apparel design or product development classes over the past few ... The study of graphics for instruction has been ... Adobe® Flash® by, and not the slide style.
10 International Journal of Information and Communication Technology Education, 7(4), 1-10, October-December 2011
Sadker, D. M., Sadker, M. P., & Zittleman, K. R. (2008). Teachers, schools, and society (8th ed. ). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill. Sandholtz,J. H., Ringstaff, C.,& Dwyer, D. C. (2000). The evolution of instruction in technology-rich classrooms. In Pea, R. (Ed.), Technology and learning(pp. 255-276). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Schunk, D. H. (2007). Learning theories: An educational perspective (5th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. Sharp, V. (2006). Computer education for teachers: Integrating technology into classroom Teaching( 5th ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill. Sivin-Kachala,J., & Bialo, E. (2000). 2000research report on the effectiveness of technology in schools (7th ed.). Washington, DC: Software and Information Industry Association. Smeets, E. (2005). Does ICT contribute to powerful learning environments in primary education? Computers & Education, 44(3), 343-355. doi:IO.IOI6/j. compedu.2004.04.003
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Snoeyink, R., & Ertmer, P. (200 I). Thrust into technology: How veteran teachers respond. Journal of Educational Technology Systems, 30(1), 85-111. doi: 10.2190/YDL 7-XH09-RLJ6-MTPI Wachira, P., Keengwe, J., & Onchwari, G. (2008). Mathematics pre-service teachers' beliefs and conceptions of appropriate technology use. AACE Journal, 16(3), 293-306. Woodbridge, J. (2004). Technology integration as a transforming teaching strategy. Retrieved from http://www. techleaming.com/story /show Article. jhtml?article1D=l7701367
Using Animated Graphics as a Teaching Tool in Patternmaking: A Comparison of Methods
Zhao, Y., & Frank, K. A. (2003). Factors affecting technology uses in schools: An ecological perspective. American Educational ResearchJournal, 40( 4), 807-840. doi: I 0.3102/00028312040004807
Lynn M. Boorady, Buffalo State College, USA Jana M. Hawley, University of Missouri, USA
Zhao, Y., Pugh, K., Sheldon, S., & Byers, J. L. (2002). Conditions for classroom technology innovations. Teachers College Record, 104(3), 482-515. doi: IO.Illl/1467-9620.00170 Zisow, M. (2000). Teaching style and technology. TechTrends, 44(4), 36-38. doi: I 0.1 007/BF02818190
Jared Keengwe is an Associate Professor of Education at the University of North Dakota. His areas of teaching include: educational technology, elementary social studies, diversity education, and scholarly writing. His research interests include: pedagogical uses ofcomputer tools to support meaningful learning; educational technology integration practices in teacher education programs; constructivist pedagogy; and cross-cultural tools for student empowerment. Grace Onchwari is an Associate Professor ofEducation at the University ofNorth Dakota. Her teaching areas include: assessment, curriculum, play development, guidance and behavior, literacy, infant and toddler development and pre-K methods and materials. Her research interests focus on teachers and multicultural teaching competencies; immigrant children academic achievements; technology integration in teacher education courses; and emotional intelligence.
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International Journal of Information and Communication Technology Education, 7(4), 11-23, October-December 2011
Nancy A. Schofield, University of Wisconsin-Stout, USA
ABSTRACT The purpose ofthis study is to evaluate the effectiveness ofteaching patternmaking via a computer by comparing the outcomes ofa pattern making lesson being taught in a traditional lecture style to instruction received through a computer-based animation program. A lesson in patternmaking was taught to undergraduate students with varying levels ofprevious experience using the two instructional methods. A significant difference in learning outcomes was found between the lowest experience level group and the more experienced groups. However. there was no difference found by the method of instruction in the outcomes between the two more experienced groups. Therefore the suggestion is made that computer delivered lessons would be appropriate for students with some prior basic patternmaking knowledge. Keywords:
Animation, Apparel Design, Education, Patternmaking, Product Development
INTRODUCTION The growth in the number ofstudents enrolled in apparel design or product development classes over the past few years has caused instructors to search for ways to meet the needs of all these students. The greatest problem has been the inability to provide so many students with an equally clear view of an instructor who is giving a patternrnaking demonstration. Students can easily miss important details if they cannot see them clearly. One answer to the difficulty
increasing number of students is to provide the same demonstration via a computer-based format. Because students could have their own computer monitors to view the demonstration, more students can be accommodated than using the traditional instructor demonstration method. This research focuses on the use of animation delivered via a computer to determine if this method of instruction is as effective as a traditional face-to- face lecture. In this paper, we present an overview of the use of visuals such as static graphics, video and animation in the
12 International Journal of Information and Communication Technology Education, 7(4), 11-23, October-December 2011
of students' learning patternmaking using two different teaching methods. We conclude with a discussion on improving animated graphics to enhance student learning and the future uses of animation in the classroom.
