VoIP in Next-Generation Converged Networks

Chapter 13

VoIP in Next-Generation Converged Networks Homero Toral-Cruz, Julio Ramirez-Pacheco, Pablo Velarde-Alvarado, and Al-Sakib Khan Pathan Contents 13.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................338 13.2 Telecommunication Networks ........................................................................................338 13.2.1 Fixed Telephone Network ....................................................................................338 13.2.2 IP Network ......................................................................................................... 342 13.2.3 Wireless and Mobile Networks ........................................................................... 343 13.2.3.1 Wireless Local Area Network ............................................................... 343 13.2.3.2 Global System for Mobile Communication ...........................................345 13.2.3.3 General Packet Radio Service ............................................................... 347 13.2.3.4 Universal Mobile Telecommunications System ..................................... 348 13.3 NGNs: Convergence of Networks .................................................................................. 349 13.4 Voice-Over IP .................................................................................................................351 13.4.1 H.323 Framework................................................................................................351 13.4.2 SIP Framework ....................................................................................................353 13.4.3 VoIP System.........................................................................................................355 13.4.4 QoS in VoIP ........................................................................................................357 13.5 Future Research Directions .............................................................................................358 13.6 Conclusions .....................................................................................................................359 Bibliography.............................................................................................................................359

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13.1 Introduction In telecommunications, there are many networks, such as the public switched telephone network (PSTN), signaling system 7 (SS7), the integrated services digital network (ISDN), the internet protocol network (IP network), the wireless local area network (WLAN), the global system for mobile communication (GSM), general packet radio service (GPRS), the universal mobile telecommunications system (UMTS), etc. These telecommunications networks were designed to provide specific services, which are initially distinct and then converge into a single network [1]. Voice-over IP is a clear example of such convergent services [2]. To visualize this convergence, it is necessary to understand the historical development, which is summarized in the following events [3]: the introduction of automatic telephone exchange, the digitalization of telecommunications systems, the integration of circuit-switched technology and packet-switched technology (VoIP emergence), and the evolution of the mobile systems (1G, 2G, 3G, 4G, and beyond). The development of technology and the enhanced services that can be offered to the end users have been captured in the concept of next-generation networks (NGNs). This concept encapsulates the convergent network process, where the convergent network is called a multiservice transport network and is based on IP technology. In the multiservice transport network, packets should be transported transparently between endpoints without excessive protocol conversion through an IP network core [4]. However, with this convergence, a new technical challenge has emerged. The IP network provides best-effort services in most of the cases and cannot guarantee the quality of service (QoS) of real-time multimedia applications, such as VoIP [5]. VoIP has emerged as an important service, poised to replace the circuit-switched telephony service in the future and carry voice packets transparently through the multiservice transport network. To achieve a satisfactory level of voice quality, the VoIP applications must be designed with a reconfiguration capability of some parameters [voice data length, Coder–Decoder (CODEC) type, size of forward error correction (FEC) redundancy, de-jitter buffer size, etc.] [6]. On the other hand, in the convergent network there must be consideration of the implementation of robust QoS mechanisms in order to guarantee acceptable QoS levels.

13.2 Telecommunication Networks A communications network is a collection of terminals, links, and nodes, which connect together to enable communication between users via their terminals. The network sets up a connection between two or more terminals by making use of their source and destination addresses [1]. Behind this very general connection concept, there are a number of very different realities, bearing in mind the great variety of telecommunications networks, such as fixed telephone networks (PSTN, SS7, ISDN), IP networks, wireless networks (WLAN), mobile networks (GSM, GPRS, UMTS), etc. In the fixed telephone network, the term used is “connection,” a direct relationship established at a physical level. In an IP network, the term used is usually “session,” as there is normally no physical connection. On the other hand, the terminals connected will not only be fixed subscribers, but also mobile subscribers, giving rise to mobile networks.

13.2.1 Fixed Telephone Network The telephone network was designed to carry voice, and the terminal main device is a simple telephone set. The network is more complex and is provided with intelligence necessary for providing

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various types of voice services [7]. The role of the telephone network is to connect two fixed terminals by means of the circuit-switched technology. The communication via circuit-switched technology implies that there is a dedicated communication path between two or more terminals all through the communication session. Therefore, the resources (links and nodes) are reserved exclusively for information exchanges between origin and destination terminals. Before communication can occur between the terminals, a circuit is established between them. Thus, link capacity must be reserved between each pair of nodes in the path, and each node must have available internal switching capacity to handle the requested connection. The nodes must have the intelligence to make these allocations and to devise a route through the network. In this switching technology, the nodes do not examine the contents of the information transmitted; the decision on where to send the information received is made just once at the beginning of the connection and remains during the connection. Thus, the delay introduced by a node is almost negligible. After the circuit has been established, the transmission delay is small and is kept constant throughout the duration of the connection. However, this is rather inefficient in terms of bandwidth utilization. Once a circuit is established, the resources associated to it cannot be used for another connection until the circuit is disconnected. Therefore, even if, at some point, both terminals stop transmitting, the resources allocated to the connection remain in use. The most common examples of circuit-switched networks are the PSTN and ISDN. In the beginnings of the PSTN, a physical cable was needed between each terminal (telephone). Therefore, a large number of links is needed for this topology, that is, the number of relations grows proportionately to the square of the total number of terminals n [there are n(n − 1)/2 links], for example, Figure 13.1 shows a basic, four-telephone network. Because of the cost concerns and the impossibility of running a physical cable between every terminal, another mechanism was developed, and it consists of a centralized operator (switch). By means of this centralized operator, the terminals needed only one cable to the centralized switch office instead of n − 1 links. At first, a human switch was used (see Figure 13.2).

Telephone A

Telephone B

Telephone C

Telephone D

FIGURE 13.1 Basic, four-telephone network.

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Telephone A

Telephone B

Switch

Telephone C

Telephone D

FIGURE 13.2 Basic, four-telephone network with a human switch.

