Using Digital Media for Composing Multimodal Texts

This is a draft written for Teaching Writing and Representing in the Primary School Years.

CHAPTER 10

Using Digital Media for Composing Multimodal Texts Lynde Tan and Katina Zammit It is our interest to encourage more pervasive use of digital media in schools to better connect to children’s digital epistemologies, i.e. “what it means for [children] to know things and what kinds of things it may be most important to know” (Lankshear, 2003, p. 167).

KEY TEACHING POINTS By the end of this chapter, you should be able to:  explain what digital media are;  evaluate the affordances of digital media;  suggest a range of digital media tools suitable for implementing the teaching and learning cycle.

INTRODUCTION In this chapter, we highlight some digital media tools that can be used when implementing the teaching and learning cycle. Although we focus on the use of technology as a cognitive tool for skill development, we acknowledge the role of technology as a cultural medium used in students’ everyday literacy practices for presentation of self, social alliance and many more purposes (e.g. Black, 2009; Buckingham, 2008; Guzzetti & Gamboa, 2005; Marsh & Singleton, 2009; Sefton-Green, 2006). Specifically, we attend to digital media that are characterized by the range of authoring technologies which enable children these days to become both consumers and producers of their own multimodal and multimedia texts (Buckingham, 2008; Lankshear & Knobel, 2010; Reid, Burn & Parker, 2002; Willett, Burn & Buckingham, 2005). Literacy researchers remain sceptical about how adequate schools are in preparing students to meet the constantly changing literacy demands of school and life (Davis & Merchant, 2009; Gee & Hayes, 2011; Hague & Williamson, 2009; Ito et al., 2008; Mahiri, 2008). It can be argued that many studies are emphasizing that young people have gone ahead of policy and there is now a rallying call to understand what is learnt and not learnt in school and how schools can appropriately respond to the changing digital epistemologies (Beetham, 2013; Sefton-Green, Nixon, & Erstad, 2009; Street, 2005; West, 2012; Willett et al., 2005). The New London Group contends that the mission of education “is to ensure that all students benefit from learning in ways that allow them to participate fully in public, community, and economic life” (Cope & Kalantzis, 2000, p.9). According to this view, schools are believed to be the site for designing social futures through their curriculum and literacy pedagogy. In line with this philosophy, the Australian Curriculum: English (2013), in relation to information and communication technology (ICT) competence, aims as part of the general capabilities for all curricula to equip students with “the knowledge, skills, behaviours and dispositions that, together with curriculum content in each learning area and the cross-curriculum priorities, will assist students to live and work successfully in the twenty-first century” (ACARA, 2013).

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DIGITAL MEDIA AND ITS AFFORDANCES We argue that technology now is more than what is commonly known as information technology (IT) or information and communication technology (ICT) (Buckingham, 2008). The changing characteristics of technology in contemporary times, otherwise known as new media, are described as being digital, interactive, hypertextual, virtual, and simulated (Lister, Dovey, Giddings, Grant & Kelly, 2009). In this chapter, we do not distinguish new media from digital media but we prefer to use digital media to refer to the same notion. The word new tends to emphasize the latest technological development or innovation but a new technology in one context may not be new in another and the state of newness can hardly be guaranteed eternally. Rather, we choose to use digital media to refer to the shift in physical properties from the analogue to the digital form and more importantly, what changes this shift brings to social practice. Digital media operate on numerical representations or digital codes which allow convergence of various media for producing and distributing multimodal productions and re-assembling these texts to accentuate its interactivity and aesthetic power (Beetham, 2013; Everett, 2003; Manovich, 2001; O’Reily, 2005; Tan & Kim, 2015). Hence, digital media have enabled children these days to become both consumers and producers of their own multimodal texts (Lankshear & Knobel, 2010; Reid et al., 2002). Digital media is also commonly understood as Web 2.0. The distinctiveness of digital media can be understood when we compare the differences between Web 1.0 and Web 2.0 (Davis & Merchant, 2009; Solomon & Schrum, 2007): Web 1.0

