Coding with Scratch: The design of an educational setting for Elementary pre-service teachers Vaca-Cárdenas, Leticia Azucena (Author) Assunta Tavernise, Lorella Gabriele, Antonella Valenti, Diana Elizabeth Olmedo, Pietro Pantano, Eleonora Bilotta
Physics Department University of Calabria, Unical Arcavacata di Rende, Cosenza, ITALY
[email protected]
Physics Department University of Calabria, Unical Arcavacata di Rende, Cosenza, ITALY
[email protected];
[email protected];
[email protected];
[email protected];
[email protected];
[email protected]
Francesca Bertacchini Environmental Territorial and Chemical Engineering Department, University of Calabria, Unical Arcavacata di Rende, Cosenza, ITALY
[email protected]
Abstract— This work describes the design of a first experience of coding with Scratch, a simple programming language, for pre-service teachers. In particular, the aim of this study has been the investigation of the Scratch programming setting for 58 pre-service teachers, enrolled in a Motor Science course, Degree of Science of Primary Training, at University of Calabria (Italy). The experience has had a duration of 2 months and 4 mentors for instructional interventions have been involved. Keywords—design of educational setting, Learning, Teaching methods, Technology-enhanced settings, projectbased learning, school education, HCI, school curriculum, coding, Scratch, High Order Think Skills, tinkerable, remixing.
I.
INTRODUCTION
In recent years, education has started to rethink its own models becoming part of an active and participative process. It hast begun to be fully in touch with the great deal of technological resources and with the need of today’s students, who have to be trained as future successful individuals. However, an area that has received surprisingly little attention is the learning of programming to teachers and students. Most schools use technology to teach content and only few offer opportunities to learn programming to students [1], [2]. Moreover, in Italy, no opportunities for coding are available for future teachers at the University. This is in contrast with what is happening at international level: the world has been mobilized to speak the same language, one that doesn’t require translation: the code. In fact, programming has become the new language to share knowledge and increase creativity all over the world through CoderDojos. These are programming clubs for young people (https://coderdojo.org/), aimed at encouraging creativity and having fun in a relaxed, social environment. At a Dojo people learn how to code, develop websites, Apps (abbreviation of application programs; application software), programs, games and explore technology in an informal and creative environment, with
emphasis on showing how coding is a force for changing the world. Furthermore, based on a successful experience in the USA last year, where 40 million of students and teachers were involved, Italian Education Ministry has introduced the structural basic concepts of informatics (computer science) at schools. The conviction is that the scientific and cultural side of the computer science, also known as "computational thinking", helps to develop logical skills and ability to solve problems creatively and efficiently (qualities that are fundamental for all future citizens) [3], [4], [5]. Hence, the Italian Ministry of Education has published the Circular N°002937 (published in the official register with date 23/09/2014) on the importance of coding at school. Moreover, in the document called “La Buona Scuola” (“The Good School”), the fourth chapter has entirely been devoted to the High Order Think Skills (HOTS) to develop. In particular, the Ministry choices have three different directions:
Digital literacy from primary school through coding, A program of "digital makers" for high school students, and Teacher training.
Regarding the last direction, in the high schools the coding teaching has already been started by Computer Science teachers, and a platform (called Future Program) has been implemented. In this platform (www.programmafuturo.it), the teachers are allowed to register themselves and their classes in order to arrange both basic and advanced lessons. However, pre-service teachers are out of this process, and no training has been foreseen at a public level for Elementary teachers (the most involved category in the process). In this study, the design and implementation of an educational setting for pre-service teachers has been explored. The focus is on the use of Scratch (http://scratch.mit.edu) [6], a visual block-based programming language designed to promote media
manipulation for novel programmers [7], with reference to the constructivism theory [8], [9], [10], [11], [12], [13]. The experience has been carried out at the University of Calabria (Italy), and the key goal has been the introduction of programming to naive users [7], [8], [14], [15], [16], for promoting computational and collaboration skills, information and media literacy’s [7], [8], [9], [17], [18]. Research has shown that negative stereotypes of older people being avoidant of technology and incapable of its use are outdated. With proper encouragement, clear explanations of the personal benefits and an appropriate time schedule, older people certainly have the potential to become equally effective in using technology and computers as younger age groups [19], [20], [21]. In next paragraphs the software Scratch is described and methodology is introduced. Afterwards, conclusions are presented. II.