Nowadays, the human switches have been replaced by electronic switches, and the telephone infrastructure starts with a simple pair of copper wires (local loop), which have the function of physically connecting the home telephone to the central office switch (class 5 switches). The communication path between the central office switch and your home is known as the phone line, and it normally runs over the local loop. The communication path between several central office switches is known as a trunk. Just as it is not cost-effective to place a physical wire between every terminal, it is also not cost-effective to place a physical wire between every central office switch. Therefore, the switches are currently deployed in hierarchies. The central office switches interconnect through trunks to tandem switches (class 4 switches). Higher-layer tandem switches connect local tandem switches. Figure 13.3 shows a typical model of switching hierarchy. In discussing the PSTN network and the evolution of networks, reference must be made to SS7. The SS7 network is used to carry control information between the different elements of the network (telephone switches, databases, servers, etc.). The SS7 enhances the PSTN by handling call establishment, exchange of information, routing, operations, billing, and support for intelligent network (IN) services. The SS7 network consists of three signaling elements [8], the service switching point (SSP), signal transfer point (STP), and service control point (SCP), and several link types as shown in Figure 13.4. ◾ SSPs are end office or tandem switches that connect voice circuits and perform the necessary signaling functions to originate and terminate calls. ◾ STPs route all the signaling messages in the SS7 network. ◾ SCPs provide access to databases for additional routing information used in call processing. Also, the SCP is the key element for delivering IN applications on the telephony network. All the signaling elements (SSP, STP, and SCP) form a dedicated network, which is completely separate from the voice transmission network, that is, all signaling information is carried on a common signaling plane. The signaling planes and the voice circuit planes are separated in logical terms at the link level because it makes use of the same physical resources. It is important to note

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Higher-layer tandem switches

Local tandem switches

Central office switches

Telephone Telephone A B

Telephone Telephone C D

FIGURE 13.3 Circuit-switched network: hierarchy of switches.

that with this network the exchange of signaling is independent of the actual setup of a switched circuit. This independence makes the network well suited for evolution to the new generation of networks such as the NGN [8]. SS7 was initially designed for telephony call control; however, today’s system includes database queries, transactions, network operations, and ISDN. ISDN is comprised of a set of communications standards for the transport of digital telephony, video, and data over the traditional circuitswitched network. The emergence of ISDN represents an effort to standardize subscriber services, user/network interfaces, and network and internetwork capabilities [8]. The SS7 and ISDN play an important role in the migration from traditional voice traffic to IP networks (VoIP), pushing toward the convergence between the voice and data networks.

STP

STP

SCP

SCP STP

STP

SSP

SSP Signaling path Voice path

FIGURE 13.4 SS7 network.

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13.2.2 IP Network The IP network was designed to carry traffic in bursts presented by data transmission because the terminals do not transmit continuously, that is, they are idle most of the time and experience bursts at certain times. Data rates are not kept constant through the duration of the connection, but they vary dynamically [7]. Therefore, employing dedicated circuits (circuit-switched technology) to transmit traffic with these characteristics is a waste of resources. This network is based on the packet-switched technology and the most intelligence was placed in the terminal device, which is typically a computer, and the network only offers the best effort service [9]. The IP network contains a collection of machines (hosts or end systems) intended for running user programs (applications). These hosts were primarily traditional desktop PCs, Linux workstations, and servers that store and transmit information, such as web pages and email messages. The hosts are connected together by a communication subnet (or just a subnet). The job of the subnet is to carry messages from host to host, just as the telephone network carries voice from speaker to listener. The subnet consists of two distinct components (see Figure 13.5) [10]: communication links (coaxial cable, copper wire, fiber optics, radio spectrum, etc.) and switching elements. The switching elements (routers) are specialized computers that connect three or more communication links. The sequence of communication links and routers traversed by a message from the sending host to the receiving host is known as a route or path through the network. In the IP networks, the information is split up by the terminal into blocks of moderate size, called packets. These packets can be autonomous, that is, they are capable of moving on the network thanks to a header that contains the source and destination addresses [1]. The packet is sent to the first router, and the router receives the packet. It examines the header and forwards the packet to the next appropriate router. This technique of inspection and retransmission is called “store and forward,” and it is accomplished in all the routers on the path until the packet reaches its destination unless the packet is lost. After reaching the destination, the destination terminal strips off the header of the packet to obtain the actual data that originated at the source. In the communications process based on the packet-switched technology, the source sends packets and the network multiplexes the packets from various origins in the same resources to Hosts

Subnet

Hosts

Links

Routers

Hosts

Hosts

FIGURE 13.5 IP network components.

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optimize their use. In this way, several communications can share the same resources. The packetswitched technology enables a better use of the transmission resource than circuit switched because the resources are shared. However, the multiplexing of different connections on the same resources causes delays and packet losses, which do not happen with circuit-switched technology [10]. Finally, it must be noted that in packet-switched technology a distinction is drawn between two modes of operation: connection-oriented mode and connectionless mode [11]. In connectionoriented mode, a path is established; this path is called a virtual circuit. There is a prior exchange of initial signaling packets to reserve resources and establish the path. The user establishes a connection, uses the connection, and then releases the connection. In most cases, the order of the packets is preserved, so the packets arrive in the order they were sent. In connectionless mode, each packet is treated independently with no reference to packets that have gone before, and the routing decisions are taken on at each node. Each packet carries the full destination address, and each one is routed through the system independent of all the others. Normally, when two packets are sent to the same destination, the first one sent will be the first one to arrive. However, it is possible that the first one sent can be delayed so that the second one arrives first. The connectionless mode has been popularized mainly by Internet protocol. The IP networks have progressed to the point that it is now possible to support voice and multimedia applications but do not guarantee QoS because they are based on best-effort services.

13.2.3 Wireless and Mobile Networks Wireless does not imply mobility. There are wireless networks in which both ends of the communications are fixed, such as in wireless local loops. In the historical development of telecommunications networks, wireless networks with mobility provide the biggest challenge to the network designer [12]. In this section, the most important wireless and mobile technologies are studied.