REVIEW OF LITERATURE Static Graphics and Visualized Instruction The study of graphics for instruction has been broad and extensive, covering a range of topics. In general though, graphics can be a useful addition to the learning process if used in a manner that enhances either the spoken word or written text. The use of graphics as attention getters can lead to distraction from the learning process. The inclusion of graphics could help many learners, and, if used to enhance the class content, could help most, if not all, learners (Reiber, 1990). Graphics should therefore be used meaningfully to be considered an enhancement to the learning process. Many educators use graphics to complement their regular classroom lectures. Studies have indicated, however, that the use of graphics has not necessarily resulted in a difference in student learning when compared to standard lecture format (Dwyer, 1978; Moore & Nawrocki, 1978). Dwyer goes on to say that "one explanation for this ... might be that even though visualization is being integrated into the teaching-learning process, it may not accurately illustrate and/or clarify the content material being presented" (p. 13). Baek and Layne (1988) reiterate this view by stating that when graphics are used, they should help the student notice what characteristics within the graphics are related to the subject matter. Gropper (1963) noted the intention of using graphics in instruction is that they improve learning. He stated that there are two areas where graphics can help with the acquisition, - .... +....... +;,......
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graphics can be used to help cue a response from the student or to reinforce responses. In both of these instances, the graphics used must be highly relevant to the subject matter being taught. Otherwise, the use of graphics can actually hinder learning by distracting the student or placing the wrong cue or emphasis on the subject matter. Gropper goes on to say that "if student attention can be directed only to that feature of the visual event relevant to a designated response, thereby enabling the student to make only that response, then the use of a visual may be justified" (p. 80). Some research studies have also shown that the use of static graphics is shown to be superior over using text alone in certain learning modules (Baek & Layne, 1988; Booher, 1975). In his conclusion, Booher (1975) stated that his research indicated that using both graphics and text helped to communicate proceduralized instructions. Indeed, his subjects were able to complete tasks much faster if pictorial information was provided alongside the text. Graphics are best used as visual representations of the verbal material where the visual reproduces what is referred to in the verbal statement (Moore & Nawrocki, 1978).
Animated Graphics in the Classroom Animation can be described as a sequence of illustrations displayed in a timed sequence to provide the illusion of movement or change (Koroghlanian & Klein, 2004). This definition is specifically aimed at the style of movement made possible through the use offrames, such as the type found in an animated presentation software package such as the standard software, Adobe® Flash® by, and not the slide style found in presentation software packages such as PowerPoint™ by Microsoft. Literature on the use of animation in education can be divided into two categories: research that shows a significant difference in •
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International Journal of Information and Commun•cation Technology Education, 7(4), 11-23, October-December 2011
when pictures can aid learning, times when pictures do not aid learning but do no harm, and times when pictures do not aid learning and are distracting" (1994, p. 3). The graphics that aided learning, it was found, are the ones that have something to do with what is being taught. Graphics that were used to make the presentation more attractive, amusing, orco1orfu1 but did not link directly with the learning material were found to be unhelpful or distracting. In other words, Reiber encouraged the use of graphics only when they are used as an effective tool in the learning process and relate to the topic being taught. This is identical to Gropper's (1963) finding on graphics, that to be effective, graphics must be relevant. Siliauskas ( 1986) predicted that the real contribution of animation may be in the realm of interactive graphics. Szabo and Poohkay (1996) reinforced this belief through their research study in which they used animation to deliver mathematics instruction to high school students. In this study, the students manipulated and interacted with the actual materials (rulers and a compass) after observing the animation. The animation was used to demonstrate a set of procedures that the students followed to construct triangles using a compass. Their research showed that animation increased learning relative to static graphics and text-based instruction, all of which were delivered via the computer. Park and Hopkins (1993) recommended the use of animation when demonstrating "sequential actions in a procedural task." Indeed, it is stated by Reiber(l994)thatcomputeranimation is well suited for the area of visualizing many steps of a task in a very concrete way. In 20 10, Kohnle et al. created a series of animations to teach college level students quantum physics. Their animations included a "step-by-step" section which students could navigate through a procedural tutorial (p. 1454). Kohnle et al. (20 I 0) found that the students who used the animations retained the knowledge better and outperformed the students who had not used
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that the animations helped students retain the information better. Their use of animation focused on procedural knowledge, which Szabo and Poohkay (I 996) also found to be successful. A review of the literature in the area of animation for teaching included numerous additional studies(Baek& Layne, 1988; Carpenter & Just, 1992; Frantiska, 2002; Garcia, 1998; Kohnle et al., 2010; Koroghlanian & Klein, 2004; Lilienfield & Broering, 1994; Lin & Atkinson, 20 II; Lowe, 1999; Rieber, 1990, 1991, 1994; Reiber, Boyce, &Assad, 1990; Spotts & Dwyer, 1996; Szabo & Pooh kay, 1996). Much ofthe research concentrates on using animation to teach meteorology, mathematics, or science, though some studies have also been found in English as a Second (or Foreign) Language, economics, and interior design. Specifically, much of the animation used in teaching has focused on the study of three-dimensional objects, or studies which require an understanding of mechanical or human processes. However, no studies were found on the use of animation in the areas of textiles and apparel design. This study attempts to fill that void.
