Value of Religious Heritage on the World Heritage List

Singh, Rana P.B.: ‘Hindu Religious Heritage Sites’; ISS- CLSUR- FEFU Vladivostok: 10~21 July 2017.

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International Summer School - “Cultural Landscape & Sustainable Urban Regeneration”, FEFU Vladivostok, Russia: 10~24 July 2017. Laboratory of Urban & Landscape Design, School of Arts, Culture and Sports; Far Eastern Federal University, Building G, Office G373, FEFU Campus, Russky Island, Vladivostok 690950, RUSSIA. ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ Special Lecture 1. 17 July 2017.

Heritage Value of Religious Sites and Built Archetypes: The Scenario of Hinduism, Rana P.B. Singh* Abstract Hinduism is experienced through its spirituality, sacredness, architecture, and landscape. Hindu temples are Hinduism’s coded religious messages, constructed of symbols, designs, iconography, and depictions of historic and literary events. Combining and unifying these elements, Hindu temples communicate the divine. Eight of the 32 UNESCO’s World Heritage Sites (WHS) in India fall in the category of the religious heritage of Hinduism, viz. Chola temples, Hampi shrines, Mahabalipuram, Pattadakal, Khajuraho, Sun temple, Elephanta caves, and Ellora caves. To date 51 properties are listed in the WHS’s Tentative List from India, and 7 of them are associated with Hinduism, viz. Bishunpur, Ekambra, Hoysala, Srirangapatan, Kakatiya, Sri Ranganathaswamy Temple at Srirangam, and Majuli Island. In Southeast Asia, there are 5 religious WH sites, viz. Prambanan Temple (Indonesia), Angkor Wat (Cambodia), Pashupatinath Temple and other temples (Nepal), Mỹ Son Sanctuary (Viet Nam), and Mother Temple of Besakih (Bali, Indonesia). The case of Varanasi’s Riverfront is a unique Religious Heritage and cultural landscape, still waiting for inscription in the WHL, however due to internal politics and lack of coordination, the process becomes too complicated and difficult. As recent discourses identify the unique characteristics and heritage value of Hinduism and its temples, it will affirm the value of the divine in the human experience. As a result, pilgrimage-heritage tourism will promote and contribute to global understanding. Keywords. Heritage ecology, Hinduism, Krishna, Riverfront heritagescapes, Shiva, Southeast Asia, Varanasi, Vishnu, World Heritage Sites.

1. Heritagescapes, Religion, and Hinduism: the Perspective A variety of forces can threaten the preservation, restoration, and maintenance of religious sites: to name a few, globalization, democratization, countervailing community choices, the priority of a market economy, the commoditization of culture, and the politics of religious and ethnic groups. (This article, in sequence, identifies several examples from Hinduism.) Cultural heritage, especially of religious built forms, has been historically important. However, beginning in the nineteenth century and continuing today, perhaps partially in response to “modernity,” cultural tourism has become more popular and explicitly reinforces the value, use, and conservation of religion; tourists who appreciate cultural developments increasingly comprehend the significant role of religious beliefs and practices in shaping local geographies through physical structures and associated rituals and performances. Political control, identity, hegemony, and social *

Prof. Rana P.B. Singh, MA, PhD, FJF, FIFS, FAAI, FACLA, ‘Ganga-Ratna’, is Vice-President, ACLA: Asian Cultural Landscape Association (SNU Seoul, Korea), and Vice-President: BHAI, Big History Association of India, and was Professor of Geography (spel. Cultural Geography & Heritage Studies), & Head (2013-2015), Institute of Science, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, UP 221005, India. Email: [email protected] ; https://banaras.academia.edu/RanaPBSINGH/Papers/ [Ref. Pdf 505.17 ]


