Using Songs and Movement to Teach Reading to Aboriginal Children
Patrick D. Walton Thompson Rivers University
[email protected] Michelle Canaday Skeetchestn Community School Arlene Dixon Sk’elep School of Excellence
Using Songs and Movement to Teach Reading to Aboriginal Children
This work was funded by a contribution from the Canadian Council on Learning
All documents produced by the Canadian Council on Learning (CCL) will be available in both French and English. However, documents produced by external organizations for CCL will be posted on the website only in the language of origin. When a full translation is not available, CCL will ensure that an executive summary is available in the other official language.
The opinions expressed herein are solely those of the authors. The Canadian Council on Learning bears no responsibility for its content.
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Using Songs and Movement to Teach Reading to Aboriginal Children
There are now over 15 years of strong and consistent research finding a link between a child’s ability with phonological awareness and progress in learning to reading (Haager, Klingner, & Vaughn, 2007; Kamil, Mosenthal, Pearson, & Barr, 2000; Oakhill & Beard, 1999). Phonological awareness is typically defined as conscious access to sounds within words and the ability to manipulate these sounds. At the same time, there is evidence that the use of songs and movement may be effective in teaching phonological skills (Anvari, Trainor, Woodside, & Levy, 2002; Kraemer, Macrae, Neil, Green, & Kelley, 2005; Saffran, 2003). These two sets of findings led to a line of inquiry to see if songs, which are essentially words put to music can be used to enhance the learning of key prereading skills (i.e., phonological awareness, letter-sound knowledge) and word reading. A program of teaching beginning reading using songs and movement was developed and experimentally tested with a sample of Aboriginal Kindergarten children to examine the effects of using songs and movement to teach reading. A song is basically words put to rhythm. Learning to sing a song is quite easy for children if the ending words rhyme, if there is a strong rhythm or beat, and if there are few words to remember. In our previous research, we found that children appeared to learn new words more easily and remember the words for longer periods of time when jingles were used to teach reading words that rhymed (Walton, Bowden, Kurtz, & Angus, 2002; Walton, Walton, & Felton, 2001; Walton & Walton, 2002). For example, showing prereaders the printed words fat and rat and having the children sing the words as a jingle (rat sat, rat rat sat) was an effective teaching method, and an experience the children appeared to enjoy. Although there have been consistent recommendations to use music and song as a vehicle to teach phonological and beginning reading skills (e.g., Adams, 1990; Habsen, Bernstorf, Stuber, & Gayle, 2004), very little empirical research has examined this question. Specifically, there is limited experimental research that examined the effectiveness of using songs and movement to teach beginning reading. The same is true for the research on reading and Aboriginal children. The literature review below includes overviews of research on teaching beginning reading to Aboriginal children, brain research on music and reading, and education research on music and teaching reading. There is a commonly held view that there is strong research linking music and song to developmental gains, but few studies that have experimentally examined these claims. The popular “Mozart Effect” is a case in point. In 1993, Rauscher, Shaw, and Ky (1993) published a report titled Music and spatial task performance in Nature. College students who listened to a Mozart sonata for 10 minutes increased their performance on a subsequent spatial intelligence test by 8-9 IQ points in comparison to control conditions where they either listened to relaxation instructions or sat in silence for identical periods of time. This finding became known as the “Mozart Effect” In 1999, a meta-analysis of 16 such studies came to the conclusion that the overall effect size was negligible (Chabris, 1999). There has been a long-standing concern for the relatively low reading achievement levels of Aboriginal children in English (e. g., Miller, 1972). However, there is scant research on the topic of interventions or programs designed to enhance reading acquisition in Aboriginal children. Of the existing research on beginning reading with Aboriginal children, two experimental studies found no differences between the teaching methods examined (Bryant, 1986; Miller, 1972), and four studies made specific teaching recommendations without clear supporting evidence (Kasten, 1992; Narang, 1974; Rich, 1973; Shields & Matheson, 1990). A number of observational studies considered home and school environments that might increase language acquisition and reading success (e.g., Hartle-Schutte, 1989; Soldier, 1992) but did not examine the effects of specific methods or programs. None of this previous research included phonological awareness as a factor, and this is a significant omission as phonological awareness is consistently the strongest predictor of both the success and failure of learning to read. Phonological awareness is typically defined as the ability to manipulate sounds within spoken