Web 2.0

Application based and offline

Web based and online

Proprietary code/purchased licence needed

Open source

Copyrighted content

User-generated and shared content

Isolated participation

Social participation with multiple collaborators

In Web 1.0, the first phase of the World Wide Web, it is common for users to install applications which require licences to use them on their computers, such as a word processor and spreadsheets. In this phase, users can consume copyrighted content from the Web without the ability to contribute content such as leaving comments after watching a video online. Hence, there are limited interactions between the user and the Web. In contrast, in Web 2.0, data is more interactive and Web based. Hence, content is open, more accessible and easily distributed online with more control given to the users to modify, generate, contribute and share content. Web 2.0 encourages more participation and collaboration (see Chapter 11 about participatory culture). In a study of digital video in UK schools, Burn (2009) identifies the following characteristics as what is distinctly new about digital media when used by children and adolescents: a) Iteration: The ability to endlessly revise; 2

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b) Feedback: The real time display of the developing work; c) Convergence: The integration of different authoring modes, such as video and audio, in the same software; d) Exhibition: The ability to display work in different formats, on different platforms, to different audiences. (p. 17) Accordingly, it can be argued that the physical properties of digital media bring changes to social practices. For instance, the relationship between the consumer and the digital media is changing as more consumers become produsers (Bruns & Humphrey, 2007) when they transform, rather than consume, the content and other resources available in and through digital media. Hagel and Seely Brown (2005) argue that in Web 1.0, users are positioned as passive consumers and content is pushed to them. In contrast, in Web 2.0, users are positioned as networked creators (Hagel & Brown, 2005, p. 14) who know how to seek and draw upon resources, (re)assemble and (re)create them and then circulate these transformed resources to others in their network; the emphasis is thus on making choices in mobilising resources to satisfy one’s needs when using the digital media. It can be argued that children’s uses of digital media are familiar to them but they can be mystifying to those who do not share their practices. Increasingly, many studies have focused on the affordances of the digital media in children’s literacy practices that involve the use of the digital media. The term affordances, when defined by Gibson (1979), refers to the perceived properties of a thing and its affordances are latent in it. We find Gibson’s (1979) notion of affordances very limiting where it appears to focus only on the physical properties of an object. With respect to contemporary communication landscape, Kirschner, Strijbos, Kreijns and Beers’ (2004) three kinds of affordances, namely technical, social and educational affordances, are more apt in discussing the roles of technology in modern times. We adapt Kirschner et al.’s (2004) explanations of these three kinds of affordances and suggest that they can be understood in these ways: a) Technical affordances: The possible tasks that can be done based on the technical features or physical properties of the technology; b) Social affordances: The possible social interactions that can be fostered amongst the users of the technology; c) Educational affordances: The possible instruction and learning activities or behaviours that can be enacted. Gee (2010) claims that the educational affordances of digital media is an emerging area of “how digital tools and new forms of convergent media, production, and participation, as well as powerful forms of social organization and complexity in popular culture, can teach us how to enhance learning in and out of school and how to transform society and the global world as well” (p. 14). In this chapter, we share the same goal as Gee when we explore the educational affordances of digital media in school practices. It is our interest to encourage more pervasive use of digital media in schools to better connect to children’s digital epistemologies, i.e. “what it means for [children] to know things and what kinds of things it may be most important to know” (Lankshear, 2003, p. 167).

DOING THE TEACHING AND LEARNING CYCLE IN THE DIGITAL WAY 3

This is a draft written for Teaching Writing and Representing in the Primary School Years.

