Waste Management

Waste Management and Resource Utilisation

Editor

Prof. Sadhan Kumar Ghosh Professor, Mechanical Engineering Department, Jadavpur University, President, International Society of Waste Management, Air and Water, India

Proceedings of the 6th IconSWM 2016

Jadavpur University, Kolkata, India International Society of Waste Management, Air and Water (ISWMAW) i

Waste Management and Resource Utlilisation

Centre for Quality Management System, Mechanical engineering Dept. Jadavpur University, Blue Earth W/S, Kolkata 700 032 Website : www.iconswm.com / www.iswmaw.com; www.jadavpur.edu E.Mail. [email protected] / [email protected] Center for Sustainable Technology (CST) Indian Institute of Science, Bengaluru PIN Code: 560012, Karnataka, India

ISWMAW

International Society of Waste Management, Air and Water Kolkata 700041, [email protected] / [email protected]; www.iswmaw.com / www.iswmaw.org

Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur, Kharagpur, West Bengal 721302, India

IIT, Kharagpur

CRIC

Consortium of Researchers in International Collaboration (CRIC) Centre for Quality Management System Jadavpur University, Blue Earth W/S, Kolkata 700 032 Email : [email protected] / [email protected] The Energy and Resources Institute (TERI) Darbari Seth Block, IHC Complex, Lodhi Road, New Delhi - 110 003, India Email: [email protected]

For communication send mail to : [email protected] or, [email protected]

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6th IconSWM 2016 Technical Committee Members

Prof. Sadhan Kumar Ghosh

Editor Members

Prof. Agamuthu Pariatamby University of Malaya, Malaysia

Mr C. R. C. Mohanty Advisor, UNCRD, Japan

Prof. Allen H. Hu National Taipei University of Technology

Prof. Deben Baruah Tezpur University, India

Mr. K D Bharadwaj

Prof. Jinhui Li

National Porductivity Council, India

Tsinghua University, R.P. China

Dr. Rodrigo Lozano University of Gävle,Sweden

Federal University of Parana, Brazil

Prof. Prasanta K Dey Aston University, UK

Dr. Nguyen Trung Thang ISPONRE, Viet Nam

Prof. Mont Michael Nelles Universität Rostock, Germany

Dr. Ronald L. Mersky Widener University, USA

Dr. Suneel Pandey TERI, India

Prof. S.T. El Sheltawy University of Cairo, Egypt

Dr. H. N. Chanakya

Prof Seo Yong Chil

Indian Institute of Science, India

Yonsei University Rep. of Korea

Prof. Ramkrishna Sen IIT Karagpur, India

Dr. Sunil Herat Griffith University

Dr. Tomas Ramos Universidade Nova de Lisboa Portugal

Prof. J.W.C Wong Honkong Baptist University

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Dr. Marisa Soares Borges

Preface India is now under the transition of paradign shift with respect to the Waste Management. The Rules pertaining to Waste management in the areas of Municipal Waste, Electronic Waste, Construction and Demolition Waste, Hazardious Waste and Plastic Waste have been redesigned and revised in the year 2016 for implementation based on circular economy models. The IconSWM movement was initiated for better waste management and environmental protection since the year 2009 through generating awareness and bringing all the stakeholders together from all over the world under the aegis of the International Society of Waste Management, Air and Water (ISWMAW) and by establishing some research projects accros the country and through consortium of researchers in International collaboration (CRIC) across the world. IconSWM has become significantly one of the biggest platforms in India for knowledge sharing, awareness generation and encouraging the Urban Local Bodies(ULBs), government departments, researchers, industries, NGOs, Communities and other stake holders in the area of waste management in the country. Waste generation is expected to increase from 62 million tones in 2015 to 300 million by the year 2047 (510 grams per capita to 945 grams per capita) in India. Sustainable development presents a framework for change rather than a list of prescriptions to achieve it. There is, however, a growing consensus that the transition to a more sustainable society requires new ways of meeting our needs which can reduce the level of material consumption and reduce environmental damage without affecting quality of life and introducing 3R (Reduce, Reuse & Recycle) concept. From the very ancient time, India has a culture of recycling and reuse of wastes. This makes at least 20% 30% of the wastes from household recycled and reused retarding it to come in the waste stream. The traditional ways of waste management in India and many other countries involved open dumping in unauthorized or government vacant land, a wide range of composting and unorganized recycling initiatives. With the improvement in the level of awareness, community participation and technological innovation, many initiatives have taken place in 61 cities and many other municipalities through JNNURM scheme during the year 2007 to 2012. These initiatives include different ways of waste treatment, e.g., composting, recycling, incineration, pyrolysis, bio-refining & biogas plants and SLFs in the country. Very recently the government of India has taken countrywide cleanliness drive. This remarkable scheme, Swacchha Bharat Mission (SBM), flagged off on October 2, 2014, is considered as the country’s biggestever cleanliness drive costing over 10,600 million USD for 5 years involving 4,041 towns. Solid Waste Management has been considered as one of the six components in the mission. Swacchh Bharat Avijan can make many waste management initiatives happen in the country. The present initiatives are definitely be a paradigm shift in Indian Waste Management when the country’s Prime Minister has been personally involved for the success of the cleanliness and waste management initiatives. A significant step towards green energy recovery from wastes is the proposed National Biogas Mission (NBM) for setting up 10 million biogas plants during next 5 years up to 2020-21 may bring light to the dream of utilising biomass and bio-wastes making a robust supply chain for a business model in India. A main component of bio waste is the organic fraction of municipal solid wastes. For effective waste management and circular economy, various issues need to be addressed in the country, namely, efficient governance, waste collection, segregation, reuse, recycling, treatment with several options of energy recovery, awareness and enhanced commitment level of the community participation, application of modern technology, waste management as a business model, waste management data generation, rehabilitation of Waste handlers and competent service providers. A minimum amount of inert should be disposed of in landfill sites as a last results. In 6th IconSWM 2016, we received more than 320 abstracts and 280 full papers. Only 240 full papers have been accepted for the proceedings. These papers and deliberations in the 6th IconSWM 2016 have explored all the waste management related issues. These volumes of the proceedings will be useful for the ULBs, Researchers, Practitioners and the government. Some of the papers, if selected will go for international journal special issue publication through it own review process.

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ISWMAW and IconSWM express gratitude to the Jadavpur University, Kolkata. IconSWM Committee gratefully acknowledges the help provided by the sponsoring organizations and exhibitors, namely, Ministry of Urban Development, Govt. of India, Dept. of Environment, Govt. of West Bengal, BBMP, DMA, Karnataka, Oil India Ltd., IOCL (R&D), Hiland Group, Geocycle Ltd. and SUEZ, UK. ISWMAW and IconSWM express gratitude to the supporting organizations UNCRD, IISc, IIT Kharagpur, TERI, IPLA Japan, ISPONRE Viet Nam, DBFZ Germany, CRIC India, Aston University UK, Rostock University Germany, UKIERI, CMAK Bangalore. The Committee expresses gratitude to Mr Praveen Prakash, IAS, JS(W), UDD, GOI; Mr. Arnab Roy, Principal Secretary, Environment, Govt. of West Bengal, Dr. N . Visal, IAS, DMA, Government of Karnataka, Mr. B. Roy, Director (BD&HR) Oil India Ltd., Mr. M.P. Singh, GM R&D, IOC Ltd., Mrs. Dipsikha Deka, Oil India Ltd., Mr. N.K. Belani, President CREDAI, Mr. G. Kumar Nayak, IAS, MD, Karnataka Power Corpn. Ltd., Mr. Manjunath Prasad, IAS, Comissioner, BBMP, Mr. Khalil Ahmed, IAS, Comissioner, KMC, Mr. C.P Marak, Chairman MSPCB and Mr. B.K. Barua, ASPCB. I observed the enthusiasm among the core group members and the secretariat members in ICQMS, JU and Kolkata HQ while working with them. I am indebted to my friends in foreign countries who helped in the review of papers, the members in the international scientific committee and the delegates. The editorial board members deserve thanks who were very enthusiastic in giving me inputs to bring the conference proceedings. I must mention the active participation of all the team members in IconSWM accorss the country with special mention of Ms. Sheetal Singh and her team in CMAK, Mr. Suneel Pandey and his team in TERI, Prof. Deben Barua and his team in Tezpur University, Dr. V. Kirubakaran in Gandhi Gram Rural Institute, Chennai, Mr. Gautam Ghosh and his team, Ms. Sampriti Kakati, Mr Biswajit Debnath, Mr Suresh Mondal, Mr Bisweswar Ghosh, Mr. Gobinda Debnath and the research team members in Mechanical engineering Dept. and ISWMAW, Kolkata HQ for various activities for the success of the 6th IconSWM 2016. I express my thanks to all the participating delegates for making the event meaningful. 5th IconSWM 2015 was attended by 1200 delegates from 17 countries Jadavpur University, Kolkata. The 6thIconSWM 2016 expects more than 450 delegates from 22 countries at Jadavpur University, Kolkata and 6th IconSWM 2016 expects more than 500 delegates from 27 countries. IconSWM express gratitude to all the members in the core committee, International Scientific Committee, National Organizaing Committee, Local working group members, Technical Committee members, paper reviewers in several countries and M/s. Springers Ltd. Once again the IconSWM and ISWMAW express gratitude to all the foreign delegates, delegates from different parts of India, sponsors, exhibitors, service providers and all others who are the part of the success of 6thIconSWM 2016 directly and indirectly. The Committee expresses herat felt gratitude to Jadavpur University Administration for giving permission to hold 6th IconSWM 2016 and also thanks to all the faculty members, staff members, researchers and students who directly or indirectly helped in making the programme. I wish a very successful 6th IconSWM 2016 at Jadavpur University, Kolkata Hope to see you all in 6th IconSWM 2016 in November 2016 in Kolkata. With Kind Regards. 24th November, 2016 Jadavpur University, Kolkata

Prof. Sadhan K Ghosh Editor & President, ISWMAW

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Core Committee 6th IconSWM 2016 Chairman, 6th IconSWM & President, ISWMAW Co- Chairmen 6th IconSWM 2016

Prof. Sadhan Kumar Ghosh, Professor, Jadavpur University, Kolkata

Vice-Chairmen 6th IconSWM 2016

Prof. Amit Ghosh, VP-ISWMAW, JU, Kolkata; Dr. A. K. Mishra, Director, ASTEC & AEDA, Assam Mr. B. K. Baruah, MS, ASPCB; Aasam Mr.C. P. Marak, Chairman, MSPCB, Shillong Mr.G. Das, VP-ISWMAW, Kolkata Mr. Gautam Ghosh, ED, Klystron Electronics Pvt. Ltd., Kolkata Dr. H. N. Chanakya, CST IISc, Bengalore Mr. H. Gogoi, Chairman, ASPCB, Aasam Mr. Hemen Das, ACS, DC, Assam Mr. K. D. Bharadwaj, Director-IES, NPC, New Delhi Mr. N. K. Belani, VP, CREDAI, Kolkata Prof. P. K. Dey, Aston University, Birmingham, UK Dr. Smarajit Roy, ISWMAW London, UK Mr. Sarafraj Khan, BBMP, Bangalore Mr. T. K. Ghatak, ISWMAW, Kolkata

Organizing Secretaries 6th IconSWM 2016

Dr. S. Pandey, Director, GGRE, TERI Prof. Ramkrishna Sen, IIT KGP Prof. V. Jagannath, Scientist/Engr, ISTRAC,ISRO Mr. S. Charles Rodriquez, TnPCB, Chennai

Assistant Secretaries 6th IconSWM 2016

Ms. Sheetal Singh, Coordinator, CMAK Dr. Debasish Roy, ISWMAW, JU Dr. Rajat Chakraborty, JU Prof. B. K. Dubey, IIT, KGP Prof. Deben Baruah, Tezpur University Mr. Uday Singh Gauthama, VMC, Vaizag

Mr G. Kumar Naik, IAS, MD, Karnataka Power Corporation Ltd. Mr Manjunath Prasad, IAS, Commissioner, BBMP

Past Conferences Executive Chairman 5th IconSWM 2015

:

Dr. H. N. Chanakya, Chair, CST, IISc, Bengaluru

Past Chairman 4th IconSWM2014

:

Dr. S.K. Joshi, I.A.S, Principal Secretary to Govt., Telangana

Past Executive Chairmen 4th IconSWM 2014

:

Dr. B. Janardhan Reddy, I.A.S. C&DMA, Govt of Telangana; Mr. S. Kumar, I.A.S, Commissioner, GHMC, Hyderabad

Past Chairman 3rd IconSWM2012

:

Mr. M. S. Ravisankar, IAS, Government of Karnataka

Past Executive Chairmen 3rd IconSWM 2012

:

Mr. P.S Vastrad, IAS, Government of Karnataka Dr. M.R Ravi K.A.S, Government of Karnataka

Past Chairman 2nd IconSWM2011

Prof. Sadhan Kumar Ghosh, Professor, Jadavpur University,

st

Prof. Sadhan Kumar Ghosh, Professor, Jadavpur University,

Past Chairman 1 IconSWM2009

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International Scientific Committee, 6th IconSWM 2016: Prof. Dr. Akos Redey, Hungary Prof. Allen Hu, Taiwan Dr. Anurudda Karunarathna, Sri Lanka Mr. André Tavares, São Paulo, Brazil Prof. Akinwale Coker, Nigeria Dr. Ajantha Perera, Fiji Islands Dr. Ajit K. Sarmah, New Zealand Dr. Adeniyi S. Aremu, Nigeria Prof. Amrik Soha, Australia Prof. Asari, Misuzu Japan Dr. C.R.C. Mohanty, Japan Mr. Chih Ku Chen, Taiwan Dr. Chen, Liang-Tung, IDB, Taiwan Dr. Chilin Cheng, Taiwan Dr. Choi, Woo-Zin, Korea Dr. Cruvinel Vanessa , Brazil Dr. Damanhuri, Enri Indonesia Dr. Dan Smyer Yu, China Mr Eugene Y. Lin, CPC, Taiwan Dr. Emilia den Boer, Poland Dr. Fenfen Zhu, China Dr. Francesco Di Maria, Italy Dr. G.H. Borongan, Thailand Mrs. Grace Sapuay, Philippines Dr. H. R Hendro Susanto, Indonesia Prof. Ilona Sárvári Horváth, Sweden Prof. Fr. James, Taiwan Dr. Jose Elvinia, APO, Japan

Prof J C Wang, Singapore Dr. Jameel RM Jaymalin, Philippines Prof. H. A. Sibak, Cairo Dr. Karen Wilson, UK Mr. Khadga Bhakta Paudel, Nepal Prof. Dr.-Ing. Klaus Fricke, Germany Prof. V Kachitvichyanukul, Thailand Dr. Eng. L. Mangalika, Colombo Dr. Luis F. Diaz, USA Ms Likhuan Lee, CPC, Taiwan Dr. Marisa Soares Borges, Brazil Prof. Martin CYR, France Dr. M. Eisa, South Africa Prof. Michael Nelles, Germany Dr. Milan Pavlovic, Serbia Prof. Ma, Hsiao Kang, Taiwan Dr. Mohd. B. Lajis, Malaysia Prof. Maria A. Liubarskaia, Russia Prof. Martin Kranert, Univ of Stuttgart Prof. Mohommad Al-Sarawi, Kuwait Prof. Mohamed Ahmedna, Qatar Prof. M. M. K. Fouad, Egypt Prof. Mervat El-Hoz, Lebanon Mr. Nickolas J. Themelis, USA Dr. Nguyen Trung Thang, Vietnam Dr. Nguyen Van Tai, Hanoi Dr. Nguyen Thi Kim Thai, Hanoi Prof . P. Agamuthu, Malaysia

Dr. P. Abdul Salam, Thailand Dr. Pranshoo Solanki, USA Dr.-Ing. Peter Hartwig, Germany Prof. Paul.H.Braunner, Austria Dr. R. L. Merskey, USA Dr. R. Al-Jarallah, Kuwait Dr. Richard Blanchard, UK Dr. R. Nantenaina, Madagaskar Dr. Rodrigo Lozano,The Netherlands Prof. S. T. El Sheltawy, Egypt Dr. Sari Piippo, Finland Dr. Seo, Yong-Chil, Korea Dr. Safari Azis, Indonesia Prof. Sinichi Sakai, Japan Prof. Seung-Whee RHEE, Korea Dr. Selvam A., Hong Kong Dr. Sandhya Babel, Thailand Dr. Seo, Yong-Chil, Korea Dr. Safari Azis, Indonesia Prof. Sunil Herat, Australia Prof. Tien - Chin Chang, Taiwan Prof. Tian C. Zhang, NE Prof. Thong Kong, Cambodia Mr. Ugunbiyi Abdulwahab,Nigeria Dr. W. K. Buah, Ghana Dr. Wang Wu, Finland Dr. Yuan Chen, China Prof. Yoshioka, Toshiaki, Japan Dr. Yaodong Wang, UK

National Organizing Committee, 6th IconSWM 2016: Dr. A.P. Vig Dr. Amit Dutta Prof. Asish Bandyopadhyay Mr. Avishek Roy Ms. Ankita Das Mr. Biswajit Debnath Dr. Debasish Roy Prof. Dipankar Sanyal Dr. G. Sekharan Dr. Giresh Mohan Prof. G. Majumder Ms. Ipshita Saha Prof. J.N. Mondal Ms. Jotir Laxmi Ms. Kumuda Dr. K. Chitra Dr. Kirubakaran

Mr. Kiran Kolekar Mr. Niranjan Banerjee Dr. Nipu Modak Ms. Olivia Mukherjee Dr. Papita Das Prof. Pradip Pal Dr. Pinaki Bhattacharjee Dr. P.P. Anilkumar Dr. Pradip Chatterjee Sri. Praibesh Mondal Ms. Payel Ghosh Prof. Ranjana Choudhury Dr. Renny Andrew Dr. Rajat Chakraborty Ms. Reshma Roychowdhury Dr. Sandhya Jaykumar Dr. S.B. Watw

vii

Prof. Sugata Hazra Dr. S.P. Guleria Dr. Shyamala Mani Ms. Sheetal Singh Mr. Swapan Bhowmik Dr. Sutripta Sarkar Dr. Samarjit Roy Ms. S. Roy Dr. Sandhya Jaykumar Ms. Senophiyah Mary Dr. Swapan Dutta Prof. T. Meenaballan Dr. Titas Nandi Dr. U.U. Parlikar Dr. VedaRamakanth Dr. Vasanty Muturnarayan Ms. Vijaya Laxmi

Contents 6th IconSWM 2016 Technical Committee Members Preface Core Committee 6th IconSWM 2016 International Scientific Committee, 6th IconSWM 2016 National Organizing Committee Contents Sl. No.

Title and Author.

iii iv - v vi vii vii viii - xxviii Page No. 1 - 120

Sustainability and Climate Change 001

Circular Economy and Sustainable Waste Management Sadhan Kumar Ghosh, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Jadavpur University & International Society of Waste Management, Air and Water, Kolkata, India

2-9

002

The Influence of Municipal Solid Waste of Georgia on Climate Changes N.L. Dvalishvili, M.Sh. Tabatadze, Institute of Hydrometeorology of Georgian Technical University, Tbilisi, Georgia

10 - 13

003

Integration of Environmental Impacts in Sustainable New Product Development S. Roy, N. Modak, Jadavpur University, Kolkata, India P.K. Dan, Rajendra Mishra School of Engineering Entrepreneurship, Kolkata, India

14 - 19

004

Prevention of Drought through Sustainable Management Practices MandadiShravya Reddy, EPTRI, Hyderabad, India K. Purushotham Reddy, Osmania University, Hyderabad, India Indrasena Reddy, Neplus Ultra Labs Private Limited, New Jersey, USA

15 - 26

005

Champ- A Bio-Medical Waste Disposal and Recycling Plant-An Innovative PPP Model of Reverse Logistic Mechanism to Promote Green Supply Chain Management in Healthcare Sector Reema Banerjee, Madhavi Joshi, Centre For Environment Education, Kolkata, India

27 - 34

006

Identify and Assess the Impact of Climate Change and Sea Level Rise to the System of Landfills and Solid Waste Treatment Facilities in the Central Coast Region of Viet Nam Nghiem Van Khanh, Ha Noi Architechtural University, Viet Nam

35 - 44

007

Spatiotemporal Climate Change and Resilience through Nature Conservation in Ethiopia AbbadiGirmay Reda, Tigray Agricultural Research Institute (TARI), Mekelle, Ethiopia Nitin K. Tripathi, Asian Institute of Technology (AIT), Bangkok, Thailand

45 - 52

008

The Development of Sustainable Materials Management (SMM) and Circular Economy in Taiwan Leon Tzou, CTCI Foundation, Taiwan Kun-Hsing Liu, Industrial Technology Research Institute, Taiwan Allen H. Hu ,Institute of Environmental Engineering and Management, National Taipei University of Technology (Taipei Tech), Taiwan (Republic of China, ROC)

23 - 59

009

Comparative study on Environmental Contamination following Nuclear Power Plant Accident Md. Ghulam Zakir, Abdus SattarMollah, Altab Hossain, Military Institute of Science and Technology (MIST), Dhaka, Bangladesh

60 - 68

010

Decentralized Waste Management System for Sustainable Habitat Development Gouthaman J., SaiyathMohaiyuddinSamdani S., Elakiya M., Saravana Kumar C., Kirubakaran V., The Gandhigram Rural Institute, Tamil Nadu, India

69 - 75

viii

Sl. No.

Title and Author

Page No.

011

A Methodological Construct for Enumerating Residential Land Use Characteristics – A Major Deciding Factor of Waste Generation in Indian Urban Areas Chithra. K, P.P. Anilkumar, M.A. Naseer, National Institute of Technology, Calicut, India

76 - 82

012

Environmental Risk Assessment for Beneficial Reuse of Coal Combustion Residues D.V.S. Praneeth, V.R. Sankar Cheela, Brajesh Dubey, IIT Kharagpur, Kharagpur, India

83 - 91

013

Contribution of Biodegradable Plastics to Global Methane Production Thilini Silva, College of Public Health, East Tennessee State University, Johnson City, USA V.R Sankar Cheela, Brajesh Dubey, IIT Kharagpur, Kharagpur, India

92 - 104

014

Arsenic Contamination of Ground Water in West Bengal : A Report Reetushri Sen, Sutripta Sarkar, Barrackpore Rastraguru Surendranath College Barrackpore, India

105 - 112

015

Organisational Learning as the Linking Pin between Waste Management and Lean Manufacturing Rodrigo Lozano, Ola Wiklund, Kaisu Sammalisto, University of Gävle, Kungsbäcksvägen 47, Gävle, Sweden

113 - 120

Policies and Strategies

121 - 194

016

Socio-Economic and Demographic Profile of Waste Pickers in Brazil and India V. R. Cruvinel, L. H. P. de Lira, University of Brasília, Brasília, Brazil Sadhan Kr. Ghosh, Jadavpur University, Kolkata, India

122 -125

017

Public Private Partnership (PPP) approach for Sustainable Solid Waste Management (SWM) in Faridpur Municipality Md. Fariduzzaman, Mohammed Nayeemur Rahman, Uttam Kumar Saha, Practical Action Bangladesh, Faridpur, Bangladesh

126 - 133

018

Critical Environmental Analysis on Land Disposal of Fly Ash Generated from Coal Fired Thermal Power Plants towards Groundwater Contamination followed by Policy Recommendations A. Bandyopadhyay, University of Calcutta, India

134 - 138

019

The Indian Resource Panel: A Mechanism to Promote Resource Efficiency Policy throughout the Indian Economy U. Becker, T. Fernandes, R. Arora, A. Banerjee , M. S. Saluja, GIZ, New Delhi, India

139 - 145

020

Knowledge and Practices of Municipal Solid Waste Workers: Findings from Focused Group Discussions P.T. Nandimath, Padmashree School of Public Health, Bangalore, India N.S.N Rao, U. Subramaniyan, B. Mishra, B.R. Kalidindi, R. Shrivatava, S. Panta, H. V. PavanKumar, Bruhat Bengaluru Mahanagar Palike Bangalore, India

146 - 153

021

Incorporation of Policy in Development Control Mechanism Facilitating Waste Management: A Study on Megacity Dhaka Kamrul Hasan Sohag, Rajdhani Unnayan Kartripakhsa (RAJUK), (Capital City Development Authority of Bangladesh), Dhaka, Bangladesh Rezaul Karim, Khulna University, Khulna, Bangladesh

154 - 159

022

Role of Indian Standards for Effective Management of Solid Waste B. Sandhya, Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi, India

160 – 167

ix

Sl. No.

Title and Author

Page No.

023

A very Wide Range of Challenges and Inconsistencies in the Revised Municipal Solid Waste Management Rules, 2016 Asit Nema, Greentech Environmental Systems, New Delhi, India

168 - 178

024

Implication of New Plastic Waste Management Rules on Indian industries: Challenges and Implication A.Bhattacharya, NITIE, Mumbai and BE College Shibpur, India

179 - 185

025

Viability-Gap Assessment for Municipal Solid Waste based Waste to Energy Options for India Suneel Pandey, Nidhi Maurya, Anjali Garg, The Energy and Resources Institute (TERI) India Habitat Centre, New Delhi, India

186 - 194

Municipal Waste Management

195 - 240

026

Current Scenario of Municipal Solid Waste Management in India: A Review Z. Usmani, V. Kumar, Indian School of Mines, Dhanbad, India

196 - 206

027

Sustainable Municipal Solid Waste Management and Economics of Informal Sector, for Inclusion in India O.G. Parishwad, Pankaj Shukla, College of Engineering, Pune, India M.D. Mitkari, INDO SCHÖTTLE Auto Parts Pvt. Ltd., Pune, India

207 - 215

028

Municipal Waste Management and Resource Recovery towards Green Growth in Viet Nam Nguyen Trung Thang, Duong Thi Phuong Anh, Institute of Strategy and Policy on Natural Resources and Environment (ISPONRE), Ha Noi, Viet Nam

216 - 220

029

Impact of Municipal Solid Waste on the Environment Motaro Nyasani Esther, T. Selvin Jebaraj Norman, Gandhigram Rural Institute – Deemed University, Tamil Nadu, India

221 - 225

030

Mycoremediaton of Contaminated Soil in MSW Sites Y. Bharath, B.M.S.C.E, Bengaluru, India S.N.Singh, G. Keerthiga, R. Prabhakar, CMAK, Bengaluru, India

226 - 231

031

Developing a Decision Support System for Municipal Vacant Land and Waste Management with Optimized Route Technique Ankita Das, International Society of Waste Management, Air and Water (ISWMAW), Kolkata, India Sadhan Kr. Ghosh, Centre for Quality Management System, Jadavpur University, Kolkata, India

232 - 240

City Specific MSW

241 - 361

032

Study on Primary Waste Collection Systems in 15 Neighborhoods of Dhaka North City Corporation TaifHossain Rocky, Md. Anjum Islam, Uttam Kumar Saha, Practical Action, Dhaka, Bangladesh

242 – 248

033

A Comparative Analysis of Solid Waste Composition and Generation in Five Areas of Dhaka City Md. Sayeed Ur Rahim Mahadi, TaifHossain Rocky, Uttam Kumar Saha, Practical Action, Dhaka, Bangladesh

249 - 255

034

Avifaunal Diversity in Pallikarnai Wetland Area Adjacent to Perungudi MSW Disposal Site, Chennai J.P. Kotangale, Arindam Ghosh, CSIR-NEERI, Nagpur, India Amit K. Ghosh, Jadavpur University, Kolkata, India

256 – 258

x

Sl. No.

Title and Author

Page No.

035

Solid and Liquid Waste Management – A Case Study Ganesha A, IACS, Manipal University, Karnataka, India

259 – 265

036

Identification of Types and Source Specific Characterization and Quantification Study of Solid Waste in Guwahati City, Assam, India Amarjyoti Kashyap, ENVIRON, Guwahati, Assam, India Ruli Borthakur, AryaVidyapeeth College, Guwahati, Assam, India

266 - 275

037

Waste as a Resource: Hong Kong Experience J.W.C. Wong, A. Selvam, Hong Kong Baptist University, Hong Kong SAR, P. R. China Characterization of urban waste management practices in Brazil: A generic sustainable framework based on waste characteristics and urban dimension in the country Borges, M.S., Federal University of Paraná, Brazil

276 – 283

Integrated Solid Waste Management Turns Garbage into Gold: A Case Study of Jabalpur City A. C. Tiwari, Govt. Mahakoshal Arts & Commerce Autonomous College, Madhya Pradesh, India Urbanization and Tourism induced Challenges in Waste Management in Hill Towns: Case of Gangtok Beran Rai, Subhrangsu Goswami, CEPT University, Ahmedabad, India

294 – 299

041

Dumping Yard Free Society through Sustainable Solid Waste Management: A Case Study of Varanasi City Awadhesh Kumar, Rani Durgavati University, Jabalpur, India

312 - 320

042

Resource Recovery Potential from Kitchen Waste: A Case Study in Uttara Sector 4, Dhaka Taif Hossain Rocky, Md. Anjum Islam, Uttam Kumar Saha, Practical Action, Dhaka, Bangladesh

321 - 327

043

Prospect of Climate Mitigation by Integrated Solid Waste Management: A Case Study of Khulna City, Bangladesh T.K. Roy, S.M. Haque, S. T. Hossain, T. Islam, S. Sikder, Khulna University of Engineering and Technology (KUET), Khulna, Bangladesh Nuclear power plant disaster in Fukushima Daiichi, Japan Md. Ghulam Zakir, AbdusSattar Mollah, Altab Hossain, Military Institute of science and Technology (MIST), Dhaka, Bangladesh

328 – 335

045

An Approach towards Integrated Solid Waste Management by Moodbidri Town Municipal Council B. Sheena Naik, S. Shilpa, M. Indu, Moodbidri Town Municipal Council, Moodbidri, India

344 - 348

046

A Study on the Heavy Metal Concentration in waste dumping sites in Titabar, Jorhat, Assam, India Jafrin Farha Hussain, Sabitry Bordoloi, Institute of Advanced Study in Science and Technology (IASST), Guwahati, Assam, India

349 - 353

047

Screening and Characterization of Pyrene Degrading Bacterium from Oil Contaminated Sites around Chandigarh Bulbul Gupta, Sanjeev Puri, Jaspreet Kaur, University Institute of Engineering and Technology, Panjab University, Chandigarh, India

354 - 361

038

039

040

044

xi

284 - 293

300 - 311

336 - 343

Sl. No.

Title and Author

Page No.

Swachh Bharat Mission in India

362 - 398

048

SBM- Inception, Implementation and Changes in all India Perspective Padma Kant Jha, NITI Ayog, Government of India, India

363 - 369

049

SBM Implementation and Performance Benchmark in Select States Sadhan Kumar Ghosh, Jadavpur University, Kolkata, India Padma Kant Jha, NITI Aayog, Government of India, New Delhi, India Yogesh Kumar Singh, NITI Aayog, Government of India, New Delhi, India

370 - 378

050

An Effective Mosquitoes-Insects Killing Machine (MIKM) S.B. Wath, CSIR-NEERI, Nagpur, India

379 - 383

051

Fabrication of a Low Cost Water Purifier Incorporating Agricultural Wastes for the Removal of Dyes and Heavy Metals R. Prabhakar, Y. Bharath, S.N. Singh, BMSCE, Bengaluru, India

384 - 390

SWM in Asia-Pacific Region

391 - 511

052

Faecal Sludge Management in Kushtia Municipality A Co-Composting Fertilizer Approach Anwar Ali, Ranver Ahmed, Kushtia Municipality, Kushtia, Bangladesh

392 – 399

053

Analysis of Composition and Associated Environmental Impacts of Sludge Generated from Dipped Products Manufacturing Industry in Sri Lanka R.L.C. Livera, N.J.G.J. Bandara, University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Sri Lanka

400 - 409

054

Conceptual Framework for Municipal Solid Waste Processing and Disposal System in India A. Aich, Municipal Affairs Department , Govt. of West Bengal, India Sadhan Kr. Ghosh, Jadavpur University, Kolkata, India

410 - 421

055

Emission Characteristics of Gaseous Pollutants from Pilot-Scale SRF Gasification Process S.W. Park, J.S. Lee, W.S. Yang, J.J. Kang, M.T. Alam, Y.C. Seo, Yonsei University, Republic of Korea J.H. Oh, Sam Ho EnviroTech, Gyeonggido, Republic of Korea J.H. Gu, Plant Engineering Center, IAE, Yongin, Republic of Korea S.R. Chennamaneni, V.K. Kandasamy, Chogen Powers, Secunderabad, India

422 - 427

056

Selection of Suitable Landfill Site for Municipal Solid Waste Disposal: A Fuzzy Logic Approach S. Alam, K. A. Kolekar, T. Hazra, S.N. Chakrabarty, Jadavpur University, India

428 - 443

057

Mercury Flow in a Municipal Solid Waste Landfill in Malaysia Nurhawa Abdul Rashid, Agamuthu P., Fauziah S.H., University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

444 – 450

058

Estimation of Emissions of Greenhouse Gases from Municipal Solid Waste of Ho Chi Minh City, Viet Nam R.L. Verma, G. Borongan, Asian Institute of Technology, Pathumthani, Thailand

451 – 463

059

Using Sargassum sp. and Kitchen Waste as Substrates for Vermicast Production Raymund N. Fantonalgo, Western Institute of Technology, La Paz, Iloilo City, Philippines Juliet F. Salubre, Parola, Iloilo City, Philippines

464 – 470

060

The Quantification and the Profiling of Microplastics in Selected Mangrove Sediments in Peninsular Malaysia Azizi Izzuddin Bin Ab. Kadir, Fauziah Binti Shahul Hamid, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

471 - 478

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061

Possibilities and Challenges to Approach Zero Waste for Municipal Solid Waste Management in Ho Chi Minh City Nguyen Thi Phuong Loan, Center for Environmental Technology and Management, Co Giang ward, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam Tran Thi My Dieu, Le Thi Kim Oanh, Van Lang University, Co Giang Ward, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam Alice Sharp, Sandhya Babel, Sirindhorn International Institute of Technology, Thammasat University, PathumThani, Thailand

479 – 487

062

Study on the Effective Reuse of Eggshells as a Resource Recovery from Municipal Solid Waste M. R. Sarder, N. A. Hafiz, M. Alamgir, Khulna University of Engineering & Technology, Khulna, Bangladesh

488 – 493

063

Material Stream in the Recycling Process for Spent Compact Fluorescent Lamp (SCFL) Seung-Whee Rhee, Hyeong-Jin Choi, Kyonggi University, Republic of Korea

494 – 501

064

Biofuels from Indian Ligno-cellulosic Wastes through Pyrolysis: A Review with some Case Studies R. Chowdhury, Chemical Engineering Dept., Jadavpur University, Kolkata, India

502 – 511

SWM in Africian Countries

512 - 546

065

Water Sorption and Permeability of Alginate Edible Film S.R. Mostafa, Cairo University, Egypt K.S.Nagy, M.A.Sorour, Food Technology Research Institute, Cairo, Egypt

513 – 518

066

Improvement of Solid Waste Management Code of Practice Development through Effective Public Consultation S.T. El Sheltawy, M.M.K. Fouad, Cairo University, Cairo, Egypt Nisreen Boghdady, National Center for Social and Criminological Research

519 - 526

067

Characterization of Municipal Solid Wastes from Lagos Metropolis, Nigeria O.M. Ojowuro, Lagos State Waste Management Authority, Lagos State, Nigeria B. Olowe, Konsadem Associates Ltd, Ibadan, Oyo State, Nigeria A.S. Aremu, University of Ilorin, Ilorin, Nigeria

527 - 532

068

Waste to Energy: Developing Countries‘ Perspective A.S. Aremu, University of Ilorin, Ilorin, Nigeria H.O. Ganiyu, University of Ilorin, Ilorin, Nigeria

533 – 539

069

Activated Carbon Prepared from Waste Rubber Tire for Uptake of Fuchsin Acid Dye from Aqueous Solutions Hadeel A. Hosney, Zewailcity for science and technology , Cairo, Egypt Taha E. Farrag, Post Said University, Port Said, Egypt Radwa A. Elsalamony, Egypt Petroleum Research Institute, Cairo, Egypt Mohamed Z. Abd-Elwahhab, El-Minia University, El-Minia, Egypt Joseph J. Farah, National Research Center, El-Giza, Egypt

540 - 546

SWM in European Countries

547 - 589

070

Development of renewable energies and techniques for the use of natural resources in an efficient, reliable and sustainable way Ed de Nijs, HYDRA-EDSG, Belgium Smarajit Roy, CWBS, UK

548 - 555

071

Integrated Biological Treatment to Improve Amendment Quality from Bio-Waste F. Di Maria,University of Perugia, Perugia, Italy

556 - 565

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072

Decision Making on Biomass Conversion to Energy or Chemicals Francisco J. Lozano, Tecnologico de Monterrey, Campus Monterrey Rodrigo Lozano, University of Gävle, Sweden

566 - 572

073

The Technological Level of Equipment of Participants in the ELV Recycling Process in Serbia and the Region M. Pavlovic1, M. Nikolic,―Mihajlo Pupin‖ University of Novi Sad, Serbia S. Arsovski, D. Tadic, University of Kragujevac, Serbia A. Tomovic, University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia

573 - 579

074

Use of Dredged Material (Sediments from Rivers and Ports) as Material for Landfill Restoration/Reclamation Andrea Schüch, Gert Morscheck, University of Rostock, Germany Michael Henneberg, Steinbeis Transferzentrum Applied Landscape Planning, Rostock, Germany

580 - 589

Landfill and Leachate Management

590 - 690

075

Leachate and Septage Management of Model Regional Waste Management Centre of Six Waste Bank Municipalities of River Hooghly A. Dutta, A. Roy, I. Mookherjee, Jadavpur University, Kolkata, India

591 - 601

076

Reducing pressure on existing Landfill: Challenges and Solutions accompanied by a Case Study S. Sengupta, S. Mukherjee, Waste management Consultant to Uthhan, Kolkata, India S. Mukherjee, Data analyst trainee, Shreemitram Environ Management.