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Using Songs and Movement to Teach Reading to Aboriginal Children
words. The research by Walton, Thorneloe, Bowden, and Angus (2001) we believe is the first study to empirically examine the effects of a phonologically-based reading intervention with Aboriginal children. The Walton et al. 2001 research used small cooperative groups to teach key prereading skills and beginning reading based primarily on words with common rimes (e.g., cat sat hat red bed led), and the gains on prereading skills and word reading were strong and significant. It is obvious that more empirical research needs to be conducted with Aboriginal children in the area of beginning reading, especially involving the identification and development of effective teaching methods and programs. There are two key research experimental projects on using songs to teach prereading and language skills that bear directly on the proposed project (Anvari, Trainor, Woodside, & Levy, 2002; Walton, 2006). These articles are summarized now. Anvari et al. examined relationships among phonological awareness, music perception skills, and early reading skills in 100 preschoolers. They found that music skills correlated significantly with both phonological awareness and reading development and those music perception skills contributed unique variance in predicting reading ability, even when variance due to phonological awareness and other cognitive abilities (mathematics, digit span, and vocabulary) had been accounted for. This research provides correlational evidence of a link between music and early reading skills in preschoolers. In other research, some of which included Aboriginal children as a subgroup (Walton, Bowden, Kurtz, & Angus, 2002; Walton, Walton, & Felton, 2001; Walton & Walton, 2002), we found that children learned to read new words more easily and remember the words longer when jingles were used as a teaching method, and if the words rhymed. A possible explanation is that having children sing jingles while viewing printed lyrics strengthens the phonological and text connections in long-term memory, and so acts as a memory aid when children learn to read words. Jingles appeared to greatly facilitate Kindergarten children as they learned to read new words. As well, children found the singing to be a fun activity. These findings pointed the way to a line of inquiry to see if songs, which are essentially words put to music, enhanced the learning of key prereading skills (i.e., phonological awareness, letter-sound knowledge) and word reading. If songs and movement can enhance the teaching of beginning reading, there would be potentially significant teaching implications for children who have difficulty learning to read, an experience common to many Aboriginal children. To empirically study the idea that songs and movement could be used to teach beginning reading effectively, we needed to have songs that contained words which were appropriate for young children learning to read (e.g., words that rhymed such as “cat hat rat”). We also wanted to prepare a curriculum that would be culturally appropriate for Aboriginal children. Two to three years ago my research team created and recorded 16 original children's songs, added body movements to accompany the songs, and piloted the songs with Kindergarten children, some of whom were Aboriginal. That curriculum included Aboriginal children as part of the sample, but was not designed for Aboriginal children per se. Basically, children learn the songs and the movements, and then are presented with the text of the lyrics as they sing. The lyrics contain many simple consonant-vowel-consonant words. Movements were added to accompany the songs because the children consistently moved or danced when singing the songs they liked. In fact, the children preferred songs with a bouncy rhythm. Children also preferred songs that were quick to learn (i.e., they could sing most of the song after 2 or 3 hearings) and short in duration (i.e., about 1.5 minutes). The curriculum we developed was empirically studied in two research projects with control groups, with a total sample of 143 Kindergarten children. The findings were that songs are extremely effective tools to teach key prereading skills (phoneme awareness, letter-sounds, rhyming) and word reading. One of the readers was a high functioning autistic child.