Understanding the characteristics and affordances of digital media is paramount in the digital environment as the Australian Curriculum: English, with respect to the Information and Communication Technology (ICT) capability, “involves students in learning to make the most of the digital technologies available to them” and “adapting to new ways of doing things” (ACARA, 2013). The roles of digital media in the Australian Curriculum: English are clearly delineated, namely: a) access, create and communicate information and ideas; b) solve problems and work collaboratively in all learning areas at school, and in their lives beyond school; c) interpret and create print, visual and multimodal texts; d) conduct research online, collaborate and communicate with others electronically; e) access, analyse, modify and create multimodal texts, including through digital publishing. (ACARA, 2013) In this section of the book, we describe how digital media can be used specifically to teach writing and representing within the Australian Curriculum: English when the teaching/ learning cycle is used to teach these skills. Negotiating of the field In this phase, it is important for the teacher to assess the depth of understanding of a topic before starting a new topic or introducing new concepts (see Chapter 3 for the importance of engaging children’s prior knowledge in this phase). KWL is an effective strategy for this purpose and many teachers use it to help children monitor their own learning of a topic over a period of time. The acronym stands for: a) What you know (K) b) What you want to know (W) c) What you have learnt (L) A KWL chart is typically a table with three columns, a column for K, W and L respectively. There are many online tools that allow the children to represent their preconceptions of a topic (K), their questions (W) and understanding of the topic by the end of a unit (L). One of them is the online KWL Creator (http://www.readwritethink.org/files/resources/interactives/kwl_creator/ ) which allows the children to create a KWL chart and provide them with the option to save it and share it with the teacher via email. Instead of creating three columns for their KWL chart, the children can also create a page for K, W and L. The latter is recommended when using this online KWL Creator as the children are not able to edit what they have saved. Online canvases such as the following are also useful digital media tools to find out children’s prior knowledge and experience before the start of a unit:  Padlet (https://padlet.com/)  Lino It (http://en.linoit.com/) The children can post what they know about a topic, questions they have or responses to a discussion topic by adding notes, images, URLs of websites, documents and videos on the online canvases. Although we recommend these online canvases for negotiating the field, they can be used for other phases as well such as brainstorming for building the field knowledge or even independent construction of a multimodal text. These online canvases are easily accessible once its address is shared with peers. They can be edited by collaborators and converted to sharable formats or be embedded in one’s blog. 4

This is a draft written for Teaching Writing and Representing in the Primary School Years.

Another way to assess what children know about a topic before teaching a unit is to create a chatroom for them to post their preconceptions. TodaysMeet (www.todaysmeet.com) is an easy-to-use tool for teachers to create a safe chat room as a form of backchannel, a place where users can have a real-time conversation about what is presented; this practice usually takes place alongside the primary activity such as a lecture (Johnson, 2011). When used as a backchannel, the teacher provides a link to the chatroom and children can post their comments, responses or questions in the chatroom. These comments, responses and questions will show up as a linear thread with the latest post at the top of a page. However, the teacher is not able to delete any post from the chatroom. Hence, it is important to set up rules of engagement before using TodaysMeet as a backchannel, such as: a) Respect one another when posting online. b) Suggest ideas that help all of us learn better. c) Everyone has a voice. Classroom Ideas  Using the online KWL Chart Creator To prepare the children for writing a historical recount, the teacher can ask the children to create a KWL chart. Before doing a research or presenting to them historical recounts of Anzac Day, the children can pen down what they know and would like to know about Anzac Day. The questions posed by the children can drive the direction of their research or help the teacher prepare the resources that help to answer the children’s inquiries. (Towards the end of the unit when the children are more ready for independent writing, the children can write dot points, short sentences or paragraphs of what they have learnt about Anzac Day. What the children write in the L column can be used to develop their historical recount in their independent writing. The online KWL chart can be saved in the children’s writing portfolio and the children can refer to it when writing their reflections on their learning progress when studying the unit. The reflection is a recount which is different from the historical recount they have written earlier. Such authentic writing extends the children’s repertoire of genre writing while providing opportunities for the children to demonstrate what they know and how well they can write recounts.)  Using TodaysMeet Set up a “Vocabulary Race” to assess what technical terms the children know before teaching the key content area. For instance, before teaching children about the properties of special triangles and quadrilaterals, the teacher can ask the children to name all the special triangles and quadrilaterals they know. For those who are able, they can also write what they remember about these shapes. From the children’s posts on TodaysMeet, the teacher can think of follow-up activities to explicitly teach the technical terms, what they mean and how they are spelt. This activity is important especially when teaching vocabulary to children who are learning English as an additional language or dialect (EAL/D). Some of the EAL/D children may have the conceptual knowledge of a content area but lacks the English words to express their understanding. A clear understanding of what children know helps the teacher to be clearer and more explicit in teaching vocabulary in the context of the particular field knowledge.  Using Lino It Lino It allows the children to choose colours for the sticky notes. At the start of a 5