2 security are all religiously symbolized (see Harvey 1979). Monuments and buildings are recurring testaments of successive generations, typically of the dominant community or a ruler’s patronage, each in turn manifesting the then current understanding of the human place in and of nature. These sacred built structures are, symbolically, the repositories of knowledge about the former understanding of our planet as ‘home’ and our relationship with it as ‘actor’. In a broad sense such heritage refers to the places where the spirit of nature and culture meet, and are additionally memorized and maintained by rituals and festivities performed there. Together they shaped the interactions between humanity and divinity and thus formed an environment of faithscapes (Singh 1997). Broadly, sacrosanct built forms possess at least four attributes: (i) external (e.g. architecture, visibility, design, environmental context), (ii) internal (images, association with divinities, aesthetics), (iii) eternal (e.g. universal message, inherent/ imposed meanings, spiritual feelings, cross-cultural context and linkages), and (iv) manifest (e.g. adherents’ belief systems and supporting mythologies). But the transfer of both context and content from one to another is often confused, whether intentional or not, and sometimes results in conflict and contradictions between adherents. Similarly, signs, words, and symbols representing the built heritage and related inherent values of one set of believers, may differ from those of non-believers, tourists, or other groups (Vukonić 2006: 244). The four basic issues for expressing representations and discursive construction of religious heritage include (i) understanding cultural significance, (ii) information on the value of heritage, (iii) conservation in response to religiosity-spirituality, and (iv) cultural responsibility (Waterton, Smith and Campbell 2006: 350). It seems that some heritage practices (and also religio-ritual traditions) commonly associated with an ancient period were always in flux, even as they were passed from one generation to the next. Lowenthal (1998: 226) argues that “heritage, far from being fatally predetermined or God-given, is in large measure our own marvellously malleable creation”. Of course, heritage is not an innate or primordial phenomenon; people created and converted it into symbolic form, and in many cases associated it with a belief system and its symbolic expressions and mythologies. The understanding of religious heritage as an expression of culture is largely that of a community or society with a relatively agreed upon set of universal values. When one culture interacts with another culture holding different values conflict and contention is possible, if not probable, particularly if control or assets are at stake. This condition is more prevalent in the case of built religious heritage landscape in South and South East Asia, exemplified with varying forms of Hinduism, a virtual ensemble of various Hindu traditions. In Indian tradition, heritage is called ‘dharohara’, which is a combination of two words, i.e. dharā- (‘the mother Earth/Lord Vishnu who holds’), and -ihara (‘endeavour of identity through time’). The word also carries the meaning of ‘bearing’ and ‘preserving’ the surface of the mother Earth. It is best explained in terms of the ‘root’ (‘shrota’) and ‘identity’ (‘asmitā’) ― a framework of continuity of inter-connectedness and a personality of culture. In Asia, it is openly debated whether significant elements of religious traditions should include heritage environments. Religious traditions and customs result from popular habituation, an informal process (Eiter 2004: 173). Statutory law, in contrast, is applied to all members of a society, regardless of its individual’s roots. Consequently, conflicts can occur in all heritagescapes when divergent practices clash, however formed, in recording claims by individual religious groups.

2. India’s Hindu Religious World Heritage Sites India’s Hinduism is simultaneously and inseparably cultural and religious, tangible and intangible, historic and present. As a result, India’s Hindus possess colourful heritagescapes, a combination of mystic-religious sacredscapes and ancient monuments, all drawn from a variety of literature and traditions. Out of 1052 heritage sites in the world (as in October 2016), 35 heritage sites (Cultural 26, Natural 8, Mixed 1) from India are included in the World Heritage List. Eight of these 35 sites are


3 associated with Hinduism, viz. Chola temples (cf. Fig. 5), Hampi shrines (cf. Fig. 6), Mahabalipuram (cf. Fig. 7), Khajuraho (cf. Fig. 3, and 8), Pattadakal (cf. Fig. 9), Sun temple at Konark (cf. Fig. 4), Elephanta caves (cf. Fig. 10), and Ellora caves (cf. 11) [cf. Table 1]. Additionally, 51 sites in India are listed on the WHS Tentative List, of which 7 are associated with Hinduism, viz. Bishunpur, Ekambra, Hoyalsha, Srirangapatan, Kakatiya, Sri Ranganathaswamy Temple at Srirangam, and Majuli Island (cf. Table 2). Fig. 1.

Hindu religious World Heritage Sites may further be categorized, generally speaking, according to their association with major deities (images) and their affinities or avatars. Consequently, though monistic, the Hindu religion appears polytheistic, where one god dominates the sacred territory on cosmic principles, and other auxiliary or associated gods have supporting functions. In fact, many Hindus focus on one “god” after another, what Max Müller termed ‘kathenotheism’. This is why Hindus are often seen as Panchadevapujaka (worshipper of five gods together) after they have sequentially devoted before the statuary of the typical five categorical


4 divinities, i.e. Shiva (god of dissolution-recreation), Surya (Sun-god), Ganesha (elephant-headed god), Devi (mother goddess), and Vishnu (god of sustenance and life) (cf. Table 3): (i) Shiva, one of the Hindu pantheons of gods, known as the cosmic dancer and god of dissolution-recreation (cf. Fig. 2). Five of the 8 WHS are predominantly associated with Shiva. The three heads (trimurti, in Elephanta cave, no. 7) are said to represent three essential aspects of Shiva: creation, protection, and dissolution. The temple of Brihadishvara (Chola, at Thanjavur, cf. Fig. 5) is built on granite and sandstone slabs, and is surrounded by life-size images of eight deities protecting the temple; their placement conforms to axial and symmetrical rules of geometry. Virupakha (Hampi, cf. Fig. 6) symbolizes the god of progeny who controls the river Pampa/Tungabhadra. The nine Shiva temples at Pattadakal, represent various forms and associated stories of Shiva. Ardhanarishvara (Elephanta), represents the sublimate form of Shiva who controls two forces of nature, i.e. male (purusha) and female (prakriti). Shiva is also represented here as a cosmic dancer (Nataraja), lord of yoga, and killer of a demon. Kailasanatha Temple (Ellora), incorporating Mt Kailasha (the resort, cf. Fig. 11) and Shiva, representing possibly the world’s largest monolithic structure, is carved out of one single basalt rock-cut, with four parts, i.e. the body of the temple, the entrance gate, the Nandi shrine and a group of five shrines surrounding the courtyard. Fig. 2. Shiva, as cosmic dancer, Nataraja.