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Using Songs and Movement to Teach Reading to Aboriginal Children
However, the singing and movement curriculum we developed was not designed to be used primarily with Aboriginal children, even though one of the subgroups was Aboriginal. A key purpose of this project was to create new songs and activities that include elements of Aboriginal culture. The practical consequences of the proposed project for Aboriginal children are significant as it may lead to the development of reading teaching materials that may substantially increase the success rate of learning to read. The long-term conceptual view of this line of inquiry is to see if a songs and movement based reading program will be effective in teaching reading to young Aboriginal children. The next step is to implement the songs and movement reading curriculum with Aboriginal children, and this paper reports on such a project. Teaching Aboriginal children to read in English has implications that go beyond reading, as there are extensive cultural differences between Aboriginal peoples and the majority population of Canada. Important educational goals recently identified by three Aboriginal communities in British Columbia were knowledge of the Aboriginal culture, particularly Aboriginal language, and high levels of competence in academic skills, especially reading in English, and Mathematics (Kamloops First nations education Forum, 1994; More, 1984; Napoleon, 1988). Chief Dan George, a highly respected chief from British Columbia, articulately expressed these views regarding academic skills when he wrote: Like the thunderbird of old, I shall rise again out of the sea; I shall grab the instruments of the white man’s success, his education, his skills. With these new tools I shall build my race into the proudest segments of your society (1974, p. 92). In summary, there is sufficient and compelling research on using songs and movement to teach beginning reading to young children. The application of these methods with an Aboriginal population is innovative and original, and would have potentially significant positive consequences. The research presented here seeks to fill an important gap in the literature on the use of songs and movement to teach the beginning steps of reading. The present study (a) sampled Aboriginal Kindergarten children, (b) measured the prereading skills of rhyming, phoneme identity, and letter-sound knowledge, (c) tested for reading for words used in the curriculum and new words not presented previously, and (d) included a control group to estimate the effects of literacy instruction in the classroom. The following questions were examined in the study: (a) Will experience with the song and movement reading curriculum result in increases in the prereading skills of phoneme identity, rhyming, and letter-sound knowledge compared to a control group? (b) Will experience with the song and movement reading curriculum result in increases in reading compared to a control group? (c) Will children be able to generalize the reading to include words not presented in the songs and movement curriculum? It is important to note that although this project is designed to teach reading in English, several of the Aboriginal musicians and curriculum developers have also worked on developing
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Using Songs and Movement to Teach Reading to Aboriginal Children
curriculum to teach Secwepemcstin. A possible secondary benefit of this project is that these people are already planning to use the skills they develop in the proposed project to prepare similar curricula to teach Secwepemcstin, although that future likelihood is not a part of this proposal. Method The literacy instruction children receive in the classroom could affect reading development and it is important to control for this factor. Children in the control group received their regular classroom language and literacy teaching, and children in the treatment group received the song and movement program as part of their literacy teaching. Teachers were asked not to increase the total teaching time for children in the treatment group so that both treatment and control groups receive equal time for teaching literacy. Thus, increases in prereading skills and reading in the treatment group compared to the control group could not be attributed to more time spent on literacy experiences in the classroom. Participants Children were solicited from two Kindergarten classrooms in two different schools on Aboriginal reserves and in all, 32 children participated in the study. The schools were located in low socio-economic areas of a medium-sized city in the interior of British Columbia, Canada. Children in the control group were taught by the same teachers the previous year as part of an earlier study where classrooms were randomly assigned to treatment or control groups, and children in the treatment group received the song and movement program. Tests Children were pretested and posttested (10-week interval) for rhyming ability, phoneme identity, letter-sound knowledge, and for reading achievement. Rhyming Rhyming was measured with a rhyme generation task where they are given two examples of rhyming words (cat rat hat, red bed fed) and then asked to generate words that rhyme with day and bell. Phoneme Identity The Yopp (1988) Sound Isolation Test was used to measure phoneme identity. The test measures the ability to identify phonemes in the initial, final, and then medial positions. This test had the highest predictive correlation with a subsequent measure of learning to read novel words (r = .72) with Kindergarteners (Yopp, 1988). The test consists of one practice trial with corrective feedback and then 15 experimental trials, also with corrective feedback. In each trial the child listens to a spoken word and is then asked to identify the initial, final, or medial sound, with five words for each phoneme position. The scores are summed to produce a total score for phoneme identity (maximum score = 15).
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Using Songs and Movement to Teach Reading to Aboriginal Children
Letter-sound Knowledge Children were presented with two 21 cm × 28 cm cards that listed the letters of the alphabet in alphabetical order in a 2 cm Gothic font in lowercase. One card listed the letters from a to o and the second card listed the remaining letters. Children were asked to provide the sound of individual letters and those who responded with the name of the letter were asked for the sound of the letter. Reading The reading test consisted of 12 words presented on a list in 16 point Gothic font. The first 8 words were presented in the song and movement program and the remaining 4 words were not used in the program. The last 4 words could examine if the children were able to generalize their reading skill to include words which were new to them. Treatment Groups All teaching took place in the Kindergarten classroom with all children sitting on the carpet facing the teacher. The teaching sessions typically began with a brief period (i.e., about 30 seconds) of singing the songs along with the CD that contained the songs prepared for the project, copying the teacher as she demonstrated the movements, or sounded out selected the lyrics of the song (e.g., c – a – t cat). There were 10 songs in total, all original songs prepared and recorded for the study. Most of the musicians were Aboriginal and all songs have Aboriginal influences in the form of singing, percussion or other instrumentation, or Aboriginal content. All of the songs, except for two songs, hand movements to accompany the singing. The movements were different for each song and included sign language and small and large motor movements. Results The correlations among the pretest scores and reading are shown below in Table 1. The strong relationships among the rhyming, phoneme, and letter-sound measures are notable, as are the strong relationships between reading and these measures. Interestingly, rhyming was not correlated with initial phoneme identity and letter-sound skills.