Video Use in the Classroom Video is another type of media that has been studied extensively, and it has already been used with success in the area of textiles and apparel. Hustvedt (2005) used a video recording of lecture presentations to create modules for her textile science classes and saw a positive effect in student involvement with laboratory activities after viewing the modules. Brown and Cloud (2005) also used digital photography and video streaming to create learning modules for their apparel construction classes. These modules are used in a class delivered online and, also, to supplement their traditional sewing lab. Their results showed that the online format was successful in achieving student learning. Both the Hustvedt and Brown and Cloud studies show a positive direction in using an online format to ~-L---- ~----1---•--.l!•!---1-1-------
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14 International Journal of Information and Communication Technology Education, 7(4), 11-23, October-December 2011
students could be independent learners. These students can watch the appropriate segment and then apply what they have learned. An animation can offer numerous advantages over video: Namely, that the speed of the action can be controlled easily by the viewer and that animations can be repeated (Hall, I 996). One ofthe key features ofanimation that makes it effective for learning is interactivity. Users can choose to go forward, backwards, play the animation again or skip a section. This allows for tailoring the educational experience to the individual learner.
Constructivism
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Constructivism is a learning theory which encourages both the student and the instructor to build new knowledge on top·' of what the student already knows or has experienced. It emphasizes hands-on learning and active student participation in the learning process. This theory of instruction emphasizes that knowledge should be structured so that it may be readily grasped by the Ieamer. The instructor should focus on the most effective sequencing to present new concepts and material (Bruner, 1966). This philosophy of learning was first mentioned by Johann Herbart (1776- I 84 I) and has developed over the centuries into a very popular method of instruction (Mahoney, 2002). Constructivism calls for every Ieamer to actively participate in the advancement of his or her own learning rather than passively absorbing facts and concepts (Frantiska, 2002). Following the philosophy of constructivism, this research focused on methods to engage students in the learning process. The use of interactive multimedia can create a highly motivating educational environment. However, incorporating animation within a course or lecture does not mean that it automatically offers any pedagogical benefit to the users (Reiber, I 990). One of the most important aspects should be that the animation
become an active participant in their own education. While the students are responsible for their own learning, the educator remains in the role of a guide by helping students use the technology and encourage further exploration (McCormack, 2002). User directed animation empowers each student to become more active in his or her learning within a structured environment. This falls within the educational practice of constructivism in which students are active participants in their own learning. Students today are more technologically savvy, and computer skills are needed in the current marketplace. Some Web sites are already offering pattern making courses, butthey are offered in such a way thatthey are little better than buying a text on pattemmaking. These sites are also very specific to certain styles or categories of garments, some only offer courses at certain times of the year, and some are very narrow in scope. Static graphics, if used to enhance the subject or direct certain importance on a topic, have been shown to be valuable tools in the learning environment. The literature review has shown that even though the use ofanimated graphics for learning was inconclusive, there is support for animation when used to teach topics which are done in sequential steps (Park & Hopkins, 1993; Reiber, I 994 ). Pattemmaking uses sequential steps to draft pattern slopers, alter patterns for style differences, and to adjust for fit. This is the underlying theory used for this study: That because pattemmaking is done in sequential steps, animation would be a useful tool in the teaching of this topic. The purpose of this study was to determine if teaching pattemmaking, a visual topic, through self-paced animation is as effective as the traditional lecture style. The following research question guided the study: How effective is the use of an animated lesson viewed on a computer in a combination of text and animation to teach pat-
International Journal of Information and Communication Technology Education, 7(4), 11-23, October-December 2011
METHODS Subjects Four mid-western universities offerihg programs in apparel studies were chosen to participate in this study. Students from a liberal arts college were also invited to participate. Each of these institutions offers courses in clothing construction and pattemmaking. At each of the institutions, access was allowed only to certain classes by pemission of the instructor; therefore, there was not an even distribution among the participating institutions. Participation by students within each of these classes was voluntary. The distribution of the subjects in the three levels was statistically significant. Overall, 152 subjects took part in the study with five freshman, 28 sophomores, 42juniors, 73 seniors, and 4 graduate level students participating. There were 145 female students and 7 male students. Ninety-one ofthe participants fell into the I 8-21 year old age group, 5 I within the 22-25 year old age group, 6 within the 26-30 year old, and 4 were more than 30 years old. The heavy skewing toward the younger age groups was expected because of the level of classes being studied, as was the heavy skew towards female students due to the fact that this is a field traditionally dominated by women. Three exercises completed by participants were not scored as the animation failed to function, bringing the total completed exercises to 149. 1