(ii) Shiva and Vishnu (the god of sustenance) together or side-by-side is the other prevailing depiction in the religious WHS. The territory of Mahabalipuram presents both images, i.e. of Shiva (Shore temple), and Vishnu-Varaha (Boar-form Vishnu, rock-cut temple, and Thirukadalmallai temple). The giant open-air reliefs such as the famous ‘Descent of the Ganga’, and other sculptures depicting stories from the Mahabharata (e.g. Pancha Rathas, the five chariots) show the close relationship between the Shaivism and Vaishnavism groups of Hindu tradition. Similarly the religious heritage buildings at Khajuraho present a combination of three religious groups, viz. Shaivism, Vaishnavism and Shaktism (goddess-adherents). Of the twenty-two temples in Khajuraho (cf. Fig. 3) seven are dedicated to Shiva, seven to Vishnu, four to Devi (goddess), one to the Sun-god, and the remaining three to Jain Tirthankaras. Of all of them, only Matangeshvara is functionally active in terms of rituals and festivities. The location of these temples is formerly interconnected from a


5 perspective of cosmic geometry. However to comprehend the spiritual connections, we need a deeper understanding of how the human and the divine interact (cf. Singh 2009: 75). Fig. 3. Khajuraho


6 In Khajuraho, Hindu temples built upon the ground plan of the vastupurusha mandala are typically aligned along cardinal directions. It is anticipated that these carefully constructed structures would demonstrate the precision with which the architects of the Chandelas could establish cardinality. It is discovered, however, that all of the axes of symmetry that we measured were rotated by 3° to 11° south of east (Singh 2009: 66). Says Stella Kramrisch (1976: 165, 300-303) that in the early medieval temples the chief deity of the sanctum is the luminous source which radiates its power in cardinal directions through the images of its manifestations. This observation also indicates alignment of the central deity to the sunrays. Though each image in the sanctum is complete in itself yet their situation is always in consonance to a symmetry; in fact, each image forms a sub-system in the bigger wholeness of cosmic principle. On the WHS Tentative List, Ekambra (Bhubaneshwar, the Temple City) contains a multitude of Shiva and Vishnu statuary, including the most famous one, the Harihara image (‘Shiva-Vishnu in one’), in the Lingaraj temple. The depicted superimposition and integration of Shiva and Vishnu facilitates and realized cooperation and interaction of their respective adherents. Similarly in the Hoysala area both Shiva (Hoysaleshvara) and Vishnu (Chennakeshvara I) are treated equally. The sculptures and frescoes of Vishnu’s incarnation depict stories from the epics Ramayana and Mahabharata. Statuary of Garuda (Vishnu) and Ganesha (Shiva) provide protection to their master deity and are worshipped together. Fig. 4. Konark, the Sun temple complex: The plan, and Conjectural view.

Fig. 5. Chola temple, Brihadishvara temple compound.

(iii) Surya, the Sun-god, is represented in most Hindu temples as an auxiliary image. At Konark (cf. Fig. 4), however, there is a 13th century temple of Surya riding in a seven spirited horsechariot of twelve pairs of exquisitely decorated wheels, representing 7 days and 12 months, respectively. Since the images were removed long ago from the main temple, the sanctuary is no longer regarded as a holy place or functional temple. In the northeast corner of the Konark compound a modem building houses the old doorway arch showing the planets of Hindu mythology, i.e. Sun,


7 Moon, Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn. In personified form, they are seated cross-legged on lotuses, each carrying in the left hand a water pot and in the right a rosary (Singh 1997: 124). Fig. 6. Hampi, Virupakha temple compound

Fig. 7. Monolithic temples and structures at Mamallapuram: the decent of the Ganga.

(iv) Vishnu, god of sustenance, in reincarnated form Krishna. As patron deity, Vishnu is represented in four places on the WHS Tentative List. At Srirangapattanam, Vishnu is reclining on a nake bed with his two wives on one side, Sridevi (goddess of wealth) and Bhudevi (mother Earth), and Brahma (‘the creator’). The surrounding shrines include images of Narsimha (a ‘Man-Lion form’), child Krishna, Srinivas, Hanuman (‘monkey god’) and Garuda (a ‘eagle-man’ vehicle of Vishnu). The temple complex of Ranganathasvamy at Srirangam is one of the largest religious complexes in the world, and contains a large temple dedicated to Vishnu, representing his many forms like Narsimha, Rama, Hayagriva, Krishna, and Dhanavantari. This sacred compound has 21 gopurams (towers), 39 pavilions, 50 shrines, the Ayiram kaal mandapam (a hall of 1000 pillars) and several small water bodies inside. The 1000-pillars hall is made of granite with sculptures of riding horses and is unique among all the Hindu religious buildings.


8 Majuli Island, famous as the Brahmaputra River’s largest island, is a tentative-listed natural site. It has 22 Satras (monasteries) dedicated to the 16th century Vaishnavite socio-religious reformer and saint Srimanta Sankar Deb. He taught that serenity can be achieved in nature through religious rituals and festivities. Regrettably, conflict arose between Christians and Hindus when the former immigrated onto the island. Subsequent divisions in local politics, contentious diversification, and, ironically, wide scale indifference to the importance of religious heritage has hindered this site’s potential to be listed finally in the WHL. Fig. 8. Khajuraho Temples: Kandariya Mahadeva, and Lakshmana Temple.