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Using Songs and Movement to Teach Reading to Aboriginal Children
Table 1 - Correlations Among Pretests and Reading ___________________________________________________________________________ Measure
2 Initial phoneme
3
4
Medial phoneme
Final phoneme
5 Total phoneme
6 Lettersounds
7 Reading
__________________________________________________________________________ 1. Rhyming 2. Initial phoneme
.27 --
.43*
.55**
.46**
.24
.45**
.55**
.57**
.82**
.80**
.68**
--
.78**
.90**
.48**
.82**
--
.89**
.56**
.73**
--
.71**
.86**
3. Medial phoneme 4. Final phoneme 5. Total phoneme 6. Letter-sounds
--
.58 **
7. Reading -___________________________________________________________________________ *p < .05. **p < .01. ***p < .001.
Treatment Effects on Prereading Skills Treatment effects on prereading skills were analyzed using a separate analysis of covariance for each measure, with the pretest score serving as the covariate, the posttest score as the outcome variable, and treatment condition (Treatment, Control) as the between-subject variable. The Newman-Keuls test with the significant p = .05 was used to examine all post hoc analyses following a significant ANCOVA. The post hoc analyses were based on the adjusted scores. The prereading skill results are presented in Table 2.
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Using Songs and Movement to Teach Reading to Aboriginal Children
Table 2 – Treatment Effects on Prereading Skills
Variable Rhyming Pretest M (SD) Posttest M (SD) Adjusted M
Treatment
Control
MSE
F
η2
3.76 (3.90) 5.65 (3.77) 5.43
3.20 (3.90) 4.13 (3.60) 4.38
3.86
2.29
.07
Initial phoneme Pretest M (SD)
2.06 (1.85)
1.73 (1.58)
Posttest M (SD) Adjusted M
3.82 (1.29) 3.72
2.20 (1.78) 2.32
1.06
14.68***
.35
Medial phoneme Pretest M (SD) Posttest M (SD) Adjusted M
1.82 (1.98) 1.72
.04 (1.12) .52
3.50
14.47*** .33
Final phoneme Pretest M (SD) Posttest M (SD) Adjusted M
1.76 (1.48) 1.58
1.20 (1.46) 1.41
1.13
.21
Total phoneme Pretest M (SD) Posttest M (SD) Adjusted M
7.41 (4.09) 6.95
3.87 (3.72) 4.40
3.50
14.47*** .33
Letter-sounds Pretest M (SD) Posttest M (SD) Adjusted M
18.24 (7.99) 18.54
11.80 (8.79) 11.45
25.82
15.48***
.01
.35
*p < .05. **p < .01. ***p < .001.
Table 2 shows that there were significant ANCOVAs for initial phoneme identity, medial phoneme identity, total phoneme identity, and letter-sound knowledge, but not for rhyming. The general trend of the results on prereading skills was the superior performance of the treatment
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Using Songs and Movement to Teach Reading to Aboriginal Children
group compared to the control group. This was evidence that these prereading skills are amenable to teaching at an early age through literacy activities based on songs and movements. Figure 1 below illustrates the increased phoneme ability of the Treatment group compared to children in the Control group. The difference between the groups was that the Treatment group included the use of songs and movement to teach these prereading skills. Phoneme skills are the best single predictor of success in learning to read (Kamil, Mosenthal, Pearson, & Barr, 2000).
Figure 1 – Treatment Effects on Total Phoneme Scores
Effects on Total Phonemes
Score (max. = 15)
8.0 7.0 6.0 5.0
Treat Control
4.0 3.0 2.0 1.0 0.0
Treatment group
Figure 2 below shows that the use of songs and movements also had very positive effects for children in the Treatment compared to children in the Control group. There was a ceiling
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Using Songs and Movement to Teach Reading to Aboriginal Children
effect on the scores for children in the Treatment group, and this suggests that these children learned the letter-sounds more quickly than those in the Control group.
Figure 2 – Treatment Effects on Letter-sound Knowledge
Effects on Letter-sounds 20 18
Score (max. = 26)
16 14 12
Treat Control
10 8 6 4 2 0
Treatment group
Treatment Effects on Reading Treatment effects on reading were analyzed using a separate analysis of covariance for each measure, with the pretest score serving as the covariate, the posttest score as the outcome variable, and treatment condition (Treatment, Control) as the between-subject variable. The Newman-Keuls test with the significant p = .05 was used to examine all post hoc analyses following a significant ANCOVA. The post hoc analyses were based on the adjusted scores. The reading skill results are presented in Table 3.