13.2.3.1 Wireless Local Area Network As the number of mobile communication devices grows, so does the demand to connect them to the outside world. Even the very first mobile telephones had the ability to connect to other telephones. The first portable computers did not have this capability, but soon afterward, modems became commonplace on notebook computers. To be connected to the outside world, these computers had to be plugged into a telephone line. By means of this wired connection to the fixed network, the computers were portable but not mobile. In order to achieve true mobility, notebook computers need to use radio (or infrared) signals for communication. In this manner, dedicated users can read and send email while hiking or boating. A system of notebook computers that communicate by radio can be regarded as a WLAN [11]. Currently, there are many technologies and standards for WLANs, but one particular class of standards that is enjoying the most widespread deployment is the IEEE 802.11 WLAN, also known as Wi-Fi. There are several 802.11 standards for WLAN technology, including 802.11b, 802.11a, 802.11g, and 802.11n. The IEEE 802.11 standards use infrared and the unlicensed spectra. These spectra are allocated in many countries for research and development in industry (I), science (S), and medicine (M) (called the ISM band). The IEEE standard PHY (physical layer) provides several mechanisms for the use of the ISM band designed to combat interference from other sources on the same bands. This is necessary because the use of such a system does not require a license from the government, which could result in numerous sources of interference. The infrared band specifies only

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one type of radiation, that is, indirect radiation reflected from a coarse surface (called diffused infrared) [12]. The IEEE 802.11 defines several device types, such as wireless station (STA), which is a user terminal; a central base station, known as an access point (AP); and basic service set (BSS). A BSS contains one or more wireless stations and an AP. The wireless stations may be either fixed or mobile. This gives rise to two configurations of WLANs, the infrastructure WLAN (see Figure 13.6) and ad hoc WLAN (see Figure 13.7). In an infrastructure WLAN, two wireless stations exchanging data can communicate only through an AP. Figure 13.6 shows an AP connected to a router, which, in turn, leads to the Internet. Multiple APs may be connected together to form a so-called distribution system (DS). In an ad hoc WLAN, two stations communicate directly with each other without an AP and no connection to the outside world (see Figure 13.7). Wireless stations for such networks may require the capability to forward a packet, thus acting as a repeater. With this relaying capability, two wireless stations can exchange data packets even if they are unable to receive signals directly from each other. The main advantages of WLAN are its simplicity, flexibility, and cost-effectiveness. In the past several years, WLAN has become a ubiquitous networking technology and has been widely deployed around the world. Although most existing WLAN applications are data centric, such as web browsing, file transfer, and electronic mail, there is a growing demand for multimedia services over WLANs. Recently, VoIP over WLAN (VoWLAN) has been emerging as an infrastructure to provide wireless voice service with cost-efficiency. However, supporting voice traffic over WLANs poses significant challenges because the performance characteristics of the physical and MAC layers are much worse than that of their wire line counterparts. Therefore, the applications of VoWLAN raise several deployment issues concerning the system architecture, network capacity, and admission control, QoS provisioning, etc. [13].

Router

BSS

Internet

AP

STAs

FIGURE 13.6

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WLAN components.

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STAs

FIGURE 13.7

Ad hoc WLAN.

13.2.3.2 Global System for Mobile Communication This is the basic mobile telephone network. The functions are the same as the fixed telephone network; however, the terminals are mobile. The GSM system consists of the following subsystems (see Figure 13.8) [3,14,15]:

Note that BSS was also previously defined as ‘basic service set’. Should occurrences of BSS pertaining to ‘basic service set’ be spelled out instead?

◾ Mobile station subsystem (MSS): An MSS is basically a human–machine interface performing functions to connect the user and the public LAN mobile network (PLMN). These functions include voice and data transmission, synchronization, monitoring of signal quality, equalization, display of short messages, location updates, and others. To carry out all its functions, an MSS includes the terminal equipment (TE), the terminal adapter (TA), the mobile termination (MT), and a subscriber identity module (SIM). ◾ Base station subsystem (BSS). A BSS is composed of one or more base transceiver stations (BTSs) and one or more base station controllers (BSCs). The role of the BSS is to provide transmission paths between the MSS and the NSS. The MSSs are connected to the network via a radio link with the pilot station of the cell in which they are located, the BTS. The BTS is the radio AP, which has one or more transceivers. The BSC monitors and controls several base stations. The main functions of the BSC are cell management, control of a BTS, and exchange functions. ◾ Network and switching subsystem (NSS). An NSS includes switching and location management functions. It consists of the mobile switching center (MSC); databases for location management, which include the home location register (HLR) and visitor location register (VLR); the gateway MSC (GMSC); as well as the authentication center (AuC) and equipment identity register (EIR). The MSC is the core switching entity in the network and carries out the functions of control and connection of the subscribers located in its geographical zone. It also acts as a gateway (GW) between the fixed network and the mobile network, or between mobile networks, for incoming calls for which the location of the called party is not known. An MSC that receives a call from another network (PSTN, ISDN, etc.) and that routes this call toward the MSC where the called subscriber is in fact located is called the GMSC. To do this, it consults the location database, the HLR. Subscribers may move

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ISDN

PSTN

HLR

NSS

VLR

GMSC

OSS AuC EIR

MSC

BSS

BSC MSS

BTS

MSS

MSS

MSS

MSS BTS

BTS

BTS

FIGURE 13.8 GSM network.