The small town of Bishnupur, about 130 kilometres northwest of Kolkata, is famous for temples made of terracotta and lateritic earth. In addition to carving stone, artisans developed the technique of baking the area’s rich red earth to make long lasting bricks and sculptures. They focused on depicting the life of Vishnu, and his principal incarnation, Krishna, as well as aspects of everyday life, like bullock carts, river boats and hunting scenes. (v) Goddess/ Devi. In most cases and in most religious heritage sites, the female aspect of major deities is represented as goddess or devi. However, the Swayambhu Alyam (‘Mother Earth’Bhu-Devi), temple in affinity with Swayambhu Gudi and Rudreshvara (both, forms of Shiva) at Kakatiya contain unique depictions. Fig. 9. Pattadakal: Hoyeseleshvara Temple plan, and Chalukya temple at Badami.


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Fig. 10. Elephanta cave Temples; Shiva as androgen.

Fig. 11. Ellora cave, Kailashnatha Temple: an aerial view, and plan of temple and their numbers.

3. Hindu Religious World Heritage Sites outside of India Starting around 200 BCE until around the 15th century CE, Southeast Asia was under Indian influence through India’s trade, cultural, and political relations. Consequently, Hindu-Buddhist beliefs and practices were absorbed by local polities, culture, and religions throughout Southeast Asia. Of course, Buddhism eventually prevailed the region, but Hindu’s temples, statuary, and architecture have been variously preserved. Among such religious WHS, five are noteworthy, viz. Prambanan Temple (Indonesia), Angkor Wat (Cambodia), Pashupatinath Temple and other temples (Nepal), Mỹ Son Sanctuary (Viet Nam), and Mother Temple of Besakih (Bali, Indonesia) (cf. Table 4). The important characteristics and contemporary concerns are noted below: (i) Prambanan Temple Complex, Central Java, Indonesia. Prambanan Temple complex (cf. Fig. 12) consists of 224 temples, built during the heyday of Sailendra’s powerful dynasty in Java in the CE 9th century. Main structures include the Prambanan Temple (also called Loro Jonggrang), Sewu Temple, Bubrah Temple, and Lumbung Temple. The Hindu temples are decorated with reliefs, masterpieces of stone carving, which illustrate the Indonesian version of the Ramayana epic. The images are mostly of Shiva, his assistants, and associates. The earthquake of 27 May 2006 destroyed the major Shiva temple, which has yet to be restored, though research activities and technical studies were conducted in 2010 and 2011. Noteworthy is one enclosed cluster of temples dedicated to the three primordial Hindu gods and three small temples dedicated to their “animal vehicles” (Bull for Shiva, Eagle for Brahma and Swan for Vishnu). Other minor temples were located at the entrance


10 gates or outside the central enclosure. The Shiva temple had four statues: located in the central chamber is the Shiva statue; in the north chamber stands the Devi Durga Mahisasuramardini (goddess) statue; in the west chamber stands the Ganesha (‘elephant-headed god’, son of Shiva) statue; and the south chamber contains the statue of Agastya, a great mythical devotee of Shiva. The other two temples enshrine images of Brahma and Vishnu, respectively. In the Vishnu temple is carved the story of Kresnayana (stories of Krishna, a form of Vishnu), while the Brahma temple houses the continuous story of the epic Ramayana. The temples of Shiva, Vishnu and Brahma are all decorated with reliefs illustrating the Ramayana period (history of the Hindu hero Rama, written around 300 BCE). In 2007 and 2008 those responsible for the spatial planning aspects of heritage sites determined that Prambanan’s temple compounds and related area was a strategic national asset warranting protection, integrated management, and preservation. Fig. 12. Prambanan Temple Complex: Plan, Shiva temple and its cross section.

(ii) Angkor Wat, Cambodia. Angkor Wat is the principal temple complex of Cambodia (cf. Fig. 13), once serving as the seat of the Khmer Empire. In the 12th century, Suryavarman II dedicated it to Vishnu, the god of preservation, breaking from the Shaiva tradition of previous kings. Though Angkor Wat was subsequently used for Theravada Buddhist worship, it remains the largest existing Hindu temple complex. A rare architectural achievement, the carvings on the main Angkor Wat temple walls tell the stories of Vishnu, also in his reincarnated forms, from the ancient Hindu epics, the Ramayana and the Mahabharata, dating from ca. fifteenth century BCE. The Angkor Wat main temple, of the high classical style of Khmer architecture, is the best-preserved, and is the only one to have remained a significant religious centre since its construction. Several temples of Angkor Wat depart from the typical eastern orientation, which may suggest that Angkor Wat’s alignment was due to its dedication to Vishnu, who was associated with the west. Virtually all of its surfaces, columns, lintels, and even roofs are carved. There are miles of reliefs illustrating scenes from ancient Hindu literature including unicorns, griffins, winged dragons pulling chariots as well as warriors following an elephant-mounted leader and celestial dancing girls with elaborate hair styles. Fig. 13. Angkor Wat, Cambodia: Front view, and a Fresco on the Mahabharata.