SCRATCH DESCRIPTION
Scratch is a visual programming application created by the Lifelong Kindergarten Group at the MIT Media Lab [9]. Scratch can be easily used by novice programmers and lets users create interactive, media-rich projects. In the website of the software, users can upload projects media and scripts, animated stories, games, online news shows, book reports, greeting cards, music videos, science projects, tutorials, simulations and sensor-driven art and music projects. Images and sounds can be imported or created in Scratch using a building paint tool and sound recorder, colorful command blocks to control a multiple smaller components; 2D objects called “sprites” moving and modifying on a background called the stage [7], [8]. Sprites encapsulate state (variables) and behavior (scripts). Commands operate only on the sprite in which they appear. Every sprite has its own independent set of scripts. This design involves a trade off on one hand, it is easy to understand the scripts in a given sprite telling the entire story about that sprite’s behavior. On the other hand, without classes or some other code-sharing mechanism, it is more work to manage multiple sprites with identical behavior [8]. Clearly, there is a rich history of different developments during these years until we can have the versions that we used in this study Scratch 1.4 for PC and Scratch 2.0, the online version launched in 2013 that now has also a PC version. Scratch uses a drag and drop approach. The Stage is 480 units wide and 360 units height. It is divided into an x-y grid. The middle of the Stage has an x-coordinate of 0 and a y-coordinate of 0 (0,0) [22]. Sprites are such characters in a game or elements in the user interface of an interactive project. Each sprite can have “scripts” or stacks of programming blocks that control the sprite's behavior, each script contains the instruction’s sequence followed by the sprite. Each sprite has also one or more costumes or images that represent the various visual states of a sprite, and sound that can be played programmatically [8]. Scratch 1.4 has 125 command blocks, although some of them do not appear until needed. One strategy for reducing the number of command blocks is to group a set
of related operations into a single block with a drop-down menu to select the specific operation. Another strategy is to make sets of command blocks appear on demand when they are first needed. The blocks to access variables and lists appear only after a variable or list has been created [8]. This organization enables easy export and exchange of sprites. Programming is done by dragging command blocks from a palette into the scripting panel and assembling them, like puzzle pieces, to create “stacks” of blocks [9], [10], [11]. A. Programming Environment The interface of Scratch makes the navigation easy. It uses a unique window, multi panel design to ensure that key components are always visible. Scratch avoids floating palettes, which can get buried, and minimizes the use of panels that show only on demand. Fig. 1 and 2 show the Scratch window in both versions, which has four main panels. In Scratch 1.4, the left panel is the command palette with buttons to select categories. The middle panel shows the scripts for the currently selected sprite, with folder tabs to view and edit the costumes (images) and sounds owned by that sprite. The large panel on the upper right is the stage, where the action happens. A button on the bar below the stage allows the stage to be displayed in full screen mode to show off a finished project. The bottom-right panel shows thumbnails of all sprites in the project, with the currently selected sprite highlighted. For scripting, the command palette is always visible, command blocks are color-coded by category, helping users find related blocks, the commands are divided into eight categories such as blue for Motion, purple for Looks, violet for Sound, green for Pen, yellow for Control, light blue for Sensing, light green for Operators and orange for Variables. In each category, the most self explanatory and useful commands appear near the top of the command palette. The Scratch 2.0 has a similar distribution with the same areas in a little different location as shows Fig. 3.
Fig. 1. Parts of the window, Scratch version 1.4. (http://scratch.mit.edu)
B. Syntax The role of syntax in Scratch plays the visual grammar of block shapes and their combination rules. There are four kinds of Scratch blocks: command blocks, function blocks, trigger blocks, and control structure blocks, as shown in Table I. When command blocks are snapped together to create a sequence of commands, or stack, the notches and bumps fit together like puzzle pieces. TABLE I. Scratch block types
Fig. 2. Parts of the window, Scratch version 2.0 (http://scratch.mit.edu)
An individual block or a stack of blocks can be run by double-clicking on it. Various hat blocks can be placed on top of a stack of blocks to trigger that stack in response to some run-time event, such as program startup, a given key being pressed, or a mouse click on the sprite. Multiple stacks can run at the same time so, without realizing it, most Scratch users make use of multiple threads. The Scratch screen (see Fig. 1) is divided into four areas. On the right one, it is the stage. Below the stage it is an area that shows thumbnails of all sprites in the project. Clicking on one of these thumbnails selects the corresponding sprite. The middle panel allows the user to view and change the scripts, costumes (images), or sounds of the selected sprite. Having the command palette visible at all times invites exploration. Scratch is tinkerable [8]: tinkerability encourages hands-on learning and supports a bottom-up approach for writing scripts where small chunks of code are assembled and tested, then combined into larger units. Blocks can be tested simply by clicking on them. A white border indicates that a block or stack is running Fig. 3. Feedback for an error is red like in the right side of Fig. 3.