602 - 610

077

Assessment of the Impact of Uncontrolled Landfill Sites in Georgia on Ecosystems of the Adjacent Areas Nugzar Buachidze, Liana Intskirveli Tamar Gigauri, Georgian Technical University, Institute of Hydrometeorology, Tbilisi, Georgia Khatuna Chikviladze, ―Georgian Solid Waste Management Company‖LTD, Georgia

611 - 616

078

In their Backyard! Impact of Landfill Siting and Dumping on Quality of Life of Adjacent Population in Amritsar City Kiran Sandhu, Guru Nanak Dev University, Amritsar, India

617 - 625

079

Improving Stability of Overburden Dump through Volume Minimization by Codeposition of Materials based on Size and Material Type Distribution R.M. Bishwal, Phalguni Sen, M. Jawed, ISM Dhanbad, India

626 – 633

080

Electrocoagulation Process for Landfill Leachate Treatment: A Review S.K. Maiti, T. Hazra, A. Debsarkar, Jadavpur University, Kolkata, India

634 – 641

081

Remediation of Metal from Leachate Contaminated Soil Using Isolates from Landfill Jayanthi, B, Emenike C.U., Agamuthu P, Fauziah SH, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

642 – 649

082

Assessment of Additional Land Area Required for MSW Landfills/Dumps in Million Plus Cities of India: Two Scenarios Swati Rani, Manoj Datta, A.K. Nema, Indian Institute of Technology, New Delhi, India Amit Kumar, Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee, India

650 - 657

083

Anaerobic Treatment of Landfill Leachate using EGSB Reactor V S Soraganvi, Basaveshwar Engineering College, Bagalkot. Bhargavi, Gogte Institute of Technology Belagavi. A.S. Tanksali, BLDEA‘s V. P. Dr. P. G. Halakatti College of Engineering & Technology, Vijayapur, India

658 - 666

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084

Effects of Landfill Leachate on Aquatic Organism: A Case Study of Leptobarbus Hoevenii S.H. Fauziah, A.B. NurKamilah, C.U. Emenike, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

667 - 671

085

Evaluation of Physicochemical Properties of Leachate and Assessment of Heavy Metal Contamination in DMSW due to Leaching from open Dumpsites Ameen B.A., Adebayo G.B., Adekola F.A, Orimolade B.O., University of Ilorin P.M.B 1515 Ilorin Nigeria Solar Photocatalytic Leachate Treatment by Zinc Oxide and Titanium Dioxide M. Ramaraj, Tamilnadu College of Engineering, India S. Anbu Meena, SNS College of Engineering, India

672 - 681

Composting

691 - 772

087

Eisenia Fetida for Production of High Quality Vermicompost from different Organic Waste Parveen Gill, Dharambir Singh, R.K. Gupta, Hem Lata, Urmila, ChaudharyCharan Singh Haryana Agricultural University, Haryana, India

692 – 698

088

Performance Evaluation of In-vessel system for Co-composting of Septage Anu Rachel Thomas, Praveen Rosario A, Ligy Philip, Indian Institute of Technology Madras, Chennai, India Martin Kranert, University of Stuttgart, Stuttgart, Germany

699 - 708

089

In-Vessel Composting of Food Waste: A Novel Approach Anand. M, Bright Singh. I.S., Chandini P.K., Harindranathan Nair. M.V., Mithun A.M., Samitha K.A., Syamkumar R., Unnikkuttan B., School of Environmental Studies, Cochin University of Science and Technology, Kochi, Kerala, India

709 - 722

090

Effect of Lead and Nickel on Growth and Reproductive Potential of Earthworm, eisenia Fetida in Organic Waste Urmila, R.K.Gupta, Dharambir Singh, Hem Lata, Parveen Gill, Chhavi Jatwani, Chaudhary Charan Singh Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar Haryana, India

723 – 730

091

Assessment of Phytotoxicity in the Composts Derived through Different Techniques from Municipal Solid Waste and Industrials Solids T. Meenambal, T. Lakshmi Priya, J. Jeyanthi, Government College of Technology, Coimbatore, India S.P. Ravikannan, Engineer, CCMC, Coimbatore, India S. Swathi, Anna University, Chennai, India

731 - 737

092

Production of high quality compost from feather waste: A novel, cost effective and sustainable approach for feather waste management and organic soil management M. D. Shah, A. R. Gupta, Vivekanand Education Society‘s College of Arts, Science & Commerce, Mumbai, India, R. B. Vaidya, The Institute of Science, Colaba, Mumbai, India

738 - 745

093

Assessment of Maturity and Quality of Compost through Evolution of Aerobic and Anaerobic Composting of Flower Waste Dayanand Sharma, Vimal Raj C, Kunwar D. Yadav, S V National Institute of Technology, Surat, India

746 - 754

094

Aerobic Composting of Household Biodegradable Waste- An Experimental Study V.S. Vairagade, S.A. Vairagade, Priyadarshini College of Engineering, Nagpur, Maharashtra, India

755 – 764

086

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095

Composting of Mixed Toxic Weeds Eichhornia Crassipe and Parthenium Hysterophorus Ganesh Chandra Dhal, Nitesh Kumar Sinha, Devendra Mohan, Indian Institute of Technology (BHU), Varanasi, India

765 - 772

Industrial Waste Treatment and Management

773 - 878

096

An Integrated Approach for Utilizing Tannery Solid Waste in Multiple Applications Pawan Kumar Bharti, R. S. Haldar, A. K. Tyagi, Shriram Institute for Industrial Research, Delhi, India

774 – 781

097

Management of Solid wastes in Steel Industry towards Reuse and Recycling Sushovan Sarkar, Heritage Institute of Technology, Kolkata, India Debabrata Mazumd, Indian Institute of Engineering Science and Technology, Shibpur, India

782 - 788

098

Studies on Paper and Pulp Industry Waste for Leather Making: An Insight in Converting Waste to Wealth P. Balasubramanian, M. Vedhanayagam, G.C. Jayakumar, K.J. Sreeram, J. RaghavaRao, B.U. Nair, CSIR-Central Leather Research Institute, Chennai, India

789 – 796

099

Tannery Solid Waste: A New Raw Material for Rubber Sole Manufacture P. Yuvaraj, J. RaghavaRao, N. Nishad Fathima, CSIR-Central Leather Research Institute, Chennai, India

797 – 802

100

Granulated Blast Furnace Slag – A Boon for Foundry Industry I. Narasimha Murthy, J. BabuRao, Andhra University, Visakhapatnam, India

803 – 810

101

Investigation on Moulding Properties of Blast Furnace Slag and Silica Sand I. Narasimha Murthy, J BabuRao, Andhra University, Visakhapatnam, India

811 – 818

102

Integrity of Cement Solidification of Residual Metal Hydroxide Waste D.S. Koo, H.H. Sung, S.S. Kim, G.N. Kim, J.W. Choi, Korea Atomic Energy Research Institute, Daejeon, Republic of Korea

819 – 825

103

Production of Construction Bricks Using Iron Ore Tailings and Clay K. Behera, B.P. Bose, M.K. Mondal, Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur, Kharagpur, India

825 – 835

104

Bioremediation of Uranium Mine Tailings Waste Paltu Kumar Dhal, Jadavpur University, Kolkata, India Pinaki Sar, Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur, India

836 – 843

105

Environmental Sound Management of Asbestos Containing Wastes Generated from Industries in India R. Singh, J.M Vivek, B. Rao and S. R. Asolekar, IIT Bombay, India M. Sontakke, Institute of Chemical Technology, Mumbai, India

844 – 854

106

Analysis of Erosion Properties of Polymer Composite filled with Granite Dust for Hydraulic Turbine Blade Material J. Joy Mathavan, Sugandha Shrestha, Rehan Kaifi, Amar Patnaik, Malaviya National Institute of Technology, Jaipur, India

855 – 860

107

Behaviour of Fly Ash-Lime-Gypsum mixed with Tire Granulates Neetika Narang, SIRDA Institution of Engineering and Technology, Mandi, India. S.P.Guleria, JawaharLal Govt. Engineering College, Sundernagar, India

861 - 871

108

Utilization of an Industrial Waste from Alumina Industry for Partial Substitution of Crushed Fines in High Volume Fly Ash Concrete M. P. Deshmukh, D.D. Sarode, Institute of Chemical Technology, Mumbai, India.

872 - 878

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109

110

Title and Author

Page No.

Sludge Management

879 - 937

Sustainable Management of Arsenic Bearing Sludge I. Mookherjee, A. Roy, A. Dutta, A. Debsarkar, P. Aitch, Jadavpur University, Kolkata, India Effect of Sulphate on Fermentative Sludge Hydrolysis Cum Biodegradation of Waste Activated Sludge R. Narayani, P.C. Sabumon, VIT University, Chennai, India

880 - 889

889 – 898

111

Impact of Varied Ratio of Duckweed (SpyrodelaPolyrizha) and Waste Activated Sludge on Anaerobic Digestion R.Z. Gaur, S.S. Suthar, SENR, Doon University, Dehradun, India

899 – 904

112

An Effective Dewatering Method for Eco-Friendly Disposal of Faecal Sludge M. Vasudevan, S. Muthamizhan, E. Jagannathan, U.S. Karthikeyan, R. Anandraj, Bannari Amman Institute of Technology, Tamil Nadu, India

905 – 913

113

Vermiconversion of Distillery Industrial Sludge in Combination with Market Based Vegetable Waste Employing EiseinaFetida and Eudrillus Eugenia S. Susila, D. Tamilselvi, M. Vasanthy, Bharathidasan University, Tiruchirappalli, Tamil Nadu, India

914 - 929

114

Characterization and Treatment of Petroleum Sludge Waste Chiranjeevi T, Mahesh N, Gupta S, Gokak DT, Bhargava S, Corporate R&D Centre, Udyogkendra, Greater Noida, India

930 - 937

Waste to Energy

938 - 997

115

Waste to Energy Trends and Prospects: A Review S.T. El-Sheltawy, Mai Fouad, Cairo University, Giza, Egypt Eslam G. Al-Sakkari, Renewable Energy Engineering Program - Zewail City of Science and Technology, Giza, Egypt

939 – 946

116

Carbon footprint assessment of Recycling Flouspar from Waste Calcium Fluoride (CaF2) Sludge Allen H. Hu, Institute of Environmental Engineering and Management, Taiwan Chien-Hung Kuo, Ciao-Sin, Hong, Lance Hong, National Taipei University of Technology (Taipei Tech), Taiwan

947 – 952

117

Power From Briquettng Smarajit Roy, City Wastes Bioenergy Solutions Ltd. London, UK

953 – 961

118

Accident Cases and Safety Issues in Gasification Plants Yongseung Yun, Jae H. Gu, Seok Woo Chung, Institute for Advanced Engineering, Yongin, Republic of Korea

962 - 968

119

Energy Analysis of Water Hyacinth - Cow Dung - Saw Dust Mixture BriquettesAn Indian Perspective Rahul Baidya, Sadhan Kumar Ghosh, Jadavpur University, India Tapobrata Bhattacharya, Gunjan Kumar, Institute of Engineering & Management, Kolkata, India

969 - 973

120

Solid Wastes Management By Electrical Co-Generation For An Automated Indian Agricultural Land D.BabuRajendra Prasad, Vidyavardhaka college of Engineering, Mysore, India Energy Content of Egyptian MSW as a Supporting Tool for Waste to Energy (WTE) Approach S.T. El Sheltawy M.M.K. Fouad, S.A. El Sherbiny, H. A. Sibak, Cairo University, Cairo, Egypt

974 – 979

121

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980 – 988

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Page No.

122

Evaluation of Use of Solid Recovered Fuel (SRF) as Alternative Fuel and Raw Material (AFR) in Cement Kiln Ulhas Parlikar, Geocycle India, ACC Limited, India Amit Goyal, Geocycle India, Ambuja Cement Ltd., India Ashish Mishra, Geocyel India, Wadi Cement Works, ACC Limited, India Megha Shah, Andy Hill, SUEZ Recycling and Recovery UK, London, UK Sadhan Kr. Ghosh, Mechanical Engineering Department, Jadavpur University, Kolkata, India

989 - 997

W2E: Pyrolysis and Gasification

998 - 1059 999 - 1005

123

Intensification of Bio-oil Yield from Waste Banana Pseudo-stems - Experimental Studies on Catalytic Pyrolysis S. Das, S. Ghosh, R. Chowdhury, Jadavpur University, Kolkata, India

124

Non-Burn Technologies (NBT) in Management of Food Wastes - A Possible Paradigm for Smart Cities Pinaki Dasgupta, Shristi, New Delhi, India Rajender Gondane, NRDC, New Delhi, India

125

A Study on Fixed Bed Gasification of Treated Solid Refuse Fuel Residue M.T. Alam, J.S. Lee, W.S. Yang, S.W. Park, J.J. Kang, S.Y. Lee, Y.C. Seo, Yonsei University, Wonju, Republic of Korea S.R. Chennamaneni , V. K. Kandasamy, Secunderabad, Andhra Pradesh, India

1016 - 1020

126

Updraft Gasification of Waste and Produced Syngas Treatment Murat Dogru, Beltran Technologies, Gebze Technical University, University of Newcastle Newcastle, UK Michael R. Beltran, Swapan Mitra, Eon Sang Park, Beltran Technologies, Brooklyn, New York, United States Ahmet Erdem, Beltran Technologies, Gebze Technical University, Istanbul, Turkey

1021 – 1029

127

Energy Recovery from Scrap Tyre Waste by using downdraft Gasifier R. Chantrabose, G. Naveen1, S.Saranya1, B. Karpagavalli1, V. Kirubakaran The Gandhigram Rural Institute – Deemed University, Gandhigram, Dindigul, India.

1030 – 1035

128

Plasma Pyrolysis – An Environment Friendly Technology for Safe Disposal of Biomedical, Municipal and Hazardous Waste with Possible Energy Recovery S. Mukherjee, S.K Nema, V. Jain, P.V Murugan, A. Sanghriyat, C. Patil, V. Chauhan, N. Jamnapara, Institute for Plasma Research, Dept. of Atomic Energy, Gandhinagar, Gujarat, India

1036 – 1040

129

Microwave Assisted Pyrolysis: Viable Route for Plastic to Energy Chayan Bhalla, Raj Mohan NIT Karnataka, Mangalore, India

1041 – 1051

130

Calcium Bentonite Catalysed Pyrolysis of Different Plastics Achyut K. Panda, Veer Surendra Sai University of Technology, Burla, Odisha, India

1052 - 1059

C& D Waste Management

1060 - 1109

131

An Assessment of C&D Waste Quality and its Recycling Potential - An Indian Perspective Vidyadhar V. Gedam, PawanLabhasetwar CSIR-NEERI, Nagpur, India Christian J. Engelsen, SINTEF Building and Infrastructure, Oslo, Norway

1061 - 1068

132

Recycling of Ceramic Dust Waste in Ceramic Tiles Manufacture Sh. K. Amin, National Research Centre, Dokki, Giza, Egypt S.A. El–Sherbiny, D.A. Nagi, H.A. Sibak, M.F. Abadir, Cairo University, Giza, Egypt

1069 – 1080

xviii

1006 – 1015

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Page No.

133

Significance of Presence of Asbestos in Construction and Demolition Wastes in India Richa Singh, J.M. Vivek, Shyam R. Asolekar, Bakul Rao , Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, Powai, Mumbai, India

1081 – 1091

134

Technical and Economic Parameters Affecting Reuse of Construction & Demolition Waste in India: Case Studies from Bengaluru and Ahmedabad A.Banerjee, R. Arora, U. Becker, T. Fernandes, GIZ, New Delhi, India

1092 - 1100

135

Use of Minestone from Coal Mine Overburden as Aggregate in Concrete B.P. Bose, K. Behera, Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur, Kharagpur, India M.K. Mondal, Rajendra Mishra School of Engineering, India

1101 - 1109

WEEE Management

1110- 1195

136

A Pilot Study of E-Waste Management in Ahmedabad City E.V.Dalal, G.M.Doctor, CEPT University,Ahmedabad, India

1111 – 1118

137

Estimation of E-waste generation – A lifecycle based approach ReshmaRoychoudhuri, ChandrimaBanerjeee, Heritage Institute of Technology, India BiswajitDebnath, Sadhan Kr. Ghosh, Jadavpur University, Kolkata, India Debasree De, PavelAlbores, Aston Business School, Birmingham,UK

1119 - 1124

138

Assessment of Ecological and Health Risk associated with Informal Handling of E-waste: A Case Study of Sangrampur, South 24 Parganas Dipsikha Dasgupta, Anupam Debsarkar, Jadavpur University, Kolkata, India Amitava Gangopadhyay, Brainware Engineering College, West Bengal, Kolkata, India Debasish Chatterjee, University of Kalyani, Kalyani, West Bengal, India

1125 – 1131

139

Toxicity Characterization of Heavy Metals from Waste Printed Circuit Boards Anshupriya, SubrataHait, Indian Institute of Technology Patna, Bihar, India

1132 – 1136

140

Toxic Pollutants Survey in Soils of Electronic Waste Contaminated Sites in Delhi NCR M.D. Salam, A. Varma, Amity Institute of Microbial Technology, Amity University, Noida, India

1137 – 1144

141

Challenges and Opportunities of E-Waste Management in Egypt S.T. El-Sheltawy, Cairo University, Giza, Egypt D. M. Abdo, Central of Metallurgical Research and Development, Cairo, Egypt

1145 – 1150

142

E-waste Management and Resource Recovery in Viet Nam Nguyen Trung Thang, Duong Thi Phuong Anh, Institute of Strategy and Policy on Natural Resources and Environment, Viet Nam

1151 - 1155

143

E-Waste Recycling in Taiwan Hsiao-Kang Ma, National Taiwan University, Taiwan

1156 – 1165

144

Security Threat Analysis and Prevention Techniques in Electronic Waste P. Roychowdhury The George Washington University, Washington,United States J.M. Alghazo, Prince Mohammad Bin Fahd University, Al Khobar, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia B. Debnath, Jadavpur University, Kolkata, India S. Chatterjee Lappeenranta University of Technology, Lappeenranta, Finland O.K.M. Ouda, Prince Mohammad Bin Fahd University, Al Khobar, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia

1166 – 1174

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Page No.

145

A novel approach for E-Waste Management with Energy Recovery Potential Analysis V. Arunraj, S, Kayalvizhi, S. Parthasarathy, S. Prabhat Bhuddha Dev & V. Kirubakaran, The Gandhigram Rural Institute-Deemed University, Dindigul, India

1175 – 1180

146

Analysis of E-waste Supply Chain Framework in India Using the Analytical Hierarchy Process Rahul Baidya, Biswajit Debnath, Sadhan Kr. Ghosh, Jadavpur University, India

1181 – 1188

147

An analysis of E-waste Recycling Technologies from the Chemical Engineering Perspective Biswajit Debnath, Ranjana Chowdhury, Sadhan Kumar Ghosh, Jadavpur University, Kolkata, India

1189 – 1195

Plastic Waste Management

1196 - 1266

148

Modelling and Simulation of Microwave Assisted Pyrolysis of Plastic K. Sreelakshmy, N. Sindhu, Government Engineering College, Kozhikode, India

1197 – 1208

149

Fly Ash as Backfill Material in Slopes using Waste Pet Bottles as Reinforcement Maheboobsab. B. Nadaf, Sushovan Dutta, J. N. Mandal, IIT Bombay, Mumbai, India

1209 – 1215

150

Effect of Physical Presence of Waste Plastics in the Degradation of Municipal Solid Waste in Landfill A. Ghosh1, J. P. Sarkar, B. Das, National Institute of Technology, Durgapur, India

1216 – 1224

151

Pollution from Plastic Waste G Das, International Society of Waste Management, Air and Water ( ISWMAW), Kolkata, India A. Aich, Researcher under Jadavpur University, West Bengal, India.

1225 – 1233

152

Carbon Nanotubes as a Resourceful Product Derived from Waste Plastic –A Review A. Mukherjee, International Society of Waste Management, Air and Water, Kolkata, India B. Debnath, Sadhan Kr. Ghosh, Jadavpur University, Kolkata, India

1234 – 1247

153

Contribution of biodegradable plastics to global methane production Thilini Silva, College of Public Health, East Tennessee State University, Johnson City, USA VR Sankar Cheela and Brajesh Dubey, IIT Kharagpur, Kharagpur, India

1248 – 1260

154

An Overview of Plastic Waste Management in India Nisha Bura, Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi, India

1261 - 1266

Chemical Engineering in Waste Management

1267 - 1316

155

Acid catalysed cross-linking of poly vinyl alcohol (PVA) by glutaraldehyde: Effect of crosslink density on the characteristics of PVA membrane used in single chambered microbial fuel cell Ruchira Rudra, Patit Paban Kundu, University of Calcutta, Kolkata, India

1268 – 1282

153

Recycling of Solid Waste to Heterogeneous Catalyst for Production of Valuable Fuel Additives P. Mukhopadhyay, R. Chakraborty, Jadavpur University, Kolkata, West Bengal, India

1283 – 1291

157

Valorization of by Products in Vegetable oil Industry using Membrane Technology Ranjana Das, Chiranjib Bhattacharjee, Jadavpur University, Kolkata, India

1292 – 1298

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158

Effective Removal of TDS and COD from Sugar Effluent using Green Synthesis of Magnetic Iron Nano-particle with Trigonellafoenum-Graecum Seed Mucilage Sowmiya Rajalakshmi B., A. Ancy Jenifer., K. G. Ahila., C. Thamarai Selvi, Mother Teresa Women‘s University, Kodaikanal, India. M. Vasanthy, Bharathidasan University, Trichy, India.

1299 – 1307

159

Utilization of Paper Waste to Produce Ethyl Levulinate, a Biodiesel Additive R. Karmakar, A. Rajor, Thapar University, Patiala, India K. Kundu, CSIR CMERI CoEFM, Ludhiana, India

1308 - 1316

Waste Utilisation and Minimisation

1317 - 1411

160

Material Flow Analysis for a Sustainable Waste Management System in a Hypermarket P. Agamuthu, W.J. Hong, S.H. Fauziah, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

1318 – 1323

161

Future Challenges of Overburden Waste Management in Indian Coal Mines R.M. Bishwal, Phalguni Sen, M. Jawed, ISM Dhanbad, India

1324 – 1330

162

Problematic of Solid Waste Management in Pobe Commune (Benin, West Africa) Léocadie ODOULAMI, Mireille et Olatoréra LADEYO, Universitéd‘AbomeyCalavi (UAC)., République du Bénin (Afrique de l‘Ouest)

1331 – 1336

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Solid Waste Management Scenario in Public University Campuses of Bangladesh: A Comparative Study between KUET and Khulna University T.K. Roy, K.M.M. Ekram, G. Barua, S. T. Hossain, F. Akhter, Khulna University of Engineering & Technology (KUET), Khulna, Bangladesh

1337 – 1344

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Solid Waste Management (SWM) : Case Studies at an Educational Campus and in the neighbourhood of Panihati , North 24 Pargana, West Bengal, India Sucharita Bhattacharyya, Guru Nanak Institute of Technology, Kolkata, India

1345 – 1353

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Safe Disposal of Hospital Waste – A Review Nirmal Paul, BishnuPada Mukherjee, National Institute of Technology, Durgapur, West Bengal, India Priyabrata Banerjee, Amit Ganguly, Subrata Mondal, Pradip Kumar Chatterjee, CSIR-Central Mechanical Engineering Research Institute (CMERI), Durgapur, West Bengal, India Richard Blanchard, Loughborough University, UK

1354 – 1361

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Solid waste management in India: A brief review Priyabrata Banerjee, PritamGhosh, AmitGanguly, Naresh Chandra Murmu, Pradip K Chatterjee,CSIR-Central Mechanical Engineering Research Institute (CMERI), , Durgapur, West Bengal, India. Abhijit Hazra,Visva-Bharati University, Santiniketan, Bolpur, India

1362 – 1377

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Hazardous Wastes Generation and Management in Ship Recycling Yards in India: A Case Study J.M. Vivek, R. Singh, S.R. Asolekar, Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, Mumbai, India

1378 - 1388

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An Approach towards Sustainable Municipal Solid Waste Management in India K.V. Shah, Swachh Bharat Mission-Gujarat, Gandhinagar, India D.D. Shah, Structural Engg. KD‘s Construction Pvt. Ltd, Vadodara, India

1389 – 1395

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Reliability Modelling of Railway Signaling System By Markov Process Nikesh Kumar, S. Panja, R. Baidya Institute of Engineering & Management, Kolkata, India

1396 – 1402

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Multi Stakeholder Partnership for Managing Solid Waste: A Case Study of ITC Limited Giresh Mohan, Social Investments, ITC Limited, Bhopal, India

1403 - 1411

Air Pollution

1412 - 1442

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Study of Greenhouse Gas Emissions from MSW Management Practices in Chandigarh Amandeep Singh, S.K. Sharma, Panjab University, Chandigarh, India

1413 – 1421

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Air Pollution from Municipal Solid Waste Management Techniques D. Majumdar, S. Ganguly, CSIR-National Environmental Engineering Research Institute, Zonal Laboratory, Kolkata, India

1422 – 1435

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Assessment of Air Contamination Potential from Waste Dumps in Developing Countries Amit Kumar, Manoj Datta, A. K. Nema, Indian Institute of Technology Delhi, New Delhi, India

1436 – 1442

Modelling in SWM

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Cost Analysis of Municipal Solid Waste Management Using Waste Compacting Stations: A Case Study Payel Ghosh, Amity University, Kolkata, India Sadhan Kumar Ghosh, Jadavpur University, Kolkata, India

1444 – 1450

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Fuzzy logic modelling to predict residential solid waste generation: A case study of Baranagar K. A. Kolekar, B. Bardhan, T. Hazra, S. N. Chakrabarty, Jadavpur University Kolkata, India

1451 - 1459

175

Land use based solid waste generation modelling for sustainable commercial development in small/medium scale urban areas P. P. Anilkumar, K. Chithra, National Institute of Technology, Calicut, India

1460 – 1468

176

Total Global Warming Potential from Open MSW Dump Site, Kanpur by using Land GEM model Akanksha Kaushal, IFTM University, Moradabad, India M.P. Sharma, Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee, Uttarakhand, India

1469 – 1477

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A Study to Establish an Energy Efficient Sustainable Business Model in Virtual ERP

1478 – 1483

Ipsita Saha, GNIT, Kolkata, India Amit Kundu, Techno India, Kolkata, India Sadhan Kumar Ghosh, Jadavpur University, Kolkata, India 178

Landfill Site Selection for Kolkata City using GIS and SSI K. Paul1, A. P. Krishna, BIT Mesra, Ranchi, India A. Dutta, Jadavpur University, Kolkata, India

1484 - 1492

Waste Water Treatment

1493 - 1607

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Grey water Treatment Using Waste Biomass Derived Biosorbent for Recycling In Agricultural Applications P. Bhattacharya, S. Ghosh, S. Majumdar,Ceramic Membrane Division, CSIRCentral Glass and Ceramic Research Institute, Kolkata, India

1494 - 1502

180

Azo Dye Rich Wastewater Treatment by Combined Biodegradation-Adsorption Approach: Optimization, Modeling and Toxicity Analysis P. Banerjee, A. Mukhopadhyay, University of Calcutta, Kolkata, India P. Das, Jadavpur University, Kolkata, India

1503 – 1513

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Study of ammonia removal from simulated coke oven wastewater using commercial charcoal activated carbon U. Pathak, T. Mandal, D.D Mandal,NIT Durgapur, India P. Das, S. Datta, Jadavpur University, Kolkata, India

1514 – 1520

182

Use of Waste Bagasse for Waste Tannery Water Treatment S.T. El Sheltawy, D.D. El Sawy, K.Z. Abdalla, Cairo University, Giza, Egypt M.M. El Shafei, Housing & Building National Research Center, Dokki, Egypt

1521 – 1526

183

Adsorption of Hexavalent Chromium by Using Sweetlime and Lemon Peel Powder Rane N.M., Shewale S.P., Admane S.V, Sapkal R.S., MIT Academy of Engineering, Alandi, Pune, India

1527 - 1535

184

Optimisation Of Adsorption Parameter For Removal Of Acetaminophen From Pharmaceutical Waste Water Using Box-Behnken Design Suparna Bhattacharyya, Jadavpur University, Kolkata, India Monal Dutta, Calcutta Institute of Technology, Kolkata, India

1536 – 1540

185

Synthesis, Characterization and Application as Adsorbent for Removal of MB Dye by using CeO2 Nanoparticles M.D. Sardare, C. Ovhal, A. Muneshwar, A. Shinde, MIT Academy of Engineering, Alndi Pune, India

1541 - 1547

186

Performance Study of Jute Fabricated Filter Media for the Treatment of Faecal Sludge Induced Waste Water M. H. Mishuk, S. M. T. Islam, M. Alamgir, Khulna University of Engineering & Technology, Khulna, Bangladesh

1548 – 1556

187

Deployment of Hydrometallurgical System for Heavy Metals Recovery from Wastewater at Industrial Scale Chilin Chenga, Hydroionic EnviroTec Co., Ltd., Taiwan (ROC), Chinese American Environmental Professionals Association (CAEPA) Shu-Yuan Pan, Carbon Cycle Research Center, National Taiwan University

1557 – 1536

188

Significance of Constructed Wetlands for Enhancing Reuse of Treated Sewages in Rural India R.S. Sutar, Dheeraj Kumar, K.A. Kamble, Dinesh Kumar, Y. Parikh and S.R. Asolekar, Indian Institute of Technology ,Bombay, Mumbai, India

1564 – 1570

189

Use of MoringaOleifera seeds as a Primary Coagulant in Textile Waste Water Treatment Divya Dixit,Varun Agarwal, Mansi Jayeshbhai Bhatt, Marwadi Education Foundations Group of Institutions, Rajkot, Gujarat, India.

1571 – 1575

190

Waste Water Treatment using Electrolysis Technique: A Feasibility Study Akhilesh Kumar Nair, M. Naveen Kumar, J.C Ramya, V. Murugan, V. Kirubakaran, Gandhigram Rural Institute-Deemed University Dindigul, Tamil Nadu, India

1576 – 1583

191

Chromium (VI) reduction from tannery wastewater and aqueous solutions by Adsorption and Biosorption S. Ramarajan, D. Tamilselvi and M.Vasanthy, Bharathidasan University, Tiruchirappalli, Tamil Nadu, India

1584 – 1594

192

Removal of Ranitidine from Pharmaceutical Waste Water using Graphene Oxide(GO) Suparna Bhattacharyya, Jadavpur University, Kolkata, India

1595 - 1601

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Dye containing wastewater treatment using treated jute Suvendu Manna, Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur, India Papita Das, Debasis Roy, Jadavpur University, Kolkata, India

1602 - 1607

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Biomass and Biowaste Utilization

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Biogenic Waste and Residues in Germany – Amount, Current Utilisation and Perspectives M. Nelles, G. Morscheck, A.Schüch, University of Rostock, Rostock, Germany A. Brosowski, Deutsches Biomasse for schungszentrum GmbH (German Biomass Research Centre), Leipzig, Germany

1609 - 1615

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Review Article on Lignocellulose Biomass as Substrate for Pleurotus (Oyster Mushroom) Cultivation Komal, RachnaGulati, Pooja, Itisha, Arvind ChaudharyCharan Singh Haryana Agricultural University, Adraash Nagar Narwana Road Jind, Jind, India

1616 – 1621

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Recent Trends in Catalytic Hydrolysis of Waste Lignocellulosic Biomass for Production of Fermentable Sugars S. Chatterjee, R. Chakraborty, Jadavpur University, Kolkata, West Bengal, India

1622 – 1630

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The Cost Effective Stirred Tank Reactor for Cellulase Production from Alkaline Pretreated Agriculture Waste Biomass N.N. Deshavath, V.V. Goud, V.V. Dasu, Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati, Guwahati, Assam, India S.K. Sahoo, M.M. Panda, Utkal University, Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India S. Mahanta, Ramjas College, University of Delhi, New Delhi, India Annapurna Jetty, CSIR-Indian Institute of Chemical Technology, Hyderabad,Telangana, India

1631 - 1638

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Effects of sugarcane bagasse biochar amendment on geotechnical properties of clayey silt- bentonite cover soil and landfill gas emission Ayshwarya Sudhakar, Dr. George.K.Varghese,Dr.Remya Neelancherry, National Institute of Technology Calicut, India,

1639 - 1650

199

Biotransformation of Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) to Bioenergy: Prospects and Potentials Piyush Nandaa, RamkrishnaSenb, RamalingamDineshkumar, Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur, India

1651 – 1657

200

Preparation and Characterization of Solid Catalysts for Saccharification of Biomass A. Mallick, Heritage Institute of Technology, Kolkata, India M. Mukhopadhyay, University of Calcutta, Kolkata, India

1658 – 1664

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Biodegradation behaviour of Cellulose reinforced PMMA composites in Pond Water S. Sengupta, Papita Das, S. Datta, Jadavpur University, Kolkata, India S. Sain, A. Mukhopadhyay University of Calcutta, Kolkata, India D. Ray, University of Limerick, Limerick, Ireland

1665 – 1670

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Utilization of waste biomass derived bioglycerol for synthesis of industrially important products P. Karan, R. Chakraborty, Jadavpur University, Kolkata, India

1671 – 1680

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Stubble Decomposition (In Situ) of Two Rice Varieties through Microbial Inoculation Nilay Borah, Rajen Barua, Amrita Phukon, Kashyap Porag Bezbaruah, Prassana Kumar Pathak, Kailash Hazarika, Assam agricultural University, Jorhat, Assam, India

1681 - 1689

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Cassava Processing Wastes: Options and Potentials for Resource Recovery in Nigeria C.G. Achi, A.O. Coker, Faculty of Technology, University of Ibadan M.K.C. Sridhar, Faculty of Public Health, University of Ibadan

1690 - 1697

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Utilization of high density biomass - deoiled cake of JatrophaCurcas Renny Andrew, NitinSomkuwar, Gokak D.T., Sanjay Bhargava, BPCL, Udyog Kendra, Greater Noida, India Eco-Friendly Management of Wet Coffee Processing Solid Waste Biomass Ancy Jenifer A., C. Thamarai Selvi, Mother Teresa Women‘s University, Kodaikanal, India

1698 - 1707

Sustainable Organic Waste Management in Neighbourhoods through Productive Urban Landscapes Amritha P.K., Anilkumar P.P., National Institute of Technology, Calicut, India

1715 - 1721

Biogas

1722 - 1763

208

Biogas production from Waste De-oiled Cakes: A Review N. Das, R. Chakraborty, Jadavpur University, Kolkata, India

1723 – 1730

209

Feasibility Study on Implementing Kitchen Waste based Biogas Plant at Tezpur University, Assam Sachankar Buragohain, Dipam Patowary, Sampriti Kataki, GunajitDev Sarma, Rupam Patowary, Barkhang Brahma, DC Baruah, Tezpur University, Napaam, Assam, India Helen West, Michele Clarke, University of Nottingham, UK

1731 – 1737

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The Potential of Biogas Recovery from Anaerobic Co-Digestion of FecalSludge and Market Waste Hoang Le Phuong University of Technology, Thai Nguyen Province, Vietnam Nguyen Thi Kim Thai, National University of Civil Engineering, Hanoi City, Vietnam

1738 – 1743

211

Use of Kitchen Waste for Generation of Biogas H.S. Jeswani, Adwait Apte, Vasavi Cheernam, Madhusudan Kamat, Sudhanshu Kamat Parineeta Kashikar, Sardar Patel College of Engineering, Mumbai, India

1744 – 1753

212

Experimental Studies on Biomethanation Process in a Batch Anaerobic Digester using Natural Substrates Amit Ganguly, Pradip Kumar Chatterjee, Central Mechanical Engineering Research Institute, Durgapur, India Biplab Roy, Gopinath Halder, National Institute of Technology, Durgapur, India Richard Blanchard, Loughborough University, Leicestershire, U.K

1754 – 1763

Biofuel and Bio Energy

1764 - 1800

213

Enhanced Biofuel Production from the Eichhornia Crassipesusing Kluyveromyces Fragillis Swathi Sudhakar, Chakravarthy Muninathan, Jayachandran Krishnan, Anna University, Chennai, India Lakshmi Priya Thyagarajan, Government College of Technology, Coimbatore, India

1765 – 1770

214

Bioethanol Production from Waste Breads Using Saccharomyces cerevisiae P. Datta, S. Tiwari, L. M. Pandey, Indian Institute of Technology, Guwahati, India BMP Studies on Flower Wastes in Anaerobic Digestion Process V. Dhanalakshmi Sridevi, GKM College of Engineering & Technology, Chennai, India Porselvan, S. V. Srinivasan, Central Leather Research Institute, Chennai, INDIA

1771 – 1777

Pretreatment and production of Bioethanol from Citrus reticulate fruit waste with Baker‘s yeast by Solid State and Submerged Fermentation Anup Chahande, PranayRaut, Yogesh Moharkar, PIET, Nagpur, India Vidyahdar V. Gedam, CSIR-NEERI, Nagpur, India.