11 (iii) Pashupatinath and other Hindu temples in Kathmandu Valley, Nepal. In the Kathmandu valley, amidst the several Buddhist temples, is the oldest temple of Pashupatinath, dedicated to Shiva (cf. Fig. 14); but there are many other Hindu temples in this area, including the Changu Narayan (Vishnu, in Bhaktapur), which sprang from a traditional Newari settlement. Another Hindu temple complex contains one of the earliest inscriptions in the Valley, dated to the fifth century CE. These are unique, tiered temples made mostly from fired brick with mud mortar and timber. The roofs are covered with small overlapping terracotta tiles, with gilded brass ornamentation. The windows, doorways and roof struts have rich decorative carvings. Most of the principal monuments are in Durbar Square, the social, religious and urban focal point of the city. They were built between the CE 12th and the 18th centuries by the ancient Malla kings of Nepal. Some of the most popular among Hindu devotees are the temples of Taleju (local goddess), Kal Bhairab (black-form Shiva), and the Jagannath (Vishnu-form) Temple. Under the patronage of the government an Integrated Management Plan for the Kathmandu World Heritage Property was adopted in 2007. Several voluntary organizations and NGOs now cooperate to conserve and preserve this rich architectural area. Due the tragic earth quake (7.9 Richter scale) on 25 April 2015, many of the heritage buildings and temples have been badly damaged, including the ones mentioned above; in such a drastic situation, naturally priority will be given to human calamities, not the heritage at this stage, except cleaning the debris and ruins. Pashupatinath temple is saved. Fig. 14. Pashupatinath Temple complex and nearby temples.

Fig. 15. Mỹ Son Sanctuary, Viet Nam, ruined Hindu temples: Bhadreshvara, and dancing Shiva.

(iv) Mỹ Son Sanctuary, Viet Nam. The tower temples of Mỹ Sanctuary (Duy Phu Commune, Duy Xuyen District, along the coast; cf. Fig. 15) were built over ten centuries of continuous development in what was the heart of the ancestral homeland of the ruling Dua Clan which unified the Cham clans and established the kingdom of Champapura (Sanskrit for City of the Cham people) in CE 192. During the CE 4th to 13th centuries this unique culture owed its spiritual lineage to the Hinduism of the Indian sub-continent. Many temples were built with fired brick and stone pillars and decorated with sandstone bas-reliefs depicting scenes from Hindu mythology, honouring the patron Hindu deities Shiva and Vishnu and his incarnation Krishna. Although Mahayana Buddhist penetrated the Cham culture, probably from the CE 4th century, and became strongly established in the north of


12 the kingdom, Shaivite Hinduism remained the established state religion. The temples contain a variety of architectural designs symbolizing the greatness and purity of Mount Meru, the mythical sacred mountain home of Hindu gods, especially Shiva. Shiva is first depicted at the centre of the universe, and then set on Earth in the mountainous homeland of the Cham people. The placement of the temples themselves reflects the principle of cosmological archetypes: the main tower (kalan) symbolizes the sacred mountain (meru) at the centre of the universe, which is built from brick or stone blocks and decorated with reliefs; the square or rectangular base (bhurloka), representing the human world; and the main tower (bhuvaloka), above this, picturing the divine beings, constructed entirely in brick, with columns and a false door facing east. The interiors are plain, with small niches for lamps. The Shiva lingam is centred on a plinth symbolizing the entire spirit world. From the 13th century the Champa Kingdom slowly declined and was absorbed by the growing power of Vietnam. It ceased to exist as an entity in the late 15th century, when worship ceased at Mỹ Son. With significantly increased numbers of tourists visiting the site, managing its restoration will be increasingly important and should also be addressed as part of a Heritage Management Plan under the ongoing Master Plan (2008 to 2020) as required for the site. (v) Pura Besakih, Eastern Bali, Indonesia (cf. Fig. 16). Without repeating the historical context of the Hinduism that carried to the island of Bali centuries ago with the expansion of Javanese Hinduism, it is important to note that the official designation of Balinese religion as “Hinduism.” Unfortunately, only five religions are recognized according to Indonesian law; however Bali Hinduism is not one of them. The Hindu community in Bali was unsuccessful in stopping construction of a hotel adjacent to the world famed temple of Tanah Lot, but resistance did accomplish two long-term results: (a) restrictions on the height and proximity of hotels for religious sites, and (b) the awakening of many Balinese to the fragility of their environment, to say nothing of the opportunities to act with a sense of empowerment over their land and culture. Fig. 16. Pura Besakih temples complex, Eastern Bali, Indonesia: morning view, and prayers.

Move to declare Pura Besakih a UNESCO preservation site, has not been successful, mainly due to strong local protests and changing democratic reform towards making local community more stronger (cf. Salazar 2014: 3845). In this instance, the Balinese Hindu community refused to relinquish its authority over this symbolic centre, fearing the good intentions of the World Heritage site project might impugn their jurisdiction over practices and care of Bali’s greatest pilgrimage site (Fischer 2003: 6-7). It is observed that lack of clarity with regard to the functioning of the temple under the patronage of Balinese Hinduism after it had become a World Heritage Site lay at the heart of the dispute; moreover, the rising Islam as dominant political power in the frame of globalisation serves as obstacle in making Besakih into a World Heritage Site (cf. Hitchcock and Putra 2012).