from one cell to another, even during a call (referred to as a handover), because the radio system continuously tracks their location. A GSM subscriber is normally associated with one particular HLR. The HLR is the system that stores subscriber data (identity, number, etc.) of all subscribers belonging to the mobile operator, no matter if they are currently located in the network or abroad (i.e., roaming). These data are permanent, such as the unique implicit international mobile subscriber identity (IMSI) number. The IMSI is embedded on the SIM card and is used to identify a subscriber. In addition to these static data in the HLR are added dynamic data, such as the last known location of the subscriber, which enables routing to the MSC where the subscriber is, in fact, located. Finally, it is the VLR that updates the data relating to subscribers visiting its zone and that notifies the HLR. The AuC is related to HLR and contains sets of parameters needed for authentication procedures for the mobile stations. EIR is an optional database that is supposed to contain the unique international mobile equipment identity (IMEI), which is the number of the mobile phone equipment. The EIR is specified to prevent usage of stolen mobile stations or to bar malfunctioning equipment. ◾ Operation and support subsystem (OSS). An OSS performs the operation and maintenance functions through two entities, namely, the operation and maintenance center (OMC) and the network management center (NMC). The GSM standards do not fully specify these elements. Therefore, different manufacturers may have different implementations, which may be a problem for interoperability between different GSM systems. GSM is a system created mainly for telephony service, but it also supports low data rate modem connections up to 9600 bps. For support of higher data rates in the radio access network (which

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are demanded by some multimedia services, such as Internet applications), GSM, on its way toward the third-generation mobile systems, is extended to GPRS.

13.2.3.3 General Packet Radio Service The GPRS network should be seen essentially as an evolution of the existing GSM network. It basically adds to GSM the possibility of sending data in packet mode [1]. GPRS is the first step toward integration of the Internet and mobile cellular networks. GPRS uses the same radio access network as GSM but a different core network (CN) infrastructure [14]. In order to integrate GPRS into existing GSM architecture, two new network nodes should be added as shown in Figure 13.9 [3]: ◾ Serving GPRS support node (SGSN): An SGNS transmits data between the mobile terminals and the mobile network. Its main tasks are mobility management, packet routing, logical link management, authentication, and charging functions. ◾ GW GPRS support node (GGSN): A GGSN is an interface between the mobile network and the data network (e.g., the Internet). It converts protocol data packet (PDP) addresses from the external packet-based networks to the GSM address of the specified user and vice versa. All GPRS support nodes are connected via an IP-based GPRS backbone network. In the case of GPRS, HLR stores the user profile, the current SGSN address, and the PDP address for each user. MSC/VLR is extended with additional functions that allow coordination between GSM circuit-switched services and GPRS packet-switched services [3]. Essentially, the IP-based GPRS backbone network has a core packet network that is overlaid with call-control functions and GW functions to support VoIP and other multimedia services. The function providing for VoIP ISDN

GSM core

GPRS core HLR

GMSC PSTN MSC/VLR

SGSN

IP-based GPRS backbone network

BSS BSC MSS

BTS

MSS MSS

MSS

MSS BTS

BTS

GGSN

BTS

Internet

FIGURE 13.9 GPRS network.

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capability is named the call state control function (CSCF), which is a function analogous to that used for call control in a circuit-switched environment. Besides the usual call-control functions, the CSCF also performs service-switching functions, address translation functions, and vocoder negotiation functions. The communications between this CN and the PSTN, ISDN, and other legacy networks are provided by a GMSC [15].

13.2.3.4 Universal Mobile Telecommunications System In the UMTS network, the whole mobile telephone network evolves. Three basic blocks compose UMTS, as shown in Figure 13.10 [15]: ◾ User equipment (UE): UE provides a means for the user to access UMTS services. It consists of the mobile equipment (ME) and of the UMTS SIM (USIM). The ME performs radio PS domain

CS domain ISDN

PSTN

Internet

Core network GMSC

GGSN HLR

MSC/VLR

SGSN

UTRAN UE

Node B

UE Node B

RNC UE UE Node B

UE Node B

FIGURE 13.10 UMTS network.

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communication with the network and contains applications for the services. The USIM is a smartcard performing functions to support user security and user services. It holds the subscriber’s identity and some subscription information, performs authentication procedures, and stores authentication and encryption keys. ◾ UMTS terrestrial radio access network (UTRAN): A UTRAN performs functions to support communication with the MT and with the CN, acting as a bridge, router, and GW as required. It consists of a set of radio network subsystems (RNS), each of which contains a radio network controller (RNC) and one or more entities known as node B. As before, node B includes radio resources but with higher bit rates (BTS becomes node B). It performs channel coding and interleaving, rate adaptation, spreading, radio resource management operation as in inner loop power control, and others. The RNC supports radio access control, connection control, geographic positioning, and access link relay. ◾ Core network (CN): A CN consists of the circuit-switched domain (CS) and the packetswitched domain (PS). These two domains in CN are overlapping in some common elements. CS mode is the GSM mode of operation, and PS is the mode supported by the GPRS. The MSC/VLR and GMSC are used by the CS domain, and in the PS domain, their equivalents are the SGSN and the GGSN. Finally, the entities common to both domains in the CN are the HLR and the authentication center. A UMTS mobile is capable of communicating simultaneously via both domains [1]. Because UMTS offer large data rates, it is possible to make VoIP calls under different compression and decompression (CODEC) schemes in a mobile environment. This allows a flexible way to select the most suitable CODEC scheme according to the network state and guarantee some QoS level.

13.3 NGNs: Convergence of Networks Telecommunications technology has a long history. To visualize the future, we need to understand the historical development leading to present-day and emerging technologies. Along this historical development, one may distinguish among three key events [3]: ◾ The introduction of automatic telephone exchange ◾ The digitalization of telecommunications systems ◾ The integration of circuit-switched technology and packet-switched technology (VoIP emergence) The last two events were also followed by mobile systems [3]: ◾ First-generation (1G) mobile cellular systems appeared in the 1980s and provided only classical analog voice service. ◾ Second-generation (2G) in the 1990s introduced digitalization of the communication link end-to-end as well as additional ISDN-based services and modem-based data services. ◾ Third-generation (3G) mobile systems appeared in the 2000s and were created to support Internet connectivity and packet-switched services besides the traditional circuit-switched. ◾ Future mobile networks (4G and beyond) are expected to include heterogeneous access technologies, such as WLAN and 3G, as well as end-to-end IP connectivity (i.e., a wireless IP