1783 - 1787

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Production of Ethanol from Waste Potato Using Locally Available Biocatalyst Amit Ganguly, Priyabrata Banerjee, Pradip Kr. Chatterjee CSIR Central Mechanical Engineering Research Institute, Durgapur, India Esha Bala, Maulana Azad National Institute of Technology, Bhopal, India Richard Blanchard, Loughborough University, Leicestershire, U.K

1788 – 1793

218

Design of a Multi-Tank Processor to Produce Bio-Diesel Using Waste Vegetable Oil in Nigeria Openibo, Adeshola Oluremi, Raji, Nurudeen Adekunle Department of Vehicle Inspection Service, Lagos State Ministry of Transportation, Nigeria Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Lagos State University, Nigeria

1794 – 1800

Applied Biotechnology

1801 - 1876

219

Microwave Assisted Transesterification of Waste Cooking Oil for Biodiesel Production S. Babel, S. Arayawate, E. Faedsura, H. Sudrajat, Sirindhorn International Institute of Technology, Thammasat University, , PathumThani, Thailand

1802 – 1808

220

Isolation, Characterisation of Novel Pseudomonas and Enterobacter Sp. from Contaminated Soil of Chandigarh for Naphthalene Degradation Bulbul Gupta, Jaspreet Kaur, University Institute of Engineering and Technology, Panjab University, Chandigarh, India Kunal, Anita Rajor, Thapar University, Patiala, Punjab, India

1809 – 1817

221

Biodrying Process Variations based on Air Flow Regulation Strategy Asha P Tom, Renu Pawels, Cochin University of Science and Technology, Kochi, Kerala, India Ajit Haridas, National Institute of Interdisciplinary Science and Technology, Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, India

1818 - 1828

222

Biodegradation of Azo Dye using the Isolated Novel Bacterial Species: Acinetobactersp Uttariya Roy*, Papita Das, AvijitBhowal, Siddhartha Datta Jadavpur University, Kolkata, India

1829 – 1833

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Study of some Predominant Arsenic Resistance Bacteria from Soil Samples of Industrial Zones of West Bengal, India P. Dutta, M. Basu, Barrackpore Rastraguru Surendranath College, Barrackpore, Kolkata, West Bengal, India I. Mallick, A. Ghosh, Bose Institute, Kolkata, West Bengal, India

1834 – 1844

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Characteristics of Municipal Solid Waste Biochar; Its potential to be used in Environmental Remediation Y. Jayawardhana, P. Kumarathilaka, S. Mayakaduwa, L. Weerasundara, T. Bandara, M. Vithanage, National Institute of Fundamental Studies, Kandy, Sri Lanka

1845 – 1852

225

Farm/Industrial/Municipal Waste: Prospects of Nutrient (Phosphorus) Recovery Sampriti Kataki, D.C Baruah, Tezpur University, Napaam, Assam, India Helen West, School of Biosciences, University of Nottingham, Sutton Bonington Campus, Leicestershire LE11 3TU, UK Michele Clarke, School of Geography, University of Nottingham, University Park, Nottingham NG7 2RD, UK

1853 – 1860

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Thermal Decomposition and Kinetic Evaluation of Mahua De-Oiled Seed Cake Using TGA Analysis R. Anil, University College of Technology, Hyderabad, India and Indian Institute of Chemical Technology, Hyderabad, India D. Jaya Prakash, University College of Technology, Hyderabad, India K. Monika, D. Kotaiah Naik, B. Sathyavathi, Indian Institute of Chemical Technology, Hyderabad, India

1861 - 1868

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Removal of Copper From Bioleachate of E-Waste Using Banana Activated Carbon (BAC) and Comparision with Commercial Activated Carbon (CAC) J. Senophiyah Mary, Dr. T. Meenambal, Government College of Technology, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, India,

1869 - 1876

Applied Biotechnology & Bioenergy Systems

1877 - 1939

228

Effect of Tannery Effluent on Germination and Early Seedling Growth of OryzaSativa Var. IET-4786 S. Biswas, A. Bhattacharya, P. Basak, Jadavpur University, Kolkata, India

1878 – 1884

229

Characterization of Lipase Producing Bacteria Isolated from Degrading Oil Cakes Sutripta Sarkar, Anubrati Chatterji, Barrackpore Rastraguru Surendranath College, West Bengal, India

1885 – 1891

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By-Products of Bio-Energy Systems (Anaerobic Digestion & Gasification): Generation and Prospects of Utilization Kangkana Saikia, Pallavi Roy, Dipam Patowary, Sampriti Kataki, Hemantajeet Medh, Pranjal Das, D.C. Baruah, Tezpur University, Napaam, Assam, India Helen West, Michele Clarke, University of Nottingham, UK

1892 – 1898

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Evaluation of Blending of Lowest Emission Biodiesel with Jet A for Producing Aviation Biofuels N.K. Attia, E.A. Abdel Kader, G. ElDiwani, H. S. Hussein, R.El-Araby, Chemical Engineering and Pilot Plant Department, National Research Center, Egypt Value Addition to Horticultural Solid Waste by Applying it in Biosynthesis of Industrially Important Enzyme, Cellulase Modhuleena Mandal, Uma Ghosh, Jadavpur university Kolkata, India

1899 – 1904

233

Bioconversion of agro waste to value added product through solid state fermentation by a potent fungal strain Aspergillus flavusPUF5 P. Ghosh and U. Ghosh, Jadavpur University, Kolkata, India

1912 – 1918

234

Toxic Metal Removal Using Biosorption Process and Inertization of Generated Hazardous Metal Laden Biosorbent L. Ramrakhiani, A. Halder, A.K. Mandal, S. Majundar, S. Ghosh, CSIR-Central Glass and Ceramic Research Institute, Kolkata, India

1919 - 1926

235

Conversion of Waste Paper into Useful Bio-Products Ganga Gamana, Melita Rashmi Rebello, Sulakshana Pai, NMAM Institute of Technology, India

1927 - 1939

Applied Nanotechnolgy

1940 - 1978

Green synthesis, characterization and catalytic activity of Ag NPs using Mangiferaindica leaf extract H S Samanta, R M Thakur, C Bhattacharjee, Jadavpur University,Kolkata,India K Arora, Thapar University, Patiala, India

1941 – 1947

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Synthesis and characterization of green synthesis silver nanoparticles: Its catalytic effect on degradation of dye H S Samanta, D Das, C Bhattacharjee, Jadavpur University,Kolkata,India P Middha, Thapar University, Patiala, India

1948 - 1954

238

Application of Carbon Nanotubes in Fluidic Waste Treatment and Energy Harvesting Abhirup Basu, Indian Institute of Technology, Mumbai, India Biswajit Debnath, Jadavpur University, Kolkata, India

1955 – 1963

239

A Review of Graphene and Graphene based Nano-Hybrids towards Green Energy Generation Shubhanwita Saha, Kajari Kargupta, Jadavpur University, Kolkata, India Saibal Ganguly, BITS PILANI, Goa Campus, India

1964 – 1971

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Green synthesis of Magnetic iron nanoparticle using Moringa oleifera Lam seeds and its application in textile effluent treatment Ahila. K. G, C. Thamaraiselvi, Mother Teresa Women‘s University, Kodaikanal, India. M.Vasanthy, Bharathidasan University, Tamil Nadu, India

1972 - 1978

Alphabetically Arrangement (First Name of Author)

1979 - 1999 2000 - 2019

Alphabetically Arrangement (First Name of Organization)

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Sustainability and Climate Change

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Waste Management & Resource Utilisation 2016

Waste Management & Resource Utilisation www.iswmaw.com

ISWMAW

Circular Economy and Sustainable Waste Management Sadhan Kumar Ghosh* Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Jadavpur University, Kolkata, India President, International Society of Waste Management, Air and Water, Kolkata, India *Corresponding Author: Email- [email protected] ABSTRACT The idea of a circular economy was put forward in the 20th century to emphasize developing ecological industry, carrying out cleaner production, and environmental management systems. The global economy‘s evolution has been dominated by a linear model of production and consumption, in which goods are manufactured from raw materials, sold, used and then discarded as waste. While great strides have been made in improving resource efficiency, any system based on consumption rather than on the restorative use of resources entails significant losses along the value chain. Significant adverse impact on environment due to population explosion, effects of global warming, environmental degradation due to improper waste management and resource scarcity has now been major concerns around the world. A circular economy is restorative and regenerative by eco-design, and aims to keep products, components, and materials at their highest utility and value at all times. The concept distinguishes between technical and biological cycles. The circular economy provides multiple value creation mechanisms that are decoupled from the consumption of finite resources. The circular economy drastically reduces the possibility of generation of waste materials in industries and in the households as the possibilities are reduces and zeroed down at the design stage of the products and processes. This study reviews the basic concepts of circular economy and the implementation strategies for waste management. The review was carried out mainly through available literature. Keyword : A circular economy, SME, Waste Management, implementation strategies, eco-design; International Society of Waste Management, Air and Water

Introduction Significant adverse impact on environment due to population explosion, effects of global warming, environmental degradation due to improper waste management and resource scarcity has now been major concerns around the world. Under the demand of economic growth, balancing the relationship among economic development, operational and environment compliance and, effective resource utilisation is the greatest challenge and has caused many countries to seek innovative approaches to address these problems. Sustainable development is a global unified goal since the evolution of the concept of ―Sustainable Development‖ and ―Cleaner Production‖, the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development in 1992, and both developed countries and developing counties are committed to transforming our world into a sustainable world. The idea of a circular economy (CE) (also named closed-loop economy, recycling based economy) was put forward in the 20th century to emphasize developing ecological industry, carrying out cleaner production, and environmental management systems. It is believed that circular economy has helped to 2

Sadhan Kr. Ghosh et al. / Waste Management & Resource Utilisation 2016

change the traditional linear and throw-away economy into a closed substance economy, which is necessary and helpful for building a sustainable society (Greyson 2007; Zhu 2000). The global economy‘s evolution has been dominated by a linear model of production and consumption, in which goods are manufactured from raw materials, sold, used and then discarded as waste. While great strides have been made in improving resource efficiency, any system based on consumption rather than on the restorative use of resources entails significant losses along the value chain. Furthermore, the rapid acceleration of consumptive and extractive economies since the mid 20th century has resulted in an exponential growth of negative externalities. There is a high likelihood of exacerbating these trends as the global middle class will more than double in size to nearly 5 billion by 2030 (Jinhui Li, 2016). Working towards efficiency as a solution – a reduction of resources and fossil energy consumed per unit of economic output – will not alter the finite nature of material stocks but can only delay the inevitable. A number of factors indicate that the linear model is increasingly being challenged by the very context within which it operates, and that a deeper change of the operating system of our economy is necessary (Towards a circular economy: business rationale for an accelerated transition). ( John A; Qinghua Zhu). Policies designed to move the economy towards ―circularity‖ have been promoted in some countries, including China, India, Japan and in only a very few Asian countries as practical manifestations of the industrial ecology paradigm. The European Commission, for example, estimates that the Circular Economy Package has the potential to create 580,000 jobs in the EU, 170,000 direct jobs by 2035 through measures on waste management alone (European Commission, 2015b). New business opportunities related to recycling, repairing and reusing products have the potential to create jobs on the local level, often at higher qualification levels (vocational level). However, given that other jobs will also be destroyed, the net effect on the EU economy requires closer scrutiny. The publication of the Circular Economy Package on 2 December 2015 (European Commission, 2015b) coincided with the agreement reached at the COP21 in Paris on a new global climate change deal. It is a reminder of the close relationship between the use of natural resources and climate change. This relationship becomes evident when looking at the numbers (see Figure 1). An estimated 73 billion tonnes of resources were extracted including only used materials in four categories: metal ores, industrial and construction minerals, fossil fuels and biomass (from agriculture, forestry and fishery). Worldwide in 2010, global greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions stood at about 50 billion tonnes (IPCC, 2014) and roughly 10 billion tonnes of global (industrial and municipal) waste was generated [World Bank (2012); Frost & Sullivan (2012)]. This means that more than 80% of annual raw material inputs were returned to the environment in the form of emissions and waste (with the rest largely representing additions to stocks, e.g. in the form of buildings and infrastructure).

Figure 1: Estimates of material inputs and outputs of the global economy in 2010 [Sources: Calculations based on data from SERI/WU Vienna (2016), IPCC (2014), World Bank (2012) and Frost & Sullivan (2012)].

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The production of raw materials, for example, accounts for roughly 19% of global GHG emissions and the waste sector for another 3% (Enkvist et al. 2015) by 2050 compared to 2010 in order to limit global warming to ―well below 2°C above pre-industrial levels‖ (as stipulated in Art. 2 of the new Paris Agreement) (UNFCCC, 2015), will thus require more than a shift to low-carbon and renewable energy sources. Improved resource efficiency, greater recycling and re-use, as well as an absolute reduction of raw material use must become key elements of climate policy in the context of a circular economy. Reducing global GHG emissions by at least 60%. These figures underline the importance of emissions in the physical output of the global economy: GHG emissions accounted for more than 80% by weight of material outflows in 2010, thereby making the atmosphere by far the largest site for the disposal of global waste (CEPS Policy Brief, 2016). The aim of Circular Economy is to convert the conventional linear relationship of ―Resource- Product-Waste & Emission‖ into a circular relationship of ―Resource-Product- Resource‖, and encourages a closed-loop of material flows to weaken the dependence of economy on natural resource and environment (Sun, 2010). By promoting Circular Economy, an opportunity of reinvent economy is provided to make economy more sustainable and competitive, and benefits brought to businesses, industries, and citizens alike will be remarkable (EC, 2016). The concept and principles of a circular economy A circular economy is restorative and regenerative by design, and aims to keep products, components, and materials at their highest utility and value at all times. The concept distinguishes between technical and biological cycles. As envisioned by the originators, a circular economy is a continuous positive development cycle that preserves and enhances natural capital, optimises resource yields, and minimises system risks by managing finite stocks and renewable flows. It works effectively at every scale. The circular economy provides multiple value creation mechanisms that are decoupled from the consumption of finite resources. In a true circular economy, consumption happens only in effective biocycles; elsewhere use replaces consumption. Resources are regenerated in the bio-cycle or recovered and restored in the technical cycle. In the bio-cycle, life processes regenerate disordered materials, despite or without human intervention. In the technical cycle, with sufficient energy available, human intervention recovers materials and recreates order, on any timescale considered. Maintaining or increasing capital has different characteristics in the two cycles. The circular economy rests on three principles, each addressing several of the resource and system challenges that industrial economies faces. A circular economy seeks to rebuild capital, whether this is financial, manufactured, human, social or natural. This ensures enhanced flows of goods and services. The system diagram in figure 2 illustrates the continuous flow of technical and biological materials through the ‗value circle‘. Principle 1: Preserve and enhance natural capital by controlling finite stocks and balancing renewable resource flows. This starts by dematerialising utility - delivering utility virtually, whenever possible. When resources are needed, the circular system selects them wisely and chooses technologies and processes that use renewable or better-performing resources, where possible. A circular economy also enhances natural capital by encouraging flows of nutrients within the system and creating the conditions for regeneration of, for example, soil. Principle 2: Optimise resource yields by circulating products, components, and materials at the highest utility at all times in both technical and biological cycles. This means designing for remanufacturing, refurbishing, and recycling to keep components and materials circulating in and contributing to the economy. Circular systems use tighter, inner loops whenever they preserve more energy and other value, such as embedded labour. These systems also keep product loop speed low by extending product life and optimising reuse. Sharing in turn increases product utilisation. Circular systems also maximise use of end-

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of-use bio-based materials, extracting valuable bio-chemical feedstocks and cascading them into different, increasingly low-grade applications. Principle 3: Foster system effectiveness by revealing and designing out negative externalities. This includes reducing damage to human utility, such as food, mobility, shelter, education, health, and entertainment, and managing externalities, such as land use, air, water and noise pollution, release of toxic substances, and climate change.

Figure 2: Continuous flow of technical and biological materials through the ‗value circle‘. (Source : https://www.ellenmacarthurfoundation.org/circular-economy/interactive-diagram)

There are several ways to fulfill the Circular Economy implementation. Followings are some of the ways to fulfill it: a) b) c) d)

Lean production (i.e making goods with a lower material requirement and Eco design). Reducing waste in manufacturer and commerce. Reducing the amount of working products thrown away. Goods to services (i.e. increase the production of some products which are leased).

A representation of Circular Economy concept in implementation from the flow from raw materials to release of waste are shown (Figure 3).

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TO A CIRCULAR ECONOMY

Figure 3: Representation of Circular Economy Concept

Waste Management, municipalities, Industries specifically SMEs and the Circular Economy In many developed countries, waste statistics are available (OECD 2005 ) as a basis for framing waste management and recycling policy. Institutionalization of the compilation of waste statistics is essential for appropriate waste management in all the countries. However, one of the issues in waste statistics is that definition and coverage of waste streams (e.g. municipal/industrial, hazardous/nonhazardous) vary considerably across countries. Therefore, comparison of waste indicators needs careful interpretation. The same applies to indicators such as recycling rate. It is interesting and useful to capture recycling flows as parts of more comprehensive picture of material flows: such flows are accounted for in some national MFAs. However, defining recycling flows is not easy. The waste statistics has a important role in understanding the effectiveness, designing for circular economy and implementing the circular economy. The circular economy drastically reduces the possibility of generation of waste materials in industries and in the households as the possibilities are reduces and zeroed down at the design stage of the products and processes. The municipalities have also a big role to play in implementing the circular economy in the implementation aspects. They have not much of role in product designing. Effective waste management by waste segregation is a major and important task of the municipalities, which is very scant in the Asian countries other than Japan and part of Taiwan ROC. The recycling of generated waste is very important in implementation of Circular economy model. The SMEs has a big role in the implementation of the circular economy to get resource efficiency and enhance profitability contributing to the environmental protection. To be successful, this ‗macrovision‘ needs to be underpinned by a strong case for the business sector to ‗turn circular‘. In particular small-and- medium-sized enterprises (SMEs), which constitute 99.8% of all European enterprises (Eurostat, 2016), and are often considered the backbone of the European economy, need practical, technical, legal and financial support to identify and realise business opportunities associated with the circular economy (Rizos et al. 2015). After all, 8 out of 10 businesses are satisfied with the return on their resource-efficiency investments, according to a recent Eurobarometer survey (European Commission, 2015c). A lack of data and indicators is often used as a pretext for no action or delayed action on the policy level. Despite the complexity of the issue, a multitude of indicators already exists to measure the transition towards a circular economy (see www.measuringprogress.eu), although with varying applicability. target needs to be measurable by means of robust and harmonised environmental indicators. These indicators thus also play a key role in the transition to a circular economy (Behrens, A. 2004).

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There is a substantial body of research related to metal flows and stocks (Chen and Graedel 2012), inevitably including waste and recycling flows. One of the motivations of metal flow studies is to estimate recycling rates of those metals and thus the benefits out of the recycling than to dispose other way. (Graedel et al. 2011) provide an overview on the current knowledge of recycling rates for 60 metals and show that many end-of-life recycling ratios (EOLRRs) are very low: only for 18 metals (silver, aluminum, gold, cobalt, chromium, copper, iron, manganese, niobium, nickel, lead, palladium, platinum, rhenium, rhodium,tin, titanium, and zinc) is the EOL-RR above 50 % at present. We need further research on recycling flows; this should be standardized and institutionalized in the compilation of statistics. How many times materials are expected to be recycled is also an interesting and important question (see Chap. 7 ). Markov chain modeling has been applied to estimate average times of use of steel (Matsuno et al. 2007 ), stainless steel (Hashimoto et al. 2010 ), nickel (Eckelman et al. 2012 ), and copper (Eckelman and Daigo 2008 ). Results were, respectively, 2.7, 1.9–4.3, 3, and 1.9 times. New business models The shift to a circular economy requires innovative business models that either replace existing ones or seize new opportunities. Companies with significant market share and capabilities along several vertical steps of the linear value chain could play a major role in circular economy innovation and driving circularity into the mainstream by leveraging their scale and vertical integration. While many new models, materials, and products will come from entrepreneurs, these brand and volume leaders can also play a critical role. Profitable circular economy business models and initiatives will inspire other players and will be copied and expanded geographically. Reverse cycles New and additional skills are needed for cascades and the final return of materials to the soil or back into the industrial production system. This includes delivery chain logistics, sorting, warehousing, risk management, power generation, and even molecular biology and polymer chemistry. With costefficient, better-quality collection and treatment systems, and effective segmentation of end-of-life products, the leakage of materials out of the system will decrease, supporting the economics of circular design. Enablers and favourable system conditions For widespread reuse of materials and higher resource productivity to become commonplace, market mechanisms will have to play a dominant role, but they will benefit from the support of policy makers, educational institutions and popular opinion leaders. Examples of these enablers include:     

Collaboration Rethinking incentives Providing a suitable set of international environmental rules Leading by example and driving up scale fast Access to financing

Transition Speed and Cost - Transitioning to a Circular Economy The strong economic rationale underlying the circular economy invites the consideration of the transition speed. That speed – in turn – defines the costs of the transition. Transition costs may comprise asset investments or investment in new digital infrastructure, R&D, retraining, support to promote market penetration of new products, or transitory support for affected industries. Accelerating the adoption of the circular economy to a rate higher than normal replacement cycles will increase these transition costs and create stranded assets. In many cases at the initial stage of implementation of CE, the cost may not be acceptable for the organisation, but in long run the return on investment will be faster. It remains to be assessed to what extent these costs are additional relative to other development scenarios and to what extent they could act as stimulus to stagnating economies. There are certainly risks to be considered in a systemic transition. The assessment of the involved risks is very important. The incumbent industries will 7

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have to adapt their business models, and moving to these business models could create redistributive effects in the economy. Balancing the redistributive effects of the changes that the realisation of a circular economy might produce for consumers, businesses, and nations will be crucial (Towards A Circular Economy 2015).

Profit opportunities Individual businesses could achieve lower input costs and in some cases create entirely new profit streams. The Ellen MacArthur Foundation‘s analysis on complex medium-lived products and fast moving consumer goods showed that the use of circular economy approaches would support improvements such as the following (Source :Towards the circular economy, 2012, 2013): 

The cost of remanufacturing mobile phones could be reduced by 50% per device – if the industry made phones easier to take apart, improved the reverse cycle, and offered incentives to return phones



High-end washing machines would be accessible for most households if they were leased instead of sold35 – customers would save roughly a third per wash cycle, and the manufacturer would earn roughly a third more in profits.



The U.K. could create an income stream of USD 1.5 billion annually36 – by processing mixed food waste discarded by households and in the hospitality sector.



A profit of USD 1.90 per hectolitre of beer produced can be captured – by selling brewer‘s spent grains.



In the U.K., each tonne of collected and sorted clothing can generate a revenue of USD 1,975 – or a gross profit of USD 1,295 from reuse opportunities.



Costs of packaging, processing and distribution of beer could be reduced by 20% – by shifting to reusable glass bottles.

Conclusion Developing circular economy will bring the resource efficiency in the system as a whole. It will take long time to make the people understand. Truly speaking, Japan and some of the EC countries including the UK has achieved significant benefit by implementation of circular economy. Companies need to build core competencies in circular design to facilitate product reuse, recycling and cascading. Circular product (and process) design requires advanced skills, information sets, and working methods. Areas important for economically successful circular design include: material selection, standardised components, designed-to-last products, design for easy end-of-life sorting, separation or reuse of products and materials, and design-for-manufacturing criteria that take into account possible useful applications of by-products and wastes. It needs deep routed thinking and implementation of policy by the government and policy makers in industries. There are hurdles and higher cost involvement at the initialisation of CE. However, CE is an effective way of conserving the globe from pollution burden out of the waste generated.

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References CEPS Policy Brief- Thinking ahead for Europe , Time to connect the dots: What is the link between climate change policy and the circular economy? Arno Behrens, , No. 337, January 2016, www.ceps.eu Chen, W.-Q., & Graedel, T. E. (2012). Anthropogenic cycles of the elements: A critical review. Climate Change 2014: Mitigation of Climate Change (www.ipcc.ch/report/ar5/wg3/). Eckelman, M. J., Reck, B. K., & Graedel, T. E. (2012). Exploring the global journey of nickel with Eckelman, M., & Daigo, I. (2008). Markov chain modeling of the technological lifetime of copper. Ecological Economics, 67 (2), 265–273. Environmental Science and Technology, 46 (16), 8574–8586. European Commission (2015b), Circular Economy –Closing the Loop, An Ambitious EU Circular Economy Package, Circular Economy Fact Sheet. European Union‖, SERI Background Paper No. 7, Sustainable Europe Research Institute, Eurostat (2016), Business economy – size class analysisanalysis (http://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics explained/index.php/Business_economy_-_size_class_analysis). Frost & Sullivan (2012), presentation at TEKES Growth Workshop on The Global Industrial Greyson J. 2007. An economic instrument for zero waste, economic growth and sustainability. Cleaner Production 15(13–14):1382–90 Hashimoto, S., Daigo, I., Eckelman, M., & Reck, B. (2010). Measuring the status of stainless steel Jinhui Li, 2016, Role of circular economy in achieving Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs): A Case study of China, Seventh Regional 3R Forum in Asia and The Pacific, 2-4 November, 2016, Adelaide, Sa, Australia John A. Mathews and Hao Tan, , Progress Toward a Circular Economy in China, The Drivers (and Inhibitors) of Eco-industrial Initiative, RESEARCH AND ANALYSIS, Journal of Industrial Ecology, Volume 15, Number 3, pp 436 – 447, DOI: 10.1111/j.1530-9290.2011.00332.x m_id=8573.European Commission (2015c). Markov chain models. Journal of Industrial Ecology, 16 (3), 334–342.Graedel et al. ( 2011 ) Pays Off, http://ec.europa.eu/growth/toolsdatabases/newsroom/cf/itemdetail.cfm?ite Qinghua Zhu, Yong Geng, and Kee-hung Lai , Environmental Supply Chain Cooperation and Its Effect on the Circular Economy Practice-Performance Relationship Among Chinese Manufacturers, Journal of Industrial Ecology, Volume 15, Number 3, pp 405-419; DOI: 10.1111/j.1530-9290.2011.00329.x SERI/WU Vienna (2016), www.materialflows.net. UNFCCC (2015), Adoption of the Paris TOWARDS A CIRCULAR ECONOMY: BUSINESS RATIONALE FOR AN ACCELERATED TRANSITION, November 2015 • Published by the Ellen MacArthur Foundation Towards the circular economy, report vol. 1, Ellen MacArthur Foundation (2012). 35. Towards the circular economy, report vol. 1, Ellen MacArthur Foundation (2012). Towards the circular economy, report vol. 2, Ellen MacArthur Foundation (2013). UNFCCC (2015), Adoption of the Paris Agreement, 12 December (http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/ use in the Japanese socio-economic system. Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 54 (10), Vienna, May.Behrens et al. (2015). Washington, D.C. Waste Recycling Markets, Helsinki, 2 October (https://tapahtumat.tekes.fi/uploads/c8ffe1 World Bank (2012), ―What a Waste - A Global Review of Solid Waste Management‖, Yuichi Moriguchi and Seiji Hashimoto, Material Flow Analysis and Waste Management, Chapter 12, Taking Stock of Industrial Ecology, R. Clift, A. Druckman (eds.), DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-20571-7_12. Zhu D. 2000. From sustainable development to circular economy. World Environ 3:6–12

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The Influence of Municipal Solid Waste of Georgia on Climate Changes N.L. Dvalishvili*, M.Sh. Tabatadze Institute of Hydrometeorology of Georgian Technical University, Tbilisi, Georgia *Corresponding Author: Email- [email protected] ABSTRACT Currently, the improvement of municipal solid waste (MSW) management is ongoing process in Georgia. Up to 90% of wastes generated in the country are disposed without any separation procedures. Unfortunately, information on amount and morphological composition of waste generated in Georgia doesn‘t exist, and methodology of waste accounting is not elaborated, that creates great problems during drawing of international scientific projects, determination of energy efficiency of waste and possibility of waste processing. The one of the important issues of technogenic impact of waste on the environment are produced greenhouse gases and its impact of global climate change. After putrefy of replaces waste, a large amount of landfill gas are produces in landfill. The formation of landfill gas depends on the natural conditions (geographical, climatic and meteorological factors) and landfill management and the composition of the waste as well. The goal of our project was determination of morphological composition of MSW, and identification of the total amount of waste, generated from the domestic and commercial facilities of Georgia (including all cities and villages of each municipalities of State) by uses of gravimetrical analyses and obtained dates from the effectiveness questionnaire of waste. The results show that the main fractions of municipal solid waste are paper, plastic and food waste. The character of Georgian waste defines the generating big amount of methane. The impact of waste on global climate change was identified based on the IPCC methodology. Keywords: International Society of Waste Management, Air and Water

Introduction As of today, the study of quantity and morphological composition of municipal solid waste (MSW) is topical, since there is no policy of waste segregation (sorting) and no information on the composition of waste located at the landfills is available in the country. Besides, there is no full-value service of waste accumulation and disposal in the regions of Georgia, lots of villages are not provided with trash cans and due to this fact population is forced to disposal the waste at the territories voluntarily selected by people. Up to 52% of waste generated in the country is thrown away without any control to the gorges adjacent to residential places, on the riverside and other illegal, informal dump sites. Study of quantity and morphological composition of municipal solid waste (MSW) is important in the process of elaboration of National Communication. In 1994 Georgia signed the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and later on the 16th of June, 1996 – Kyoto Protocol, according to which Georgia is obliged to prepare National Communications on Climate Change. 10

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The goal of mentioned document is the study of current state in the area of climate change in the country and assessment of quantity of greenhouse gases emission. The goal of our work was the determination of quantity and morphological composition of MSW generated in Georgian cities and villages with the use of quantitative method of sociological researches and gravimetric analysis and calculation of methane emission on the basis of obtained data using the IPCC methodology. Literature Review The management of municipal solid waste (MSW) in Georgia is at the initial stage. Up to 90% of waste generated in country is thrown away to the landfills without segregation. In January 2015 the Law – Waste Management Code came into force in Georgia, basic goal of which is reduction of influence of waste on the environment and human health that implies waste minimization and their processing. On the basis of the mentioned law in April, 2016 by the decree of the Georgian government was approved the National Waste Management Strategy 2016-2030 and its Action Plan, basic goal of which is the assessment of current situation in the country and implementation of modern model of waste management – improvement of waste collection system, segregation (sorting) of waste, its processing and landfill gases reduction. Results and Discussion With the purpose of determination of quantity and composition of waste generated in the country throughout a year, during 2015 was conducted the research in the regions, population of which is 62% of total population domiciled in Georgia. In each region with the purpose of acquisition of statistical information on waste were held meetings with representatives of governances of municipalities. Study of quantity and morphological composition of MSW in Georgian cities and villages was carried out with the use of quantitative method of sociological research and gravimetric analysis. For quantitative analysis in the pilot mode was composed the tested questionnaire, on the basis of which was acquired statistical information from governances of municipalities, also the population domiciled in each region of Georgia was interviewed for gathering the information on quantity and composition of waste generated by people, also the interviews with commercial facilities and governmental bodies of regions were envisaged by the study. Determination of SDW composition using gravimetric method was made according to preliminary elaborated stages:      

2 hours before the emptying of containers, they were weighted at portable digital auto weights; Contents of containers was dumped at plain surface, on the canvas cover 5x7 m in size; Empty container was weighted again. Difference between full and empty containers was the weight of waste; Waste disposed on the canvas cover was segregated (sorted) using the shovel according to fractions; Each fraction of segregated waste was bagged, weighted and height and circumference of bags were measured; All data were entered in the work-book.

As the result of integrated processing of statistical data, information acquired from the questionnaire and data obtained using gravimetric method was identified the quantity of municipal solid waste generated in each region per capita and morphological composition of MSW (Tables 1 and 2).