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4. Epilogue: From Perspective to Appeal Culture is always in flux, but in our technological age seems to be changing more quickly than in the past. So while humans have always ritualized their understanding of the cosmos, the planet, society, nature, and themselves, today some traditional festivities, structures, and religious expressions are not only quickly changing, but disappearing. The heritagescapes that survive will be those we preserve. Let us rejoice, for we are alive, and life is good; let us participate in the celebration of renewal, caring for one another and our cosmos. There is a need for heritage ecology at this crucial time (Singh 1995: 210). Visits to heritage sites and heritagescapes, our efforts to understand, the work to keep the mind and heart open to the sacred manifestation, all these invigorate our vision with insight and the purpose (c.f. Jarow 1986: 12). This is the real pilgrimage – ‘an enacting of an internal process in the external world.’ Heritage ecology is also a way to pilgrimage – a way of relating to the land (Earth/ Nature spirit) and the people (human psyche), similar to that of marching from realization to revelation (Singh 1995: 211). In fact, reverential development is unitary in the broadest and deepest sense, combining reverence and sanctity of life with contemporary economic, social, moral, cultural and traditional premises to bring peace and harmony with the nature (Skolimowski 1990: 103). The fact that this may be difficult to implement in no way negates their importance and desirability. In order for a religious heritage to become a resource for development, first it needs to be documented, then protected, and finally utilized according to specific heritage guidelines and legislation. Only then, with an increased stakeholder awareness and participation, will policy efforts and interventions become sustainable – environmentally, socially, and culturally. We may separate ourselves from the web of our heritage in the pursuit of modernity and secularism, but it will always be at the cost of our hearts and our souls (Singh 2015: 120). A recently founded Global Hindu Heritage Foundation (GHHF) has taken initiatives and used non-violent actions of mass awakening and realization to preserve the cultural heritage among the Hindu communities all over the world. Their GHHF’s objective is to protect, preserve, conserve, promote, and maintain Hindu culture, Hindu temples, monasteries, temple institutions, endowments, trusts and other such related institutions globally (cf. Rao 2007). It is expected that the GHHF’s attempts will help to conserve and preserve Hindu Religious Heritage Sites making Hindu heritage ecology in service of humanity through the ethics of integrating humanity and divinity.

* Note This is based on a special address (24 April 2015) in the ICOMOS International Conference on “Value of Religious Heritage on the World Heritage List”: Seoul, Korea: 22~25 April 2015; and published later, see Singh, Rana P.B. 2015a, copyrighted © by the author.

8. References Eiter, Sebastian 2004. Protected areas in the Norwegian mountains: Cultural landscape conservation whose landscape? Norwegian Journal of Geography, 58 (4): pp. 171-182. Fischer, Clare Benedicks 2003. Monument or Mall? Pilgrimage and tourism in Indonesia, a paper delivered in the annual meeting of the American Academy of Religions in Atlanta, November. 8pp. Web: http://81.47.175.201/Montserrat/documents/monumentormall.pdf Harvey, David 1979. Monument and myth. Annals of the Association of American Geographers, 69 (3): pp. 362-381. Hitchcock, Michael and Putra, I. Nyoman Darma 2012. Tourism, Development and Terrorism in Bali. Ashgate Publ., Farnham, London. Jarow, Rick 1986. In Search of the Sacred: A Pilgrimage to Holy Places. Quest Books, Wheaton, IL. Kramrisch, Stella 1946/ 1976. The Hindu Temple. 2 vols. Motilal Banarasidass Publ., Delhi.


14 Lowenthal, David 1998. The Heritage Crusade and the Spoils of History. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Rao, V.V. Prakasa 2007. Global Hindu Heritage Foundation. Championing the Global Preservation of Hinduism. Web: http://www.preservehinduism.org/ . Salazar, Noel B. 2014. Indonesia’s world heritage; in, Smith, Claire (ed.) Encyclopedia of Global Archaeology. Springer, Dordrecht and New York: pp. 3841-3846. Singh Rana P.B. 1995. Heritage Ecology & Caring for the Earth: A Search for Preserving Harmony and Ethical values. National Geographical Journal of India (BHU Varanasi), vol. 41 (2), June: 191-218. Singh, Rana P.B. 1997. Sacredscape and urban heritage in India: contestation and perspective; in, Shaw, Brian and Jones, Roy (eds.) Contested Urban Heritage. Voices from the Periphery. Ashgate, London, UK: pp. 101-131. Singh, Rana P.B. 2009. Khajuraho, Where stone Speaks; in, [his] Cosmic Order and Cultural Astronomy: Sacred Cities of India. Cambridge Scholars Publishing, Newcastle upon Tyne. U.K.: pp. 49-78. Singh, Rana P.B. 2015. Banaras, the Cultural Capital of India: Visioning Cultural Heritage and Planning. SANDHI, A Journal of Interfacing Science-Heritage and Technology-Tradition of India, vol. 1 (no. 1), February: pp. 100-122. Singh, Rana P.B. 2015a. Heritage Value of Religious Sites and Built Archetypes: The Scenario of Hinduism, and illustrating the Riverfront Varanasi. Aatmbodh, the Journal of Knowledge of Self (ISSN: 0972-1398. RSMT, U.P. College, Varanasi), vol. XII (no. 1), Spring: pp. 1 - 23. Skolimowski, Henryk 1990. Reverence for life; in, Engel, J.R. and Engel, J.G. (eds.) Ethics of Environment and Development. University of Arizona Press, Tucson: pp. 93-103. Vukonić, Boris 2006. Sacred places and tourism in Roman Catholic tradition; in, Timothy, Dallen J. and Olsen, Daniel H. (eds.), Tourism, Religion, and Spiritual Journeys. Routledge, London: pp. 237-253. Waterton, E.; Smith, Laurajane and Campbell, G. 2006. The Utility of Discourse Analysis to Heritage Studies: The Burra Charter and Social Inclusion. International Journal of Heritage Studies, 12 (4): pp. 339-355. -----------------------------------------