Source: J. Maloney et al. [8][9]
Control structure blocks are a kind of command block with one or more nested command sequences. Command blocks are like the statements of a text-based language; function blocks are like operators. Function blocks are not joined in linear sequences like command blocks. Instead, they are used as arguments of commands and nested together to build expressions. Trigger blocks connect events (such as startup, mouse clicks, and key presses) to the stacks that handle those events. For example, when assembling scripts, Scratch only allows blocks to be connected in meaningful ways. Taking into account the form of the blocks, in Scratch there are three main types of blocks in the Blocks Palette: Stack Blocks: These blocks have bumps on the bottom and/or notches on the top. You can snap these blocks together into stacks. Hats: These blocks have rounded tops. These blocks are placed at the top of stacks. They wait for an event to happen, such as a key being pressed, then run the blocks underneath them. Reporters: These blocks are designed to fit in the input area of other blocks. Reporters with rounded ends report numbers or strings, and fit in blocks with rounded or rectangular holes [22].
Fig. 3. Testing blocks
C. Data Types Scratch can also show command sequencing and flow of control. Enabling single stepping selected from an Edit menu causes blocks to flash as they run.
Scratch has three first-class data types: boolean, number, and string. These are the only data types that can
be used in expressions, stored in variables, or returned by built-in functions. III. CODING WITH SCRATCH LABORATORY: THE DESIGN OF THE SETTING
A. Aims of the setting
To introduce programming as a powerful tool to Elementary pre-service teachers To make pre-service teachers not only digital users but also digital manufacturers, being able to create their own applications To let use Scratch as a visual block-based programming language for promoting novel programmers’ media manipulation
Process to make a program A power point presentation called “Blocks description” with the followings: Explanation of the different categories of blocks and the principal functions. A power point presentation with an example of coding: “Help cat to find the food”. See Fig. 4. Step by step Sprites’ Scripts A video on the complete explanation of the example of programming.
B. Subjects The sample was composed by 58 pre-service teachers enrolled in a Motor Science course, Degree of Science of Primary Training, at University of Calabria (Italy). Participants worked in groups in a collaborative and cooperative way freely forming 15 groups: one team was composed by two subjects, four teams by three, six by four, and four by five. C. Materials
Fig. 4. “Help cat to find the food” Scratch example developed step by step in the classroom.
Digital material on coding was arranged and made available online. It contained:
A power point presentation of 18 slides titled: “The hour of code”; A power point presentation called “Fun with Scratch”, containing: What is a computer Algorithms and Program concepts Programming language definition and examples Scratch.- definition Beneficiaries What you can do with Scratch Sprites definition Scratch Official website and things you can find there. Scratch download and installation Scratch interfaces, versions 1.4 and 2.0; Parts of the Scratch window. How to change the language The menus and options How to run a program Where are the sprites located Script definition, how to make a script in Scratch. Drag and drop. Blocks categories, First program, example
D. Procedure and Intervention Scratch was introduced in November 2014 and the work has been carried out in two months. After an introduction on users’ requirements, the programming concepts were introduced. Then, subjects chose the app to develop and spontaneously formed groups. The majority of the work was focused on their own projects. After 4 presence sessions of 2 hours, the groups had to present an application developed in Scratch. They could contact mentors when they needed them. Each team had to: 1) take very detailed notes on the decision-making process of the group, the design and develop of the Scratch application; 2) implement an App; 3) compile a report. Regarding to the decision-making process, the first part of the report had to contain: • • •
Team members names Objective and working hypothesis (for example, to development an app to teach the numbers in English). Detailed description of the steps at every meeting that the group performs, for example: - What was the initial idea? What changes had been made to that idea? Why? Who decided? - What problems were encountered? What solution has been adopted? Who had a proposal?