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Table 1: MSW composition in some regions of Georgia waste fine fraction

Hazard

Food

Total

0.74

3.66

0.79

51.05

100.00

0.77

0.78

10.80

0.37

48.70

100.00

5.04

1.00

0.25

22.58

0.50

42.32

100.00

15.56

5.18

0.53

0.73

16.69

0.30

43.74

100.00

2.48

15.36

7.24

1.70

0.22

9.80

0.80

44.12

100.00

11.59

3.48

15.48

5.74

0.38

0.50

17.74

0.75

42.15

100.00

1.51

9.93

3.78

15.48

5.92

1.81

0.67

16.01

1.00

43.89

100.00

2.66

12.09

2.91

14.63

6.27

1.20

0.56

13.90

0.64

45.14

100.00

Glass

Paper

Metal

Plastic

Hygienic

Rubber/ textile

Tbilisi

3.47

13.15

1.70

15.24

8.00

2.20

SamtskheJavakheti

2.75

12.00

3.23

13.80

6.80

Kakheti

2.81

11.15

2.85

11.50

Shida Kartli

3.13

11.30

2.84

Adjara

2.78

15.50

Guria

2.19

MtskhetaMtianeti Average

Region

Wood

Table 2: Average annual quantity of MSW (2015-2016) collected by municipal services in Georgia Region

Kg /per capita /year

Waste disposal service enjoying the percentage of population,%

Tbilisi

318.35

100

Samtskhe-Javakheti

245.93

40

Kakheti

170.10

30

Shida Kartli

274.82

40

Adjara

270.45

100

Guria

165.30

30

Mtskheta-Mtianeti

169.12

40

On the basis of obtained results, using the IPCC-2006 methodology was made the forecast of methane emission from waste sector until 2030 by the example of Adjara Autonomous Republic (Table 4), which is one of the most important regions of Georgia according to strategic, natural and touristicrecreational potential. According of The National Waste Management Strategy of Georgia (2016-2030) on a nationwide scale was scheduled the stage-by-stage implementation of segregation of municipal solid waste, as a result of which the fractional composition of MSW will be changed along with reduction of quantity of MSW (Table 3). Table 3: Segregation of solid domestic waste according to National Waste Management Strategy of Georgia scheduled on a nationwide scale (2016-2030) Fraction of MSW

2020

2025

2030

Paper

30%

50 %

80%

Glass

20%

50%

80%

Metal

70%

80%

90%

Plastic

30%

50%

80%

Food *

10%

35%

60%

*Assumption is made by the authors, since the National Waste Management Strategy (2016-2030) doesn‘t consider the mentioned fraction 12

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Table 4: Forecast of methane emission from waste sector of Adjara Region for current conditions and under conditions of changed quantity and composition during MSW segregation Present conditions

a.

b.

Year Gg

Gg

% (reduce)

Gg

% (reduce)

2015

1.69

1.69

0.00

1.69

0.00

2016

2.17

2.17

0.00

2.17

0.00

2017

2.62

2.62

0.00

2.62

0.00

2018

3.02

3.02

0.00

3.02

0.00

2019

3.40

3.40

0.00

3.40

0.00

2020

3.75

3.75

0.00

3.75

0.00

2021

4.08

4.03

1.30

3.97

2.63

2022

4.39

4.28

2.53

4.15

5.47

2023

4.69

4.51

3.73

4.29

8.47

2024

4.97

4.73

4.92

4.40

11.58

2025

5.25

4.93

6.09

4.47

14.78

2026

5.52

5.11

7.27

4.52

18.05

2027

5.78

5.28

8.51

4.54

21.45

2028

6.03

5.44

9.83

4.53

24.97

2029

6.28

5.58

11.21

4.49

28.57

2030

6.53

5.71

12.65

4.42

32.26

Conclusion Under conditions of scheduled changes of waste quantity and fractional composition and also for Adjara Autonomous Republic was made the forecast of methane inventory until 2030. Results and corresponding forecast is given in Table 4, from which is seen that reduction of disposal of some fractions of waste at the landfills starting with 2020 will cause reduction of greenhouse gases in the period of 20212030: a) Removal of part of paper, plastic, metal and glass fractions – by 6, 8% in average (1.3%-12.65%); b) Removal of paper, plastic, metal, glass and food waste fractions – by 16, 8% in average (2.63%32.26%). Research results confirm that waste segregation and reduction of paper and, the most important food waste fractions in MSW entering the landfills will reduce methane emission by 32, 26% for 2030. Reference http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/natc/geonc1.pdf ; http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/natc/geonc2.pdf; http://moe.gov.ge/files/Klimatis%20Cvlileba/ErovnuliShetkobinebebi/2015_bolo/3rd_National_Communication_EN G.pdf http://www.ipcc-nggip.iges.or.jp/public/2006gl/pdf/5_Volume5/V5_3_Ch3_SWDS.pdf https://matsne.gov.ge/ka/document/download/2676416/1/en/pdf https://matsne.gov.ge/ka/document/view/3242506 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adjara

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Integration of Environmental Impacts in Sustainable New Product Development S. Roy1,*, N. Modak1, P.K. Dan2 1

Mechanical Engineering, Jadavpur University, Kolkata, India Rajendra Mishra School of Engineering Entrepreneurship, Kolkata, India *Corresponding Author: Email- [email protected] 2

ABSTRACT Introduction of new products has become a strategic area globally for sustaining a competitive advantage. There are several factors contributing to new product development (NPD) success are known as critical success factors which are essential for firms‘ ultimate success. As per the survey environmental concern should greatly be increased in magnitude in Indian manufacturing companies for success and survival. This study concerns about the identification of manifests used to signify the environmental impacts on NPD success where the success of firms have also been expressed by the environmental aspects. As empirical data and experiences have accumulated manifests of environmental factor are eco friendliness of the product, adverse effect of the product on environment, sustainability of the product, the environmental goal achievement rate of the new green products, compliance of new green products with the consumers‘ preference, meeting Government policies for product development, recycling rate of the new green products and hiring responsible employees. Same as the factor, environment related measure is expressed by reduced cost, healthy relationship with investors, regulatory approvals, life-cycle analysis and customer satisfaction. A semi-structured questionnaire has been developed and detailed research interviews have been collected from design and development experts of Indian manufacturing companies. Reliability of the survey data has been tested by Cronbach‘s Alpha reliability testing using IBM SPSS 21.0 software. The main objective of this study is to develop a framework using structural equation modeling approach (SEM) by IBM SPSS AMOS 21.0 software to analyse the effects of environmental impacts on NPD success. The hypothesis testing performed by using SEM approach proves that that environmental impact is positively related to product development success. In addition, identification of obstacles faced by manufacturing companies to implement environmental factor adds an extra novelty in this empirical research which will help to overcome the problems in future days. Keywords: New product development, critical success factors, success measures, environmental impact, Structural Equation Modeling; International Society of Waste Management, Air and Water

1.0 Introduction NPD practice has become one of the necessary parts of the firms and organizations for sustainability in the competitive market environment. This situation has been enhanced by rapid escalation in global market and unpredictable market environment [1]. According to previous researches there are various factors expressed as critical success factors as they are critical for success and survival of the firm [2],[3]. So, identification of these factors has become one of the most challenging areas of interest for 14

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researchers for confirming sustainability of NPD success. Various factors such as technology [4]-[6], research and development (R&D) [6],[7]-[10], top management support [7],[11]-[17], cross-functional team collaboration [7],[8],[17]-[20] are mostly discussed by researchers in existing literatures. This research concerns environmental impacts on sustainable NPD. Environmental impacts on product development are another issue which have been considered as one of the vital factor by researchers [21][25]. In the present scenario, globally manufacturing companies are facing a pressure for developing products which are less harmful to the environment [26]. This study is focusing on environmental impacts for sustainable new product development. Same as the success factors, there are various success measures identified by researchers which have been used to measure the NPD success of firms and organizations. These success measures have been manifested by various manifest variables such as market success, meeting budgets & schedules, speed-to-market [27], success rate, percentage of sales by new products, profitability relative to spending, technical success rating, sales impact, profit impact, meeting sales objectives, meeting profit objectives, profitability versus competitors [7], customer acceptance, customer satisfaction, meet revenue goal, revenue growth, meet market share goal, meet unit share goal, break-even time, attain margin goal, attain profitability goal, attain return on investment goal, development cost, launch on time, achieve product performance goal, meet quality guideline, speed-to-market and percentage of sales by new product [28] as described by researchers. In this study we consider environmental impacts as success factor and environment related measures as success measure of new product development success (PDS) to develop a framework using Structural Equation Modeling to build relationships among them and identify the obstacles to implement this factor in terms of its manifest variables, so as to overcome those issues in future. 2.0 Methodology Structural equation modelling (SEM) is a methodology for representing, estimating, and testing a theoretical network of (mostly) linear relations between variables that is measured variable and latent constructs [29]. The SEM approach is used here to develop the relationship among factors which are critical for organizational success and survival and correlate them with the new product development success. It is a comprehensive statistical approach for analyzing hypotheses about relations among manifest and latent variables [30]. This study concerns about the role of the environmental factor and its manifests and set hypothesis to relate this factor with the product development success (PDS) which is again measured by environment related measures. This empirical research considers the Indian manufacturing industries for the survey purpose and data has been collected from their NPD personnel, design and development experts and managers. The statistic used in this work is obtained from the respondents of 36 engineering product development companies‘ especially electrical manufacturing and structural fabrication companies in India. Cronbach‘s Alpha reliability testing has been performed for testing the reliability of the survey data by calculating the value of alpha (α) [31] using IBM SPSS 21.0 software. Structural equation modelling (SEM) approach has been used to develop the framework of the interrelationship of environmental constructs and product development success (PDS) and their manifest variables. IBM SPSS AMOS 21.0 software package has been used to perform the analysis. This work involves formulation of the hypothesis which has been tested using Structural Equation Modelling (SEM) on primary data set obtained from survey. The hypothesis is mentioned below: H1: Environmental factor (E) positively influences the product development success (PDS) which is again measured by environment related measures. 3.0 Results 3.1 Analysis of Measurement Validity A thorough data survey has been carried out from Indian manufacturing industries for the accomplishment of the research objectives. Here, the manifests of the constructs have been divide into two segments i.e. importance of that manifest to measure the latent construct and another is implementation which is the degree of execution o that manifest in practical scenario. This segmentation adds an extra 15

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novelty to this study. All measures are based on 7 point Likert scale where 1 denotes strongly disagree and 7 denotes strongly agree for importance whereas, 1 denotes very low and 7 denotes very high for implementation and in case of the output latent construct which is PDS here. The reliability of the collected data has been tested by Cronbach‘s Alpha Reliability test using IBM SPSS 21.0 software package and the reliability values of the each construct has been enlisted in Table II. As values of α for all variables are above threshold value which is 0.8, proves that the collected data is reliable [31],[32]. Now, for developing the interrelationship of the constructs and estimating the hypothesis the Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) analysis has been conducted using IBM SPSS AMOS 21.0 software package. Table 1: List of manifest variables of latent constructs including results of reliability testing 3.2 Hypotheses testing

Latent Variables Environmental Factor (E)

Product Development Success (PDS)

Measurement Variables

Cronbach‘s Alpha (α)

1.Eco friendliness of the product (EF1) 2.Adverse effect of the product on environment (EF2) 3.Sustainability of the product (EF3) 4. The environmental goal achievement rate of the new green products (EF4) 5. Compliance of new green products with the consumers‘ preference (EF5) 6. Meeting Government policies for product development (EF6) 7. Recycling rate of the new green products (EF7) 8. Hiring responsible employees (EF8)

0.863

1. Reduced cost (PDS1) 2. Healthy relationship with investors (PDS2) 3. Regulatory approvals (PDS3) 4. Life-cycle analysis (PDS4) 5. Customer satisfaction(PDS5)

0.985

The path diagram displayed in Figure1 demonstrates the hypothesized relationships among the latent constructs and their manifests. The values over the arrows indicate the associated standardized regression weights obtained after execution of SEM analysis using IBM SPSS AMOS 21.0 software package.

Figure1: Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) model after execution 16

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The statistics of path estimates which are the factor loadings of the manifest variables are listed in Table II. Same as the statistics of path estimates to relate latent constructs are stated in Table III. Different fitness measures such as goodness of fit index (GFI), adjusted goodness of fit index (AGFI) and root mean square error approximation (RMSEA), chi-square statistics, and degree of freedom estimates were computed to validate the developed model. The standardized values of the fit indices [33] are listed in Table IV and the values obtained from the test are also listed in Table V. As per the data of Table III where statistics of path estimates of constructs have been listed, it can be interpreted that the hypothesis which have been considered are proven right. The inferences drawn here are on the basis of the path estimate value which shows that the hypothesis is significantly and effectively correct. Table 2: Statistics of path estimates Latent Variables Environmental Factor (E)

Product Development Success (PDS)

Manifest Variables 1.Eco friendliness of the product (EF1) 2.Adverse effect of the product on environment (EF2) 3.Sustainability of the product (EF3) 4. The environmental goal achievement rate of the new green products (EF4) 5. Compliance of new green products with the consumers‘ preference (EF5) 6. Meeting Government policies for product development (EF6) 7. Recycling rate of the new green products (EF7) 8. Hiring responsible employees (EF8)

Factor Loadings 0.90 0.77 0.93 0.82 0.74 0.96 0.79 0.87

1. Reduced cost (PDS1) 2. Healthy relationship with investors (PDS2) 3. Regulatory approvals (PDS3) 4. Life-cycle analysis (PDS4) 5. Customer satisfaction(PDS5)

0.69 0.85 0.76 0.63 0.99

Table 3: Statistics of path estimates Description

Path

Hypothesis

Cronbach‘s Alpha (α)

Estimate

Inference drawn

Environmental Factor & Product Development Success

E–PDS

H1

0.893

0.92

Supported

Table 4: Fitting indices (adopted from [33]) Fit Indices

Desired Range

χ2 /degrees of freedom

≤ 2.00

RMSEA(Root Mean Square Error of Approximation)

Goodness-of-fit index (GFI)

Values less than 0.05 show good fit Values as high as 0.08 represent reasonable fit Values from 0.08 to 0.10 show mediocre fit Values > 1.0 show poor fit ≥ .90

Average Goodness-of-fit index (AGFI)

≥ .90

Table 5: Model Fitting Parameters Chi-Square(χ2)

Df

χ2/df

GFI

AGFI

RMSEA

85.152

64

1.330

0.960

0.943

0.033

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In the proposed model the fit indices are above the accepted level of 0.90 as shown in Table III. The Chi-square value is also satisfactory and the value of χ2/df is also considerable and RMSEA value is quite small as it should be. As the values of all fitness parameter indices are well within permissible range it can be said or proved that integration of environmental factor for successful new product development plays a vital role for industrial sustainability of Indian manufacturing companies. 4.0 Discussion and Conclusion This study recognizes the impact of environmental factor on PDS in Indian manufacturing industries. The manifest variables to quantify the success factor which is environmental factor in this case, have been identified from previous literatures as well as from the experts‘ opinion from 36 manufacturing companies through a detailed survey from Indian manufacturing companies. Same as the success factor, the manifests of success measure which is PDS in terms of measures related to environmental aspects have been identified. Addition of experts‘ opinion based on their real life experience adds an extra novelty to this research. Though, environmental effects of newly developed products have long-term impact on companies‘ success and survival as well as it affects the human life but they often remain neglected. This study emphasises on environmental factor and quantifies this factor by eco-friendliness of the product, adverse effect of the product on environment, sustainability of the product, the environmental goal achievement rate of the new green products, compliance of new green products with consumers‘ preference, meeting Government policies for product development, recycling rate of the new green products and hiring responsible employees. Though the importance of these variables has been admitted but still the practical implementation is somehow remain ignored. This research concentrates on importance as well as implementation of manifests of environmental factor for companies‘ betterment which will improve their performance by reducing cost of development with lesser environmental risks, healthy relationship with investors, ease of regulatory approvals, life-cycle analysis and customer satisfaction. In case of implementation of environmental factor, companies have to face various obstacles in real life scenario. The limited number of Government approved eco-waste recycler in India is one of the problem for recycling. But, in present days, Government has become strict and conscious for restricting the environmental hazards for the sake of nature and humanity as well. Acknowledgement The research work was substantially supported by a grant from the Department of Science and Technology (DST) of India as a DST INSPIRE Fellowship. The authors are also thankful to the industry personnel and experts for sharing their views and opinions. References Bevilacqua, M., Ciarapica, F. E., Giacchetta, G., 2012. Integration of Design for Environmental Concepts in Product Life Cycle. In Design for Environment as a Tool for the Development of a Sustainable Supply Chain (pp. 11-32). Springer London. Bhuiyan, N., 2011. A framework for successful new product development. Journal of Industrial Engineering and Management 4 (4):746-770. Bras, B., 1997. Incorporating environmental issues in product design and realization. Industry and environment 20 (1):7-13. Buyukozkan, G., Arsenyan, J., 2012. Collaborative Product Development: A Literature Overview. Production Planning & Control 23 (1):47-66. Byrne, B. M., 2010. Structural Equation Modeling with AMOS: Basic Concepts, Applications, and Programming. Taylor and Francis Group LLC, New York. Chorda, I.M., Gunasekaran, A., Aramburo, B.L., 2002. Product development process in Spanish SMEs: an empirical research. Technovation 22 (5):pp. 301-312. Cooper, R.G., Kleinschmidt, E.J., 2007. Winning Business in Product Development: The Critical Success Factors. Research- Technology Management 50 (3):52-66. Deniz, D., 2002. Sustainability and environmental issues in industrial product design. Ernst, H., 2002. Success Factors of New Product Development: a review of the empirical literature. International Journal of Management Reviews 4 (1):1-40. Ernst, H., Hoyer, W.D.H., Rübsaamen, C., 2010. Sales, Marketing, and Research-and-Development Cooperation Across New Product Development stages: Implications for Success. Journal of Marketing 74 (5):80-92. 18

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Fain, N., Kline, M., Duhovnik, J., 2011. Integrating R&D and Marketing in New Product Development. Journal of Mechanical Engineering 57 (7-8):599-609. Fazilah, A.A., Jaafar, N.N., Suraya, S., 2014. Critical Success Factors of New Product Development and Impact on Performance of Malaysian Automotive Industry. Advanced Materials Research 903 (3):431-437. Felekoglu, B., Moultrie, J., 2014. Top Management Involvement in New Product Development: A Review and Synthesis. Journal of Product Innovation Management 31 (1):159-175. Gouda, S. K., Jonnalagedda, S., Saranga, H., 2016. Design for the environment: Impact of regulatory policies on product development. European Journal of Operational Research 248 (2):558-570. Holland, R., Kim, B.Y., Kang, B.K., Mozota, B.B.D., 2007. Design Education for Successful Cross-Functional Cooperation in NPD. Proceedings of International conference on Engineering and Product Design Education. University of Northumbria, Newcastle, UK, 13.-14.09. 2007. Holland, S., Gaston, K., Gomes, J., 2000. Critical Success Factors for Cross-Functional Teamwork in New Product Development. International Journal of Management Reviews 2 (3):231-259. Hoyle, R. H., 1995. The Structural Equation Modelling Approach: Basic Concepts and Fundamental Issues. in R.H. Hoyle (Ed), Structural equation modelling: Concepts, issues, and applications, Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc., pp. 1-15. Huang, X., Soutar, G.N., Brown, A., 2004. Measuring new product success: an empirical investigation of Australian SMEs. Industrial Marketing Management 33 (2):117-123. Kastensson, Å., 2014. Managing product innovation in the automotive industry: in light of the environmental challenge. Lau, A.K.W., 2011. Critical success factors in managing modular production design: Six company case studies in Hong Kong, China, and Singapore. Journal of Engineering and Technology Management 28 (3):168-183. Lynn, G.S., Chen, J., Reilly, R.R., Li, G., 2005. The Critical Factors for Improving Companies‘ Abilities to Develop New Product Faster and More Successfully. Proceedings of IEEE international conference on engineering management 2:632-636. Lynn, G.S., Reilly, R.R., Akgün, A.E., 2000. Knowledge Management in New Product Teams: Practices and Outcomes. IEEE Transactions on Engineering Management 47 (2):221-231. Mendes, G.H.D. S., Ganga, G.M.D., 2013. Predicting Success in Product Development: The Application of Principal Component Analysis to Categorical Data and Binomial Logistic Regression. Journal of Technology Management & Innovation 8 (3):83-97. Nunnally, J. C., 1978. Psychometric Theory. McGraw Hill, New York. Ong, C. S., Lai, J. Y., Wang, Y. S., 2004. Factors affecting engineers‘ acceptance of asynchronous e-learning systems in high-tech companies. Information & Management 41 (6):795-804. Rigdon, E. E., 1998. Structural Equation Modelling. in Marcoulides, G.A. (Ed), Mahwah, Modern methods for business research, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers, pp. 251-294. Sivasubramaniam, N., Liebowitz, S. J., Lackman, C. L., 2012. Determinants of New Product Development Team Performance: A Meta-analytic Review. Journal of Product Innovation Management 29 (5):803-820. Steen, B., 1999. A systematic approach to environmental priority strategies in product development (EPS): version 2000-general system characteristics(p.4). Gothenburg: Centre for Environmental Assessment of Products and Material Systems. Thamhain, H.J., 2011. The Role of Team Collaboration in Complex Product Developments. Proceedings of IEEE international conference on Technology Management in the Energy Smart World 1-7. Wang, K.J., Lestari, Y.D., 2013. Firm Competencies on Market Entry Success: Evidence from a High-Tech Industry in an Emerging Market. Journal of Business Research 66 (12): 2444-2450. Wei, F., OU LiXiong, O., HuiTing, H., 2009. The Influence of Enterprise Senior Management to NPD Projects: An Empirical Study. Proceedings of IEEE international conference on Management and Service Science 1-5. Yeh, T.M., Pai, F.Y., Liao, C.W., 2014. Technology using a Hybrid MCDM Methodology to Identify Critical Factors in New Product Development. Neural Computing & Application 24 (3-4):957-971.

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Waste Management & Resource Utilisation 2016

Waste Management & Resource Utilisation www.iswmaw.com

ISWMAW

Prevention of Drought through Sustainable Management Practices Mandadi Shravya Reddy1,*, K. Purushotham Reddy2, Indrasena Reddy3 1

Intern, EPTRI, Hyderabad, India Former Head, Dept. of Political Science, Osmania University, Hyderabad, India 3 President, Neplus Ultra Labs Private Limited, New Jersey, USA *Corresponding Author: Email- [email protected] 2

ABSTRACT United Nations appointed World Commission on Environment and Development, in its report submitted in 1987, cautions desertification as an emerging global environmental concern. Increasing green house gases leading to global warming, deforrestation, over exploitation of ground water, chemical-intensive agriculture, rapid urbanization etc., are some of the other factors contributing to desertification. The world today is facing increasing water shortages resulting in reduction in food production, this gloomy scenario compels us to think of strategies not just to manage but also to prevent droughts. In India due to the failure of monsoons nearly 50% of the country recently recorded deficit rainfall. On another front, United Nations has initiated in 1992, Conference of Parties on Climate Change. The World witnessed the historic Paris Accord on climate change in December 2015. India is a signatory to this Paris Accord, and has pledged to reduce its emissions. To achieve this India must adopt a green path to development in consonance the Sustainable Development goals. India should evolve an action plan that incorporates prevention of droughts by increasing tree cover and take recourse to total rain water harvesting. India should set up an independent National Weather Modification Centre, equipped for cloud seeding, to prevent droughts and to continuously monitor the water levels in reservoirs and groundwater. Water is such a precious commodity, its utilisation should be based on principles of equity. Domestic waste water should be treated and reused for gardening, agriculture, horticulture and for ground water recharging. Industries should treat its waste water as part of their corporate social responsibility. A comprehensive approach that is multidimensional is imperative to the plan for drought prevention. Keywords: International Society of Waste Management, Air and Water

Introduction According to the Atharva Veda, ―water of river, well, pond, etc., if used and managed efficiently will reduce the intensity of drought and water scarcity‖.We have been living with droughts since the beginning of recorded history, and our survival only bears testimony to our capacity to endure this phenomenon. The question is whether the enhanced capability over the past several millenniums have increased our ability to deal with droughts? Have our actions or inactions about drought-proofing, either by planning for it or managing water resources during a drought, in the past, taught us any lessons? The evidence is very clear that we are mostly unwilling to draw lessons and plan appropriately. 20

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In India, the availability of surface water is greater than ground water. However, owing to the decentralised availability of groundwater, it is easily accessible and forms the largest share of India‘s agriculture and drinking water supply. 89% of ground water extracted is used in the irrigation sector, making it the highest category user in the country, according to the Annual Report (2013-14), Ministry of Water Resources, River Development and Ganga Rejuvenation. 50% of urban water requirements and 85% of rural domestic water requirements are also fulfilled by ground water. India has 16% of world‘s population but only 4% of water resources. Ground water, which is 38.5% of the available water resources of the country, plays a major role in irrigation, drinking water supply and industrial use. Ground water has to be managed in a sustainable way. In India an extent of 60% of our agricultural land is rain-fed and it accounts for about 48% area under fruit crops and 68% under non fruit crops. In this manner India ranks first in the world in terms of extent and value of produce from rain fed agriculture. We have frequent droughts, which occurs both in areas with meagre and high rainfall, as a result of which farmers are driven to take extreme steps and there has been steady increase in the number of farmers committing suicide in many states, including Maharashtra and Telangana. Drought is also not mere scarcity or absence of rainfall but also related to inefficient water resource management. Maharashtra has the highest number of dams and live storage capacity in the country and has also made substantial investments in watershed development programmes. Yet it has become an epicenter for farm suicides in India, with the highest number of deaths there. Large investments are being planned in irrigation sector in the new state of Telangana. Some of the efforts under watershed development programmes in the past, observation of their performance along with the possible way forward in the state of Telangana and county in general have been discussed in this paper. Literature Review There is plenty of literature where drought prevention and management have been discussed. In view of the fact that more than half of our agricultural land is rain-fed and ranks first in the world in terms of extent and value of the produce, frequent droughts are a major problem. The World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED) in its report published in 1987 as Our Common Future [1] cautioned desertification as an emerging global environmental concern. The Inter-governmental Panel on Climate Change in their Assessment Report (AR) 5 [2] has dealt with various aspects of the emerging dangers of Climate Change manifestations. The Paris Agreement at the end of the 2015 Paris Climate Change Conference, COP 21 Paris [3] speaks about the agreement to reduce carbon output and do their best to keep global warming "to well below 2 degrees C‖. In India the Prime Minister‘s Council on Climate Change evolved the National Action Plan on Climate Change in 2008 [16], which among other things address the issue of climate change and droughts. The National Disaster Management Policy in 2009 refers to the need for a paradigm shift from the erstwhile response and relief centric approach to a holistic approach to deal with all phases of disaster management, including prevention, preparedness and mitigation. The National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) released the National Guidelines on Management of Drought in 2010 discussed various aspects of drought management, including the measures taken under watershed development. The National Water Policy 2012 [4] discussed various issues like enhancing water availability, demand management and water efficiency. Some watershed development programs in the country were evaluated by Y. V. R. Reddy et al in 2004 [7]. Besides, literature was also browsed to understand various issues like waste water recycling and reuse [5], weather modification [6] In the background of severe droughts in the late 1990s, some state governments introduced drought proofing programmes. One of them was Neeru Meeru in Andhra Pradesh [8]. It was marked by the introduction of the Four Waters Concept, which was an innovative participatory watershed development in drought prone areas of India [9]. Sunita Narain, Director General, Centre for Science, referring to drought proofing, says that it is a time for do or die [10]. The Government of Rajasthan has launched the 21

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Mukhyamantri Jal Swavlamban Abhiyaan (MJSA) in 2015, which is being seen as a possible game changer [11]. MJSAis a prestigious watershed development campaign, being taken up as per the Four Water Technology of T. Hanumanth Rao, introduced in Andhra Pradesh, in the year 2000. [9]. Methodology of Review Assessment of current incomplete and inadequate measures deployed to manage drought so far and to look beyond for a more comprehensive, holistic, multi-dimensional and long-term sustainable solution. Knowledge systems and bureaucratic structures on existing water harvesting and drought management practices have been reviewed to assess the progress made on this front. Further, international movements, conventions and conferences that provide strength to drought prevention measures were also reviewed. The way forward was concluded from an activist perspective evaluating existing systems and demands of the future. Discussion and Analysis 1.0 International Initiatives 1.1 United Nations Initiatives - Stockholm and Rio Conferences In 1972, Stockholm, Sweden, hosted the first United Nations Conference on the Human Environment, which was attended by 113 delegates and two heads of state (Olaf Palme of Sweden and Indira Gandhi of India). This conference raised a generation's awareness of an issue hitherto little talked about, the global environment. The Stockholm led to the establishment of the United Nations Environment Program (UNEP) and introduced the idea of the relationship between development and the environment. 1.2 World Commission on Environment (WCED) In 1983, the UN General Assembly set up the World Commission on Environment and Development, known as the Brundtland Commission with stated aim of linking environmental issues to the findings of the 1980 Brandt report on North-South relations. The Brundtland report, published in 1987 as Our Common Future, declared that the time had come for a marriage between the environment and the economy and used the term "sustainable development" as the way to ensure that economic development would not endanger the ability of future generations to enjoy the fruits of the earth. The Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro, in 1992 was unprecedented for a UN conference, in terms of both its size and the scope of its concerns. Twenty years after the first global environment conference, the UN sought to help Governments rethink economic development and find ways to halt the destruction of irreplaceable natural resources and pollution of the planet. The focus of this conference was the state of the global environment and the relationship between economics, science and the environment in a political context and the need for environmentally sustainable development. 1.3 Sustainable Development Humanity has the ability to make development sustainable to ensure that it meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. The concept of sustainable development does imply limits - not absolute limits but limitations imposed by the present state of technology and social organization on environmental resources and by the ability of the biosphere to absorb the effects of human activities. 1.4 Global warming and climate change Scientific and technical inventions heralded the industrial revolution. As industrialization spread, so did the by-products of coal combustion, namely pollution. As time rolled by, the usage of ubiquitous internal combustion engines exacerbated the pollution problem further.

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This has significant impact on the natural green house effect, a phenomenon where in some of the gases in our atmosphere act like a green house since they let in sunlight, but prevent some of the sun‘s warmth from radiating back to the space. Gases that trap sun‘s radiation like Caron-di-oxide(CO2), Methane (CH4), Ozone, and particulates are increasing in significant amounts. An example to point are the concentrations of CO2 in the atmosphere that have increased from a stable 280 ppm (parts per million) to approximately 400 ppm. Such significant increases have a tremendous impact on the delicate natural balance of the earth‘s atmosphere by increasing the green house effect and consequently furthering the warming of the planet. Impacts and its consequences on the livelihoods and environment are more pronounced in developing countries like India. Fluctuations in the tropical sea surface temperatures lead to decreased precipitation and increased evaporation leading to severe drought conditions. In India, droughts seemed to be dealing a deleterious blow to agrarian economy and livelihoods of millions of impoverished Indians. Scientific studies and climate models predict increased and intensified droughts in India in 21st century. From drought perspective, mitigating climate change and its consequences becomes imperative. Although, some of the IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change) reports stress a ―low confidence‖ on trends in drought due to global warming due to lack of observational data, scientific wisdom points to exacerbated drought conditions due to climate changes. Conference of Parties (COP) concluded in December, 2015 in Paris, under the auspices of United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCC), presents us with opportunities and guidelines to tackle and control effect of climate change. The Intended Nationally Determined Contributions (INDCs) envisaged by India should be taken in the spirit of proactive adoption and response to climate change challenges faced by our country. Tackling climate change is not about addressing one specific issue, but is a comprehensive solution derived by synergy of different things not limited to increase in production of renewable energy, energy efficiency, green public transport, moving away for carbon intensive growth, aggressive reforestation, use of cuttingedge technologies, and measuring emission intensity of our gross domestic product (GDP). 1.4.1 Clean Energy The subject of control of greenhouse gasses and climate change is an extensive one, for the scope of this paper only salient points are elaborated. The biggest single source of green house gases seems to be the energy sector with its voracious appetite for coal and other fossil fuels. Coherent and cogent systems and policy must be developed to tackle energy production, energy efficiency and afforrestation with measurable parameters to assess our progress. The capacity to produce renewable energy must be significantly scaled up. India has set itself a lofty goal of scaling up its renewable energy production from 36 gigawatts (gw) in 2015 to 175 gw in 2022. Efforts must be made to bring down the cost of production of solar power. Research and technology into solar panel efficiency should be pursued and collaborations with development countries must be sought. India also has a significant potential of 100 gw of wind power. Currently we produce only 24 gw of wind power. Active research on this subject is very much needed, especially with regards to height of wind turbines where in wind power production can be significantly increased. Grids must be built and adjusted with load settings to receive power from renewable sources. Comprehensive plans with concrete goals must be made to limit the production of energy from fossil fuels. India‘s emission intensity of our GDP has decreased by 12 percent in the period between 2005 and 2010. An ambitious goal of 33- 35 percent decrease in emission intensity of GDP is laid out in our INDCs by the year 2030. A goal that can be achieved with significant increase in production of renewable energy with corresponding increase in energy efficiency. 1.4.2 Afforestation Another significant source of combating global warming is by increasing forest cover by sustainable forest management and afforrestation thereby creating a carbon sink. India has set itself a goal to create an additional carbon sink of 2.5 to 3 billion tones of CO2 equivalent through additional forest and tree cover. Further, India also has a goal of increasing its forest and tree cover from current 24 percent of land to 33 percent in the future. Studies have shown that by creating 5 million hectares of forest cover and by improving on another 5 million existing forest can sequester carbon of about 100 million tones of CO2 equivalent. Significant strides on this front can easily be made by increasing forest and tree cover, and 23

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added benefit of providing livelihood to the poor. Policies to regulate conversion of forest lands for nonforest purpose must be made and stringently adhered to. To tackle greenhouses gases and consequently drought, a comprehensive solution that puts together a multi-pronged approach is needed. 2.0 Macro and Local Initiatives 2.1 Wastewater Recycle and Reuse Large swathes of land in India are reeling under severe and moderate drought. To address the issue of drought, one important dimension is the aspect of water conservation and reuse. Governments at different levels central, state, cities and panchayats should actively innovative solutions driven with technological answers. Active research with inputs from different regions of the world that have successfully tackled these water crisis issues is an imperative. For the scope of this research some critical points are elaborated. Conservation and reduced water usage should be a core strategy. Strategies should be developed such that water is optimally consumed in all walks of life including domestic, commercial, industrial, agricultural and aesthetic facets in a sustainable manner. Policies at governmental level should be developed such that instead of imposing or regulating, minimal water usage should be incentivized. For industrial, commercial and domestic use limits should be made on per capita usage or per production usage so that water reuse and recycling is actively embraced. Further apartments and larger multi residential units should be encouraged to treat and reuse its waste water for irrigation and cleaning purposes. Digging and construction of bore wells to drain ground water should be curtailed and regulated. On another front, Industries should be regulated to consume minimal fresh water and deploy waste water treatment plant to treat its wastewater for further use. In our country, significant amount of water is used for agricultural purposes. Managing scare water resources for agricultural purposes requires should be a bedrock program in drought prone areas. Evaporation, drainage, runoff, storage, uneven irrigation, etc present significant challenges to water resource management. Construction of barrages, at suitable locations, should be taken up so that water run-off is curtailed and stored at desired locations. Barrages also act as groundwater rechargers and also have significant potential to generate hydro-power electricity. Further, the irrigating canals should be well lined with concrete and other impervious material to prevent seepage. In addition, the irrigation canals can also be covered by solar panels to prevent evaporation losses and also generate valuable electricity for agricultural consumption. Techniques and practices such as drip irrigation, mist irrigation, concentrated spray techniques should to adopted to improve irrigation efficiency. Further, treating agricultural lands with water holding and retention soils, mulches and manure can also reduce water usage. Rapid strides in treatment technologies have presented us with immense opportunities to treat waste and saline waters to get recycled water. The quality of the treated water can be obtained to a desired quality, such that treated water can meet the standards in the range from irrigation water to drinking water qualities. Arid areas near the coastline can avail the breakthrough in membrane technologies, such that significant amounts of saline water can be pressurized through it and treated water with drinking water standards can be obtained. Cities and municipalities should actively consider treating water to higher standards so that instead of discharging treated effluents into water bodies, they can reuse it for variety of purposes. A thorough study and a new policy framework must be developed treatment of waste water and reuse of treated water in drought prone areas must be made mandatory in all walks of life. 2.2 Establishing Weather Modification Centres Science of weather has evolved as a major subject over the last few decades. Weather Modification is now seen as an important tool which has changed our perspective of weather. Efforts including cloud seeding to increase rain, suppression of hailstorms and cyclones are all part of weather modification. Currently, there are 52 countries involved in weather modification activities. China, by far has the largest investment in both operational and research programmes, with over 37,000 employed in weather