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network). IP is the dominant technology in the world of telecommunication networks and, arguably, the secret ingredient in all the new and traditional technologies. In the telecommunications world, the development of technology and the enhanced services that can be offered to the end users have been captured in the concept of NGNs. This concept does not mean a particular network, but rather the process of development from present technology and services to new technologies enabling new services and applications. On the other hand, within telecommunications, the historical separations between the fixed telephone network, IP network, and wireless and mobile networks have been diminishing. As a result of this fact, it presents the networks’ convergence, where the convergent network is called the multiservice transport network. In this network, numerous types of access networks with different types of terminals must be integrated, for example, must interwork with legacy networks through GWs as shown in Figure 13.11. Access networks can use a variety of layer 1 and 2 protocols. In the multiservice transport network, packets should be transported transparently between endpoints without excessive protocol conversion and adaption. Also, all terminals should use the same network layer protocol to give a uniform end-to-end routing method. Currently, the ubiquitous internet protocol is seen as the unifying factor leading to a multiservice transport network [4]. The NGN concept encapsulates the product of the convergence process as well as ways of abstracting and modeling the complex networks and software systems. Like convergence, the NGN is an evolving concept, that is, there is no single NGN. Rather, the term captures the movement or development process to one or more future networks that exhibit convergence. Several developments have been or are candidates for consideration as NGNs; one of the most important is the deployment of VoIP (including H.323 and SIP) [4].

FIGURE 13.11

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Private network

ISDN

WLAN

Multiservice core network

PSTN

UMTS

GPRS

GSM

Multiservice transport network.

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13.4 Voice-Over IP VoIP is the real-time transmission of voice between two or more parties by using IP technologies. Current implementations of VoIP have two main types of architectures, which are based on H.323 [16,17] and session initiation protocol (SIP) frameworks [18,19], respectively. Regardless of their differences, the fundamental architectures of these two implementations are the same. They consist of three main logical components: terminal, signaling server, and GW. They differ in specific definitions of voice coding, transport protocols, control signaling, GW control, and call management.

13.4.1 H.323 Framework ITU-T H.323 is a set of protocols for voice, video, and data conferencing over packet-switched networks, such as Ethernet LANs and the Internet, that do not provide a guaranteed QoS. The H.323 protocol stack is designed to operate above the transport layer of the underlying network. H.323 was originally developed as one of several videoconferencing recommendations issued by the ITU-T. The H.323 standard is designed to allow clients on H.323 networks to communicate with clients on other videoconferencing networks. The first version of H.323 was issued in 1996, designed for use with Ethernet LANs, and borrowed much of its multimedia conferencing aspects from other H.32.x series recommendations. H.323 is part of a large series of communications standards that enable videoconferencing across a range of networks. This series also includes H.320 and H.324, which address the ISDN and PSTN communications, respectively. H.323 is known as a broad and flexible recommendation. Although H.323 specifies protocols for real-time, pointto-point communication between two terminals on a packet-switched network, it also includes support of multipoint conferencing among terminals that support not only voice, but also video and data communications. This recommendation describes the components of H.323 architecture (see Figure 13.12). This includes terminals (Ts), GWs, gatekeepers (GKs), multipoint control units (MCUs), multipoint controllers (MCs), and multipoint processors (MPs). PS domain

CS domain ISDN

PSTN

Internet

H.323 zone

H.323 Gateway

Gatekeeper

Router

IP

Terminal

Terminal

MCU

FIGURE 13.12 H.323 framework.

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◾ Terminal: An H.323 terminal is an endpoint on the network, which provides real-time, twoway communications with another H.323 terminal, GW, or MCU. This communication consists of control, indications, audio, moving color video pictures, and/or data between the two terminals. A terminal may provide speech only; speech and data; speech and video; or speech, data, and video. ◾ GW: The GW is an H.323 entity on the network, which allows intercommunication between IP networks and legacy circuit-switched networks, such as ISDN and PSTN. They provide signal mapping as well as transcoding facilities. For example, GWs receive an H.320 stream from an ISDN line, convert it to an H.323 stream, and then send it to the IP network. ◾ GK: The GK is an H.323 entity on the network, which performs the role of the central manager of VoIP services to the endpoints. This entity provides address translation and controls access to the network for H.323 terminals, GWs, and MCUs. The GK may also provide other services to the terminals, GWs, and MCUs, such as bandwidth management and locating GWs. ◾ MCU: The MCU is an H.323 entity on the network, which provides the capability for three or more terminals and a GW to participate in a multipoint conference. It may also connect two terminals in a point-to-point conference that may later develop into a multipoint conference. The MCU consists of two parts: a mandatory MC and an optional MP. In the simplest case, an MCU may consist only of an MC with no MPs. An MCU may also be brought into a conference by the GK without being explicitly called by one of the endpoints. ◾ MC: The MC is an H.323 entity on the network, which controls three or more terminals participating in a multipoint conference. It may also connect two terminals in a point-topoint conference that may later develop into a multipoint conference. The MC provides the capability of negotiation with all terminals to achieve common levels of communications. It may also control conference resources, such as who is multicasting video. The MC does not perform mixing or switching of audio, video, and data. ◾ MP: The MP is an H.323 entity on the network, which provides for the centralized processing of audio, video, and/or data streams in a multipoint conference. The MP provides for the mixing, switching, or other processing of media streams under the control of the MC. The MP may process a single media stream or multiple media streams depending on the type of conference supported. The H.323 architecture is partitioned into zones. Each zone is composed of the collection of all terminals, a GW, and MCU managed by a single GK. H.323 is an umbrella recommendation that depends on several other standards and recommendations to enable real-time multimedia communications. The main ones are the following: ◾ Call Signaling and Control: Call control protocol (H.225), media control protocol (H.245), security (H.235), digital subscriber signaling (Q.931), generic functional protocol for the support of supplementary services in H.323 (H.450.1), and supplemental features (H.450.2-H.450.11) ◾ H.323 Annexes: Real-time facsimile over H.323 (annex D); framework and wire-protocol for multiplexed call signaling transport (annex E); simple endpoint types—SET (annex F); text conversation and text SET (annex G); security for annex F (annex J); hypertext transfer protocol (HTTP)–based service control transport channel (annex K); stimulus control protocol (annex L); and tunneling of signaling protocols (annex M)