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Using Songs and Movement to Teach Reading to Aboriginal Children
Table 3 – Treatment Effects on Reading
Treatment
Control
MSE
F
η2
Variable Word in Program Pretest M (SD) Posttest M (SD) Adjusted M
3.35 (2.76) 3.38
.80 (1.32) .78
4.05
13.30*** .31
New Words Pretest M (SD) Posttest M (SD) Adjusted M
.82 (1.38) .81
.27 (.59) .28
.89
2.5
.08
Total Reading Pretest M (SD) Posttest M (SD) Adjusted M
4.06 (4.05) 4.02
1.20 (1.82 1.24
7.95
7.74**
.21
*p < .05. **p < .01. ***p < .001.
The reading results indicate that as was the case with the prereading skills, children in the treatment group were more successful in reading compared to those in the control group. The first 8 words in the reading test were presented to the children as part of the songs and movement program and the treatment group children read significantly more of these words than children in the control group. However, there were no significant differences in reading the 4 new words between the treatment and control groups. The total reading score combined the words in the program and the new words (maximum = 12) and the treatment group children were significantly more successful reading overall (see Figure 3 below). This was evidence that literacy activities based on songs and movements are effective methods to teach reading to Kindergarten children. However, their reading abilities did not transfer to reading new words.
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Using Songs and Movement to Teach Reading to Aboriginal Children
Figure 3 – Treatment Effects on Reading
Effects on Reading
Score (max. = 12)
4.5 4 3.5 3
Treat Control
2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0
Treatment group
Discussion Treatment Effects on Prereading Skills Children generally increased their competence in initial, medial and total phoneme identity and letter-sound knowledge when they received teaching based on songs and movement. This was evidence that prereading Kindergarteners can learn these important prereading skills by a brief period of direct teaching followed by singing songs and doing movements that they enjoy. However, the classroom literacy programs in the Control group were as effective as the treatment conditions in enhancing rhyming ability.
Treatment Effects on Reading
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Using Songs and Movement to Teach Reading to Aboriginal Children
Kindergarteners can learn to read following experience with songs and movements, activities they appear to enjoy. Their reading skills did not transfer to new words which were not presented in the program. It is possible that the Kindergarten children did not have enough experience in the course of the study to extend their reading to unfamiliar words. However, 6 of the 17 children (35%) in the treatment group were able to read new words.
Summary and Implications The main conclusion of the study was that learning key prereading skills and reading was enhanced for young Aboriginal children when songs and movement were part of the reading program. It is important to note that the children appeared to thoroughly enjoy the singing and movement activities, and they could be heard singing the songs as they left the classroom, like a jingle. The key implication of the research was that teachers should be encouraged to use songs and movement to teach children in the first steps of reading. Further research on this topic is warranted, and there are several different directions to pursue. We know that songs and movement helped the children to develop important reading skills, but we do not know the mechanisms to clearly explain why. We need to examine more closely the elements of the songs and movements to identify what was creating the positive effects. It is possible that songs and movements need to be used together to have positive effects. Does rhythm play a role? As part of the teaching in the Treatment group, children and the teacher sang along together to the songs on a music CD. This choral singing provided extensive modeling for the weaker children and allowed them to learn and participate in a fun way, without embarrassment. What role did choral singing play? Choral singing with a leader is a teaching method that exemplifies the traditional Aboriginal teaching practice of modeling and participation, and also is consistent with Vygotsky’s zone of proximal development. Can using songs and movement be used to effectively teach other language and reading abilities?