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modification centres in about 30 provinces and municipalities. After China, USA and Thailand have invested in operational weather modification programmes. The World Meteorological Organization (WMO) has set up an Expert Committee on Weather Modification Research to provide a frame work for weather modification both for the operational and research activities. In India, Indian Institute of Tropical Metrological (IITM), attached to Ministry of Civil Aviation carried out series of cloud seeding experiments over the years with mixed results. Different states like Maharashtra and undivided Andhra Pradesh attempted cloud seeding activities on their own with mixed results too. However, going by the Chinese experience India should enhance both operation and research capability in cloud seeding and weather modification. In the Indian context and in the light of repeated serious droughts over the years, cloud seeding for precipitation enhancement assumes greater importance among the different types of weather modifications. It has to be remembered that the cost of cloud seeding will perhaps be negligible as compared to what is spent to tackle the impact of drought. 2.3 Equity and Social Justice in Water Resource Management Equity Social justice principles refer to values that favor measures aimed at decreasing or eliminating inequity; promoting inclusiveness of diversity; and establishing environments that are supportive of all people.‖ Equity means that resources are allocated in accordance with the needs of individuals and populations with the desired goal of equality of outcomes. Water is of paramount importance for sustaining life, development and the environment. The availability of water is the key determinant of economic growth and social prosperity. However, water is a finite resource and its use for one purpose reduces its availability for other purposes. Competing water needs trigger conflicts between disparate water. It could also lead to conflicts between regions, districts and even at the local level and could pose challenges for planning and allocation of its uses among competing demands. While taking up water conservation measures as a means of drought proofing, it may be easier to avoid conflicts if they are planned very objectively. Any disparities arising out of lack of objectivity can be corrected by investing efforts and resources regionally and locally. However, when irrigation potential is being developed by making large investments care has to be taken to ensure equality and social justice to primarily promote inclusiveness and establishment of environments supportive of all people so that water could serve the needs of different peoples without any favoritism but on sound principles of equity and social justice. 2.4 Drought Proofing Irrigation sector in Maharashtra is one of the largest in the country, both in terms of the number of large dams and the live storage capacity. Substantial efforts have also been made in Watershed Development under the Integrated Watershed Management Programme (IWMP), National Watershed Development Projects in Rainfed Areas (NWDPRA) etc. Yet Maharashtra is India‘s farm suicide epicenter. A total of 2568, which is nearly half of the farmers who committed suicide in 2014 were from Maharashtra. Unfortunately, lessons could not be learnt from the transformation of Ralegan Siddhi, a village which drought stricken and caught in the web of poverty in 1975 to a village with abundant water and prosperity for its farmers, thanks to the inspiring guidance of Anna Hazare. In Telangana, where farmer suicides are also prevalent, lot of investments are being planned in irrigation projects when there are successful examples of transformation of villages with low cost water conservation options. Two villages in Medak district, Gottigarpally and Hothi B, are live examples of this, having taken up water conservation in 2002, using an innovative participatory technology, namely, the ―Four Waters Concept‖, invented by an internationally renowned retired Engineer in Chief from Andhra Pradesh, Mr.T. Hanumanth Rao. For over a decade the results have been spectacular and consistent in the 25

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sense that even when the entire state was reeling under severe drought for consecutive years, there was plenty of water in these villages in the middle of summer of 2016. At a time when making huge investments in the irrigation sector has become a priority, such innovations should not be shunned and seen as an opportunity for effective drought proofing. Unfortunately, this concept has not received the recognition that it deserves for very long. The only reason that could be attributed is that governments very often consider development to be directly proportionate to high investments. The Rajasthan government is looking at this ―Four Water Concept‖ technology now and this is very welcome. Since the Four Water Concept can be successfully implemented with an annual rainfall of 550 mm, it should be possible to use this effectively in any part of the country. This will perhaps contribute to better transformation of our drought prone villages permanently. Conclusion A review of current literature on drought management clearly points that enough was not done since independence of our country. A comprehensive holistic approach is the need of the hour. Watershed management coupled with equitable distribution of water at the spatially local level has to be taken up with a sense of urgency. Further, drought studies based on localized conditions in order to predict the events and its impact have to be taken up. On a macro scale, constructive provisions of the international treaties and conventions should be quickly embraced and deployed in our country, with focus on long-term goals in mind. Establishing dynamic weather modification centres and drought proofing measures have to be taken up in a timely manner. Institutional structures, governmental and bureaucratic structures must be reorganized such that delays due to redtapism should be eliminated and drought planning and implementation should be deployed efficiently, effectively in a timely manner. Technology and knowledge based systems should be deployed and dissemination of related information for increased awareness to local and grass-root levels should be promoted with top priority. In addition government policies aimed at arresting depletion of ground water, water conservation, treatment and reuse of wastewater and ground water recharge should be important components of the strategy. In conclusion, prevention of drought is not a straightforward or easy objective to attain, It is an imperative that requires a multidimensional and synergistic efforts on many fronts with a strong commitment from society at large. References 1) WCED / Report Report of the World Commission on Environment and Development: Our Common Future (1987), available at http://www.un-documents.net/wced-ocf.htm 2) IPCC AR 5 https://ipcc.ch/report/ar5/ 3) Paris Declaration http://newsroom.unfccc.int/media/121166/paris_declaration_r20-summit.pdf 4) National Water Policy 2012 http://wrmin.nic.in/writereaddata/NationalWaterPolicy/NWP2012Eng6495132651.pdf 5) Waste Water Recycling. http://www.globalwaterforum.org/2013/03/18/tackling-water-scarcity-israelswastewater-recycling-as-a-model-for-the-worlds-arid-lands/ 6) Weather Modification. https://www.wmo.int/pages/prog/arep/cas/documents/doc3.3.2-ETWMR-Response.pdf 7) Evaluation of WSD prog. http://www.tucson.ars.ag.gov/isco/isco13/PAPERS%20R-Z/REDDY.pdf 8) Neeru Meeru. http://www.aponline.gov.in/quick%20links/economic%20survey/social17_6.pdf 9) Four Water Concept. Hanumanth Rao, T. (2003), Innovative Participatory Technologies for Watershed Development in Drought Prone Areas of India (Four Water Concept), Engineering Staff College of India, Gachi Bowli, Hyderabad. 10) Down to Earth, Narain, Sunita (2014), Make India Drought Proof, Down to Earth, available at http://www.downtoearth.org.in/blog/make-india-droughtproof-44933 11) MJSA - What is it? http://water.rajasthan.gov.in/mjsa/watershed/four-water-concept.html 12) MJSA - Impact: http://water.rajasthan.gov.in/mjsa/photogallery0/four-water-concept.html 13) Drought Measures Taken up In Oklahoma State, USA: 14) drought.ok.gov | Oklahoma's Drought Portal 15) Drought Measures Taken up In California State, USA California Drought Portal : drought.ca.gov 16) India‘s Intended Nationally Determined Contribution: Working Towards Climate Justice.w4.unfccc.int/submissions/INDC/.../India

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Champ- A Bio-Medical Waste Disposal and Recycling Plant-An Innovative PPP Model of Reverse Logistic Mechanism to Promote Green Supply Chain Management in Healthcare Sector Reema Banerjee1,*, Madhavi Joshi2 1

Centre Foe Environment Education, Kolkata, India Centre Foe Environment Education, Ahmedabad, India *Corresponding Author: Email- [email protected] 2

ABSTRACT Looking at the gravity of public health hazards and public outcries due to mismanagement of biomedical waste across the country, ‗Healthcare Establishment Waste Management and Education Programme (HEWMEP)‘ has been implemented by Centre for Environment Education(CEE- a not for profit organization) in many parts of the country including in Kalaburagi, Karnataka. Centre for Environment Education (CEE) is a national institution engaged in developing programmes and material to increase awareness about the environment and sustainable development. The project has been beneficial in designing a methodology and a completely operational facility for biomedical waste management (BMWM) which could be implemented in other healthcare establishment (HCEs) in Karnataka and in India, with some locale specific modifications. The Common Healthcare waste Appropriate Management Plant (CHAMP) established under the project is a state of the art facility based on scientific research and development in the field and complies with the BMWM Rules and Guidelines of MoEF, Government of India. The unit is operational since 17th May, 2005 and currently caters to more than 600 HCEs, clinics and hospitals in and around Kalaburagi city. The facility is established and is sustained as an innovative model due to involvement of public as well as private partnership. The significant features of the facility like vested state-of-art facilities with green procurements to reduce the carbon foot print, eco-friendly methods of O&M, effective monitoring mechanism including continuous education & training have made it a Model Green Supply Chain Reverse Logistic Mechanism, which in turn is highly recommended to be replicated in other parts of the country. The project is monitored by a committee formed with the Deputy Commissioner (DC) as the Chairman, which evaluate the services and education along with encourages/enforces maximum HCEs of the region to be part of the services. The project has also focused on analyzing various downstream as well as upstream tactics to be applied for successfully implementation of such waste based sustainable ventures in India. Keywords: Biomedical waste management, reverse logistics, PPP model, green supply chain; International Society of Waste Management, Air and Water

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1.0 Introduction Green Supply Chain Management (GSCM) represents integrating environmental thinking into supply chain management, including product design, material sourcing and selection, manufacturing processes, delivery of the final product to the consumer as well as end-of-life management of the product after its useful life (S.K. Srivastava, 2007). In India, there are about 6,00,000 hospital beds, over 23,000 Primary Health Centers, thousands of registered nursing homes, countless unregistered nursing homes and dispensaries, and above all a very large number of quacks practicing at every nook and corner of urban and semi-urban locality. The hospitals are tertiary care hospitals usually associated with teaching colleges, district hospitals (more than 2,000), and health care dispensaries. There are innumerable pathology laboratories, the data of which is hardly available (L.K. Verma, 2010). According to health information statistics 20% of total beds are in rural hospitals while 80% are in urban hospitals. Extrapolating from past figures of number of beds and average quantity of waste generation at the rate of 1 kg per bed per day, it is estimated that about 0.33 million tonnes of hospital waste is being generated per year (A.D. Patil and A. V. Shekdar , 2001). In India, with exception to a few large hospitals, most of the smaller hospitals and nursing homes lack any effective system to safely dispose off their waste Realizing the gravity of the issue, the Ministry of Environment and Forest, Govt. of India promulgated the Biomedical Waste (Management and Handling) Rules on 27th July 1998 to emphasize and implement the management of healthcare waste in India. These rules along with subsequent amendments dated 06th March 2000, 2nd June 2000, 17th September 2003 and recently the revised rules of 2016 are welcome steps to improve the status of healthcare waste management in India. The recent amendments to the Biomedical Waste (Management and Handling) Rules emphasize the need for the Common Treatment Facilities for the effective biomedical waste management. The Common Facilities are recommended to set up for the benefit of small and medium waste generators, for cost effectiveness and to check the mushrooming of small incinerators within city premises. 2.0 Objective The study/paper envisage to analyse one of the working model of hospital waste management disposal facility called CHAMP –Common Healthcare waste Appropriate Management Plant , which services around 4000 beds of healthcare sector everyday for safe and environment friendly disposal of their waste. The study of this reverse logistic model intends to analyse and recommend some upstream and downstream tactics/solutions (in terms of green purchasing, life cycle analysis, segregation practices, capacity building) for efficient green supply chain management in this service sector. 3.0 Methodology Adopted The literature related to the topic was reviewed through available resource on internet and authentic links like website of Ministry of Environment & Forests , Govt of India, World Health organisation, paper published in reputed journal of High Impact Factors like Elsevier‘s etc. More of regional and context based date were reviewed to get proper and suitable information on the subject. A tool cum questionnaire was designed along with some quantitative data format to get the data and information on the PPP model under study. A detailed consultation, visits and analysis was conducted with the stakeholders involved. The necessary data and details were analysed and reviewed for recommending ways forward. 4.0 Rationale and Background for setting up the PPP model Looking at the gravity of public health hazards and public outcries due to mis-management of biomedical waste across the country, ‗Healthcare Establishment Waste Management and Education Programme (HEWMEP)‘ has been implemented by Centre for Environment Education in many parts of the country including in Gulbarga, Karnataka. Centre for Environment Education (CEE) is a national institution engaged in developing programmes and material to increase awareness about the environment 28

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and sustainable development. CEE was established in 1984 as a Centre of Excellence in Environmental Education, supported by the Ministry of Environment and Forests (MOEF), Government of India. It is affiliated to the Nehru Foundation for Development. CEE‘s primary objective is to improve public awareness and understanding of the environment with view to promoting the conservation and sustainable use of nature and natural resources, leading to a better environment and a better quality of life. The main goal under the programme was to set up a completely operational and comprehensive sustainable common facility for Bio-medical waste collection, transportation, treatment and disposal for Healthcare Establishments (HCEs) of Gulbarga city in collaboration with district administration and private HCEs. The other objectives were:  

To improve the public health scenario of the region through scientific and eco-friendly management of medical waste To evolve the facility as an effective and sustainable PPP model of waste management, which could act as demonstration unit for capacity building and replication in other parts of the country

5.0 Management and operational aspects of the PPP model The entire management aspect of CHAMP with great details on the following operational as capacity building approaches was studied and looked upon during the study: Daily collection of biomedical waste from HCEs in specially fabricated vehicles

Unloading of waste at the site and storage in cold room

Vehicle washing

Taking out the biomedical waste from cold room prior to treatment

Soiled waste, solid waste, microbiological and biotechnological waste

Human anatomical and animal Waste

Autoclave System

Incineration

Ash

Landfill

Gaseous Emissions

Venturi Scrubber

Liquid Effluent

ETP

Waste Sharps

Metal Sharps Manager

Sterilized & shredded waste

Sterilized & shredded waste sharps

To authorized recycler for recycling

Flow Chart for the day to day O&M of CHAMP 29

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6.0 Observations Significant features of CHAMP as a Model Green Supply Chain Reverse Logistic Mechanism are observed as below: 6.1.1 A PPP Model of Green/ Environment Supply Chain Management (Reverse Logistic mechanism) The facility is established and is sustained as a model due to involvement of public as well as private partnership. The Land for the facility is provided by the district administration, the facility is set up by the autonomous institute CEE, having technical knowledge on the subject and operated by CEE through the service charge provided by the private and government healthcare establishments. This tripartite model is sustaining for last 11 years. The plant is now a self sustaining unit, with no outside grant being received, and it is entirely managed and sustained by the service charges collected by the HCEs catered by the plant.

Figure 1: Partnership Model for CHAMP-Common Treatment Facility 6.1.2 Green Procurements at the Facility CHAMP has many green procurements to reduce the carbon footprints. The incinerators are of least size (50Kg/hr) as compared to any nearby CTFs, as the organisation believes that if segregation is aptly achieved, only 20-30% of the biomedical waste generated by the HCEs requires incineration and rest all could be sterilised, shredded and recycled. The incinerator operation time is also restricted and limited to the minimum i.e. only twice a week to reduce emission as well as reduce electricity and diesel costs. The modified autoclaves procured and operated for sterilisation in the facility is for increasing the extent of sterilisation with steam and blades, so that recycling could be further promoted. As there is no emission and least pollution from operation of these equipment, hence two of such equipment of 100 kegs capacity each is procured, where it is envisages through environment and technical knowledge point of view that about 60-70% of the biomedical waste are sterlisable/autoclavable. Cold Room: Presence of Cold room at the site is to increase the storage time of the incinerable waste so that bacterial spread could be prevented while storage. This is also a step towards green procurement, to reduce incinerator operations and reduce public health hazards. 30

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Solar Water heater: The plant also has solar water heater, which is used for providing warm water for producing steam in the autoclave. This in turn reduces the electric consumption to produce boiling water as well as reduce time required for autoclave to reach the threshold temperature.

Water Harvesting Structures: The facility has roof water harvesting structures to collect rain water. As it is extremely dry region, so whatever rainwater is available during raining reason, the entire office building of the plant collects and harvests the same. The same is used for cleaning purpose of vehicles plants and equipment. Transport vehicles of CHAMP are fitted with special filters preventing escape of bacteria (0.3micorns) and viruses (6 microns) from the container during transit; Use of special crates provide safe and minimal handling of the bio-medical waste during collection, transport and delivery at the CHAMP site. 6.1.3 Optimum Operational Logistics for Collection and Transportation: An optimum route planning has been done prior starting the collection and transportation to optimize the diesel consumption and also cater maximum HCEs in one round. Also for nook and corner of the congested cities non motorized transports (NMTs) like fabricated rickshaws are also used in hub and spoke method. The NMTs are used to collect wastes from small clinics and HCEs and then they bring the waste to the big load king collection vehicle and transfer the same in that. This hub and spoke method of collection optimises the collection efficiency in congested cities 6.1.4 Positive Steps toward Behavioural Change: Continuous and regular training and education to HCEs personnel and collection staff of the facilities forms an integral part of the programme. Various educational materials have also been developed in local language to aid the learning and have been distributed to all HCEs for putting them a signages in appropriate places like above the bins, nursing stations etc. to aid segregation and collection of biomedical waste inside the hospitals 6.1.5 Using Waste as Resource: The Facility also apart from service charges collections form HCEs, have resource recovery through selling/auction of the sterilised recyclable wastes. The sterilised and shredded plastic, glass and metal waste are auctioned on rate contract and provides extra income to the plant as resource apart from cleaning the Biomedical waste from the causing any public health hazard. The premise is also zero waste premise, as whatever waste comes to the premise is properly treated and disposed and ultimately the premise and the regions becomes free of the concern causing Biomedical waste.

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7.0 Recommendations and Way Forward 7.1 General Recommendations Resource Efficiency and Circular economy: By reducing production of wastes, and by maximising the use of reusable and recyclable materials, an HCE can achieve greater resource efficiency. Waste management should be designed and planned in a holistic, integrated way on the principles and practices of 3Rs, with disposal being just the last resort or least preferred option. Behavioural Change: Once new initiatives are introduced, people will need time to adjust until the new plan becomes normal behaviour, but once this behaviour is established it is difficult to break (Timlett & Williams, 2009). Participation and perception towards different waste management plans can be impacted by a variety of factors including: the level of knowledge regarding the impacts of current and suggested actions; access to adequate facilities; adequate knowledge and expertise to carry out what is being asked; concern for the community; and knowledge of the consequences or benefits of their actions (Davis et al., 2006; Hansmann et al., 2006; Thøgerson & Grunert-Beckmann, 1997). Opting for a Centralised Waste Management Facility: A critical deficiency in waste management infrastructure has been a serious problem for many cities. As the biomedical waste management requires incinerators etc, hence it is recommended to opt for a central common facility, as mushrooming incinerators in the cities are not recommended as it will lead to increased emission and pollutions. Public Private Partnerships (PPPs) could help implement such waste management infrastructure projects as it is found that in many cities such facilities cannot be financed wholly by the city corporation. Further, preconditions such as capital investments, future financial sustainability and institutional mechanisms should also be satisfied so as to ensure the proper maintenance and functioning of these facilities. Policies: Policies should address upstream challenges that can help support effective management downstream. For example, with growing emphasis on the green economy, sustainable production and resource efficiency, new improved forms of technology will be required to design, manufacture, use and disassembly that allows for easy recyclability of used products, thereby widening the scope of materials suitable for recycling. This would be included under a comprehensive policy framework encouraging reuse and recycling of special waste streams as resources. 7.2 Downstream Tactics (For Waste Management Common Facility Operators) Operational Logistics Consideration for a Common Facility: It is important to consider the components needed for successful implementation of a waste management plan. Components include collection and storage of material, equipment, signage, human resources, transportation, materials processing, and material use. Before a firm can design a waste management facility, certain conditions must be met. The resources must be in place to undertake the design and implementation efforts of the strategy including human resources and capital. An understanding of the current waste management practices is also required. Costs There are different layers of costs involved with waste management and they are grouped in tiers according to the probability of occurrence and where in the system they occur. These are Tier 1: Usual and normal costs; Tier 2: Hidden and indirect costs; Tier 3: Future and long-term liability costs; Tier 4: Less tangible costs Usual and normal costs occur directly as a result of compliance measures. They include capital costs for equipment and the costs for operating equipment. Hidden and indirect costs occur as a result of things like carrying out monitoring, obtaining permits, reporting, and insurance premiums. Future and long-term costs are difficult to plan and budget for due to uncertainties with predicting future events such 32

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as the effectiveness of the waste management strategy, changes to regulations and the risks associated with chosen equipment and technologies. The less tangible costs are the most difficult to quantify, but they generally occur as a result of poor environmental performance, despite the fact that the waste management system is generally in compliance with regulations (N. P. Cheremisinoff, 2003). Human Resources The success of any waste management plan will rely upon the cooperation of several different stakeholder groups. The expected roles and responsibilities of these groups must be clearly outlined so that they are made aware of the expectations placed upon them, and to allow for an element of accountability. 7.3 Upstream Tactics (For Healthcare Sector) Green Procurement/Environmental Purchasing for Health Care Changes in purchasing policy are easy to make if the benefits are clear and the costs are minimal (e.g., replacing mercury thermometers with mercury-free thermometers). If a health care facility desires to move toward integrating environmental criteria into purchasing decisions, it may benefit from the use of a decision support tool, such as the assessment of the environmental impact of a medical product through all of its life cycle stages—manufacturing, packaging, distribution, use, and end-of-life. Waste Segregation and Inventory Management The healthcare facilities require logistical support. The MOH, via the National Medical Stores, must continuously provide appropriate supplies for waste segregation. At the facility level, managers should ensure that adequate numbers of colour-coded waste bins and accompanying liners are available at each service delivery point. The HCEs should maintain a waste inventory of the quantity and quality of waste being generated from different departments of the HCEs. A nodal officer should be designated who should take control of the waste management issues of the hospitals. Awareness related to Environment and Waste Management in Health Professionals The gap in the knowledge of the environmental impacts of health care products and services underscores the need for increased understanding among health professionals of the integral links between human health and environmental health. A 1994 survey of medical school deans indicated a ―minimal‖ emphasis on environmental education (Patil, V.Gayatri. and K.Pokhrel, 2005). Nurses are in a similar situation, with curricula in nursing programs that normally do not include environmental education. Training opportunities can include strengthening integration of HCWM in pre-service training (nursing and medical curricula), including HCWM in continued medical education sessions in-service training, and encouraging district HCWM technical teams to organize workshops, possibly using a standardized training curriculum. Availability of national policy and guidelines is essential in all facilities. The posters and signages, remind providers and waste handlers of the need for sound practices in disposing of medical waste.

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8.0 Conclusion Looking into the future, the evolution of the complexity of health care waste streams will proceed at an even more rapid pace. New materials, new technologies, and new power sources will emerge. The disposal options for these new products and technologies will barely keep pace with the latest innovations in health care. Life cycle thinking, from a design and purchasing standpoint, holds the promise of decreasing environmental risks and costs Health care waste treatment is linked to bio accumulative toxic substances, such as mercury and dioxins, which suggests the need for a new approach to product selection. To address environmental issues proactively, all stages of the product life cycle should be considered during material selection. Tools that focus on environmentally preferable purchasing are now emerging for the health care industry. These tools can help hospitals select products that create the least amount of environmental pollution. Environmental performance should be incorporated into the evolving definition of quality for health care. Optimizing solutions to environmental issues in the health care industry requires holistic approaches that incorporate not only health care facilities but also the supply chain and end-of-life disposal strategies. This means understanding environmental outputs and inputs and identifying opportunities to provide better service and quality care in a cleaner, greener way. In the creative reconstruction that seems to typify current health care, it is necessary to shift the focus of environmental issues away from disposal costs alone to a focus on broader systems. We do not suggest that the quality of health care should be sacrificed for the environment. Incorporating environmental performance is part of the natural evolution of quality in health care. References: A.D. Patil and A. V. Shekdar. Health-care waste management in India. Journal of Environmental Management, 2001, 63: 211–220 Cheremisinoff, N. P. (2003). Handbook of solid waste management and waste minimization technologies, 2003, Amsterdam: Butterworth-Heinemann, p. 477 Davis, G., Phillips, P., Read, A., & Iida, Y. Demonstrating the need for the development of internal research capacity: Understanding recycling participation using the Theory of Planned Behaviour in West Oxfordshire, UK. Resources, Conservation and Recycling. 2006, 46(2), 115-127 Hansmann, R., Bernasconi, P., Smieszek, T., Loukopoulos, P., & Scholz, R. Justifications and self-organization as determinants of recycling behavior: The case of used batteries. Resources, Conservation and Recycling. 2006, 47(2), 133-159. L.K. Verma. Managing Hospital Waste is Difficult: How Difficult?. Journal of ISHWM. 2010, 9(1): 46-50. Patil, V.Gayatri. and K.Pokhrel. Biomedical solid waste management in an Indian hospital: a case study. Waste Management. 2005, 25:592–599. S.K. Srivastava. Green supply-chain management: A state-of the-art literature review. International Journal of Management Reviews. 2007, 9: 53–80. Thøgerson, J., & Grunert-Beckmann, S. C.Values and attitude formation towards emerging attitude objects: from recycling to general waste minimising behavior. In M. MacInnis & D. J. Brucks (Eds.), Advances in Consumer Research. 1997, pp. 182-189. Timlett, R., & Williams, I. The impact of transient populations on recycling behaviour in a densely populated urban environment. Resources, Conservation and Recycling. 2009, 53(9), 498-506.

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Identify and Assess the Impact of Climate Change and Sea Level Rise to the System of Landfills and Solid Waste Treatment Facilities in the Central Coast Region of Viet Nam Nghiem Van Khanh* Vice Dean of Faculy of Infrastructure Engineering and Urban Environment, Head of Department of Environmental Engineering, Ha Noi Architechtural University – Viet Nam *Corresponding Author: Email- [email protected] ABSTRACT The impact of the phenomenon of climate change and sea level rise to the provinces in the Central Littoral Region Of Viet Nam are going on clearer every day, whereby, the solid waste treatment plants become one of the factors which caused serious ecological environmental pollutants. In particular, in this context, most of the provinces in the Central Litteral Region has made the planning of solid waste management. But in fact, the local is still difficulty in preparing the "Report action plan to respond to climate change in the province ." Therefore, the paper offers the results of studies identifying, assessing the impact of climate change and sea level rise for the landfill system, the treatment plants in the Central Littoral Region. It is a factual basis to assist the work of the proposed plan of action in solid waste management activities in the province to cope with climate change and rising sea levels are appropriate and effective. Keywords: International Society of Waste Management, Air and Water

1.0 Introduction The importance of adaptation to climate change (CC) in the planning of solid waste management (SWM) is currently very large and it deserves more attention in the process of urban planning, the planning policy, for several reasons: urban SWM system has now been proven vulnerable by the due to floods, landslides and storms everyday. It was interrupted for a certain period of time due to the extreme weather events; SWM system are considered most vulnerable in the development and expansion of urban, when the infrastructure system and the suitability of the location of the SW treatment facilities plays an important role. The high environmental and healthful risk from the potential disaster happening on a large scale, from unsanitary and without planning landfills, which is directly related to the SWM has not been determined in responding to climate change objectives. In the modern city, the test and consider the likely impact of climate change scenarios according to the position of planning, building new and old landfills is essential. The old landfills, even when closed, will cause pollution risk, if located in flood-prone areas. The new landfills are the most vulnerable part of SWM chain, capable of causing environmental damage is very high, especially in the case of erosion or flooding. Therefore, the article is written with the research 35

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on the methods and results of the evaluation, identifying the impact of climate change on the system of solid waste treatment facilities in the central coastal provinces. 2.0 General introduction to the central coastal region [5] Central Coast region has 90 790 km2 natural area, accounts for 28% of the country's natural and divided into two sub-regions: North Central Region and Central Coast 2.1 Natural features The height of the region descending from the mountains down to the midland hills, down to the plains in the coastal sand dunes and out to the coastal islands. Coastline is about 1,000 km. It has the most harsh climatic conditions in Viet Nam. Annually, more frequent natural disasters such as storms, floods, Laos wind, droughts, the underlying cause by location, terrain structure created. Thua Thien - Hue is one of the provinces with the most rainfall in Vietnam with annual average rainfall in excess of 2.600mm, where up to 4.000mm. The coastal plain of Thua Thien - Hue least rainfall, but also the annual average from 2700 - 2.900mm.  



 

Every year from 200-220 days of rain in the mountains, 150-170 days of rain in the coastal plain area. In the rainy season, each month there are 16-24 days of rain. The rains lasted several days usually caused widespread large flooding. The topography of the west, from Ha Tinh to Thua Thien - Hue, includes high mountains, rivers flow towards the NW-SE empties into the sea, the river is narrow, steep, small catchment area with relatively large amount of rain will pour down floods born, rise quickly and cause flooding for areas low eastern plains. Example: Song Huong - Bo River, upstream height is 1.318m, the length is over 100 km and basin area is 2.690km2, flowing from north to south near the sea poured in Thuan An. Since the entire area of the river basin over 80% is mountainous, plains mostly remaining lower than sea level, so most will be inundated during the flood on alert level 3 (equivalent to 3.5 m). Due to the rainfall from 68-75% / year should normally cause major flooding damaging production, property, human life, the negative impact on the environment and ecology. In contrast, during the dry season, the water supply was not enough for living and production in a number of localities in the region. As flood season in the North Central occurs from July to October, in the South Central Coast usually occurs from October to December. The massive floods that occurred in central in the years 1952, 1964, 1980, 1983, 1990, 1996, 1998, 1999, 2001, 2003 ... At one point flooding as waves superimposed flood floods in November, 12, 1999; October, 11, 2010.

2.2 Economic and social characteristics The total population of the region in 2015 about 20 million people, the urbanization rate of 32%, average population growth rate of 1.1%. Region has some strengths in economic development is mining and marine aquaculture. In addition to fishing operators are shrimp, squid, crab ... In technology, mainly construction materials industry which notably cement and brick production, distributed in all provinces. On agriculture, the strength of the region is to develop industrial crops such as peanuts annually, straw, sugarcane, mulberry, pineapple ..., recently the development of tea, rubber, coffee, cocoa . 2.3 Infrastructure systems Regional transportation infrastructure is being renovated and new construction. Technical Infrastructure Central Coast region is stable with 6 airports, 13 sea ports (7 ports Type 1), 14 highway, railway north - south running through, evenly distributed in the provinces, connecting cities, economic zones and industrial parks in the region. 36

Nghiem Van Khanh et al. / Waste Management & Resource Utilisation 2016

3.0 Summary of status report, the planning of landfills, solid waste treatment facilities in central coast provinces [5] Total number of existing landfills in 10 provinces is 165, of which: - Number of active landfills is 141 - The number of closed BCL 22 - The sanitary landfills are 22 (approximately 13.3% of the existing landfills and 15.6% of the total number of active landfills) The volume of discharged solid waste currently and the collection, treatment of solid waste in each province particular shown in Table 1. Table 1: Situation of treatment, solid waste landfills in the central coastal provinces 2014-2015 [5] Landfill

The volume of discharged solid waste (Ton/day)

Rate of collection, % (*)

Sanitary/Total

Operating/ Total

421,28

60-100

2/31

25/31

Landfill 100%

Nghe An

402

70

0/22

20/22

Landfill + compost

Quang Binh

500

Name of Province Thanh Hoa

Quang Tri

518,3

0/9 90 (10-15)

0/33

Main Treatment Technologies

Landfill 100% 31/33

Landfill 96% + 4% Incinerattion Landfill 60% + Production of renewable materials 20% + compost 20%

Thua Thien Hue

453,1

85-100 (30)

5/18

18/18

Đa Nang

242,33

93

2/2

1/2

Quang Nam

600

55

5/16

15/16

95% Landfill + 5% Incinerattion

Quang Ngai

186,8

70-75 (20-35)

4/14

14/14

Landfill 60% + compost 20% + Incinerattion 20%

Binh Thuan

501

80

2/12

12/12

Landfill 83,3% + Incineration 14,7%

Phu Yen

785

90 (50)

2/8

8/8

Landfill 100%

Landfill 100%

Note: The values in parentheses is the percentage of solid waste collected at the district and rural areas.

 

Now, the mainly technology to treat the solid waste in the province is landfill, in which the provinces have the highest rate of sanitary landfills are Da Nang (100%) and Hue (55.6%); the lowest rate are Quang Binh, Quang Tri (no sanitary landfills) The percentage of sanitary landfill compared to the total is low, especially rural areas (only 2/10 provinces had ratios of over 50% sanitary landfills).

4.0 Trends and forecast impacts of climate change – sea level rise for landfills system in central coast provinces Based on the National Strategy on Climate Change of the Prime Minister in 2011 [2], the scenarios of climate change and sea level rise by the Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment, 2012 (medium emissions scenario B2) [3], the report assessment the impact of climate change and rising sea levels in the provinces and an action plan to cope with climate change and sea level rise in the coastal central provinces [4], the paper forecasts the areas most influenced by by climate change and sea level rise impact landfills 37

Nghiem Van Khanh et al. / Waste Management & Resource Utilisation 2016

systems, treatment facilities are operating and planned in the future in the Central Coast provinces, detail shown in table 2. Table 2: Synthesis of climate change trends and forecast the impact of climate change, sea level rise on landfill system in the central coastal province [1, 5]

Province/City

Thanh Hoa

Areas most influenced by by climate change and sea level rise D. Nga Son, C. Thanh Hoa D. Quang Xuong D. Hau Loc (commune Thanh Đinh, Thanh Kim, Thanh Hung, Kim Tan)

Landfills / treatment facilities impacted Currently operates

planning

Landfill in wards Phu Son, C. Thanh Hoa Landfill in Townships Quang Xuong Landfill in Townships Nga Son

Treatment Facilities (T.F) in Townships Hau Loc

Landfill in Nghi Yên, Nghi Loc Nghe An

Quang Binh

TT Hue

Đa Nang

Quang Nam

Quang Ngai

T.Cua Lo, D. Nghi Loc, D. Dien Chau và D. Quynh Luu.