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◾ Audio CODECs: Pulse code modulation (PCM) audio CODEC 56/64 kbps (G.711), audio codec for 7 KHz at 48/56/64 kbps (G.722), speech CODEC for 5.3 and 6.4kbps (G.723), speech CODEC for 16 kbps (G.728), and speech CODEC for 8/13 kbps (G.729) ◾ Video CODECs: Video CODEC for ≥ 64 kbps (H.261) and video CODEC for ≤ 64 kbps (H.263)

13.4.2 SIP Framework SIP was developed by IETF in reaction to the ITU-T H.323 recommendation. The IETF believed that H.323 was inadequate for evolving IP telephony because its command structure is complex, and its architecture is centralized and monolithic. SIP is an application layer control protocol that can establish, modify, and terminate multimedia sessions or calls. SIP transparently supports name mapping and redirection services, allowing the implementation of ISDN and intelligent network telephony subscriber services. The early implementations of SIP have been in network carrier IP-Centrex trials. SIP was designed as part of the overall IETF multimedia data and control architecture that supports protocols, such as resource reservation protocol (RSVP), real-time transport protocol (RTP), real-time streaming protocol (RTSP), session announcement protocol (SAP), and session description protocol (SDP). SIP establishes, modifies, and terminates multimedia sessions. It can be used to invite new members to an existing session or to create new sessions. The two major components in a SIP network are the user agent (UA) and network servers (registrar server, location server, proxy server, and redirect server), as shown in Figure 13.13. ◾ UAs: This is an application that interacts with the user and contains both a UA client (UAC) and a UA server (UAS). A UAC initiates SIP requests, and a UAS receives SIP requests and returns responses on the user’s behalf. PS domain

CS domain ISDN

PSTN

Internet

SIP domain

SIP gateway

IP

IP

User agent

Proxy server

Router

Servers (registrar, redirect, location)

User agent

FIGURE 13.13 SIP framework.

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◾ Registrar server: This is a SIP server that accepts only registration requests issued by UAs for the purpose of updating a location database with the contact information of the user specified in the request. ◾ Proxy server: This is an intermediary entity that acts both as a server to UAs by forwarding SIP requests and as a client to other SIP servers by submitting the forwarded requests to them on behalf of UAs or proxy servers. ◾ Redirect server: This is a SIP server that helps to locate UAs by providing alternative locations where the user can be reachable, that is, it provides address mapping services. It responds to a SIP request destined to an address with a list of new addresses. A redirect server does not accept calls, does not forward requests, and does not it initiate any of its own. The SIP protocol follows a web-based approach to call signaling, contrary to traditional communication protocols. It resembles a client–server model, where SIP clients issue requests and SIP servers return one or more responses. The signaling protocol is built on this exchange of requests and responses, which are grouped into transactions. All the messages of a transaction share a common unique identifier and traverse the same set of hosts. There are two types of messages in SIP: requests and responses. Both of them use the textual representation of the ISO 10646 character set with UTF-8 encoding. The message syntax follows HTTP/1.1, but it should be noted that SIP is not an extension to HTTP. ◾ SIP responses: Upon reception of a request, a server issues one or several responses. Every response has a code that indicates the status of the transaction. Status codes are integers ranging from 100 to 699 and are grouped into six classes. A response can be either final or provisional. A response with a status code from 100 to 199 is considered provisional. Responses from 200 to 699 are final responses. ◾ 1xx informational: Request received, continuing to process request. The client should wait for further responses from the server. ◾ 2xx success: The action was successfully received, understood, and accepted. The client must terminate any search. ◾ 3xx redirection: Further action must be taken in order to complete the request. The client must terminate any existing search but may initiate a new one. ◾ 4xx client error: The request contains bad syntax or cannot be fulfilled at this server. The client should try another server or alter the request and retry with the same server. ◾ 5xx server error: The request cannot be fulfilled at this server because of server error. The client should try with another server. ◾ 6xx global failure: The request is invalid at any server. The client must abandon search. The first digit of the status code defines the class of response. The last two digits do not have any categorization role. For this reason, any response with a status code between 100 and 199 is referred to as a “1xx response,” any response with a status code between 200 and 299 as a “2xx response,” and so on. ◾ SIP requests: The core SIP specification defines six types of SIP requests, each of them with a different purpose. Every SIP request contains a field, called a method, which denotes its purpose. ◾ INVITE: INVITE requests invite users to participate in a session. The body of INVITE requests contains the description of the session. Significantly, SIP only handles the invitation

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to the user and the user’s acceptance of the invitation. All of the session particulars are handled by the SDP used. Thus, with a different session description, SIP can invite users to any type of session. ACK: ACK requests are used to acknowledge the reception of a final response to an INVITE. Thus, a client originating an INVITE request issues an ACK request when it receives a final response for the INVITE. CANCEL: CANCEL requests cancel pending transactions. If a SIP server has received an INVITE but has not returned a final response yet, it will stop processing the INVITE upon receipt of a CANCEL. If, however, it has already returned a final response for the INVITE, the CANCEL request will have no effect on the transaction. BYE: BYE requests are used to abandon sessions. In two-party sessions, abandonment by one of the parties implies that the session is terminated. REGISTER: Users send REGISTER requests to inform a server (in this case, referred to as a registrar server) about their current location. OPTIONS: OPTIONS requests query a server about its capabilities, including which methods and which SDPs it supports.

◾

◾

◾ ◾ ◾

SIP is independent of the type of multimedia session handled and of the mechanism used to describe the session. Sessions consisting of RTP streams carrying audio and video are usually described using SDP, but some types of session can be described with other description protocols. In short, SIP is used to distribute session descriptions among potential participants. Once the session description is distributed, SIP can be used to negotiate and modify the parameters of the session and terminate the session.