APPENDICES Table 1. India: WHL Hindu Religious Heritage Sites (8) and their Characteristics Se 1

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Name of WHS; year of inscription Chola Temples; 3 main granite temples (1987, 2004) Hampi monuments and temple complexes (1986)

3

Mahabalipuram/ Mamallapuram; monolithic granite sculptures (1984)

4

Pattadakal (1987)

5

Khajuraho; an area of 22 temples (1986)

6

Sun temple, Konark (1984)

7.

Elephanta Caves (1987)

8.

Kailahsanatha Temple, Ellora Caves (1983)

Period, dynasty; major God

Main Temples, and important monuments

Chola dynasty, 10th ~11th Centuries, King Rajendra I; Shiva

Brihadishvara, Gangaikondacholapuram, Darasuram, and Airavatesvara temple, Shiva as Kankal Murti, Peruvudaiyar Koyil.

Hazara Rama Temple complex – stories of the Ramayana, Krishna Temple complex (by King Krishnadevaraya), Virupaksha complex, Vittala Temple Complex (7th century) Pallava-kings, ca 7th Sculptures of rock-cut caves, century; monolithic monolithic temples or Five Rathas hewn out of sculptures, Five Pandavas a large boulder, bas-reliefs in the open air, and (the epic Mahabharata), the structural temples - five Pandavas Ganga River (Yudishthira, Bhima, Arjuna, Nakul and Sahadeva), and wife Draupadi ; Shore temple (Shiva); Thirukadalmallai temple (Vishnu), Varaha rock-cut temple (Vishnu) Chalukya Dynasty, 7th ~ 9 Shiva Temples, and 1 Jain Temple; 8th centuries; Shiva and interfacing sculptures of North and South Jain India; Shiva temples of Virupakha, Mallikarjuna, Kashivishwanatha, Sangameshvara, Chandrashekhara, Galaganatha, Kadasiddhesvara, Jambulingeswara and Kadasiddheshvara. Chandela Dynasty, 9th Temples of Chaturbhuj (Vishnu), Devi ~11th Centuries; Shiva, Jagambi (Goddess), Duladeo (Shiva), Javari Vishnu, Goddess, (Vishnu), Kandariya Mahadev (Shiva), Lakshmana (Shiva), Varah (Vishnu) Ganga dynasty King Sun temple with huge chariot drawn by seven Narasimhadeva I, 13th spirited horses on twelve pairs of exquisitely century; Sun god decorated wheels. Chalukyas and Shiva in his various forms, Shiva-Parvati Rashtrakutas, 5th ~ 8th Ardhanarishvara (androgen) centuries; Shiva Rashtrakuta dynasty king The caves are world-known for rock-cut Krishna I, 8th century; temples containing elaborate carvings on the Shiva, also Buddhist and walls; Mt Kailasha and Shiva is a megalith Jain Images carved out of one single rock. Vijayanagara empire, 14th ~17th Centuries; Rama, Krishna, Shiva, Vishnu

Table 2. India: Tentative WHL Hindu Religious Heritage Sites (7) and their Characteristics Se 1

Heritage Site Name Bishunpur, Bankura District, WB (1998)

Period, dynasty; major God 16th ~ 17th centuries; Krishna

2

Ekambra, the temple city of Bhubaneswar, Odisha

3rd century BCE ~ CE 15th centuries; Shiva, Vishnu, and Goddess

Main Temples, and important monuments Traditional architectural temples with a single tower upon a sloping roof and a square cell (Garbhagriha) with three multi-cusped arches (i.e. Lalji, Kalachand, Radhashyam, Jormandir and Nandalal). Others with multiple towers are Pancha Ratna types (Shyam Rai of CE 1643), the Jor Bangle temple (CE 1655), and Rasmancha (CE 1600). Kundalesvara temple in the east, Balhadevi Temple on the north and Bahirangesvara temple near Dhauli on the south, Mukteshvara in the west, with Lingaraj Temple as its centre

15


(2014) 3

Sacred ensembles of Hoysala, Karnataka (2014)

12th ~ 18th centuries; Shiva and Vishnu and his incarnations, and some Jain temples too.

4

Srirangapattna Island town (with Fort), Mandya Dt., Karnataka (2014) Kakatiya, Warangal, A.P. (2014)

9th ~ 12th centuries; Sri Rangasvamy and his tutelary deity Tirumala Dev

6

Sri Ranganathasvamy Temple at Srirangam, like temple town (Tiruchirapalli), Tamil Nadu (2014)

3rd century BCE ~ CE 10th centuries; RanganathaVishnu

7

Majuli Island, Assam (2004)

16th century; Vishnu and his incarnation – a site of spiritual tourism.