This is a draft written for Teaching Writing and Representing in the Primary School Years.

unit, the teacher can ask the class to discuss what they know about a topic. As a group, the children post what they know about the topic on Lino It using green sticky notes. They can use red sticky notes to post the questions they have about the topic. (At the end of the unit, the class can revisit the Lino It to see if they can answer their own questions and identify any topics they can take up for further research, either individually or in groups or as a class. These topics can be the focus of the next writing activity in English or other content areas.) Building the field In this phase, it is important for children to build on what they previously knew about a topic. As they are building their field knowledge, children tend to assimilate what they knew with what they have just learnt. To help them construct their knowledge, mind mapping is instrumental. It helps children to classify the information they have gathered, re-organize what they have learnt as they construct their knowledge about a topic and the mind maps help them construct relationships across ideas and concepts. Online mind maps promote social construction of knowledge as they allow more than one user to construct the same mind maps. The children can give feedback to one another on what is constructed or engage in collaborative talk in order to develop a mind map together. Other critical thinking skills such as brainstorming, comparing and contrasting, sequencing, examining part-whole and other relationships such as cause and effect are also inculcated when children participate in mind mapping. Below are some online mind mapping tools:  www.popplet.com (or download Popplet Lite from iTunes for iPad users)  www.bubbl.us  https://www.spiderscribe.net/ Classroom Ideas for Using Online Mind Maps  Use an online mind map to summarize key points from a text according to the text structure. The teacher can use and highlight the technical terms or vocabulary when building the mind map.  Mind map is also good in bringing attention to the similarities and differences of concepts or a topic e.g. properties of solids, liquids and gases. It can also be used to evaluate characters in a story. Deconstruction In this phase, children should be taught how to deconstruct the text structure, grammatical and multimodal features of a text. The classroom ideas for using online mind maps can be used for deconstructing a text. Online mind maps serve as graphic organisers to help children visualize how a text is organised to fulfil the purpose of the text. To analyze word choices, teachers can consider using word clouds with children. A word cloud is an image made up of words. The bigger a word is, the more it occurs in a text. There are a few online word clouds that are popular among teachers, such as:  Wordle (www.wordle.net)  WordItOut (www.worditout.com)  Vocabgrabber (https://www.visualthesaurus.com/vocabgrabber/)  Poetry Blender (http://www.imagechef.com/ic/blender/)