Procedure At each institution, the researcher conducted two class sessions. Half the students enrolled in each of these classes (basic sewing and two levels of pattemmaking classes) were randomly assigned into one of two treatment groups. One group listened to a lecture delivered by the researcher on how to make a skirt sloper and then created one by themselves with the help Af'nr't"it+o..., ;...,..,.,.,,,.. .. ;....,.,.co ...,...,,.J ...,....., ...,...,+h ... +
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the animated module on the computer. The goal was to have both groups finish a half-size skirt sloper by the end of the class session. The class began with an introduction to the researcher and a brief synopsis of the study. Each group of students was infomed that they were volunteers and not required to participate in the study. Brief directions to the students were given on how to use the L-square, straight and curved rulers, and what to do when they finished the project. Groups were chosen by the counting off of students, always starting with the person in the front right side of the classroom and always starting with the number one. The "one" group was always the computer group, the "two" group was always the lecture group. The face-to-face instruction began with the researcher handing out copies of pages 31, 43-45 oftheJoseph-Armstrong(2000)textbook which gave directions and static graphics on how to create a skirt sloper. The researcher then demonstrated each step for the lecture group, answering questions when necessary. When the demonstration was finished, these subjects were instructed to gather their tools and replicate the sloper on their own using a handout and what they remembered or took notes on from the demonstration as their guide. The researcher stayed in the room to observe and answer any questions. The subjects were allowed to talk to each other and ask any questions they had in order to successfully complete the project. The second group met in a computer lab and was also introduced to the researcher and given a brief synopsis of the study. Students were able to choose which computer they used and where they sat. The Web site containing the animation was written on a white board or large piece of paper in front of the classroom so that the students could access the site themselves. They were instructed to read the text on the computer screen and to proceed at their own pace. They were allowed to ask questions if they were unable to continue but were encouraged to first try to work out any problems on their
16 International Journal of Information and Communication Technology Education, 7(4), 11-23, October-December 2011
oftext took the subjects through how to animate the screen, how to go forward and backwards, what the different colored lines represented, and other technical details. The students had enough space by the computers to work on the project step-by-step, developing the half-size sloper as the computer instructions led them through the process. Once all the studies were completed, all the projects were scored by two professors and two graduate assistants in the apparel field, each using the same rubric. The project scores and data from the questionnaires were then entered into a spreadsheet for statistical analysis.
Hypothesis Can visual topics be learned a~ effectively over the Internet as they are in traditional style lectures? The creation of the hypothesis was driven by the assumption that the method of information delivery would not make a difference in the student output of drafting a skirt sloper. HO = As a result of the method of instruction delivery, there will be no difference in the scores of the students. HA = As a result of the method of instruction delivery, there will be a difference in the scores of the students.
Research Design A three-way analysis ofvariance was performed with the primary independent variable being the method of instruction, either through a faceto-face format or via an animated module on a computer. The second variable in this research was the score received on development of a skirt sloper, and the third variable was the grader, or the person who graded the slopers. The main thrust of this study was to determine if instruction using a self-paced animated lesson on the computer was as effective as a face-to-face lecture when teaching pattemmaking.
scores of the two major groups. In the second stage, the independent variables offace-to-face format and animation were tested on three subject sub-groups: (I) students who were currently enrolled in a basic sewing course, (2) students who were enrolled in a beginning level flat patternmaking class, and (3) students who were enrolled in a secondary or advanced level of flat patternmaking or who have completed a flat patternmaking course. Students enrolled in a basic sewing class were considered at the lowest level of the design curriculum; students taking a beginning flat patternmaking class were considered at the next highest level and were assumed to have completed a course in basic sewing. Students enrolled in a design course were assumed to have finished courses in both basic sewing and flat patternmaking and were at a higher level of their education than the previous two groups. Each of these sub-groups was divided into two sections: Those who received the instruction via a lecture method and those who received the information via the computer animation. The effectiveness of the teaching methods was ascertained through comparing groups of subjects using each method of delivery and then comparing the score of the patterns that resulted from each of the methods of instruction. All subjects were taught the same pattern technique, specifically how to draft a half-size skirt sloper. To create a balanced2 X 3 research design with two groups and three class levels, a total of 120 subjects, or 20 in each of the 6 cells were needed; this study met that requirement. A three-way AN OVA was conducted using the design: Group+Class+Group*Class+Grader, where the Group is either the students in the "computer" or "lecture" sections, the Class refers to the level of the class in which they were currently enrolled (either Basic Sewing, D~t-t""'""n1