• •
- How many times was it necessary to modify the app to achieve the goal? For what reasons? - IMPORTANT: which mode of work was adopted in the team? (Collaborative = each member contributes to every single part of the overall work; Cooperative = every member or subgroup developed independently on a single part of the overall work; Leadership = a member has divided the tasks and direct the work; other...) - Did it follow following the user requirements (provided during the focus groups) . How were they followed (it was designed before the application and after reading the user requirements, or vice versa)? (see Fig. 5). Drafting a brief user manual of the Project, with images and text. Final Table Summary: 1. List of the positions in the group (if you choose to adopt them): for example, a secretary who takes notes on the decision-making process during the meetings; representative and leader); 2. The number and duration of the team meetings 3. Clear definition of educational objectives 4. Prerequisites identifying end-users (children) age 5. Outline of the decision tree of the group in the form of scripts, conceptual map, diagram, etc. 6. Setting technology (for example: how many computers were used in a group? What group members worked on the pc ?, etc.). (see Fig. 5)
Fig. 5: Example of a process scheme. Grupo 2: Wanessa Mazzei, Maria Grazia Chiappetta, Rosa Strangis, Francesca De Sensi
With this parameters the assessment of Scratch projects, report and App (abbreviation of application program; application software) have been planned (Table II) [23], [24].
IV.
DATA ASSESSMENT
The criteria used to evaluate student’s work is presented in the rubric [25], easy to use and helpful for both teaching and assessment, allowing subjects to become more thoughtful when judging the quality of their own Scratch projects and other Scratch projects, reducing the amount of time spent evaluating student’s work and explaining the evaluation process to students [26]. This rubric (see Table II) contains three principal aspects for assessment, with some sub items and the corresponding percentage of the rate, 100% is excellent and corresponds to 5 points as we detail bellow:
Excellent Good Average Needs to improve
5 100% 4 3 1
Assessments Aspects 1.
Written Report (2 points 40%) Project Process: Problem formulation; Educational Objectives; User requirements; User Manual; Power Point presentation Productively use the time allotted for the project. It ends in the stipulated deadline. Collaboration with peers
2.
APP Graphic Interface (1 point 20%) App Graphic Interface according to: Target age, Educational Objectives and development Skills; The App is organized, it has various levels or stages and designs. The graphical interface is clear, it has structure and it is adapted both content and program design. It is easy to interact with the program
3.
APP Programming and Function (2 points 40%) Computing thinking: Data collection, data analysis; Data Representation; Blocks understanding function; Use of programming concepts. Software function / properly debugger program.
TABLE II. Scratch Rubric, and assessment
Fig. 7. One Script of the “Una settimana in fondo al mar” App.
It’s important to remind that the primary role of the mentors was to encourage the activity as an opportunity to improve their students future job, thinking into account that the students were not computer apprentices. The mentors had programming experience and were involved in Scratch projects and other similar before [10], [11], [12], [26], [27], [28], [29], [30], [31]. The mentors were always willing to listen and encourage students in developing their programming projects, the multiple examples accessible by the web site, and all the great information available were vehicles to handle the process and finish with success all the projects. [32], [33], [34], [35], [36], [37], [38], [39]. Source: Rubric Assessment designed for the authors of this study
For example, the use of certain blocks can be taken into account to indicate that a concept has been used in a given project [13]. Fig. 6 shows a script from the “Arcobaleno di Frutta e Verdura”, one of the App that the students made. The script uses the concepts of sequential control flow, variables, a loop, conditional statements, and operators. Another concept that is also very important is the use of Random Numbers, for it in Fig. 7 it is possible to see its utilization in one of the Scripts taken from the “Una settimana in fondo al mar” App.
V.
This study is part of a research on Edutainment carried out by the Evolutionary Systems Group [17], [18], [29], [31], [40], [41], [42], and its focus is on the design of a technology-enhanced setting endowed with tools as Scratch [10], [14], [24]. The implemented apps show not only the possibility to learn to code without a complete background of knowledge, but they also witness the great participation of pre-service teachers to the challenge of the future [35]. REFERENCES [1]
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Fig. 6. One Script of the “Arcobaleno di Frutta e Verdura” App
CONCLUSIONS
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