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Although these online word clouds differ in their interface, there is usually a space created for the user to copy a text and paste it into the space. With a simple click of a button e.g. Create in Wordle, a word cloud is automatically generated. Depending on the exact online word clouds, there are usually options for the users to change colours, font styles and shape of the word clouds. Word clouds enable children to visualize the keywords and underlying message of a text. The visual representation can be used by the teacher to facilitate further discussion of how word choices are used to mediate the reader’s perception. Another digital media tool that is useful for deconstructing a text with children is Skitch (https://evernote.com/skitch/). This application works well when children are annotating a multimodal text using iPad. There are many ways to create a Skitch image and it can be as simple as choosing an image from the user’s device such as the iPad. Once the Skitch image is created, there are different tools that can be used for annotating the multimodal text, such as arrows, emoticons, text boxes, pen and highlighting, lines, shapes and stamps. The annotated Skitch images can be shared with others via many options and it can be as simple as emailing them or sharing the links to the PDF formats with other collaborators or the teacher. There are many online annotation tools that work like Skitch and the classroom ideas for using Skitch are equally relevant, such as:  Explain Everything (https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.morriscooke.explaineverything&h l=en)  Napkin (http://aged-and-distilled.com) For recounts, we recommend online timeline generators that help children identify and list out the events in chronological order. For example, children can use Time Line Generator (http://www.teach-nology.com/web_tools/materials/timeline/) to create a title for the time line, list the event dates in time sequences and write descriptions for each event. With a click of a button, the application automatically generates a timeline for the children. Other similar applications like the Time Line Generator include the following (some of these applications allow the children to add images, videos, audios and links to the timeline:  Timeline Maker (http://www.softschools.com/teacher_resources/timeline_maker/)  Capzles (http://www.capzles.com/)  TimeToast (http://www.timetoast.com/) Classroom Ideas for Using Online Word Clouds  Word clouds can be used to teach lexical cohesion. Copy and paste a long text such as a page from a factual text and show the children which are the key terms or technical words that they are important to the topic. (These words can also be used as the spelling list for the week.)  Word clouds can be used to teach nominalisation. If the children are asked to read a particular text, the teacher can create a Google Document for them to record the nominal groups they have encountered in their reading. The teacher then copies and pastes the list to generate a word cloud to show what abstract nouns, technical words or key concepts they have encountered in their reading and discuss the purpose of nominalisation in the text they have read.  Word clouds can be used to teach persuasive devices. Copy and paste a long persuasive text and discuss with the children how modality is realised in the text. 7

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Alternatively copy and paste each section of a persuasive text to compare the use of modality with the function of the section. For example, are the more prominent words examples of evaluative language through the use of describers or are they modal verbs to show the different degrees of “strength” in the intended message? Classroom Ideas for Using Skitch  The teacher can ask the children to create a Skitch image of the multimodal text they are deconstructing. Using the various annotation tool, they can do the following when responding to the multimodal text: o Draw a circle to show what is salient on the image. o Circle visual or verbal resources that inform them of the targeted audience or context of use. o Draw arrows to show the reading path. o Underline particular grammatical features that the teacher wants them to pay attention to e.g. how connectives are used in sequential explanations. o Include text boxes to indicate the stages and phases of the particular genre when studying the text structure of the text. Classroom Ideas for Using Timeline Maker  After reading an historical recount, the teacher can organise the children in pairs or groups and have them re-read the recount with the purpose of putting events in order using the Timeline Maker. The teacher can use one group’s timeline to help the class understand the overall development of a series of events and identify how the events are related. The timeline can be saved and added to the children’s individual portfolios after the activity. It can also be used for each child to create a timeline of a significant event in their lives. Joint construction Assuming that the children have built enough field knowledge on a topic, the next step that concerns the teacher is modelling how to compose a multimodal text. The shared space and collaborative features inherent in many digital media tools enhance the joint construction by the teacher and the class. One good example is Google Drive. In Google Drive, there are many ways to collaboratively co-write or share documents such as Google Slides, Google Sheets and Google Docs (see https://www.google.com.au/docs/about/). In this section, Google Docs is used to illustrate how Google Drive can be used for a joint construction. Like Google Slides and Google Sheets, Google Docs allows multiple authors to write and edit a common document, regardless of the sites of composing the common text. In Google Drive, the user can upload an existing document or create a new one. Anyone with the link to the document can open and access it. Depending on the permission setting set by the one who uploads or creates the document, anyone with the link can edit or view the shared document. In Google Docs, the functions are similar to Microsoft Word. Similarly, Google Slides and Google Sheets are similar to Microsoft Powerpoint and Excel Spreadsheet. When a Google Doc is completed, the user can email it to others as an attachment or email the link to the Google Doc. If the recipient has Google Drive, he or she can also access the document by searching for it in a folder called Shared with Me. Google Docs can also be downloaded and copied by the user. It is also easy to track the revision history by going to File and then go to See Revision History. All documents are saved automatically and the user can use Google