Landfill in Townships Dien Chau

D. Quang Trach, C. Đong Hoi

Landfill in commune Ngoc Son, Quynh Luu (khu LH) Landfill in Quang Long, D. Quang Trach

D. Phu Vang, D. Phu Loc, D. Quang Dien, D. Huong Thuy, D. Phong Dien, Townships Thuan An

Riverside plains Vinh Dien, Co Co, Cam Le và Cu De C. Hoi An (Cam An, Duy Nghia, Cam Ha, Cam Kim, Phuoc Dung, Vinh Thanh, Cam Thanh, Cam Nam); Tam Ky, Nui Thanh (Tam Hoa, Tam Xuan 2, Tam Giang, Tam Nghia, Tam Hiep); Thang Binh; Dien Ban East of D. Binh Son, D, Tu Nghia; D. Mo Duc (Townships Mo Duc), Southeast of D. Duc Pho (Townships Duc Pho), D. Son Tinh (Townships Son Tinh), C. Quang Ngai, Townships La Ha, Townships Song Ve

Landfill Thuy Phuong, Huong Thuy Landfill Lang Co, commune Lang Co, D Phu Loc Landfill Loc Thuy, D. Phu Loc

T. Song Cau, D. Dong Hoa, C. Tuy Hoa

Landfill in Quang Tien, D. Quang Trach Sanitary Landfill in commune Quang Loi, D. Quang Đien Landfill in commune Phu Xuan, D. Phu Vang

Landfill Khanh Son (old)

Landfill Khanh Son (new)

Landfill Hoi An Treatment Facility Tam Xuan 2

T.F Tam Xuan 2

Landfill Tam Nghia

Composting Plant Cam Ha

Landfill Nghia Ky, C. Quang Ngai Landfill Townships Mo Đuc Landfill in Townships Duc Pho

Landfill Duc Lan, D. Mo Duc T.F An Dien, commune Pho Nhon, D. Duc Pho

Landfill Tam Nghia

Landfill in Townships Son Tinh Landfill Tho Vuc C. Tuy Hoa

Phu Yen

T.F in Nui Go Doc, commune Quynh Loc, Quynh Luu Composting Plant Vung Trai Eo, commune Dien Yen, Dien Chau

T.F C.Tuy Hoa (commune Hoa Kien) Landfill in commune Xuân Binh – T. Song Cau Landfill in commune Hoa Xuan Tay, D. Dong Hoa 38

Nghiem Van Khanh et al. / Waste Management & Resource Utilisation 2016

Province/City

Binh Thuan

Areas most influenced by by climate change and sea level rise Phan Ri – Bac Binh; Phu Thuy, Minh Hoa – Tuy Phong, C. Phan Thiet ( Phong Nam, Tien Loi); D. Ham Thuan Nam (Commune Hiep Phuoc, Cay Gang, Ke Ga); T. La Gi

Landfills / treatment facilities impacted Currently operates

planning

Landfill Hai Ninh/ Landfill unsanitary, Hai Xuan, commune Hai Ninh, D. Bac Binh Landfill Phuoc Tan, commune Tan Phuoc, T. La Gi Landfill Ganh Hang, D. Island Phu Quy

T.F Da Loc, commune Tan Binh, T. La Gi Landfill Hai Ninh, commune Hai Ninh, D. Bac Binh Landfill Song Luy, commune Song Luy, D. Bac Binh

Note: D – District; C – City; T - Town 5.0 The impact assessment of climate change - rising sea to the landfill system in central coast provinces 5.1. Evaluation methods [1] a. Assess the possibility of phenomena, events The event is classified based on the statistics data on current climate variability, weather conditions in the past of each province and mainstreaming climate change trend under climate change scenarios of Vietnam. Evaluate the possibility of phenomena, events for landfills, solid waste treatment facilities in the each province using qualitative methods, based on the possibility of a measure under 5 levels: It is very hard happens, hard happens, Uncertain happen, able happen, certain happen. Depending on the degree (strong, weak) and the frequency of occurrence of the factors related to climate change, but the level of risk will be from "low" to "very high". Table 3: Evaluation of the likelihood of climate change factors [1] Numerical order 1

The factors related to climate change changing rainfall

2

Temperature fluctuations

3

Sea level rise

4

Storms, depressions and tropical cyclones

Evaluated by scoring the possibility of annual Happen certain 5 Able 4 Uncertain 3 Hard 2 Very hard 1

b. Evaluate the impact of these phenomena, events The evaluation was carried out according to the documentation assess the impact of climate change and identify adaptation measures of the Academy of Hydrometeorology Sciences and Environment. The method evaluated in matrix is commonly used and the most effective tools to assess the impact and the ability vulnerability due to climate change and sea level rise. Details of method assessment matrix is presented in Table 4. Table 4: The quantitative measure to determine the risks posed by climate change impacts [1] The ability of impacts occur

The loss - damages Important Low

Serious Low

Disaster Low

Low

Medium

Medium

Medium

Low

Medium

Medium

High

High

Low

Medium

High

High

Very high

Barely

Trivial Low

Medium Low

Unlikely

Low

Ability More likely

39

Nghiem Van Khanh et al. / Waste Management & Resource Utilisation 2016

Almost Certainly

Low

Medium

High

Very high

Very high

Table 5: The quantitative measurement to determine the ability vulnerable [1] Capacity to Adapt Risk Level Low

Medium

High

Very High

High

High

Medium

High

High

Medium

Medium

Medium

Medium

Medium

Low

Low

Low

Low

Low

Consequences of climate change must be examined on tolerance effects of the climate change factor for each landfill or solid waste treatment facilitiy. To determine the impact of the climate change factors may use multiple assessment methods: qualitative and quantitative difference. However, for landfills and treatment facilities in the Central Coast provinces, using qualitative methods of assessment. Qualitative methods of measurement on the quantitative measure of the ability to influence the subject of planning. The degree of impacts is assessed through 5 steps: Very Small, Small, Medium, Large, Very large. Table 6: Assess the infulence level of climate change on landfills, solid waste treatment facilities (SWTF) [1] Numerical Order

Level of Impact

Properties

Landfill, SWTF

1

Very high

increased rainfall

Affect people's lives. The high risk of major epidemics spread. The high ability landslide surrounded walls of landfills.

2

High

increased temperature

Increases the decomposition of organic components, potentially large smelly, costly deodorizing chemical used in landfills

3

Medium

Sea level rise

Damage to infrastructure on a large scale, increasing the risk of flooding, landside surrounded walls of landfills and SWTF

4

small

Tropical cyclone

Large-scale damage and requiring expensive repair costs, regular and hinder the collection, transportation and treatment of solid waste.

5

Very small

Drought

Damage to speed the decomposition of waste in landfills was slower.

c. Assess the level of risk due to climate change to landfills, SWTF Risk assessment to landfills and treatment facilities due to the impact of climate change and sea level rise are assessing losses, damages, potentially affecting landfills, SWTF due to the impact of climate change. The level of risk is considered through the integration scenarios of climate change of the Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment and orientation construction planning landfills, SWTF on the provinces of Central Coast, including consideration to factors such as natural conditions, topography, climatic conditions, environmental, residential area at the location of each landfill, SWTF identified in the plan. Risks to landfills, SWTF due to the impact of climate change & sea level rise is determined by the extent of damage (from low to high) based on the suitability of the location landfills, SWTF and process technology used. To assess the level of risk to the effects of climate change on landfills, SWTF, can be divided into 4 levels of risk as follows:

40

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Table 7: Relationship level of risk and the response [1] Level

Properties

1

Low (L)

2

Medium (M)

3

High (H)

4

Very High (VH)

The subjects are affected

The response activities for landfills, SWTF Requires regular maintenance work.

- Activities in the process of operating landfills, SWTF The suitability of the location of the SWTF, the treatment technology

Requires regular maintenance and adjustments in the design. Requirements on design adjustments, changes in technology and need to research, specific plans to integrate climate change adaptation. Need to change the solid waste management method, change the position of SWTF.

Determining the extent of climate change risk in general solid waste management and in particular landfills, SWTF, based on the study of a number of organizations such as the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC ), ACCCRN, handbook of climate change impact assessment and adaptation strategies (UNEP) ... Assessing the level of risk is aggregated by "ability / events "and" the consequences of the climate change phenomenon ". Weights are determined in order to evaluate and compare the importance and the impact of the consequences of climate change on landfills, SWTF. Weights are determined as follows:    

For landfills, SWTF, flooded issue is big problem, often occurs when there is rain, compared to other consequences, flooding should be considered to evaluate, so the importance is determined accounting for 35% (0.35) compared with other risks. The possibility of landfills flooding in the rainy season is large, consequently causing pollutants from leachate into the environment easily spread soil, surface water, groundwater, so the importance is determined accounting for 30% ( 0.3) compared with other risks. Ability to generate odors from landfills, SWTF has a major impact on the surrounding environment, but caused no major consequences, so the importance is determined accounting for 20% (0.2) compared with other risks. Environmental consequences from the risk of landside surrounded walls, embankments of landfills and SWTF, risk a major impact on environmental quality, but the likelihood is low due to the construction of landfills, SWTF process has taken into account the technical solutions, minimizing the risk of landside surrounded walls, embankment so the importance is determined accounting for 15% (0.15) compared to other risks.

 The consequences of climate change & sea level rise to landfills, SWTF corresponding to each level of risk as follows: The level of risk is very high: 4-5; A high level of risk: 3-4; The average risk level: 2-3; Lower risk level: 1-2; Very low risk level: 0-1. d. Assess response of landfills, SWTF To assess the response of the landfill, SWTF to the elements due to climate change, the need to determine the impact indicators as:  

The level of investment in equipment systems, machinery, raw materials, chemicals and manpower, ensuring operation of the landfill: This is the economic resources to ensure enhanced response risks due to climate change & sea level rise. Technology and technical use to treat solid waste: in which, unsanitary landfill capable lowest response, compared to the recycling technology, composting, burning.

Assess response of landfills, SWTF is a combination of factors economic investment, human resources, engineering, technology used. Based on the above factors can assess the degree of impact or damage to the landfill,SWTF as follows: 41

Nghiem Van Khanh et al. / Waste Management & Resource Utilisation 2016

Adaptability: Very good

4-5

Normal

2-3

Good

3-4

Not good

1-2

Weak

0-1

e. Integrated assessment of the impact of climate change to landfills, SWT The degree of impact or damage caused by climate change to landfills, SWTF is a synthetic elements, including: degree of risk; Ability to cope (response) and is determined by the function: The degree of impact = f (degree of risk; ability to respond) Based on the average score of the above factors, assess the vulnerability and the impact of climate change and sea level rise on technical infrastructure system in 5 levels: Level of impact high: 0-1; High impact level: 1-2; The average level of impact: 2-3; Low impact level: 3-4; Very low level of impact: 4-5. 5.2 The result of the climate change – sea level rise impact assessment to landfill system of the Central Coast Provinces Currently, most of the central coast provinces have reported up plans to cope with climate change and sea level rise in the province, but no specific assessment on the impact of climate change and sea level rise on with landfills in the province, only a general assessment of the environmental field [4]. (1) The degree of the impact of natural disasters on the landfills were surveyed as follows:  No impact: Quang Binh, Da Nang, Quang Ngai  From mild to low impact: Nghe An, Quang Tri, Hue  From moderate to severe: Thanh Hoa, Quang Nam, Phu Yen, Binh Thuan (2) Ability to respond of the construction items of landfills in coping with climate change and sea level rise as follows:  From 0 to 50% of the construction item can not be respond: Thanh Hoa, Quang Binh, Da Nang, Quang Nam, Phu Yen, Binh Thuan.  Over 50% of the work construction item can not be respond: Nghe An, Quang Tri, Hue, Quang Ngai.  Synthetic assessment on the situation of climate change and sea level rise impacts on landfills in the Central Coast provinces are presented in Table 8. Table 8: Synthetic assessment on the situation of climate change and sea level rise impacts on landfills, SWTF in the Central Coast provinces Numerical order

Risk level

Province/ Landfill, SWTF

Ability to cope

The overall vulnerability

Thanh Hoa 1

Landfill in Phu Son, C. Thanh Hoa

3

3,6

3,3

Low

2

Landfill in Quang Xuong town

2,65

3,25

2,95

Medium

3

Landfill in Nga Son town

2,85

2,7

2,78

Medium

4

SWTF of Hau Loc town

2

3,0

2,5

Medium

Nghe An 1

SWTF of Nghi Yên, Nghi Loc

3,35

2,95

3,15

Low

2

Landfill in Dien Chau town

3,3

3,25

3,28

Low

3

Landfill in Ngoc Son, Quynh Luu

2,5

3,85

3,18

Low 42

Nghiem Van Khanh et al. / Waste Management & Resource Utilisation 2016

Numerical order

Risk level

Province/ Landfill, SWTF

Ability to cope

The overall vulnerability

4

SWTF of Nui Go Doc, Quynh Loc, Quynh Luu

2,0

3,3

2,65

Medium

5

Composting plant Vung Trai Eo, Dien Yen, Dien Châu

2,35

3,25

2,8

Medium

Quang Binh 1

Landfill in Quang Long, Quang Trach

3,2

2

2,6

Medium

2

Landfill in Quang Tien, Quang Trach

2,85

3

2,93

Medium

Thua Thien Hue 1

Landfill in Thuy Phuong, Huong Thuy

1,85

3,65

2,75

Medium

2

Landfill in Lang Co, Phu Loc

2

3,35

2,68

Medium

3

Landfill in Loc Thuy, Phu Loc

2,5

3,15

2,83

Medium

4

Landfill in Quang Loi, Quang Dien

2,85

3

2,93

Medium

5

Landfill in Phu Xuan, Phu Vang

3,3

2,4

2,85

Medium

Da Nang 1

Landfill in Khanh Sơn (new)

2,15

2,65

2,4

Medium

2

Landfill in Khanh Sơn (new)

2,45

2,05

2,25

Medium

Quang Nam 1

Hoi An Landfill

3,3

2,4

2,85

Medium

2

SWTF of Tam Xuan 2

2,55

3,0

2,78

Medium

3

Tam Nghia Landfill

2,25

2,7

2,48

Medium

4

Cam Ha compost plant

1,7

3,0

2,35

Medium

Quang Ngai 1

Nghia Ky landfill

2,5

3,3

2,9

Medium

2

Landfill in Mo Duc town

3,55

2,55

3,05

Low

3

Landfill in Duc Pho town

3,55

2,8

3,18

Low

4

Landfill in Son Tinh town

3,85

2,25

3,05

Low

5

Landfill in Duc Lan, Mo Duc

2,85

3

2,93

Medium

6

SWTF in An Dien, Pho Nhon, Duc Pho

2,35

3,55

2,95

Medium

Phu Yen 1

Landfill in Tho Vuc, Tuy Hoa City

2,8

3,6

3,2

Low

2

SWTF in Hoa Kien, Tuy Hoa City

2,55

3,25

2,9

Medium

3

Landfill in Xuan Binh – Song Cau

3,2

2,4

2,8

Medium

4

Landfill in Hoa Xuan Tay, Dong Hoa

3,5

2,7

3,1

Low Low

Binh thuan 1

Landfill Hai Ninh, Bac Binh

3,7

2,4

3,05

Low

2

Landfill Phuoc Tan, La Gi

2,45

3,0

3,73

Low

3

Landfill Ganh Hang, Phu Quy Island

2,85

2,4

2,63

Medium

4

SWTF Da Loc, Tan Binh, La Gi

2,0

3,3

2,65

Medium

5

landfill Sông Luy, Bac Binh

3,2

2,7

2,95

Medium

43

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6.0 Conclusion Climate change really did affect the planning, development planning: Disaster, floods and droughts is increasing along with the increase in global temperature, the planned economic development planning, urban planning and land use planning and other disciplines, including the planning of solid waste management needs to adapt to the impact of current, as well as the potential impacts of climate change. The management of solid waste plans in the local normally is not considered the impact of climate change. It only focus on risks posed by climate change at the present time or even mentioned climate change but the lack of guidelines give. In all cases, the planning of solid waste management does not integrated the impact of climate change will be very difficult to change in the future to adapt to climate change. Results of the study have initially contributed actively in proposing policy solutions, economic and technical development towards environmental sustainability, reduce environmental pollution caused by impact of climate change on the system of solid waste treatment facilities in Vietnam. References (1). The report of Ministry "Construction plans and solutions to mitigate the effects of Climate Change and rising sea levels for solid waste landfills Red River Delta region, delta Long, Central coast ", from 2013 to 2014. (2). National Strategy on Climate Change of the Prime Minister in 2011 (3). The scenarios of climate change and sea level rise by the Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment, 2012 (4). The report assessment the impact of climate change and rising sea levels in the provinces and an action plan to cope with climate change and sea level rise in the coastal central provinces, 2014 (5). Plan of Solid Waste Management of Central Provinces to 2030.

44

Waste Management & Resource Utilisation 2016

Waste Management & Resource Utilisation www.iswmaw.com

ISWMAW

Spatiotemporal Climate Change and Resilience through Nature Conservation in Ethiopia Abbadi Girmay Reda1,*, Nitin K. Tripathi2 1

Senior Researcher & Director, Tigray Agricultural Research Institute (TARI), POB: 492, Mekelle, Ethiopia Professor, Remote Sensing & GIS, Asian Institute of Technology (AIT), Bangkok, Thailand *Corresponding Author: Email- [email protected] 2

ABSTRACT Ethiopia is expected to be hardest hit by climate change and the most vulnerable sectors are agriculture, water resources, and human health. This article comprises two components- Geospatial change detection of climate change for the period of 1946-2006 and SLM strategies under the prevailing climate change threat in Ethiopia. Point analysis of climate data for one of the semi arid areas (Mekelle, Northern Ethiopia) for the period of 1980-2010 showed that minimum temperature for the months of October through January had an increasing trend while maximum temperature for the hot season (April- June) and annual rainfall had no significant trend and were inconsistent. The change detection was unidirectional trend analysis between two time periods of 1946 and 2006. Temperature shows increasing trend but rainfall shows fluctuation. Region-specific detailed and seasonal climate studies are needed and to be integrated with local context of agriculture, livelihoods, forecasts and development plans for effective Early Warning Systems to utilize climate potentials and minimize natural disasters. This study serves as a milestone for further detailed agroclimatic and sector based analysis of spatio-temporal climate change patterns, impact assessment and adaptation and mitigation strategies. An option for adaptation to climate change and necessary condition for sustainable agriculture in itself is sustainable land management (SLM) and rehabilitation of degraded lands. Community Based Integrated Watershed Management (CBIWSM) approach was adopted as one of the top climate change adaptation strategies in Ethiopia. Massive sustainable local community based natural resource management efforts have been undertaken to reverse this situation and there had been a lot of success stories in the last 25 years. Changes in vegetation cover can affect surface energy budgets, local temperatures, moisture flux to the atmosphere, and regional rainfall. SLM practices constitute key adaptation measures by resulting in reduced soil erosion, improved water retention, and improved land productivity. SLM has both adaptation and mitigation significance as it leads to increased above- and below- ground carbon stocks. Keywords: Ethiopia, climate change detection, GIS, Spatiotemporal analysis, adaptation, SLM; International Society of Waste Management, Air and Water

1.0 Introduction Ethiopia is already suffering from variability and extremes of climate (NMSA and Bewuket, 2009). World Bank (2006) asserts that rainfall variability costs the Ethiopian economy 38% of its potential growth rate. Net revenue per hectare will be reduced by USD 177.62 and 464.71 consequent to a unit increase in temperature during summer and winter seasons, respectively (Temesgen Deressa, 2007). 45

Abbadi Girmay Reda et al. / Waste Management & Resource Utilisation 2016

Climate change is therefore a threat to the Ethiopian economy and livelihoods of millions of the poor (C. Arndt et al., 2009, GEF, 2009). Ethiopia is expected to be hardest hit by climate change. Analyzing and assessing the spatio-temporal climate variability trends would help better understand impacts of climate change to formulate better strategies for climate change adaptation and mitigation in Ethiopia and encourage local proactive community participation and national efforts as a contribution to global climate change mitigation (FAO, 2006, 2007, 2008, 2010, NMSA, 2008, James, 2004). The climate of a location is affected by its latitude, terrain, and altitude, as well as nearby water bodies and their currents and inherent to climate are changes, both long-term and short-term (IPCC, 2007, Wing, et al., 2008, Abbadi and Nitin, 2010 and 2011). Ethiopia shows a broadly consistent warming trend, with observations of increasing minimum and maximum temperatures over the past fifty years (McSweemy, et al., 2010). Proactive approaches to managing climate risks within vulnerable rural communities and among institutions operating at community, sub-national, and national levels is a crucial step toward achieving the sustainable economic development (NMA, 2008; Temesgen, et al., 2008). Climate change can significantly reverse the progress towards poverty reduction and food security in Africa. (FAO, 2007). This article deals with application of geospatial techniques for climate change detection in Ethiopia for the period of 1946 to 2006; case study of point data analysis of semi-arid environment of Ethiopia (Mekelle station) for the period of 1980 to 2010 to detect and describe spatio-tempotal trends and changes occurred during the study period; and assessment of SLM practices and their impacts on environmental rehabilitation, livelihoods, agricultural production, and contribution of SLM to climate change resilience. 2.0 Materials and Methods 2.1 Data acquisition 2.1.1 Data (1980-2010) from semi arid Ethiopia (Mekelle station) The data set included maximum temperature for the hot season (April- June), minimum temperature for the cold season (October- January) and annual rainfall for the period of 1980-2010. 2.1.2 Climate Research Unit (CRU) dataset Raster climate data including maximum temperature for warm season (April- June), cold season (October- January) and rainfall for the rainy season (June- September) for the years 1946 and and 2006 were extracted from CRU Geospatial Raster Data Portal for Ethiopia to detect climate change in 60 years time period. 2.2 Data processing and analysis 2. 2.1 Geospatial operations Stacking, Spatial Analysis, Map calculation, overlaying and change detection were executed in ENVI 4.7 and ARC GIS 10 to generate spatiotemporal climate change difference maps for the indicated 60 years. The procedure of data extraction and stacking and analysis included:    

Extraction (ARCGIS 10): Extraction through spatial masking to clip global data to Ethiopia; Stacking: Stacking monthly data of a single parameter for the years 1946 and 2006 for further manipulation and analysis; and Spatial Analysis, map calculation, union and difference mapping: Raster calculator, map algebra /map calculation and difference map for climate variability. Climate variation (1946-2006): Difference map (GIS overlaying and subtraction techniques) was calculated as: Raster calculator (Subtraction): [2006] - [1946]. 46

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2.2.2 Statistical analysis Descriptive statistics: It was applied to summarize data with measure of central tendency and measure of variability or dispersion (standard deviation and variance), the minimum and maximum variables. Descriptive summary was prepared for each parameter. Coefficient of variation (C.V.) was reported as a percentage value for each parameter. The variability of climate variables over the study period was examined by calculating coefficient of variation (CV). 3.0 Results and Discussion Parameter values as compared to pixel values: Temperature and rainfall of pixel value is calculated by dividing each pixel value by 10 and the actual values of parameters are the figures indicated in each map divided by 10 (e.g. the value of rainfall appearing in the map is 12750 the actual rainfall would be 1275mm and the same applies for temperature. Temperature of 183 in the map legend would mean the actual temperature is 18.30c). 3.1 Spatiotemporal climate Change, Ethiopia (1946- 2006) 3.1.1 Rainfall 1946 monthly rainfall (June-September) shows that August received the highest rainfall (580mm), July (448mm) followed by September (398mm) and June(369mm). 2006 monthly rainfall shows August received 366mm, July 441mm, September (255mm) and June (294mm). There was a clear shift of monthly intensity of rainfall from 1946 to 2006. In 1946 the pick rainy month was August but in 2006 it was shifted to July. Likewise, in 1946 June received the least amount of rainfall but in 2006 it increased in amount and replaced September where September received the least rainfall amount in 2006. The intensity of rainfall of September in 1946 and 2006 is shown in figure 1.

Figure 1: Rainfall intensity of September in 1946 and 2006.

Seasonal rainfall (June to September) was generated through raster calculator (addition) of monthly rainfall June through September for both 1946 and 2006. Rainfall change during 1946 to 2006 was calculated as the difference between 1946 and 2006 seasonal rainfall and it is simply directional trend between the two time periods as shown in figure 2. 47

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Figure 2: Seasonal rainfall change/difference between 1946 and 2006.

Rainfall generally show declining trend from periods 1946 to 2006. Moist areas of western and south Western Ethiopia are showing fall of rain fall showing their forest covers have been deteriorating through time. Interestingly, the drier areas show some positive trends owing to massive environmental rehabilitation and restoration of degraded lands into productive lands in the last 25 years. 3.1.2 Maximum temperature variation (April- June, 1946- 2006)

Figure 3: Maximum temperature April 1946 and 2006

Maximum temperature for the months April through June for both 1946 and 2006 was computed with same procedure for rainfall and changes in monthly maximum temperature are detected for each month. Maximum temperature of April increased by 2.30C during the period of 1946 to 2006.

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Figure 4: Maximum temperature variation for April, May and June (1946- 2006)

3.1.3 Minimum temperature variation (October- January, 1946-2006)

Figure 5: Minimum temperature variation (October-January, 1946-2006). 49

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Minimum temperature shows two extreme facts. In some areas it is falling down than before indicating that they are becoming cooler than before. 3.2 Case study: Temporal climate variation of point data (Mekelle station, 1980-2010) 3. 2.1 Temporal climate trend Table 1: Temporal trend of climate variables at Mekelle (1980-2010) R2

Standard error

F

P-value

April

0.003

0.07

0.102

0.75

NS (No significant trend)

May

0.052

0.02

1.2

0.29

NS (No significant trend)

0.0005

0.025

0.029

0.87

NS (No significant trend)

October

0.26

0.021

9.6

0.005

Significant trend

November

0.21

0.029

7.1

0.014

Significant trend

December

0.21

0.036

6.5

0.018

Significant trend

January

0.22

0.03

6.4

0.019

Significant trend

Annual rainfall (mm)

0.154

2.1

4.2

0.052

NS (No significant trend)

Variable

Trend

0

Maximum temperature ( c)

June 0

Minimum temperature ( c)

Minimum temperature (October –January) showed significant trend while maximum temperature and rainfall had no significant trend during 1980-2010 period based on XLSTAT 2012 parametric and nonparametric trend tests. Results combine trend tests show similar trends and hence maximum temperature and rainfall had no significant trend.

Figure 6: Maximum temperature trend (Mekelle, 1980-2010)

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Figure 7 Minimum temperature trend (Mekelle, 1980-2010) Table 2: Descriptive statistics of climate variables at Mekelle station (1980-2010) Maximum temperature (0c)

Minimum temperature ((0c)

Mean

27.74

29.07

29.41

10.93

9.58

8.21

8.48

Annual rainfall (mm) 482

Max

29.40

30.10

31.50

13.60

13.60

11.90

11.60

710

Min

25.90

26.70

26.90

9.20

7.30

4.40

5.20

230

S.D

0.87

0.99

1.19

1.15

1.50

1.87

1.56

116

C.V

0.03

0.03

0.04

0.11

0.16

0.23

0.18

0.24

C.V (%)

3.00

3.00

4.00

11.00

16.00

23.00

18.00

24

Statistics

April

May

June

Oct

Nov

Dec

Jan

Minimum temperature (October –January) was highly variable with coefficient of variation ranging 11% to 23 % whereas maximum temperature was stable with minimum variation during the period of 1980 to 2010 (table2). Minimum temperature (October–January) showed significant increasing trend while maximum temperature and rainfall had no significant trend during 1980-2010 period (table1, figure 7, figure 8). Minimum temperature of October had the highest increasing rate of 0.0260c/annuum (figure 8). This increasing trend of minimum shows that seasons are getting hotter in recent years. 3.3 SLM for climate change resilience in Ethiopia An option for adaptation to climate change and necessary condition for sustainable agriculture in itself is sustainable land management (SLM) and rehabilitation of degraded lands. Community Based Integrated Watershed Management (CBIWSM) approach was adopted as one of the top climate change adaptation strategies in Ethiopia. Massive sustainable local community based natural resource management efforts have been undertaken to reverse this situation and there are a lot of success stories in the last 25 years. 51

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4.0 Conclusion The Ethiopian climate has shown a drastic spatiotemporal climate change in the last 60 years (1946-2006) which manifest the impact of global warming at local level. Our findings were in line with global trends of temperature and rainfall changing patterns. CRU is one of the huge climate resource data center with its raster global climate data portal for the period of 1901 to 2006. GIS has efficient tools to extract, manipulate and analyse global data in to area of interest and generate spatial data within short time. It can help us analyses spatiotemporal climate change. There was an increasing trend of both maximum and minimum temperature while there was no consistency in rainfall patterns. Detailed agroclimate based analysis is required to generate high spatial resolution outputs with locally specific application for climate change assessment and design effective adaptation strategies in the face of climate change. Synergy is needed to complement local climatological knowledge and build capacity of community for early Warning System at local level to better utilize (exploit) climatological potentials and minimize risks due to natural disasters. It is believed that the results of this study will serve as a milestone for impact assessment studies. The Kyoto period is the lost opportunity for Africa. Ethiopia as one of the hardest hit countries by global climate change, has developed climate change adaptation and mitigation strategies (NAPA and NAMA) and has mobilized its resources and implements different projects. This lead national effort in Africa should be appreciated and be supported by international initiatives such as The Copenhagen Negotiation and other UN –based frameworks. References Abbadi Girmay Reda and Nitin K. Tripathi. 2010. Climate change adaptation through environmental rehabilitation in Ethiopia. In: Nitin K. Tripathi (Ed.). ISBN: 978-616-90698-0-5. Proceedings of third International Conference on Geoinformation Technology for Natural Disaster Management, 2010, Thailand. Pages: 9-13. Abbadi Girmay Reda and Nitin K. Tripathi. 2011. Mainstreaming Climate Change Adaptation in Urban Planning in Africa. In USMCA 2011 International Symposium, Thailand. C A, H. Ahmed, Sherman Robinson &, D. Willenbekel. 2009. Climate change and Ethiopia. Earth and Environmental Sciences: Vol. 6, IOP Publishing. FAO. 2007. Adaption to climate change in agriculture, forestry and fisheries: Perspectives, frameworks and Priorities. FAO. 2010. Climate change threat to Africa: Adaptation a priority FDRE. 2008. Ethiopia Country reports. GEF. 2006. Ethiopia: Coping with drought and climate change Hansen, J.W. Integrating seasonal climate prediction and agricultural models for insights into agricultural practice. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society 2005, 360:2037-2047. HTTP://www.nasa.gov/topics/earth/features/indian_ocean_warm.htm IFPRI. 2010. Climate Change impacts in Ethiopia and south Africa IPCC (1994). Technical Guidelines for Assessing Climate Change Impacts and Adaptations with a Summary for Policy Makers and a Technical Summary IPCC WG. 2007. IPCC Fourth Assessment Report: Climate Change 2007 (AR4). McSweemy, et al. 2010. UNDP Climate Change Country Profiles http://www.geog.ox.ac.uk/research/climate/projects/undp-cp/) MoARD. 2004. Environmental rehabilitation activities (1979-1999). Unpublished Report. NASA. 2012. Recent drought and precipitation tendencies in Ethiopia NMSA. 2008. Climate change adaptation taskforce and plans. Temesgen Deressa, Rashid M. Hassan and Claudia Ringler. 2008. Measuring Ethiopian Farmers‘ Vulnerability to Climate Change Across Regional States. IFPRI Discussion Paper 2008, discussion paper number 00806. Wing H. Cheung, Gabriel B. Senay and Ashbindu Singh. 2008. Trends and Spatial Distribution of Annual and Seasonal Rain fall in Ethiopia. International Journal of Climatology. Published online in Wiley Inter science. WMO .1996. Standard climatological year of 1961-90 (www.wmo.int). WMO. 2009. Addressing climate information needs at the regional level. WMO bulletin 2009, 58(3). WoldeAmlak Bewuket. 2009. Environmental rehabilitation in response to climate change in Ethiopia. WFP, MERET Project Evaluation report, Ethiopia World Weather Information Service (http://worldweather.wmo.int/060/c00167.htm) www. cgiar-csi.com (accessed on 20/05/ 2012) www. esri.com (accessed on 11/03/2013) www. uea.ac. uk/climatic_ research_ unit/ (accessed on 21/04/2012)

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The Development of Sustainable Materials Management (SMM) and Circular Economy in Taiwan Leon Tzou1, Kun-Hsing Liu2, Allen H. Hu3,* 1

Director, Environmental Technology Development Center, CTCI Foundation, Taiwan (Republic of China) Researcher, Environmental Management Department, Industrial Technology Research Institute, Taiwan (Republic of China) 3 Distinguished Professor, Institute of Environmental Engineering and Management, National Taipei University of Technology (Taipei Tech), Taiwan (Republic of China) *Corresponding Author: Email- [email protected] 2

ABSTRACT After a series of policy measures and economic incentives imposed by the government in the early 90s, the waste management in Taiwan has achieved an impressive result and the national recycling rate was increased from 21% to 62% during the 2003 to 2012. However, waste management problems still may happen when a new business trend emerges such as a new technology, product, or a consumption pattern. The government thus began to adopt the concept of sustainable materials management (SMM) brought by OECD to manage all materials in a systematic way. Other than SMM, the initiates of circular economy emerge as a new trend recently in Europe to transform the conventional linear economy practice into a circular one and the prospect of circular economy in Taiwan is discussed herein. Keywords: Waste management, Sustainable Materials Management, Circular Economy; International Society of Waste Management, Air and Water

1.0 Background 1.1 The Municipal Waste Management in Taiwan To begin, with regards to the municipal solid waste (MSW) management, the municipal waste currently in Taiwan is 0.6〜0.8 kg per capital/day, which is comparatively lower than that of 2 kg capital/day in USA. The development of MSW management in Taiwan started from dumping (before 1984), through sanitary landfill (1984〜1990) and incineration (since 1990) to resource recycling and recovery (since 2004). The respective MSW initiatives included Extended Producer‘s Responsibility (EPR, 1987), Large Incinerators (1991), Four-in-one Recycling Program (1997), Per-bag Trash Fee in Taipei (2000), Food Waste Recycling (2001), Source Reduction (2002), Zero-waste Policy (2004), Garbage Sorting / Recycling (2005〜2006), and Sustainable Material Management (2011). More specifically, in the Four-in-one Recycling program, implemented since 1997, four categories are established (Fig.1). These categories include recycling industries to collect recyclable from citizens, communities and local sanitary crews, local authority to collect and further sorting MSW, community residents to promote MSW sorting in the community, and recycling fund to provide financial incentive. Moreover, the resource recycling management fund currently has three working committees included which are the Resource Recycling Fee 53

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Rate Review committee, Management Fund Committee, and the Auditing/Certification Group Supervisor Committee, in order to assure independent, coherent as well as authoritative scientific assessments.

Source: Environmental Protection Administration, Executive Yuan, R.O.C.(Taiwan)

Figure 1: Four-in-one recycling program

In addition, the Extended Producer‘s Responsibilities (EPR) principle states the regulations of producers should physical and financial responsibility of recycling post-consumer products in most EPR program, and that producers only need to pay recycling fees to Taiwan Environmental Protection Administration (EPA), that then uses the fees to subsidize collection and recycling. That being said, the per-bag trash collection fee is regulated in several areas for further reduction of waste. In Taipei, per-bag trash collection fee is NT$0.36/L, which results in a decrease in waste volume by 67%, and an increase in recycling volume by 48%. As a result, the municipal waste recycling rate grew from 20.08% in 2003 to 55.59% in 2014 (Fig.2), which clearly shows successful strategies and approaches in municipal waste treatment. In sum, the amount of municipal waste as well as the amount of municipal waste clean-up tend to decrease, while the amount of municipal waste recycled has increased accordingly.

Source: Environmental Protection Administration, Executive Yuan, R.O.C.(Taiwan) Figure 2: MSW quantity and recycling rate 54

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1.2 The industrial waste management in Taiwan Secondly, moving on to the industrial waste treatment, the development of approaches in industrial waste management started from disposal (before 1990), through reduction (mid-1990s), and reuse/recycling (mid-2000s) to sustainable materials management (after 2010). After mid-2000s, the management established an efficient industrial waste report and management system in comparison with using paper for reporting before mid-1990s. In 2004, the recycling rate of 80.72% and industrial waste amount of 18 million tons were reported while the strategy of industrial source reduction was implemented (Fig.3) (EPA Taiwan, 2015a). In regard to the industrial waste control and tracking, 100% of hazardous industrial waste and 90% of industrial waste are transported by vehicles that equipped with GPS devices to prevent illegal dumping. While the strategy of industrial source reduction was implemented, the industrial waste output value reached NT$65.9 billion in 2013.

Source: EPA Taiwan. 2015a. Figure 3: The amount of industrial waste management in Taiwan

2.0 Sustainable Materials Management in Taiwan Sustainable Materials Management (SMM) is defined by OECD (OECD, 2012) as an approach to promote sustainable materials use, integrate actions targeted at reducing negative environmental impacts and preserve natural capital throughout the life-cycle of materials, taking into account economic efficiency and social equity. The journey from waste management towards SMM illustrates that, at present, the "Waste Disposal Act", which is the traditional ―end-of-pipe‖ treatment, functions as the management acts for waste clearance and treatment. On the other hand, the "Resource Recycling and Reuse Law" emphasizes on the resource efficiency for recycling of substances. Due to an increasing complexity and the volume of waste generated, the Taiwan government is making effort to integrate the "Waste Disposal Act" and the "Resource Recycling and Reuse Law" into the ―Cyclic Resource Usage Act‖, which aims to bring about materials usage and re-usage with more productivity over their entire lifecycle, while reducing environmental impacts and increasing resource efficiency. In addition, Taiwan‘s material use per capita for Domestic Material Consumption (DMC) in 2013 was 13.3 tons (EPA Taiwan, 2015b), which was close to European Union‘s (28 countries) average, 13.2 tons as shown in Fig.4. Also, in 2013, Taiwan had lower DMC material use per capita figure than Austria, Belgium and the United States, but higher than Japan and Netherlands.