5

King Ganapati Deva Maharaja (1199-1261); Mother Earth, Shiva

mark the sacred territory forming an archetype of universe (mandala). The Chennakeshava temple at Belur and the Hoysaleshvara temple at Halebid; the sacred territory forming an archetype of universe (mandala); sculptures depicts scenes from the life of Vishnu and his reincarnations and the epics, the Ramayana, and the Mahabharata. Temples of Sri Ranganatha Svami, Srirangapattana, Sri Kanthirava Statue in Narasimha Temple. Remnants of temples of Swayambhu and Keerthi Thoranas, Rudreswara (Thousand pillars temple), Hanumakonda , and Rudreswara (Ramappa) Temple, Palampet; Swayambhu Alayam (‘Mother Earth’) One among the three largest Functioning Temples in the World, and the largest religious complexes of the world; the finest is the Hall of 1000 pillars (actually 953) dated ca 14th century; the notable mandapam (hall) are: Shesharayar, Garuda, Kili, and Ranga Vilas; the Kottarams (granaries), small shrines, and Gopurams (temple towers), 640 inscriptions, frescos and mural paintings, vahanas (vehicles), and ten temple tanks are the other notable treasures. 30 Satras (monasteries) of 16th century Vaishnavite socio-religious reformer Srimanta Sankar Deb.

Table 3. India: WHL Hindu Religious Sites and their association with major Gods. Se

Hindu Divinity

1

Shiva, Cosmic dancer and god of dissolutionrecreation

2

Shiva, and Vishnu (the of sustenance)

3 4

Surya, Sun-god Vishnu, god of sustenance; his form Krishna

5

Goddess/ Devi

WHS- representative temple, no. in the list (8) 1. Brihadishvara (Chola) 2. Virupakha (Hampi) 4. Nine Shiva temples (Pattadakal) 7. Ardhanarishvara (Elephanta) 8. Kailasanatha (Ellora) 3. Shore temple (Shiva), Varaha (Vishnu) – Mahabalipuram. 5. Shiva (Kandariya, Matangeshvara), Vishnu (Chaturbhuji, Varaha) – Khajuraho 6. Sun temple (Konark)

WHS Ten. List, temple, no. in the list (7) 2. Mukteshvara, Lingaraja (Ekambra)

2. Lingaraja as Harihara – Shiva and Vishnu together (Ekambra, Bhubaneshwar) 3. Chennakeshvara I(Shiva), Hoyaleshvara (Vishnu) – Hoyalsha.

4. Ranganath Svami (Vishnu-form), Narsimha Man-lion form) – Srirangapattanam. 6. Rangasvamy (Vishnu) – Srirangam. 7. Satta (monasteries, Vishnu-form) – Majuli Island. 1. Krishna – Bishunpur. 5. Swayambhu Alyam (‘Mother Earth’- BhuDevi), Rudreshvara (Shiva) – Kakatiya.

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Table 4. WHS, other than India: Hindu Religious Heritage Sites (5) Se 1

2

3

4

5

WHS, place, country; year of inscription Prambanan Temple (Central Java), Indonesia (1991) Angkor Wat (Angkor), Cambodia (1992) Pashupatinath Temple, and seven monuments and temples in the valley (Kathmandu), Nepal (1979) Mỹ Son Sanctuary (Duy Phu Commune, Duy Xuyen District), Viet Nam (1999)

Period, dynasty; major God 10th century; Shiva, Nandi, Brahma, and Vishnu 12th century under Suryavarman II; Vishnu 15th ~ 18th centuries, the Malla kings; the two Buddhist stupas of Swayambhu and Bauddhanath included

Mother Temple of Besakih, Eastern Bali, Indonesia (WHL Tent. 1995)

13th ~ 15th centuries, Geigel-Kiungkung dynasty; Shiva, Brahma, and Vishnu, and Mother Nature.

4th ~ 13th centuries, Hindu Champa Kingdom; dominantly Shiva, also Krishna and Vishnu.

Main Temples, and characteristics The largest Hindu temples in south-east Asia: Shiva, Nandi, Vishnu, Brahma temples, and several small shrines. Sculpturing Vishnu and his reincarnated forms, and scenes from ancient Hindu epics, the Ramayana and the Mahabharata. Pashupatinath temple (Shiva) - Kathmandu, Changu Narayan (Vishnu) - Bhaktapur; Kathmandu Darbar Square temples (Bhagvati, Jagannath, Kotilingeswara Mahadev, Mahendreswara, Taleju and Krishna); Bhaktapur Darbar Square (Teleju temple) A series of impressive tower-temples, having cosmological archetypes: the main tower (kalan), the sacred mountain (meru) at the centre, the square or rectangular base (bhurloka), and above this rises the main tower (bhuvakola ), the realm of sun. The largest and holiest temple of Hinduism in Indonesia, lies on sacred mountain of Agung at Pura Panataran, where enshrined the central shine of Trinity Hindu gods (Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva); surrounding to this exist 18 other sanctuaries; total 86 temples are in the complex.

17