251909 1658

105.2134 517.5955

0.203273357

4

alpha

Sign.

Remarks

0.682685136

NS

0.05

SS, Sum of Square; MS, Mean Scores; Sign, Significant Level; S, Significant; NS, Not Significant.

should create better access to land for the poor and develop the strategy to sustain land regularization and integrate the informal settlement. For instance, the stringent condition of public housing in Hong Kong must be revised, the government neo-liberal policy should also be revised and the government should go back to building more public housing. Economic empowerment for housing development: Poverty reduction strategy is needed to address the issue of economic empowerment towards housing development. The gap between the rich and the poor should be reduced to the barest minimum if not eradicated to encourage the desire to own quality housing in every citizen. The economic limitations on access to housing should be abolished, and a policy of equity and equality in access to housing should be adopted. The integration of informal settlement or its regularization should be considered a top priority of the government. This strategy is essential because the urban informal settlement/activities are currently significant, thus their integration is necessary. The government should offer a mortgage for the purchase of medium and low-priced housing to create affordable housing ownership. This method should include the intense public housing development and rent to own public and private housing strategy. The developers should be encouraged through tax rebates to build affordable housing with quality local materials. The local municipalities should also be responsible for the public financed low-income housing rentals and not the State authorities or the Federal government alone. Social justice approach: The social justice approach is identified from this study research framework and the contribution of this study to eradicate UHS menace. Social justice approach to eradicating corruption, unethical practices in housing provision, bias in public housing allocation and to promote due process. For example, some people have more than three mansions, while some sleep on the street. Justice, equity, and equality should be promoted in relation to land tenure system, access to public housing, good quality housing provision, and

diverse socio-economic status of the residents. Socio-economic status is a significant element of urban informality, housing inequality, and social exclusion that should be a major consideration in the design, development, and the provision of housing in the study areas. This emphasizes integrated socio-economic and environmental urban renewal approach (renovation and renewal). That is a socio-economic support strategy that will promote an environmental change in the study area. This approach should include four key stakeholders of the cities such as 1) the people, 2) the government (relevant agencies), 3) the private and the public-private sector's, and 4) Non-governmental organization that will integrate socio-economic and environmental factors to improve the living condition of the urban challenged areas. Socio-cultural development strategy: The socio-cultural conditions, beliefs, and practices of the residents should be adequately taken into consideration when implementing the integration and urban renewal regularization. For example, the case of Iwaya, Ilaje, and Makoko, the government, the urban planners, designers, and environmentalist should consider the water-related activities of the people as their sociocultural and economic way of life to engage regeneration development strategy. The building styles, building strategy, building materials and buildings on water (floating buildings and schools etc.) should be adopted and regularized in a way that recognizes this socio-cultural and economic activity of the people without bias or prejudice to sustainable development. Policy reformation strategy: Housing policies reform in Lagos metropolis and Hong Kong should be adopted with more non-capitalist orientation but focus on providing social public services or social enterprise. The government and private organizations should promote affordable housing through mortgage and rent to own or housing sales strategies. The policies should also include reforms of the existing land law to include the poor as active participants in urban land decisions that affect the housing challenges of the poor. These policy reforms 10

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contributing to these problems are economic incapacitation (poverty, inflation etc.), corruption, political and policy decisions among others. Despite the development of Hong Kong housing system (private and public housing system), this problem is identified in the region. Comprehensive social and environmental interaction strategy for sustainable development was recommended with the site-specific application of these strategies for the case study areas was highlighted based on the finding.

regularization of property ownership. This can be achieved by policies that prioritize equal access to land. Policy reform strategy to reflect equity, public orientation, and participation in housing production. 5. Conclusion Urban informality, housing insecurity, and social exclusion is a global challenge and have been described in Hong Kong and Lagos metropolis with strategies to ameliorate these issue for sustainable development. This study concludes that this issue is associated with several factors such as socio-economic, environmental, political or administrative policies towards sustainable development. It conceptualizes UHS, describes it formation and define it with criteria such as physical domain, social, legal, economic, and political domain in relation to environmental quality of the study areas. The challenge is described as inhumane, dangerous to sustainable human development in Lagos metropolis and critical in Hong Kong. Some of the factors

Acknowledgement The authors appreciate the funding support of the Hong Kong Research Grants Council for a PhD Fellowship, and the research support from the School of Design at The Hong Kong Polytechnic University. The Public Design Lab researchers, Dr Morakinyo, Mr Damon, the reviewers and the editor of this journal are also appreciated for their constructive efforts towards the success of this research.