13.4.3 VoIP System A basic VoIP system consists of three parts: the sender, the IP network, and the receiver, as shown in Figure 13.14. Sender: The first component is the coder, which periodically samples the original voice signal and assigns a fixed number of bits to each sample, creating a constant bit rate stream. The voice stream from the voice source is first digitized and compressed by using a suitable coding algorithm, such as G.711, G.729, etc. Various speech CODECs differ from each other in terms of features such as coding bit-rate (kbps), algorithmic delay (ms), complexity, and speech quality (mean opinion score or MOS). In order to simplify the description of speech CODECs, they are often broadly divided into three classes: waveform coders, parametric coders or vocoders, and hybrid coders (as a combination thereof). Typically waveforms CODECs are used at high bit rates and give very good quality speech. Parametric CODECs operate at very low bit rates but tend to produce speech that sounds Receiver

Sender Voice source

FIGURE 13.14

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VoIP system.

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synthetic. Hybrid CODECs use techniques from both parametric and waveform coding and give good quality speech an intermediate bit rates. After compression and encoding into a suitable format, the speech frames are packetized. The packetized process is implemented for gathering a set of voice data to be transmitted and adding the information needed for routing and handling those voice data across the IP network. The added bits are referred as the header, and the voice data to be delivered are referred to as the payload. The voice data length can be changed according to the VoIP transmission efficiency. The media access control (MAC) header, IP header, user datagram protocol (UDP) header, RTP header, and frame check sequence (FCS) are necessary for transmitting voice data over the Ethernet while the preamble and inter packet gap (IPG) should be considered as occupied bandwidth on the transmission line. For instance, the total occupied bandwidth is 98 bytes, including IPG, preamble, MAC header, IP header, UDP header, RTP header, and FCS, when transmitting 20-byte voice data. The 78 bytes thus correspond to the overhead of IP transmission, so the ratio of voice data to the total is less than 25%. The voice data length of an IP packet usually depends on the coding algorithm used. Eightybyte voice data are often used for G.711, whereas 20-byte voice data are used for G.729 in conventional VoIP communication. Table 13.1 shows the relationship between the voice data length in milliseconds and the voice data length in bytes. IP network: Because of the shared nature of IP networks, guaranteeing the QoS of Internet applications from end-to-end is difficult. Because current IP networks are based on best-effort services, the packet may suffer different network impairments (e.g., packet loss, delay, and jitter), which directly impact the quality of VoIP applications. Receiver: The packet headers are stripped off, and voice samples are extracted from the payload by a depacketizer. The voice samples must be presented to the decoder in such a way that the next sample is present for processing when the decoder has finished with its immediate predecessor. Such a requirement severely constrains the amount of jitter that can be tolerated in a VoIP system Table 13.1

Voice Data Length of VoIP Packets

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G.729

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without having to gap the samples. When jitter results in an inter-arrival time (IAT) that is greater than the time required to re-create the waveform from a sample, the decoder has no option but to continue to function without the next sample information. Therefore, the effects of jitter will be manifested as an increase in the packet loss rate. The buffer that holds the queued segments is called a de-jitter buffer. The employment of such de-jitter buffers defines the relationship between jitter and packet loss rate on the receiver side. The delay variation that can be tolerated becomes, therefore, the essential descriptor of intrinsic quality that supplants jitter. Therefore, an important design parameter at the receiver side is the de-jitter buffer size or playout delay of a de-jitter buffer because the de-jitter buffer is used to compensate for network jitter at the cost of further delay (buffer delay) and loss (late arrival loss). Finally, the de-jittered speech frames are decoded to recover the original voice signal.

13.4.4 QoS in VoIP Figure 13.15 shows a basic two-user VoIP network, where the end users represent the terminal devices, such as a VoIP application based on software (softphone) or an IP telephone. The network is an IP network that connects the end users. Referring to Figure 13.15, QoS can be defined from three different points of view: QoS experienced by the end user, the QoS from the point of view of the application, and from the network. From the end user’s perspective, QoS is the end user’s perception of the quality that he receives from the VoIP services provider. The end user’s perception of the voice quality is determined by subjective and objective testing as a function of some impairments (OWD, PLR, CODEC type).

End user Network

QoS

End user perception of quality

QoS

QoS

QoS mechanisms: Integrated services Differentiated services

Reconfigurable parameters: Voice data length CODEC type Size of FEC redundancy De-jitter buffer size

Impairments: OWD Jitter PLR

Measurements modeling simulation

Subjective objective test

MOS E model

End user VoIP application

FIGURE 13.15 QoS in a basic two-user VoIP network.

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From the point of view of the application, the QoS refers to the application’s capabilities to reconfigure some parameters (voice data length, CODEC type, size of FEC redundancy, de-jitter buffer size, etc.) to values based on network conditions in order to meet good levels of voice quality. From the network’s perspective, the term QoS refers to the network’s capabilities to provide the QoS perceived by the end user as defined above. A QoS mechanism has the capability to provide resource assurance and service differentiation in the IP network. Without a QoS mechanism, an IP network provides best-effort service. Two main QoS mechanisms are available for the IP networks [20]: integrated services (IntServ) [21] and differentiated services (DiffServ) [22]. In best-effort service, all packets are lumped into a single mass regardless of the source of the traffic. In IntServ, individual flows are distinguished end-to-end, and the applications use the RSVP [23] to request and to reserve resources through a network. In DiffServ, individual flows are not identified end-to-end. Rather, they are aggregated into a smaller number of classes. Furthermore, these classes of traffic are given differential treatment per hop, and there is no endto-end treatment of these traffic classes. Because the NGN carries diverse traffic types with different performance requirements, one type of impairment can be important to a particular service or application, and for other applications, it may not be as important and vice versa. Therefore, a QoS mechanism implemented in an IP network must consider various performance requirements and optimize the trade-off between multiple impairments. The designing of VoIP applications with reconfigurable parameters and the implementation of QoS mechanisms in convergent networks involves traffic measurements, traffic simulations, and traffic modeling.