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Figure 4: The DMC per capita in Taiwan and other area/countries

The main scheme of SMM has evolved from past end-of-pipe treatment to current zero waste and resources recycling, which is more sophisticated to 3R practice of recycle and reuse of resources and source reduction, to achieve maximum resource efficiency and minimum impacts on the environment, including the supply risk reduction, the production efficiency increase, the efficient consumption creation, and the MFA tool development, as shown in Fig.5. To sum up, the key objectives of SMM in Taiwan in 2011 were established in three phases as follows (1) Short-term (0-3 years), to identity the critical materials and relevant industries. (2) Mid-term (3-6 years), to plan and promote the cooperation mechanism of industries and (3) Long-term (6-10 years), to formulate imperative rules of law and enhance the mechanism. Currently, the Sustainable Materials Management Policy Framework has been drafted and 10 types of prioritized materials and 30 critical materials had been tentatively identified based on three screening criteria, namely economic importance, supply risk and environmental impact. A schematic framework for SMM in Taiwan can be seen in Figure 5.

Source: Environmental Protection Administration, Executive Yuan, R.O.C.(Taiwan) Figure 5: Sustainable Materials Management Framework 56

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3.0 Circular Economy Prospect in Taiwan 3.1 The Definition of Circular Economy ―Circular Economy‖ can be a generic term for the reducing, reusing and recycling activities conducted throughout processes of production, circulation and consumption. In addition, ―Circulation‖ refers to the fulfillment of changes in demand and improvement of resource efficiency with limited resources; ―Economy‖ refers to the additional economic activities and value from research, manufacturing and service derived from the circulation of resources. The concept of Circular Economy has been seen as the tool against the triple challenges of economic development, resource scarcity, and environmental degradation. In another sense, Circular Economy is an industrial system that is restorative or regenerative both by intention and design. ―It replaces the end-of-life concept with restoration, shifts towards the use of renewable energy, eliminates the use of toxic chemicals, which impairs reuse, and aims for the elimination of waste through the superior design of materials, products, systems, and, with this, business models‖ (Ellen MacArthur Foundation, 2013; Ellen MacArthur Foundation, 2013). During recent years, circular economy has become an international hot topic, and is expected to help finding ways for next economic development in both national and corporate level. For many people, circular economy is similar to what were known as ―low carbon economy‖, ―green economy‖, or ―eco-economy‖ from past campaigns. In reality, circular economy is evoked from the ―take-make-dispose‖ linear economic model and transforms to the resource cycling modes to reach sustainable economic development. Circular economy has given a new meaning to 3R‘s in implement, and is therefore viewed as an upgraded version of green economy. For Taiwan, as linear economy still remains the core of its manufacturing industry, the economy development is thus still interconnected to resource usage. Facing pressures from both within and abroad, industries are facing dilemma choosing between making profit and enforcing environmental protection. Considering the unique characteristics that the circular economy entails both industrial development and environmental preservation, it is worth further learning by Taiwan. To begin, the basic principle demonstrates the ―Minimization‖ concept which has shifted from end-of-pipe prevention of waste generation, into reduction demand for material and energy during production and consumption stage, through improvement in resource efficiency. The most essential major driving force for minimization is ―profitability‖ which can be seen through reusing and recycling. Reuse refers to extending the product life cycle to minimization waste generation through multiple usages during the ―use‖ stage. Hence, ―technology‖ is regarded as the solution to the issue and often conducted through R&D in design and raw material selection. However, to allow for ―reuse‖ of product, one needs to overcome the conflict with the conventional business strategy to pursuit higher profit and taking consumer behavior into consideration. Recycle refers to the cycling directly or indirectly after regeneration. Recycling technology and system are the basis for resource recycling, but government intervention and consumer behavior can make significant difference in recycling rate. Under a circular economy, the ―pay-per-use‖ concept is becoming more acceptable by consumers or users. By selling the use of the goods, companies retain the ownership of their goods, which means the owners can repair, re-manufacture or recycle them; hence companies have an incentive to implement green design and improving resource efficiency for their products. 3.2 What can be done in Taiwan for the Circular Economy Materials such as metal, PET, paper and glass are in the mainstream for the material circulation development; materials such as PE, PP that are technologically feasible for recycling but rooms for improvement in terms of quality and recycling system; materials such as concrete, CO2 and food waste that are large in quantity and have yet to be effectively utilized; materials for 3D printing material will transform the future manufacturing and the application of the biological (renewable) material is the solution to the resource scarcity issue. 57

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In the business viewpoint, the new and emerging business models indicates the following elements that have been identified though evaluation of the successful business models, including: (1) Strengthening customer relationship: through fulfillment of demand instead of providing a production, such as leasing or product sharing. (2) Converting product utilization rate into income, such as AirBnB. (3) Life cycle thinking of Product-Service integration: Formulating product design and market strategy through integration of product sales and service, in order to establish an effective recycling system. (4) Creating stable income and added value: Business model such as pay per service unit does create competitive advantage with competitors. (5) Mainstreaming of sharing economy: Regulatory system needs to be revised to establish a ―sharing friendly‖ environment that will encourage both the consumers and product manufacturers to adopt such business model. The Uber and AirBnB services are now in the beginning level in Taiwan. In opposite to Uber or AirBnB, the leasing of photo-copy machine is a successful business in Taiwan. The successful factors, or the challenges, of Circular Economy, are discussed in the next section. 3.3 The Challenges Some critical issues outlined from various perspectives highlights the problems faced associated with circular economy. From the industrial level, the costs and risks associated of circular economy are listed below: (1) Costs: The price for some portion of materials might be higher than their market price; a working circular economy requires close collaboration among artery Industry, venous Industry and reverse logistics system and recycled raw materials might have an impact on product quality control. (2) Risks: Supply for recycled raw materials might be insufficient and unstable as well as consumers may have low acceptance for renew, reproduction and reuse products and thus the market of recycled products needs to be expanded. From the perspectives of consumers, the reasons for consumers for and against of buying circular production service can be categorized into pros and cons. The pros includes: gaining value renting is more cost-effective than buying for the seldom used high-price goods, holder of goods can earn extra income by renting out the goods, buying services helps to avoid maintenance fees and consumable material expenses and the gaining of approval from green consumers. As well as for other additional value - if circular economic products have more cost-reductive performance than liner economic products, the durability and upgradability of a product, sharing economy creates virtual communities and retaining salvage value by selling high for unused goods/parts. For the successful future of Circular Economy development in Taiwan, the four essential elements for circular economy are the four points: (1) Technology Development: the what, who, when and how in the technology development. (2) Regulatory Framework and Economic Incentive: government plays the role of establish an enabling environment for circular economy as well as supporting measures such as stakeholder engagement, government procurement, standardization and certification scheme, to create market incentive for the transition. (3) Stakeholder Engagement: Stakeholders includes consumer, producer, and government; and some of the engagement forms include, but are not limited to, interdepartmental and inter-industrial. (4) Business Model and Consumer Behavior: Requiring significant transition in business model as well as acquiring consumer acceptance in product service system, such as sharing economy. 4.0 Conclusion and Future Perspective The progress of waste management in Taiwan has built a firm foundation for the development of SMM and circular economy. The main scheme of SMM is the evolution of the 3R in the waste management concerning the supply risk, production efficiency, consumption efficiency, circular management improvement, and the MFA tool development. Some of the recommendations for Circular Economy development in Taiwan includes strengthening investment in technologies and equipment, letting raw material prices truly reflect the real cost in order to enhance its use-efficiency, integrating artery and vein industry, as well as inter-departmental collaboration in government authorities, enhancing market acceptance of goods and services in circular economy, circulating scarce metal 3R information; to upgrade 3R technologies; to increase economic incentives and enhancing the quality of information for fundamental environment. SMM and circular economy are both to seek a best solution of resource use effectiveness under a systematic management.

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References Ellen MacArthur Foundation, 2013, Towards the circular economy. Ellen MacArthur Foundation, 2014, Towards the circular economy. EPA Taiwan. 2015a. Industrial Waste Statistics by Sectors, Industrial Waste Control Center Report Center. http://waste.epa.gov.tw/prog/IndexFrame.asp?Func=5. Accessed March 2016. EPA Taiwan, 2015b. National Material Flows Indicators and Trend Analysis Information System [WWW Document in Chinese], n.d. URL http://smmdb.epa.gov.tw/smm/webpage/index.aspx (accessed 8.18.16). OECD, 2012. Resource Productivity in the G8 and the OECD - A Report in the Framework of the Kobe 3R Action Plan.

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Comparative study on Environmental Contamination following Nuclear Power Plant Accident Md. Ghulam Zakir1*, Abdus Sattar Mollah, Altab Hossain Department of Nuclear Science and Engineering (NSE), Military Institute of Science and Technology (MIST), Dhaka, Bangladesh *Corresponding Author: Email- [email protected] ABSTRACT This paper briefly describes environmental impact of three most devastating accident in nuclear history. So far among thirty three countries of in total 438 reactors three major accidents have been occurred throughout the world: i. Three Mile Island, ii. Cheronbyl iii.Fukushima disaster. A summarized comparison of the environmental disaster of soil contamination, air contamination, radiation in surface water and ground water, radioactivity to the ocean and dose to the inhabitants have been briefly described. Radioactive contamination has been found from the radiation sources of Cs-137, Iodine-131 and Pu-239 spread to the nearby environment after the disaster. The radioactivity at different contaminated areas are estimated not only at the affected zone but also to the neighboring areas of several countries. Moreover, a short explanation has been made on the impact of radiation emission after the accidents to the urban areas, agricultural lands and forest areas. More specifically, impact of the radiation on the farm and terrestrial animals, different aquatic species, surface level water due to the radiation is slightly discussed. Effects and contamination level by various radioactive materials on different types of food such as vegetables, fruits, milk, beef, fish and sea food and drinking water are mentioned as well. In the end, the countermeasures and actions so far taken in several countries against the radioactive release of the accidental nuclear power plants are discussed in a nutshell. Keywords: Chernobyl, Fukushima, Three Mile Island, environment, radioactivity, contamination, countermeasure; International Society of Waste Management, Air and Water

1.0 Introduction Nuclear technology is considered to be a blessing as well as curse to this era of modernization. A nuclear disaster can bring a large number of problems to the inhabitants of the affected areas. It can cause fatal disease like cancer to the thousands of people, even can end up with the death. Natural species both terrestrial and aquatic can be severely damaged by the excessive radiation level from the debris and fission fragments of reactor core. Government officials and scientist have been working for a long to reduce the radiation exposure to the human and the animals. A massive amount of radiation has been released after the Chernobyl and Fukushima disaster, government finds it so difficult to manage the people and environment from being contaminated. Few contaminants will disappear quickly such as Iodine-131, however, contaminants such as cesium-137 and plutonium-239 have long half live of 30 years and 24,000 years respectively, those are very harmful contaminants since they will last to the nature for many years. The most significant solution is to evacuate the contaminated regions and ban people access to the 60

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contaminated areas. After, few years of Fukushima disaster Japan government is yet to take decision whether they will clean up the forest and whole area or build a new model as a part of post nuclear disaster. Several countermeasures were taken to decontaminate roads, buildings, streets in the urban areas and all the efforts were made to refine the entire environment so that agricultural foods and drinking water will be available to the inhabitants and the entire contaminated zone will be livable just like before. 2.0 Environmental contamination Contamination to the different part such as air, soil, water reservoir, marine, and environment has been briefly described in this portion. Moreover, evacuation of the affected areas, food condition in the affected area has been mentioned as well. 2.1 Air contamination Four different explosions occurred at different places of the Fukushima plant. The smoke emitted by the sea water which were used for cooling purpose inside the reactor enhanced the air contamination 38,000 times than normal background. Further, intentional venting and improved air circulation process caused a reduction to 6,000 times higher than the background level [1][2]. Table1: The radioactivity emission from different radioactive materials on 3 major accidents Fukushima

Cheronobyl

Three Mile Island

Name of the isotopes

Radioactivity (PBq)

Name of the isotopes

Radioactivity (PBq)

Name of the isotopes

Radioactivity (PBq)

Cesium-137 Xenon-133 Iodine-131

50[3] 16700[5] 360-390[4]

Cesium-137 Xenon-133 Iodine-131

85 6500 1760[6]

Xenon-133 Iodine-131

370 [7]

550

According to the above table, Cs-137 emission from the Chernobyl is 60% higher than three days emission from the Fukushima. On the other hand, Xe-133 emission from Fukushima is 250% higher than the emission from the Chernobyl and Xe-133 emission is far higher in comparison with the Three Mile Island accident (almost 4500%).Iodine-131 emission in Chernobyl is almost 450% higher than the Fukushima accident and huge amount of emission is released in comparison with Three Mile Island incident. 2.2 Soil contamination After the severe accident in Fukushima radioactive fission fragments emitted to the nearby regions. In April 2011 scientists have found the radioactivity of cesium-137 from 20,000Bq/kg to 220,000Bq/kg at different municipalities of Fukushima[8].On the contrary, the contamination level in the soil at Chernobyl is much higher which is between 37,000Bq/kg to 75,000,000Bq/kg. Thus, this estimation of soil contamination reveals harshness of those disaster [9]. Contamination on the soil has been found very negligible for Three Mile Island disaster in comparison with other two severe accident. 2.3 Water contamination close to the damaged plant Water contamination has been found less severe in comparison with soil contamination. Exact figure of water contamination by Fukushima accident has not been found in any other papers. A comparison of the water contamination between two small rivers has been made where the water percentage was 0.5 in one river and 0.3 percentage to the other river. Water released by the Fukushima power plants to the nearby valley and basins by flood and precipitation process [10]. The amount of radiation contamination measured in drinking water is 965Bq/L [11].However, radioactivity of Cs-137 and Cs-134 in river close to the Fukushima was found respectively 650 Bq/L and 310 Bq/L [12].

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In 1986, the maximum amount of radioactivity was measured 1591 Bq/L and 827Bq/L respectively in Cesium-137 and Cesium-134 where the sample was taken from the Pripyat River located close to the Chernobyl power plant. Lately, an estimation of radiation to water shows that the contamination to the fresh water decays gradually day by day. The estimation is both measurement and prediction basis and the water regions located close to the Chernobyl [13]:

Figure 1: Cs-137 decay at two two different places close to the Chernobyl

However, Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has found no contamination of water due to the Three Mile Island accident [14].

Figure 2: Cs-137 and Cs-134 radioactivity in water of the river closed to the disaster area.

2.4 Radioactivity to the ocean As mentioned earlier, massive sea water was used for cooling purpose inside the reactor, Japan Government made a decision to discharge the huge amount of contaminated water to the sea. Japanese Electricity Company TEPCO evaluated total radioactivity 4.7 PBq in sea water. After few fallout by the accidental place of Fukushima reactor the radioactivity reached to a level of 27 PBq [15][16]. In case of Chernobyl disaster, the nearby Black Sea and Baltic Sea has been contaminated not much by emission from the plant rather has been contaminated by lighter transportation. Those transports carries inputs to the reactor for past couple of years. The radioactivity emission over the Black Sea has been found 2.8 PBq and 3.0 PBq over the Baltic Sea [17][18]. 62

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Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has found no contamination of ocean water due to the Three Mile Island accident [14]. 3.0 Inhabitants of effected area and evacuation Fukushima accident was a result of a natural disaster of earthquake and tsunami .Almost 15000 people was died because of the earthquake and tsunami. Moreover, 500000 were planned to be evacuated for the disaster [18]. At the emergency situation, when the core almost started to melt down, 200000 people were suddenly removed from 20 km zone around the power plant [19].Later on March 25th people are again asked to evacuate the contaminated area of 30km radius around the plant. However, nobody died by severe radiation from the power plant [20]. On the other hand, in Soviet Union of that age almost 350,000 had been evacuated from the contaminated area which includes Belarus, Russia and Ukraine after the explosion in reactor 4.Total restricted area covers a zone of 2,600 square km[21].Inhabitants both nearby and outside of the Chernobyl danger zone drank milk, local agro based foods and drinking water contaminated by high level of I-131 which severely caused thyroid cancer to the people .A team of United Nations Agency determined that almost 4000 people eventually have died by direct radiation from the Chernobyl [22]. The radiation emission impact was less severe for Three Mile Island in comparison with other two nuclear disaster. Local authority made a wrong statement about the radioactive emission [23].At that moment, the NRC chairman recommend the Governor to evacuate pregnant woman and preschool children within the radius of 8 kilometer of the Three Mile Island facility. The evacuation was extended upto 32 km radius and 140000 people were forced to leave the danger zone on 30 March 1979 [24][25][26]. Later, by the survey it is found that 98% people returned their home within three weeks [26].

Figure 3: Number of evacuees left the danger zone for three different disaster.

4.0 A comparison of radioactivity among the foods of three different contaminated area The German Radiation and Protection Society has found an ordinary person receives 0.3mSv of dose by food intake to their body. They estimated the Cs-137 activity 8Bq/kg limit in milk and other baby food stuff .The permissible range in other food stuff is 16Bq/kg. However, the range is little different in Japan which is 200Bq/kg in baby food stuff and 500 Bq/kg in other food stuff. In case of iodine the acceptable range for milk and is upto 300Bq/kg and 2000Bq/kg for vegetables [27] [28]. The maximum amount of contamination in a nearby cities of Fukushima was 1500Bq of iodine per litre of milk [29]. One week after the accident, in the nearby cities of Fukushima evacuation zone the Cs-137 and I131 concentration were measured as high as 2,650,000 Bq/kg and 2,540,000Bq/kg in vegetable. One month later the concentration had been found for I-131 is 100,000Bq/kg and for Cs-137 specific radioactivity was measured 900,000Bq/kg. Lower amount of radiation was also detected in other vegetables such as lettuce, onions, tomatoes, strawberry, wheat and barley [30] [31].Contamination level of 63

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Cs-137 in rice was found 1050Bq/kg [32]. Moreover, about 1031 number of cattle were removed from one of the close city of Fukushima in which radioactivity was found 1150Bq/Kg [33].Radioactivity to different types of natural food stuff varies on respect to the region. Sea fishes close to the Fukushima coastal area was measured the Cs-137 radioactivity level of 5001,000 Bq/kg [34].The Japanese found the radioactivity of Iodine and cesium in sand lance with an activity of 12000 Bq/kg[35]. On the contrary, in Chernobyl on 1988 the typical activity in the milk of private firm was found almost 1350Bq/L which decays upto 400Bq/kg till 2000 [36].Fresh water fish contamination in the Keiv reservoir near the Chernobyl power plant were 600-1600Bq/kg .Maximum activity of radio cesium in the fishes was found 6-12 months later of the disaster. However, the value is different for predatory fishes [37]. On the other hand, maximum radioactivity on meat was measured 400Bq/kg in Ukraine. The amount of radioactivity on the foods varies according to the emission and contamination on respective regions. Since the radiation emission and disaster impact was less severe for TMI (Three Mile Island) in comparison with other two major accidents, natural food stuff such as milk, vegetable, meat and fish were comparatively less contaminated. Specific radioactivity on those foods were respectively found 0.185 Bq/L, non-radioactive in comparison with safe radiation level, almost 0.0074 Bq/kg which is considered to be almost negligible [38].

Figure 4: Specific radioactivity on three different natural food products for 3 major accident.

5.0 Countermeasures Countermeasure was taken after the evacuation of the inhabitants to reduce the exposure to a certain level in the urban areas. At the primary stage after Chernobyl disaster, decontamination process was initiated to protect the cleanup workers and the public from being affected by radioactive sources dispersed to the environment. Most of the cases, individuals receive the high exposure by the radioactive sources in the soil, concrete, building walls and roofs. Removal of radionuclide source was done by ploughing the garden soil, removal of the trees and shrubs, roofs are significant contributor of the dose and thus the walls. However, it was difficult to clean up the roofs of the house. Other process was implemented such as modification in house design, change in construction material and both dry and wet deposition of radionuclides. A huge cleaning procedure was performed by washing the streets, roads and buildings by the supply water. Removal of the upper portion of the soil, washing mostly the public buildings such as kindergartens, hospitals, schools where people frequently moves [39][40][41]. 64

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Local government took several steps to reduce the radioactivity to the agricultural product and also to the cattle. The main objective is to mitigate the radioactivity to certain radiation action level. Several food products of Russia, Belarus and Ukraine were banned to the market at primary stage of radioactive emission [42][43].Moreover, cattle were shifted to safer places and due to the lack of cattle feed thousands of them was slaughtered[44][45].A typical chemical of hexacynoferrate compounds are mingled with cattle feed which actually used as highly effective radio cesium binders. Since, that chemical compounds have low toxicity, it can be used to lessen radio cesium transfer to the meat and milk by less absorption to the stomach [46].Few countermeasures was implemented to reduce the Cs-137 radioactivity:      

No cattle would be slaughtered to the area where contamination level goes beyond 555Bq/m2. Domestic Animals were forbidden to feed contaminated grass from the pasture and provided uncontaminated feed. Contaminated milk was rejected and processed. Banned of contaminated fertilizer to the agricultural land. Mandatory radiological monitoring. Preparation of silage for maize instead of hay.

Different places of Europe consumption of drinking water was forbidden. Moreover, several types of crops take up high amount of radiocisium found from the experimental data. Those categories of crops were suggested not to be cultivated in future. Few countermeasures was also implemented to the forest contaminated areas which was a long term process indeed. Several types of restrictions were implemented to the forest zone:     

Public and forest workers excess were confined to a certain areas [47]. Restriction on harvesting of several foods. Restriction on collection of wood by the public. Alteration of hunting forest animals. Fire prevention, it is important for secondary contamination to the environment.

Measures were also taken for the aquatic environment such as restriction on water use, fish consumption, water flow control, reduction of uptake from the fish and preparation of fish before consumption [48][49][50][51]. In case of Fukushima disaster, local government made a remarkable decision to build a 12000KW biomass power plant that would burn trees considered to be a part of forest decontamination program [52].In addition to this, the Ministry of Environment recommend to implement a filter that would keep radio cesium inside the smokestack. Researchers found that the health risk of this smoke is so low that it does not make any problem. The plant was so well designed and work was properly planned that workers would receive lowest amount of dose from wood or ash [53] [54]. Both the government of Ukrain and Japan want the inhabitants to bring back their residents where they can provide pure drinking water, fresh agricultural food after a decontaminated process even though it will be a great challenge for the residents and the government as well Not much significant measure has been taken by the government rather than investigation on the accident as radiation level did not exceed the background level [55][56]. 6.0 Conclusion In case of Chernobyl disaster highest level of contamination has been found in Ukraine, Belarus, few areas of USSR and other European countries. Most of the radionuclides are accumulated closed to the damaged plant since the condensed particle mobility is very low. Few radioactive source will be disappeared because of their half-life and decay, on the other, cesium, plutonium and americium will exist into the nature because of their long half-life. Initially, the high contamination on the milk of cattle was reduced by countermeasures which was one of the key concern of post nuclear disaster. Moreover, high radioactivity level in comparison to the background was managed by evacuation to some of the areas 65

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closed to the plant. However, rain, wind, countermeasures, human activities, extension of shielding areas helped to reduce the external dose to the inhabitants. At present, the dose level above solid surface has been mitigated to the pre-accident background level. However, dose level remain unchanged to the undistributed soil. High concentration of cesium level has been found to the agricultural food. In addition to this, cesium contamination has been found to the animals, they graze to the contaminated pasture. Even though, doses in the timber of the forest areas is less important, a fire to the wood can emit high cesium emission to the local areas .However, less contamination to the marine content has been found because of the proper dilution of the cesium sources with the sea water. It has been found from above comparison that Fukushima and Chernobyl disaster were most demolishing for the environment among three disaster. The radioactivity and contamination to the environment for Chernobyl was severe than the Fukushima disaster. Reference: [1] WHO. Health Effects of the Chernobyl Accident: An Overview. Geneva, Switzerland:World Health Organization (Apr 2006). Available: http://www.who.int/ionizing_radiation/chernobyl/backgrounder/en/index.html [accessed 20 Feb 2013]. [2] TEPCO/NISA Fukushima Monitoring Data March 11th-18th, 2011www.jca.apc.org/mihama/fukushima/monitoring/fukushima_monitoring.htm [3] ―Report of Japanese Goverment to the IAEA Ministerial Conference on Nuclear Safety – TheAccident at TEPCO's Fukushima Nuclear Power Plant‖, June 2011www.kantei.go.jp/foreign/kan/topics/201106/iaea_houkokusho_e.html [4] Report of Japanese Goverment to the IAEA Ministerial Conference on Nuclear Safety – TheAccident at TEPCO's Fukushima Nuclear Power Plant‖, June 2011www.kantei.go.jp/foreign/kan/topics/201106/iaea_houkokusho_e.html [5] Stohl A et al. „Xenon-133 and caesium-137 releases into the atmosphere from the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear power plant: determination of the source term, atmospheric dispersion, and deposition―, Atmos. Chem. Phys. Discuss., 11, 28319-28394, 2011 [6] MÜCK, K., et al., A consistent radionuclide vector after the Chernobyl accident, Health Phys. 82 (2002) 141– 156. [7] United Nations. Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation.Sources and effects of ionizing radiation: sources. Vol. 1. United Nations Publications, 2000. [8] ―Important Information from Japanese Government, Readings of Dust Sampling‖, Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT), April 18th, 2011 http://eq.wide.ad.jp/files_en/110418dust_1000_en.pdf [9] ―Fukushima Nuclear Accident Update‖, IAEA, March 24th, 2011 www.iaea.org/newscenter/news/2011/fukushima240311.html [10] Ueda S, et al. Fluvial discharges of radiocaesium from watersheds contaminated by the Fukushima Dai-ichi Nuclear Power Plant accident, Japan. J Environ Radioact 118:96–104 (2013); http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvrad.2012.11.009. [11] ―WHO Situation Report No 24 - Focus on food safety and water quality‖, WHO Western Pacific Region, April 4th, 2011 www.wpro.who.int/NR/rdonlyres/C8F59957-A7B5-4008-B903-79A8BCC6F8DD/0/Sitrep24.pdf [12] http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/energy/2013/08/130807-fukushima-radioactive-water-leak/ [13] SMITH, J.T., VOITSEKHOVITCH, O.V.,HÅKANSON, L., HILTON, J., A critical review of measures to reduce radioactive doses from drinking water and consumption of freshwater foodstuffs, J. Environ. Radioact. 56 (2001) 11–32. [14] EPA's Role At Three Mile Island | EPA History | US EPA. Epa.gov. Retrieved on March 17, 2011. [15] ―Radioactive release into sea estimated triple‖, Japanese Atomic Information Forum, Earthquake Report 199, September 9th, 2012 www.jaif.or.jp/english/news_images/pdf/ENGNEWS01_1315542569P.pdf [16] IRSN, ―Synthèse actualisée des connaissances relatives à l‘impact sur le milieu marin des rejets radioactifs du site nucléaire accidenté de Fukushima Dai-ichi―, October 26th, 2011 www.irsn.fr/FR/Actualites_presse/Actualites/Documents/IRSNNIImpact_accident_Fukushima_sur_milieu_marin_26102011.pdf [17] INTERNATIONAL ATOMIC ENERGY AGENCY, Marine Environment Assessment of the Black Sea: Final Report, Technical Cooperation Project RER/2/003, IAEA, Vienna (2003). [18] EREMEEV, V.N., IVANOV, L.M., KIRWAN, A.D., MARGOLINA, T.M., Amount of 137Cs and 134Cs radionuclides in the Black Sea produced by the Chernobyl accident, J. Environ. Radioact. 27 (1995) 49–63. [19] ―Fukushima Nuclear Accident Update‖, IAEA, March 12th, 2011 www.iaea.org/newscenter/news/2011/fukushima120311.html ―TEPCO: Melted fuel ate into containment vessel‖, Earthquake Report No. 278 by the Japanese Atomic Information Forum, December 1st, 2011 www.jaif.or.jp/english/news_images/pdf/ENGNEWS01_1322709070P.pdf 66

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http://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2012/05/25/news/radiation-didnt-cause-fukushima-no-1-deaths-u-n/#.U2-DyiJvM0 [21] UNDP and UNICEF. The Human Consequences of the Chernobyl Nuclear Accident. New York, NY:United Nations Development Programme and United Nations Children‘s Fund (22 Jan 2002). Available: http://www.unicef.org/newsline/chernobylreport.pdf [accessed 20 Feb 2013]. [22] IAEA. Chernobyl‘s Legacy: Health, Environmental and Socio-Economic Impacts and Recommendations to the Governments of Belarus, the Russian Federation and Ukraine. The Chernobyl Forum: 2003–2005, 2nd revised version. Vienna, Austria:International Atomic Energy Agency (Apr 2006). Available: http://www.iaea.org/Publications/Booklets/Chernobyl/chernobyl.pdf [accessed 20 Feb 2013]. [23] Stephanie Cooke (2009). In Mortal Hands: A Cautionary History of the Nuclear Age, Black Inc., p. 294. [24] "Fact Sheet on the Three Mile Island Accident". U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission. Retrieved November 25, 2008 [25] People & Events: Dick Thornburgh [26] Susan Cutter and Barnes, Evacuation behavior and Three Mile Island, Disasters, vol. 6, 1982, pp. 116-124. [27] ―Notice No. 0317 Article 3 of the Department of Food Safety‖, Japanese Ministry of Health, Labor and Welfare, March 17, 2011 www.mhlw.go.jp/english/topics/foodsafety/dl/110318-1.pdf [28] ―Calculated Fatalities from Radiation‖, Study by the German Society for Radiation Protection and German IPPNW, Berlin, September 2011 http://foodwatch.de/foodwatch/content/e10/e42688/e44884/e44993/CalculatedFatalities fromRadiation_Reportfoodwatch-IPPNW2011-09-20_ger.pdf [29] Nuclear crisis:How safe is Japan‘s food and water? https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn20268-nuclear-crisishow-safe-is-japans-food-and-water/ [30] Important Information from Japanese Government, Readings of Dust Sampling‖, Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT), April 18th, 2011 http://eq.wide.ad.jp/files_en/110418dust_1000_en.pdf [31] ―Ibaraki Prefecture Agricultural Products Test Results‖, Ibaraki Prefectural Government, August 8th, 2011 www.pref.ibaraki. [32] ―Cesium detected from more Fukushima rice‖, Earthquake Report No. 276 by the Japanese Atomic Information Forum, November 29th, 2011 [33] Jaif (28 July 2011)Ban on all cattle from Miyagi prefecture [34] Weiss D. ―Contamination of water, sediments and biota of the Northern Pacific coastal area the vicinity of the Fukushima NPP‖, Gesellschaft für Anlagen- und Reaktorsicherheit, Berlin. October 31st, 2011 www.eurosafeforum.org/userfiles/2_2_%20paper_marine%20environment_Fukushima_20111031.pdf [35] ―Results of the emergency monitoring inspections – provisional translation‖ Japanese Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries (MAFF), April 13th, 2011 www.jfa.maff.go.jp/e/inspection/pdf/20110413_fukushima_kounago_en.pdf [36] PRISTER, B. (Ed.), Recommendations on Agriculture Management on Contaminated Territories, Ukrainian Institute of Agricultural Radiology, Kiev (1998) (in Ukrainian). [37] Kryshev, I. I., et al. "Model testing using Chernobyl data: II. Assessment of the consequences of the radioactive contamination of the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant cooling pond." Health Physics 70.1 (1996): 1317. [38] US Nuclear Regulatory Commission. Final programmatic environmental impact statement related to decontamination and disposal of radioactive wastes resulting from March 28, 1979 accident, Three Mile Island Nuclear Station, Unit 2, Docket No. 50-320. US Nuclear Regulatory Commission, 1981. [39] BALONOV, M.I., GOLIKOV, V.Y., ERKIN,V.G., PARCHOMENKO, V.I., PONOMAREV, A., ―Theory and practice of a large-scale programme for the decontamination of the settlements affected by the Chernobyl accident‖, Proc. Int. Sem. on Intervention Levels and Countermeasures for Nuclear Accidents, Rep. EUR 14469, Office for Official Publications of the European Communities, Luxembourg (1992) 397–415. [40] VOVK, I., BLAGOEV, V., LYASHENKO, A., KOVALEV, I., Technical approaches to decontamination of terrestrial environments in the CIS (former USSR), Sci. Total Environ. 137 (1993) 49– 63. [41] ANTSIPOV, G., TABACHNY, L., BALONOV, M., ROED, J., ―Evaluation of the effectiveness of decontamination activities in the CIS countries for objects contaminated as a result of the Chernobyl accident‖, Proc. Workshop on Restoration of Contaminated Territories Resulting from the Chernobyl Accident, Rep. EUR 18193 EN, Office for Official Publications of the European Communities, Luxembourg (2000) 10–15. [42] INTERNATIONAL ADVISORY COMMITTEE, International Chernobyl Project: Technical Report, IAEA, Vienna (1991). [43] INTERNATIONAL ATOMIC ENERGY AGENCY, One Decade after Chernobyl: Summing up the Consequences of the Accident (Proc. Int. Conf. Vienna, 1996), IAEA, Vienna (1996). [44] ALEXAKHIN, R.A., KORNEEV, N.A. (Eds), Agricultural Radioecology, Ecology, Moscow (1991) (in Russian).

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PRISTER, B., PEREPELYATNIKOV, G.P., PEREPELYATNIKOVA, L.V., Countermeasures used in the Ukraine to produce forage and animal food products with radionuclide levels below intervention limits after the Chernobyl accident, Sci. Total Environ. 137 (1993) 183–198. [46] 4.41] INTERNATIONAL ATOMIC ENERGY AGENCY, The Use of Prussian Blue to Reduce Radicaesium Contamination of Milk and Meat Produced on Territories Affected by the Chernobyl Accident, IAEA-TECDOC-926, IAEA, Vienna (1997). [47] FESENKO, S., BROWN, J., Review of Countermeasures Options for Semi-natural Environments: Forest and Natural Meadows, Rep. NRPB-M1123, National Radiological Protection Board, Didcot, UK (2000). [48] VOITSEKHOVITCH, O., et al., ―Hydrological processes and their influence on radionuclide behaviour and transport by surface water pathways as applied to water protection after Chernobyl accident‖, Hydrological Impact of Nuclear Power Plants (Proc. Int. Workshop, Paris, 1992), UNESCO, Paris (1993) 85–105. [49] WATERS, R., et al., ―A review of post-accident measures affecting transport and isolation of radionuclides released from the Chernobyl accident‖, Environmental Contamination in Central and Eastern Europe (Proc. Int. Symp. Budapest, 1994), Florida State University, Tallahassee (1996) 728– 730). [50] SMITH, J.T., VOITSEKHOVITCH, O.V., HÅKANSON, L., HILTON, J., A critical review of measures to reduce radioactive doses from drinking water and consumption of freshwater foodstuffs, J. Environ. Radioact. 56 (2001) 11–32. [51] VOITSEKHOVITCH, O.V., Management of Surface Water Quality in the Areas Affected by the Chernobyl Accident, Ukrainian Hydrometeorological Institute, Kiev (2001) (in Russian). [52] Woody biomass electricity production in Hanawa: Prefecture invites participation in new financial year, forest decontamination expected to move forward [in Japanese]. Fukushima Minpo (7 Feb 2013). Available: http://www.minpo.jp/news/detail/201302076489 [accessed 20 Feb 2013]. [53] Ministry of the Environment. Common Questions about Wide-Area Waste Disposal, Question 13 [website] [in Japanese]. Tokyo:Ministry of the Environment, Government of Japan (2013). Available: http://kouikishori.env.go.jp/faq/ [accessed 20 Feb 2013]. [54]. Roed J, et al. Power Production from Radioactively Contaminated Biomass and Forest Litter in Belarus— Phase 1b. Roskilde, Denmark:Riso National Laboratory (Mar 2000). Available: http://130.226.56.153/rispubl/nuk/nukpdf/ris-r-1146.pdf [accessed 20 Feb 2013]. [55] http://www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/safety-and-security/safety-of-plants/three-mile-islandaccident.aspx [56] http://www.sozogaku.com/fkd/en/cfen/CA1000404.html.