Appendix Table 6 Case study Lagos metropolis Case Study Areas and Population Fig. 2006 census projected @ 3.2 to 2015

Hong Kong Case Study Areas and Population Figure

Region

Local Government Areas

Population Figures

Region

Lagos Island Region

Lagos Island Eti-Osa

1,141,667 1,305,865

New Territories

Lagos Mainland Region

Ojo Amuwo-Odofin Alimosho Agege Ifako-Ijaye Ikeja Oshodi-Isolo Mushin Surulere Ajeromi-Ifelodun Apapa Lagos Mainland Shomolu Kosofe

1,250,110 697,032 2,717,945 1,371,654 988,277 861,340 1,506,399 1,754,648 1,692,038 1,905,717 693,597 853,779 1,361,110 1,240,936 21, 342,114

Total

Districts

Population Figures

Island District Kwai Tsing District Sai Kung District Sha Tin District Tai Po District Tsuen Wan District Tuen Mun District Yuen Long District Kowloon Kowloon City District Kwun Tong District Sham Shui Po District Wong Tai Sin District Yau Tsim Mong District Hong Kong Island Central & Western District Eastern District Southern District Wan Chai District Total

144,500 501,900 448,600 648,200 302,300 301,600 489,000 595,100 402,300 639,900 388,300 424,500 313,600 248,600 579,400 270,500 150,400 7, 152,000

Sources: Adapted from (Hong Kong, 2016; Lagos State Government, 2013a; 2013b).

Table 7 Sample Size Table. Population Size

10 20 30 50 75

Confidence = 95%

Confidence = 99%

Margin of Error

Margin of Error

5.0%

3.6%

2.5%

1.0%

5.0%

3.6%

2.5%

10 19 28 44 63

10 20 29 47 69

10 20 29 48 72

10 20 30 50 74

10 19 29 47 67

10 20 29 48 71

10 10 20 20 30 30 50 49 75 73 (continued on next page)

11

1.0%

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Table 7 (continued) Population Size

100 150 200 250 300 400 500 600 700 800 1000 1200 1500 2000 2500 3500 5000 7500 10,000 25,000 50,000 75,000 100,000 250,000 500,000 1,000,000 2,500,000 10,000,000 100,000,000 300,000,000

Confidence = 95%

Confidence = 99%

Margin of Error

Margin of Error

5.0%

3.6%

2.5%

1.0%

5.0%

3.6%

2.5%

1.0%

80 108 132 152 169 196 217 234 248 260 278 291 306 322 333 346 357 365 370 378 381 382 383 384 384 384 384 384 384 384

89 128 160 190 217 265 306 340 370 396 440 474 515 563 597 641 678 710 727 760 772 776 778 782 783 783 784 784 784 784

94 137 177 215 251 318 377 432 481 526 606 674 759 869 952 1068 1176 1275 1332 1448 1491 1506 1513 1527 1532 1534 1536 1536 1537 1537

99 148 196 244 291 384 475 565 653 739 906 1067 1297 1655 1984 2565 3288 4211 4899 6939 8056 8514 8762 9248 9423 9512 9567 9594 9603 9603

87 122 154 182 207 250 285 315 341 363 399 427 460 498 524 558 586 610 622 646 655 658 659 662 663 663 663 663 663 663

93 135 174 211 246 309 365 416 462 503 575 636 712 808 879 977 1066 1147 1193 1285 1318 1330 1336 1347 1350 1352 1353 1354 1354 1354

96 142 186 229 270 348 421 490 554 615 727 827 959 1141 1288 1510 1734 1960 2098 2399 2520 2563 2585 2626 2640 2647 2651 2653 2654 2654

99 149 198 246 295 391 485 579 672 763 943 1119 1376 1785 2173 2890 3842 5165 6239 9972 12455 13583 14227 15555 16055 16317 16478 16560 16584 16586

Source: Research Advisor (2006).

Table 8 Case study areas with sample frame and sample size Hong Kong SAR Region

No of District

Research Area/ District

Sample Frame and Sample Size Selected wards

New Territories Kowloon Peninsula

18

Hong Kong Island

Tai Po District Tai Po Market Area Kowloon City District Hung Hom Homan Tin Sham Shui Po District Sham Shui Po Shek Kip Mei Wan Chai District Wan Chai North Wan Chai South

Total Lagos Metropolis, Nigeria Region No of LGA

Research Area/LGA

Lagos Island Region

Eti-Osa LGA

16

Household Size/Sample Frame

Sample Size

96,400 136,700

88 125

138,600

126

56,100

51

427,800

390

Sample Frame and Sample Size Selected wards Household Size/Sample Sample Frame Size @ 5.0 Ilado/Eti-Osa Environs 261,173 142 Badore (continued on next page)

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Table 8 (continued) Hong Kong SAR Region

No of District

Research Area/ District

Sample Frame and Sample Size

Lagos Island LGA Lagos Mainland LGA

Lagos Mainland Region

Ikeja LGA

Selected wards

Household Size/Sample Frame

Sample Size

Obalende Area Iwaya Makoko Ipodo/Seriki Aro/Wemabod Estate Alausa/Oregun/Olusosun

228,333 170,755

123 92

172,268

112

832, 529

469

Total

Source: Author's Field Work 2016 and Adapted from (Hong Kong, 2016; Lagos State Government, 2013a; 2013b).