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Drive as a personal online file storage (1 GB of space) to curate all Google Docs, Google Sheets and Google Slides. Classroom Ideas for Using Google Docs  The teacher can create a new document and share it with the class. When inviting the children to co-write the document, the class can be organised individually, in pairs or in groups, depending on the number of computing devices available. Using Google Docs, the teacher can ‘think aloud’ with the class by asking them what they should write about for a particular genre e.g. a narrative and who will be their targeted audience. The teacher can show the class the stages and phases of a narrative in the outline form and invite each group to develop the narrative in a round robin. As the narrative develops, the teacher can ask guiding questions to model the thinking process required to compose the narrative. For example, the teacher can highlight the grammatical features such as the use of past tense, invite different groups to enhance parts of the text such as through the use of describers or including dialogues in parts of the narrative. Different groups can also be asked to insert a picture to illustrate different parts of the text. When deciding which picture to use, the teacher can discuss their choice of visual resources with the class, such as the roles of the images, the intended reading path, the layout of the multimodal text and so forth. Independent Construction There are many digital media tools that provide children with multimodal resources for their online composing. Many of these tools can also be used for joint construction. In this section, Biteslide is chosen as an example of a range of digital media tools that provide children with the opportunities to compose a multimodal text. Biteslide (www.http://www.biteslide.com) allows children to create interactive and multimedia texts that allow them to add written texts, graphics, images, video and audio. To create a slide, the children can upload images and videos from Google or their own computer folders. There is a library of objects that children can choose from, such as collages, letters, numbers, backgrounds, borders, stickers and symbols. Children using it only need to drag and drop Text boxes to add them to each slide. The multimodal composition can be created with other collaborators and when the entire project is completed, it can be downloaded and printed. There are many similar digital media tools like Biteslide that allow children to create multimodal and multimedia texts, such as:  Book Creator (https://itunes.apple.com/au/app/book-creator-for-ipadcreate/id442378070?mt=8)  Puppet Pals (https://itunes.apple.com/au/app/puppet-pals-hd/id342076546?mt=8)  Glogster (http://edu.glogster.com/) Classroom Ideas for Using Biteslide  Children can create their imaginative texts such as illustrated poems or create their own storybooks.  Ask children to create an advertisement, as a form of persuasive text, to promote their school and use it for the school’s Open Day.  Ask children to take photographs of how a seed grows into an adult bean sprout. Their observations and research on the life cycle of the bean sprout can be recorded 9

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

using Biteslide. Children can use Biteslide to create a book on geometrical shapes to explain their properties, classify them and add SchoolTube videos (http://www.schooltube.com/) that show the importance of various shapes in our everyday lives.

CONCLUSION Engaging with digital media has become a part of our everyday life. For students, their use of digital media is prevalent but it cannot be considered a given or taken-for-granted that students are able to utilise the affordances of digital media for educational purposes. Using digital media in a classroom can provide students with access to the skills and dispositions associated with information and communication technologies representative of Web 2.0. In this chapter, we have highlighted some digital media tools that can be used when implementing the teaching / learning cycle. Different digital media tools can support students to demonstrate their knowledge, to deconstruct a text, and to build their field knowledge as well as provide an avenue for a joint construction led by the teacher. The addition of ‘new’ digital media tools will continue at a pace and also teachers need to be aware of the value and educational affordances of any ‘new’ tool so that it continues to transform learning in the classroom. Professional learning from colleagues, consultants and specialist websites can provide opportunities to share and learn about the use of the digital media tools.

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This is a draft written for Teaching Writing and Representing in the Primary School Years.

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