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Using Songs and Movement to Teach Reading to Aboriginal Children
References Anvari, S., Trainor, L., Woodside, J. & Levy, B. (2002). Relations among musical skills, phonological processing, and early reading ability in preschool children. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 83, 111-130. Bryant, H. W. (1986). An investigation into the effectiveness of two strategy training approaches of grade one Native Indian children. Dissertation Abstracts International, 48 (1-A), 89-90. Chabris, C. F. (1999). Prelude or requiem for the “Mozart Effect”? Nature, 400, 826-827. Douglas, S. & Willatts, P. (1994). Music and cognitive development in children. Journal of Research in Reading, 17, 99-107. Fisher, D. & McDonald, N. (2003). The intersection between music and early literacy instruction: Listening to literacy! Reading Improvement, 38, 106-115. George, D. (1974). My heart soars. Saanichton, B.C., Hancock House. Habsen, D., Bernstorf, E., & Stuber, G. (2004). The music and literacy connection. MENC: The National Association for Music Education. Haager, D, Klingner, J., & Vaughn, S. Eds. (2007). Evidence-based reading practices for response to intervention. Brookes Publishing Company: Baltimore, USA. Hartle-Schutte, D. (1989). Home environment characteristics of successful Navajo readers. Dissertation Abstracts International, 50(3-A), 654. Kamloops First Nations Educational Forum (1994). Kamloops, B.C., Canada. Kasten, W. C. (1992). Bridging the horizon: American Indian beliefs and whole language learning. Anthropology and Education Quarterly, 23, 108-119. Kolb, G. R. (1996). Read with a beat: Developing literacy through music and song. Reading Teacher, 50, 76-77. Kraemer, J. M., Macrae, M., Neil, C., Green, A. E., & Kelley, W. M. (2005). Musical imagery: Sound of silence activates auditory cortex. Nature, 434, 158-165. Miller, D. D. (1972). A comparison of two approaches to the teaching of reading to Navajo Indian students. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Utah State University. More, A. (1984). Okanagan Nicola Indian quality of education study. Penticton, B.C., Canada. Narang, H. L. (1974). Improving reading ability of Indian children. Elementary English, 51, 190-192.
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Using Songs and Movement to Teach Reading to Aboriginal Children
Overy, K. (2003). From timing deficits to musical intervention. In Avanzini, G. et al., (Eds.). The neurosciences and music. New York, N.Y. : New York Academy of Sciences. Rauscher, F. H., Shaw, G. L. & Ky, K. N. (1993). Music and spatial task performance. Nature, 365, 611. Renegar, S. L. (1990). Using predictable songs in beginning reading activities. Reading Horizons, 31, 34-38. Rich, G. (1973). Teaching reading to the American Indian. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the International Reading Association, May, Denver. Saffran, J. R. (2003). Musical learning and language development. In Avanzini, G. et al., (Eds.). The neurosciences and music. New York, N.Y. : New York Academy of Sciences. Shields, J. & Matheson, S. (1990). Whole language and then some! TESL Talk, 20, 213-223. Soldier, L. (1992). Working with Native American children. Young Children, 47, 15-21. Tervaniemi M, Medvedev SV, Alho K, Pakhomov SV, Roudas MS, Van Zuijen TL, Naatanen R. (2000). Lateralized automatic auditory processing of phonetic versus musical information: a PET study. Human Brain Mapping, 2, 74-90. Walton, P. (submitted for publication). Using songs and movement to teach reading to Kindergarten children. Scientific Studies of Reading. Walton, P. D., Turner, M. & Marshall, C. (2005). Using Children’s Songs to Teach Reading. Paper presented at the American Education Research Association conference, Montreal, April. Walton, P. D. & Walton, L. D. (2002). Beginning reading by teaching in rime analogy: Effects on phonological skills, letter-sound knowledge, working memory, and word reading strategies. Scientific Studies of Reading, 6, 79-115. Walton, P. D., Walton, L. D., & Felton, K. (2001). Teaching rime analogy or letter recoding reading strategies to prereaders: Effects on prereading skills and word reading. Journal of Educational Psychology, 93, 160-180. Walton, P. D., Thorneloe, S., Bowden, M. E., & Angus, M. (2001). Evaluation of a rime-based reading program with Shuswap and Heiltsuk First Nations prereaders. Reading and Writing, 14, 229-264.
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Using Songs and Movement to Teach Reading to Aboriginal Children
Acknowledgments I would like to thank the teachers, children, and parents from the Sk’elep School of Excellence in Kamloops and the Skeetchestn Community School in Savona for participating in the research project. The teachers Michelle Canaday and Arlene Dixon participated in the project and created many of the activities in the Teacher’s Guide.
Thanks also go to research assistants Jacinta Sampson and Erin Casper from Thompson Rivers University, who created the artwork. Fara Palmer sang all of the songs and wrote most of them, the Sage Hills drummers from the Kamloops Indian Band provided most of the percussion, and Michael Turner provided recording expertise and musicianship. Thanks go to the Canadian Council on Learning who provided a research grant to fund the project. Samples of the songs can be heard online at www.cdbaby.com/cd/farapalmer and the program can be purchased at the same site.
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