Table 9 Socio-economic and Environmental Descriptive Statistics in Hong Kong Study Area

Variables

N

Minimum

Maximum

Sum

Mean

Std. Deviation

Variance

Kowloon District

Occupation Average Monthly Income Household Size Type of Building Residence Construction Materials

125 125 125 125 125 125 126 126 126 126 126 126 88 88 88 88 88 88 51 51 51 51 51 51

1.00 1.00 2.00 1.00 1.00

5.00 3.00 3.00 4.00 1.00

357.00 272.00 263.00 356.00 125.00

2.8560 2.1760 2.1040 2.8480 1.0000

1.24242 .73027 .30649 1.01645 .00000

1.544 .533 .094 1.033 .000

2.00 1.00 2.00 1.00 1.00

5.00 5.00 3.00 4.00 2.00

450.00 297.00 282.00 402.00 141.00

3.5714 2.3571 2.2381 3.1905 1.1190

1.24212 1.09153 .42762 1.00967 .32514

1.543 1.191 .183 1.019 .106

1.00 1.00 2.00 1.00 1.00

5.00 5.00 3.00 5.00 2.00

278.00 192.00 194.00 287.00 106.00

3.1591 2.1818 2.2045 3.2614 1.2045

1.13347 1.14013 .40568 1.17927 .40568

1.285 1.300 .165 1.391 .165

1.00 1.00 2.00 1.00 1.00

2.00 2.00 2.00 5.00 2.00

95.00 80.00 102.00 199.00 58.00

1.8627 1.5686 2.0000 3.9020 1.1373

.34754 .50020 .00000 1.45952 .34754

.121 .250 .000 2.130 .121

Valid N (listwise) Sham Shui Po District

Valid N (listwise) Tai Po District

Valid N (listwise) Wan Chai District

Occupation Average Monthly Income Household Size Type of Building Residence Construction Materials Occupation Average Monthly Income Household Size Type of Building Residence Construction Materials Occupation Average Monthly Income Household Size Type of Building Residence Construction Materials

Valid N (listwise) Source: Authors' Fieldwork (2016).

Table 10 Socio-economic and Environmental Descriptive Statistics in Lagos Metropolis Area

Variables

N

Minimum

Maximum

Sum

Mean

Std. Deviation

Variance

Eti-Osa LGA

Occupation Average Monthly Income Household Size Type of Building Residence Construction Materials

142 142 142 142 142 142 112 112 112 112

1 1 1 1 1

5 5 4 5 5

449 258 262 403 162

3.16 1.82 1.85 2.84 1.14

.904 .920 .697 1.146 .740

.818 .846 .486 1.314 .547

1 1 1 1

5 5 3 5

320 254 198 226

2.86 2.27 1.77 2.02

.847 .718 1.162 1.351 .684 .468 1.223 1.495 (continued on next page)

Valid N (listwise) Ikeja LGA

Occupation Average Monthly Income Household Size Type of Building Residence

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Table 10 (continued) Area

Valid N (listwise) Lagos Island LGA

Valid N (listwise) Lagos Mainland LGA

Variables

N

Minimum

Maximum

Sum

Mean

Std. Deviation

Variance

Construction Materials

112 112 123 123 123 123 123 123 92 92 92 92 92 92

1

4

185

1.65

1.002

1.004

1 1 1 1 1

5 5 4 6 4

379 256 229 250 286

3.08 2.08 1.86 2.03 2.33

.997 .997 .717 1.254 1.112

.993 .993 .514 1.573 1.238

1 1 1 1 1

5 5 4 5 5

293 172 174 164 236

3.18 1.87 1.89 1.78 2.57

1.037 .880 .718 1.511 1.082

1.075 .774 .516 2.282 1.172

Occupation Average Monthly Income Household Size Type of Building Residence Construction Materials Occupation Average Monthly Income Household Size Type of Building Residence Construction Materials

Valid N (listwise) Source: Authors' Fieldwork (2016).

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