13.5 Future Research Directions VoIP in next-generation converged networks has emerged as an important application, which demands strict QoS levels. However, the convergent networks have an IP network core. The IP network provides best-effort services in most of the cases and cannot guarantee the full QoS of real-time applications, such as VoIP. An interesting fact is that sending wireless phone calls over IP networks is considerably less expensive than that of sending them over cellular voice networks. However, such types of communications must ensure good performance and quality of voice transmissions. On the other hand, the converged networks carry diverse traffic types with different performance requirements; one type of impairment can be important to a particular service or application, and for other applications, it may not be as important and vice versa. Consequently, the above points direct us to consider the follow actions to pursue as future research areas: ◾ Accomplish a detailed characterization and accurate modeling of the main QoS parameters in the next-generation converged networks. ◾ Current converged networks must be enhanced by means of robust QoS mechanisms in order to ensure acceptable QoS levels of VoIP applications. ◾ The VoIP applications must be designed with reconfiguration capability of some parameters (voice data length, CODEC type, size of FEC redundancy, de-jitter buffer size, etc.) in order to guarantee an acceptable voice quality. ◾ The design of powerful mobile telephones and faster wireless/mobile IP networks is needed in order to ensure good performance and quality of mobile voice over IP.

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13.6 Conclusions Within telecommunications, there are many heterogeneous networks (PSTN, SS7, ISDN, IP Network, WLAN, GSM, GPRS, UMTS, etc.) corresponding to services that are initially distinct and then converge into a single network. VoIP is a clear example of such convergent services, pushing toward adoption of NGNs. The concept of NGNs does not mean a particular network, but rather the process of development from present technology and services to new technologies enabling new services and applications. On the other hand, within telecommunications, the historical separations between the above heterogeneous networks have been diminishing. As a result of this fact, it presents the networks’ convergence, where the convergent network is called a multiservice transport network. In this multiservice transport network, numerous access networks with different terminals must be integrated. Access networks can use a variety of layer 1 and 2 protocols; however, all terminals should use the same network layer protocol. Currently, the ubiquitous Internet protocol is seen as the unifying factor leading to a multiservice transport network. However, with this convergence, a new technical challenge has emerged. Essentially, the converged network has an IP network core. The IP network is based on best-effort service, and it does not provide a QoS level to meet the requirements of real-time applications, such as VoIP. Therefore, to guarantee an acceptable voice quality, the VoIP applications must be designed with reconfiguration capability of some parameters, and the convergent network must consider the implementation of robust QoS mechanisms.

Bibliography 1. G. Fiche and G. Hébuterne, Communicating Systems & Networks: Traffic & Performance. London and Sterling, VA: Kogan Page Science, 2004. 2. A. F. Ibikunle, J. A. Sarumi, and E. O. Shonibare, “Comparative analysis of routing technologies in next generation converged IP network.” International Journal of Engineering & Technology 11, no. 2 (2011): 158–169. 3. T. Janevski, Traffic Analysis and Design of Wireless IP Networks. Norwood, MA: Artech House, Inc., 2003. 4. H. Hanrahan, Network Convergence: Services, Applications, Transport, and Operations Support. England: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., 2007. 5. J. Jo, G. Hwang, and H. Yang, “Characteristics of QoS Parameters for VoIP in the Short-Haul Internet.” Proc. International Conferences on Info-tech and Info-net (ICII), IEEE, Beijing, China, 29 October—01 November, 2001, 498–502. 6. H. Toral, “QoS Parameters Modeling of Self-Similar VoIP Traffic and an Improvement to the E Model,” Ph.D. thesis, electrical engineering, telecommunication section, CINVESTAV, Guadalajara, Jalisco, Mexico, 2010. 7. S. Kashihara, VoIP Technologies. Croatia: INTECH, 79–94. 8. J. Davidson, J. Peters, and B. Gracely, Voice over IP Fundamentals. Indianapolis, IN: Cisco Press, 2000. 9. K. I. Park, QoS in Packet Networks. Boston: Springer Science + Business Media, Inc., 2005. 10. J. F. Kurose and K. W. Ross, Computer Networking: A Top-Down Approach. Boston: Addison-Wesley, 2010. 11. A. S. Tanenbaum, Computer Networks. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 2003. 12. A. Ahmad, Wireless and Mobile Data Networks. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2005. 13. L. Cai, Y. Xiao, X. (S.) Shen, L. Cai, and J. W. Mark, “VoIP over WLAN: Voice Capacity, Admission Control, QoS, and MAC,” International Journal of Communication Systems 19, (2006): 491–508. 14. R. Noldus, CAMEL: Intelligent Networks for the GSM, GPRS and UMTS Network. England: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., 2006.

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15. M. D. Yacoub, Wireless Technology: Protocols, Standards, and Techniques. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, 2002. 16. ITU-T Recommendation H.323, Packet-Based Multimedia Communications Systems, International Telecommunications Union, Geneva, Switzerland, 2007. 17. A. Sulkin, PBX Systems for IP Telephony: Migrating Enterprise Communications. New York: McGraw-Hill Professional, 2002. 18. J. Rosenberg et al., SIP: Session Initiation Protocol (RFC 3261), Internet Engineering Task Force, 2002. 19. G. Camarillo, SIP Demystified. USA: McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc, 2002. 20. Z. Wang, Internet QoS: Architectures and Mechanisms for Quality of Service. San Francisco: Morgan Kaufmann Publishers, 2001. 21. R. Braden, D. Clark, and S. Shenker, Integrated Services in the Internet Architecture: An Overview. (RFC 1633), Internet Engineering Task Force, 1994. 22. D. Black, S. Blake, M. Carlson, E. Davies, Z. Wang, and W. Weiss, An Architecture for Differentiated Services (RFC 2475), Internet Engineering Task Force, 1998. 23. R. Braden, L. Zhang, S. Berson, S. Herzog, and S. Jamin, Resource Reservation Protocol-RSVP (RFC 2205), Internet Engineering Task Force, 1997.

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