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Waste Management & Resource Utilisation www.iswmaw.com

ISWMAW

Decentralized Waste Management System for Sustainable Habitat Development Gouthaman J.1,*, Saiyath Mohaiyuddin Samdani S.1, Elakiya M.1, Saravana Kumar C.1, Kirubakaran V.2 1

Renewable Energy Scholars, Rural Energy Centre, The Gandhigram Rural Institute – Gandhigram, Dindigul District, Tamil Nadu, India 2 Assistant Professor, Rural Energy Centre, The Gandhigram Rural Institute – Gandhigram, Dindigul District, Tamil Nadu, India *Corresponding Author: Email- [email protected] ABSTRACT Municipal Solid Waste plays a vital role in creating pollution to the environment. The present scenario shows that household waste contributes nearly 35% from the total MSW generation in India, in which more than 25% of waste is biodegradable. By considering 1,27,285 metric tonnes per day MSW generation in India, this paper concentrate on the household solid waste management in a cluster level which reduces the overall collection and transportable energy and cost. The waste water generated in the cluster particularly spent was water from the kitchen and washing has been effectively worked for Colocasia and Cana Indica. The Main advantage of Colocasia is that, it can be used for medicinal purposes such as strengthening bones and teeth. For the biodegradable solid waste, Effective Microorganisms method has been adopted to convert the waste into fertilizer at fast rate. Keywords: Municipal Solid Waste (MSW), metric tonnes per day (MTD), Effective Microorganisms (EM); International Society of Waste Management, Air and Water

1.0 Introduction The population of India is crossing more than 1.25 billion, the solid waste generated by the people are gaining its scale to wide range of 500 to 600 grams per capita waste per day. This accounts for 188500 tons per day and added to 68.8 million tons per year. Due to the rapid urbanisation, the cities are flooded with people migrating from village which increases population density on cities and also the waste generation every year. At this rate, the per capital waste generation potential of cities will expected to be 1 to 1.5 kg per day by 2030. Even though, Government of India (GoI) took immense steps to provide effective tool and techniques to organize and handle municipal solid waste (MSW). The Ministry of Urban Development (GoI) fails on municipal solid waste management (MSWM) due to various factors. The Urban Local Bodies (ULB) people finding it obscure to dispose the municipal solid waste as per the guidelines of ―Municipal waste (management and handling)‖ Rule, 1999. In due course of time MSW growing to be the serious threat to nation policies and disposal scrutiny upon human welfare. So it is the right time for developing countries like India to concentrate on effective solid waste management as low and middle income countries generate more organic waste constituents in municipal solid waste than the developed countries. In India around 339 ULB‘s active units employed their people on collection, 69

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segregation and disposal of MSW. The MSWM in most cities didn‘t score the expected results of the Ministry of Urban Development and Ministry of Environmental and Forest to recuperate the soil condition preventing the soil quality degradation due to improper handling of MSWM. 2.0 Composition of MSWM The solid waste generated from various sectors like domestic, industrial, institutional, medical and commercial together constitute MSW. The domestic waste from residential houses comprises of organic waste in major of food junks, vegetables remains and stationeries. The industrial waste consists of more toxic, heavy metals and non-biodegradable contents. The institutional waste generated probably of office materials like paper, plastics, dyes, remains of furniture. The commercial and medical waste combined as mixed waste finds its way into MSW. Therefore, MSW forms major portion of organic matters which are biodegradable when compared to the percent of heavy metals and other non-degradable matters. The life style of the people continuously changes due to the rapid urbanisation and modernisation aggravated the generation of the level of MSW. The developing countries mostly use organic matters which added to 5060% of MSW. The domestic waste from the residential areas constitute mostly of food waste, vegetable waste, slaughtered remains and part of miscellaneous products. 2.0.1 Impacts of improper handling of MSW       

Air pollution due to the putrefaction of MSW. Land pollution due to the mixed waste composition of plastics, heavy metals, industrial waste etc. Water pollution due to the methane gas and Leachate percolation. Spreading of epidemic diseases and pose threat to human health. Breeding of mosquitoes and parasitic microbes. Greenhouse gas emission into the environment due to the decomposition of organic waste. Clogging of MSW in sewage channels and causing flood during rain.

2.0.2 Obstacles on handling and disposal of MSW There are many numbers of factors affecting the function of ULB for handling MSW.     

The lack of organised system & proper guidelines for collection, storage, transport and disposal of MSW. Lack of strict rules to be imposed on spot penalties for not co-operating with the compliance of MSW rule, 2000. Lack of awareness among the people generating the waste and their negligence to segregate solid waste into biodegradable and non-biodegradable categories. Lack of technology to separate the MSW using automation and providing human handling and segregation techniques due to the financial burden. The insufficient amount of transport facility and man power to participate in this system.

2.1 Methods of Handling MSW Composting or mechanised biological technology is the method of allowing organic contents of MSW to biological undergo degradation. This method involves two categories;  

Aerobic treatment: Degraded in the presence of air usually the by-products are carbon dioxide, nitrates, nitrite and compost used as natural manure. Anaerobic treatment: Degraded in the absence of air acted upon bacteria and microbes by-products are methane gas and Leachate.

It is one of the effective methods chosen by the most of the developing countries which is simple and easy to practice in No-time. Even though it is simple but open windrow dumping attracts the breeding of microbes and insects. It also makes it hard for the people to observe hand picking of non-biodegradable 70

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during rainy season. The probation period is around 36-42 days of interval for the bacterial action to completely decompose the MSW. Then, the manure is silted out into fertile soil and returns the values into ground. Proper checking and continuous monitoring is required for frequent turnover of the compost to mix it uniformly and this process kills most pathogens and parasites. The heat released due to the exothermic reaction and ranges from 60 to 80oC. The thermophilic bacteria can digest the MSW organic constituents within shorter period of time. 3.0 Leachate Management The alternatives to be considered for leachate management are: a) Discharge to Lined Drains: This option is usually not feasible. It can only be adopted if the leachate quality is shown to satisfy all waste water discharge standards for lined drains, consistently for a period of several years. b) Discharge to Waste Water Treatment System: For landfills close to a waste water treatment plant, leachate may be sent to such a plant after some pretreatment. Reduction is organic content is usually required as a pretreatment. c) Recirculation: One of the methods for treatment of leachate is to recirculate it through the landfill. This has two beneficial effects: (i) The process of landfill stabilisation is accelerated and (ii) The constituents of the leachate are attenuated by the biological, chemical and physical changes occurring with the landfill. Recirculation of a leachate requires the design of a distribution system to ensure that the leachate passes uniformly throughout the entire waste. Since gas generation is faster in such a process, the landfill should be equipped with a well designed gas recovery system. d) Evaporation of Leachate: one of the techniques used to manage leachate is to spray it in lined leachate ponds and allow the leachate to evaporate. Such ponds have to be covered with geomembranes during the high rainfall periods. The leachate is exposed during the summer months to allow evaporation. Odour control has to be exercised at such ponds. e) Treatment of Leachate: The type of treatment facilities to be used depends upon the leachate characteristics. Typically, treatment may be required to reduce the concentration of the following prior to discharge: degradable and non-degradable organic materials, specific hazardous constituents, ammonia and nitrate ions, sulphides, odorous compounds, and suspended solids. Treatment processes may be biological processes (such as activated sludge, aeration, nitrification (dentrification), chemical processes (such as oxidation, neutralisation) and physical processes (such as air stripping, activated adsorption, ultra filtration etc.). The treated leachate may be discharged to surface water bodies. 3.0.1 Scope of Work for Waste & Leachate Investigation are a) Waste characterization of fresh waste collected from bins b) Waste characterization of old waste collected from different depths in existing waste dumps or sanitary landfills. c) Collection and laboratory testing of at least 6 samples of leachate from just beneath existing waste dumps or sanitary landfills. d) Estimate of leachate quality from laboratory testing. BOD of Leachate from MSW landfills has maximum limit of 195000 mg/l and minimum limit as zero which was indicated in the typical data on characteristics of leachate reported by Bagchi (1994), Tchobanoglous et al. (1993) and Oweis and Khera (1990). Data on leachate quality has not been published in India. However, studies conducted by Indian Institute of Technology-Delhi, NEERI-Nagpur and some State Pollution Control Boards have shown ground water contamination potential beneath sanitary landfills. 71

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4.0. Treatment of Brackish Water in a Habitat There is one simple, eco-friendly and economical method that involves neither mechanics nor chemicals. It imitates a process that is part of most traditional households even today, where kitchen water is diverted into a clump of banana trees. Here, the water is freed of all its organic constituents by the combined effort of the plants and soil bacteria. As the water passes through the soil and reaches the family well, soil bacteria polishes the water fully and renders it fit for all uses. The method can be adapted by individual houses and apartment complexes even today. Grey water can be diverted to a soil bed of water-loving plants, which must be exposed to at least moderate sunlight so that they grow healthily. You can use Canna indica (Indian shot), Hedychium coronarium (white ginger lily), and any variety of Heliconia, the cyperus plant (umbrella plant), Colocaesia, or banana. There is a widespread impression that today‘s soaps and detergents contain a lot of chemicals that are harmful to the body. However, both the organic and inorganic constituents are present only in minute quantities and all the organic ingredients are bio-degradable and will be removed by the plant-soil bacteria combination. Soil bacteria, of course, do not have the ability to remove any inorganic salts but these are so little that they don‘t matter. 4.0.1 Methodology On a level bed of garden soil, plant the saplings giving at least 2.5 sq. ft. per plant and leaving one foot gap between plants. They can be planted laterally and longitudinally. The level of the soil bed should be uniform so that the grey water spreads over the entire bed and the entire area is available for cleaning the water. Otherwise, water will tend to flow towards the lower areas and the purification will be incomplete. Water the plants with freshwater for two or three weeks till they take root and stabilize; then divert the grey water into the bed in progressively increased volumes over a week. Thereafter, the process is practically self-sustaining. No smell will originate from the bed. There may be some stream of a couple of inches during the peak usage period in the mornings but this will go down in 30 to 45 minutes. No mosquitoes will be generated. The water seeping into the soil augments the shallow water table and can be drawn for reuse through a dug well. The process can be decentralized in multi-storeyed complexes where the bathrooms on all floors are generally one above the other. If some soil space is available near one such bathroom, only its grey water can be diverted and treated here. A centralized system will involve bringing the grey water from all the bathrooms to be treated in one single soil bed. One can collect the treated water and use it for flushing and gardening. This aspect will be covered in the next article. 4.0.2 Plumbing An elbow is connected to the outflow pipe and extended to reach the soil bed. No gum or glue piping is used so that for any temporary shutdown, the elbow can be just pulled out to let the water flow into the regular gully and reach the internal sewage line. If planned during construction, the pipes taking the grey water to the soil bed can be easily concealed underground in the driveways. Since they have to be laid at a slope of 1 in 120, the terminal pipe on the bed will be at a lower level than the abutting ground level. Therefore, the level of the soil bed has to be protected by means of curbing. In one campus, the treatment bed was 4.5 ft below the abutting ground level but it still worked smoothly. 4.0.3 Maintenance The process is self-sustaining and requires minimal maintenance. If canna plants are used, plants that have borne fruit should preferably be removed but this does not require any skills. For other plants, even this is not necessary. Prevent mounds forming around the plants since these impede the smooth flow 72

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of water across the entire bed and the process may have to be begun afresh. If water stagnates, it is either an indication that the plant density is inadequate or the area provided is insufficient. In such cases, the water supply must be disconnected and remedial action taken.

Figure 1: The process of recycling grey water using canna plants is cost-effective and simple

A simple water treatment practice using canna plants (‗Kalvazhai' in Tamil) was put into practice in a habitat to filter the waste water particularly soap water. The grey water is conceded through the canna bed, which is shaped over layers of blue metal and soil. The canna plants assist in decomposition of the suspended solids. The soil layer beneath filters the water. The rest water can be allowed to flow to garden area which consists of flower and fruit plants. There is no mosquito breeding or stench from the canna beds as water is absorbed quickly. However, it needs periodical maintenance. 5.0 EM Treatment Extensive research has been conducted through the ultimate goal of developing mixed cultures of compatible beneficial microorganisms for inoculating soils. The critical goal is to alter the soil microbiological equilibrium (i.e., the population balance) and create an environment that is flattering to the growth and activity of these introduced organisms, and to improve their beneficial effects on the growth and health of crop plants. The research completed successfully through the use of mixed cultures of effective microorganisms now referred to as EM. In effect, EM technology provides: a) a means of controlling soil microorganisms to the advantage of the plant, and b) an added dimension that enhances the probability for successful transition from conventional to nature farming methods. EM technology has a noticeably broader application than just plant production and protection. Research has publicized that EM is highly effective in purifying waste waters and sewage effluents; promoting soil structure and aggregation; suppressing malodours in livestock and poultry buildings; and enhancing the conversion efficiency of animal feeds. Such a widespread application of microorganisms vastly increases the probability of developing an economically-viable, energy-efficient, and environmentally-sound system of nature farming for mankind both today, and for future generations. Many of the basic problems related to agriculture, the environment, and human health can be solved to a considerable extent by the application of EM technology.

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5.0.1 Methodology The MSW can be stored effectively in generation source itself and properly treated. This reduces the cost of transport and tedious collection process of the Urban Local Bodies. There are 5pits of same dimension and domestic waste is evenly distributed. One litre of EM (enhanced microbes) water is taken for this experiment. One of the waste loaded pit is left without addition of EM water. The remaining pits are supplied with EM in the ratio of 1:2:3:4 concentration mixed with the remaining percent of water to make it one litre solution. Then, the waste is left for degradation under the microbial actions in the aerobic environment for the period of 5 days. In Each day, the waste is turned top to bottom for even mixing. As it is an exothermic reaction which generates heat and increases the temperature about 50-60oC, it kills most of the parasites and pathogenic bacteria. Then the soil is taken for BOD testing at regular intervals and corresponding values are noted down.

Figure 2, 3, 4: 5 trenches formed in Figure 1. MSW with EM water is mixed in Figure 2. After 5 days of decomposition, the status of MSW in Figure 3.

5.1. Results and Discussion Table 1: BOD result of 5 samples using OxiTOP system is shared above. Units of the above results are to be considered as mg/litre

Samples with EM

BOD Level of Samples in mg/litre Day 1

Day 2

Day 3

Day 4

Day 5

MSW + 100ml

20

40

60

80

80

MSW + 200ml

0

20

40

40

40

MSW + 300ml

0

20

20

40

40

MSW + 400ml

20

40

40

60

60

MSW alone

20

20

40

40

40

Through the above results, by adding 100ml of EM treated water to MSW will give optimum generation of BOD to the soil.

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6.0 Conclusion The BOD results shows that the EM water treatment with one ratio proportion in the MSW will improve the quality of the soil by means of increasing the BOD level and hence protect the land from the issues through Leachate. Also the grey water treatment in each habitat will protect the soil and water quality level by means of increasing vegetation in habitat area. References Annual report of MSW by Tamilnadu Pollution Control Board, Dec 2015 Bindu T., Sylas V.P., Mahesh M., Rakesh P.S., Ramasamy E.V., (2008), Pollutant removal from domestic wastewater with Taro(Colocasia esculenta) planted in a subsurface flow system, Article in Ecological Engineering, May 2008 : 68–82 Guidance Note of Municipal Solid Waste Management on a Regional Basis, Ministry Of Urban Development Government Of India. Neha Gupta, Krishna Kumar Yadav, Vinit Kumar, (2015), A review on current status of Municipal Solid Waste Management in India, Article in Journal of Environmental Sciences : 206- 217 Preethi Abinaya M., Loganath R., 2015, Reuse of Grey Water using Modified Root Zone System, International Journal of Engineering Research & Technology (IJERT), Vol. 4 Issue 02 : 454-458 Status report on Municipal Solid Waste Management,(2012), central pollution control board, Delhi

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Waste Management & Resource Utilisation www.iswmaw.com

ISWMAW

A Methodological Construct for Enumerating Residential Land Use Characteristics – A Major Deciding Factor of Waste Generation in Indian Urban Areas Chithra. K1,*, P.P. Anilkumar2, M.A. Naseer2 1

Assistant Professor, Department of Architecture, National Institute of Technology, Calicut, India Associate Professor, Department of Architecture, National Institute of Technology, Calicut, India *Corresponding Author: Email- [email protected] 2

ABSTRACT The proportion of urban population in the world is expected to touch 70% by 2050 as per United Nation‘s World urbanization prospects Report. Growing trend of this urbanization has made the residential land use a major shareholder in urban land uses. The role of residential land use in shaping the urban environment is an important concern in several highly urbanized areas. Even though there are techniques like Environmental Impact Assessment available to examine the impacts on the environment by individual buildings/ projects, a method to establish the environmental connotations of land uses from an all-inclusive perspective is completely absent. To perform such a check, it is required to know fundamental attributes/characteristics of the land use under deliberation. This paper essentially converses on how to encapsulate the inherent characteristics of residential land use in an area, thereby its waste generation capability and to articulate it as a site distinctive index. For this, a questionnaire survey of experts was executed to amalgamate the different characteristics of residential land use in an urban area of a large city, and the resulted index was tested in the context of Kerala which is one of the most urbanized states in India. The high rate of urbanization in Kerala had led to diversity in the socioeconomic back ground of population and then on their scale of residential development. The expert group‘s coordinated responses are collected, evaluated and compiled in this respect, and the results are portrayed and shared. Keywords: land use characteristics; index formulation; Waste generation; International Society of Waste Management, Air and Water

1.0 Introduction According to United Nation‘s World urbanization prospects Report, the portion of urban population in the world will touch 70% by 2050 [1] and it is projected that 93% of the urban growth will happen in Asia and Africa and to a smaller level in Latin America and the Caribbean as per the UNHABITAT Annual Report 2005 [2]. It is anticipated that other than this population growth there is going to be an intense expansion in the boundary of individual urban centres too [3]. Growing tendency of this urbanization has caused residential land use a major shareholder amid urban land uses. Residential land use demands for the need of erstwhile amenities like physical and social infrastructure to sustenance it. Scheduling these conveniences for the well-being of mankind has ultimately put urban environment under threat due to its amplifying rate of resource extraction, utilization, waste generation, etc. Even though there are techniques like Environmental Impact Assessment available to examine the impacts on the 76

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environment by individual buildings/ projects, a method to establish the environmental connotations of land uses from an all-inclusive perspective is completely absent. To perform such a check, it is required to know fundamental attributes/characteristics of the land use under deliberation. This paper mainly communicates on how to summarise the inherent characteristics of residential land use in an area and thereby its waste generation ability and to convey it as a site specific index. An expert survey was done for this to obtain requisite data to identify applicable parameters appropriate to formulate the same for an urban area of a large city. The formulated coefficient to express the inherent characteristics of the residential land use characteristics is validated in the context of Kerala, one of the most urbanized states in India by checking its performance in the city of Kozhikode. In India, 285 million people lived in urban areas and anticipated escalation to 550 million by the year 2021 and 800 million by 2041 [4]. The increasing tendency of this urban population and the associated increase in urban area has made residential land use a major stakeholder in all urban land use plans. In urban planning, policies and programs related to physical planning are implemented through vision documents prepared for the cities/areas as a whole. These documents are master plans in most of the cases. In India Urban & Rural Development Plan Formulation and Implementation (URDPFI) guidelines issued by Ministry of Urban Affairs advocates that 40% of the developed land in a metro city should be apportioned for residential activity, while this share should be 50% in case of small urban centres [5]. As the residential population is the base for providing capitals and infrastructure, residential land use shoulders a commanding position in master plans. Land use planning means the scientific, aesthetic, and orderly disposition of land, resources, facilities and services with a view to securing the physical, economic and social efficiency, health and well-being of urban and rural communities [6]. It is a systematic process for the arrangement and allocation of land recourses among period and space in accordance with the principles of sustainable land-use [7]. Sustainable land use planning requires recognition of the limitations of the biosphere and the need for a balance of social, cultural and economic uses within these natural limitations [8]. Hence a properly planned land use in an area decides the nature of development projects coming up in the area. Land use allocation is neither generic as policies nor specific as projects. It can translate the policies in to projects at the same time looking at the development issues in total. Hence land use plan can promote multiple developments within a defined geographical area. Once prepared and implemented, what impacts these plans makes on the environment is an area to be explored. When residential land use shares a major portion of the urban land use allocation, it is very important to know the innate traits of this land use to check for its impacts on various sectors. 2.0 Methodology A comprehensive methodology for ascertaining residential land use parameters that will encapsulate its characteristics is explained below. A key aim of this study is to reveal the critical parameters of the residential land use that can be employed to generate an index which will summarize the impact generation potential of residential activities of an identified area. The essential hypotheses employed for the formulation of this index are as follows.  

A land use parameter would qualify to be incorporated in the index if it has a considerable/major influence on the waste generation aspect of the urban environment. Index, as proposed, will integrate the urban environment features and the residential land use parameters in a location specific manner.

Residential land use parameters are chosen such that they are mutual parts in causing impacts on the assorted modules of the urban environment. The varied nature of the several sectors on which urban planning hang on ensued in an interdisciplinary research domain. In a developing country like India, accessibility of organized information for such research is the main apprehension, and for this type of research, a questionnaire Survey of experts (QSE) can be used to draw data from experts in essential disciplines. [9] Residential land use parameters attained from literature survey was then treated through prearranged interviews using a random sample of experts. A questionnaire was formed to get organized data on significant parameters of the residential land use centered on its impact generation capacity. The questionnaire was crafted with a collection of question 77

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classes such as equal interval ranking questions to measure weightage of the set of parameters under deliberation and these were open ended questions to factor in the freedom for experts to give their options, equal interval rating questions and pair wise comparison questions were also incorporated to compute relative weightages between parameters. Questionnaire instrument was confirmed for its lucidity by carrying out a pilot survey and processed incorporating their suggestions. The questionnaire instrument was also certified using Cronbach Alpha Test for its consistency and confirmed a reliability coefficient (alpha) range of 0.78 to 0.90 for all questions. Calculating the relative weightage of residential land use parameters that will summarize the characteristics of a residential areas impact generation ability is the key objective of this survey. This was computed from both AHP based pair wise comparison questions and rank order question analysis. Using the questionnaire survey and its analysis, a set of significant parameters of residential land use which is having the main position in initiating impacts on the urban environment modules was recognised. Key parameters thus ascertained to capture the residential land use impacts on the urban environment are 1) Residential scale and 2) Household income of the residents. Residential scale refers to the type of residential buildings and the number of families residing in the building. This is further divided in to three categories such as a) Detached residential buildings with single family residing in it (Villa type), b) Low rise apartments with multiple families dwelling in (height of the building is restricted to Less than ground + three floors) c) High rise apartments with multiple numbers of families staying in it (height of the building will be more than four floors). Residential households are divided in to four categories with respect to their household income such as a) High Income Group (Annual household income is more than Rs. 5,00,000.00), b) Middle Income Group (Annual household income Rs. 2,00,000.00 to 5,00,000.00), c) Low Income Group (Annual household income Rs. 1,00,000.00 -2,00,000.00) and d) Economically Weaker Section (Annual household income is less than Rs. 1,00,000.00). Pairwise Comparison of AHP questions analysis was conducted as detailed. A pairwise comparison reciprocal matrix [10] of opinions was constructed and by solving this matrix using Eigenvector method, the relative importance of opinions was derived. Also, a consistency index is calculated to check the matrix consistency. When the Eigenvalue is equal to the dimension of the matrix, then the matrix can be considered consistent. But if it is more than the dimension of the matrix then the matrix is said to be inconsistent. [11] Individual expert‘s consistency in giving opinion should also need to be measured and compared to an indicative consistency known as Random consistency index [12]. If Consistency Ratio (CR) is less than or equal to 0.1, the inconsistency is usually acceptable, and there are also many researchers who have accepted CR values up to 0.2 [13]. By conducting the AHP analysis, relative weightage of the groups of the characteristic parameters of residential land uses in impact generation were calculated. Relative weightages obtained using AHP analysis for the household income group based on its impact creation capability are given below (Table.1) Table 1: AHP derived relative weightages of Household income group Household Income Group

Annual Household Income

Relative weightage

High Income group

> Rs. 5,00,000.00

0.334

Middle income group

Rs. 2,00,000 - 5,00,000

0.183

Low Income Group

Rs. 1,00,000 - 2,00,000

0.173

Economically weaker section

< Rs. 1,00,000.00

0.310

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Relative weightages of residential scale existing in the area with respect to their impact generation capacity in the urban environment were also derived through AHP Analysis and are given below (Table 2). Table 2: AHP derived relative weightages of Residential Scale Residential Scale

Relative weightage

Detached single family units (villa type)

0.190

Low rise multifamily units

0.260

( up to Ground + 3floors)

High rise multifamily units (> 4 floors)

0.550

CR values for the combined expert group in the above analysis were 0.045 and 0.04 household income group and residential scale respectively. These values are very well within the permissible limit of 0 and 0.1. Utilizing these relative weightages of the land use characteristics and the proportionate part of corresponding household types existing in the detected residential area, a location specific coefficient to synopsize the impact generation potential of residential land use activities called ―Coefficient of residential land use characteristics‖ is worked out. 4.0 Coefficient of residential land use characteristics CRLC is an index to encapsulate the impact generation capability of residential land use activities on the urban environment from an urban planning perception. CRLC is computed as the linear weighted sum of two distinct segments. That is the weighted sum of the proportionate part of the household income typologies living in the considered residential area. The second part is the weighted sum of the proportionate part of the residential scale classifications existing in the considered residential area. Weightages were derived by QSE analysis using AHP for the household income typologies and residential scale typologies respectively. The CRLC is expressed as Eq 1 Where S is the relative weightage derived from QSE for residential scale typologies, P is the k

k

proportion of residential units within the residential scale typologies, k is the residential scale typologies, I

j

is the relative weightage derived from QSE for the household income typologies, P is the proportion of j

residential units within the household income typologies, and j is the household income typologies. Ideally, CRLC should encapsulate the innate characteristics of residential land use in a specified area that play a significant role in deciding the level of impacts due to residential land use activities on the urban environment. CRLC can also be used to compare urban areas regarding the existing and proposed residential land use activities and help policymakers in decision-making Ideally, should encapsulate the innate characteristics of residential land use in a specified area that will play an important role in the level of impacts on the urban environment due to its activities. The performance of CRLC regarding its impact generation potential is checked in the context of Kerala, one of the most developed and urbanized state of India. 5.0 Field study Kerala being one of the smallest states in the geographical area, Kerala accounts for 1.1% of the country‘s land area and 3.44% of its total population [14]. Kerala is the only State in the country which continues to be in the ‗very high human development index (0.920)‘ with respect to all the three dimensions of health, education, and income. The percentage share of urban population in Kerala is 47.74%, which means that almost half of the population is staying in urban areas. This is very high when compared to the National average (31.16%) [15]. The increase in urban population growth rate is the result of the higher density of population in the existing cities especially metropolitan cities. But in Kerala, the 79

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main reason for urban population growth is the increase in the number of urban areas and also urbanization of the fringe areas of the present major urban centres. Kerala being highly urbanized can become a role model for many other Indian states which are on the same route. Hence Kozhikode City from the northern part of the state of Kerala having high residential and population density is selected to check the validity of coefficient of residential land use characteristics regarding its waste generation capacity. Kozhikode, also known as Calicut, is one of the busiest coastal cities in India. Located in the northern part of the state, it holds an important position in the legend and history of Kerala. According to 2011 Census; Kozhikode District extends to an area of 2345 Sq Km which houses a Population of 3,086,293 persons with a Density of 1316 persons per Sq km and 55% of the population lives in urban areas. The main impact of urbanization processes has been expansion and constant change of urban land use [16]. Physical, social, political and economic factors have played their decisive roles in forming Kozhikode‘s land use pattern. 5.1 CRLC and Waste generation study CRLC have been theorized and illustrated to measure the potentials of the residential land use activities in generating impacts on the environment in an urban context. Hence, it was analysed against the waste generation scenario due to residential activities in an urban area. The identified connotaions of residential activities by the experts were refined as parameters with the help of available literature and is discussed below. The experts suggested that there will be an increase in the quantity of waste based on the residential activtiies. Hence, average biodegradable and non-biodegradable waste quantity generated per household per day are selected and checked with CRLC. Although it is a fact that the quantity of municipal waste generation has a direct link to the socio economic status of a given area, cause of municipal solid waste generation has considerable bearing on the type of residential activity that the area supports. This waste generation rate is a crucial factor in planning infrastructure for managing the generated waste. A stratified sample of 11 wards from the studied 51 wards was selected based on the residential density to study the relationship of CRLC and the waste generation in an area due to residential activities. Initially, the wards were arranged in ascending order based on residential density and was divided into ten groups of five wards each with one ward remaining. The first ward from each group and the left over Ward (Ward with the highest residential density) were selected for validation purpose. The wards thus selected are Ward 50, 14, 17, 20, 8, 40, 10, 28, 23, 47, and Ward 31. The selected wards represented all parts of the study area. In order to ensure equity in distribution, socio-economic characteristics of the wards were also taken into consideration while selecting the wards. Fig 1 shows the selected wards for validation purpose.

Figure 1: Selected wards for CRLC validation purpose 80

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6.0 Results & Discussions

BioDEGRadable waste Quantity

A Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient was computed to assess the relationship between the computed CRLC of the selected wards and the bio degradable and non-biodegradable waste quantities. When correlation analysis was performed between the CRLC values and the average quantity of biodegradable waste generated per household, a very high positive correlation was found between them with r = 0.920. Fig 2 presents the correlation between CRLC values and the average biodegradable waste generated per household in the selected wards

C R L C & B I OD E GR A D A B L E WA ST E QU A N T I T Y

1.6

1.1 R² = 0.9201

0.6

0.1 0.30

0.35

Biodegradable 0.40 waste 0.45Quantity0.50 CRLCVALUE Linear ( Biodegradable waste Quantity)

Figure 2: CRLC values and the average biodegradable waste quantity per household

0.55

0.60

In general, It is observed from the fact that wherever CRLCis higher, the biodegradable waste quantity generated per household is also higher. The biodegradable waste quantity of one of the wards (Ward 40) is less compared to the other wards. The higher CRLC value in Ward 40 is mainly attributed to the higher share of high-income people residing in high-rise buildings whereas lower biodegradable waste quantity is primary because of the smaller household size (Average household size in this ward is 3.5). A strong positive correlation r = 0.915, was observed between the CRLC value of the wards and the average non-biodegradable waste quantity generated per household in the wards. Correlation between CRLC values and the average non-biodegradable waste generated per household in the selected wards are presented in Fig 3. When CRLC is higher, Non-biodegradable waste generated is also higher in the selected wards except in two wards (Ward 40 and 47). In Ward 40, non-biodegradable waste generation is higher; may be due to the higher percentage of high-income group people. The lower non-biodegradable waste generation in Ward 47 may be attributed to the higher percentage of economically weaker section households in the ward who is tempted to reuse the no biodegradable waste.

Non- biodegradable waste quantity in Kg

1.2

CRLC& Non-Biodegradable Waste Quantity R² = 0.9158

1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 0.3

0.35

0.4

0.45 0.5 0.55 0.6 CRLC Non -Biodegradable waste quantity Linear (Non -Biodegradable waste quantity)

Figure 3: CRLC values and the average non-biodegradable waste quantity per household 81

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When the ward-wise analysis on the relationship between CRLC and quantity of biodegradable and non-biodegradable waste generated per household per day were conducted, it was observed that the wards with higher CRLC have a higher waste generation. This is mainly because the factors used for the CRLC formulation, such as household income, has a significant role in the quantity of biodegradable and non-biodegradable waste generation. Analysis of the results suggests that CRLC value of an area will reflect the area‘s potential in generating waste due to residential land use activities on the urban environment 7.0 Conclusion An index that can summarize the spirit of the varied nature of land uses and its characteristic activities will assist in urban planning and allied decision making procedures such as resource allocation, infrastructure planning, etc. In the absence of a meticulous system to examine the diverse impacts of land use on the urban environment, it is highly essential to have an index that will reflect the inherent capabilities of land use in generating impacts on the urban environment. Such an index will be of great use in categorizing the land use under consideration in to finer components centred on its impact generation capacity. This paper elaborates a methodology to construct an index to capture the residential land use characteristics from its impact generation potential perspective. The coefficient suggested here is broadly aligning with the trend of the waste generation per household of the area under consideration in the highly urbanized context like that of Kerala. The suggested coefficient of residential land use characteristics can be more perfected for encapsulating impacts on all other identified urban environment modules and then make it robust. References 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14.

15.

United Nation‘s World urbanization prospects Report 2001, Population Division Department of Economic and Social Affairs United Nations Secretariat, New York UN-HABITAT annual report 2005, United Nations Human Settlements Programme (UN-HABITAT) P.O. Box 30030 Nairobi 00100, Kenya NB Grimm, S. F. (2008). Global change and the ecology of cities. Science, 756-760. NIUA, 2000. Draft Report: Status of water supply, sanitation and solid waste management in urban India, National Institute of Urban Affairs, Delhi. Urban and Regional Development Plans Formulation & Implementation Guidelines, 2014, Ministry of urban development, India CIP (Canadian Institute of Planners). 2000. About Planning: What Planners Do. Available at:http://www.cipicu.ca/english/aboutplan/what.htm (Accessed 30 April 2012).] Tao, T. Integrating environment into land use planning through strategic environmental assessment in China: Towards legal frameworks and operational procedures. Environmental impact assessment review, 27. 243-265 Chalifour, N.J. 2007. Ecological economics, sustainable land use, and policy choices. In: N.J.Chalifour, P. Kameri-Mbote, L. Heng Lye and J.R. Nolon, Eds. Land Use Law for Sustainable Development. IUCN Academy of Environmental Law Research Studies. Cambridge University Press: New York. Anilkumar. P P., Varghese, Koshy., Ganesh, L S.,2010, Formulating a coastal zone health metric for land use impact management in urban coastal zones; Journal of Environmental Management, 91,2172-2185 Saaty, T.L, 1980. The Analytic Hierarchy Process, McGraw-Hill, New York, NY Wattage, P., and S. Mardle. 2005. Stakeholder preferences towards conservation versus development for a wetland in Sri Lanka. Journal of Environmental Management 77(2):122–132 E.H. Forman, 1990. Random indices for Incomplete Pair wise Comparison Matrices. European Journal of Operational Research 48, p153-155 Mardle, S., S. Pascoe, and I. Herrero. 2004. Management objective importance in fisheries: An evaluation using the analytic hierarchy process. Environmental Management 33(1):1–11. The government of India, 2011. Census of India 2011. Provisional Population Totals. Paper 1 of 2011. India, Series 1. New Delhi, Registrar General and Census Commissioner of India. The government of Kerala, 2005. Kerala sustainable urban development final report Vol II – City Report, Vol II Asian Development Bank, 2005. Kerala sustainable urban development final report - State, Vol I, Government of Kerala.n

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Environmental Risk Assessment for Beneficial Reuse of Coal Combustion Residues D.V.S. Praneeth1, V.R. Sankar Cheela2, Brajesh Dubey3,* 1

Post Graduate, Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Kharagpur, Kharagpur, India Research Scholar, Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Kharagpur, Kharagpur, India 3 Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Kharagpur, Kharagpur, India *Corresponding Author: Email- [email protected] 2

ABSTRACT The present paper deals with need for establishing common protocol for evaluating risk assessment for reuse of coal combustion residues (CCR) in the name of Leaching Environmental Assessment Framework‖ (LEAF). The process involved in the industries produce large quantities of bi-products, CCR is one of such waste which is rarely categorized as hazardous, but it cannot be dumped on the land fill. The current and most accepted tool for environmental evaluation in terms of leaching is Toxicity Characteristic Leaching Procedure (TCLP) and Synthetic Precipitation Leaching Procedure (SPLP). But these tests cannot provide the complete site specific decision on beneficial reuse of the materials. In this paper, trends of coal combustion residue especially fly ash across world is explained and present different leaching tests available and need for common protocol LEAF is explained with stating its advantage, disadvantages is explained. Keywords: Leaching, Reuse, TCLP, SPL, USEPA; International Society of Waste Management, Air and Water

1.0 Introduction Balancing the impacts on human and environment with promoting reuse and resource conservation is difficult challenge [1], ―Reuse‖ term has gaining the importance due to over discharge of waste, over usage of raw materials that is effecting environmental and human. Solid waste disposal has becoming a major problem for industries, especially in developing countries due to proper availability of land for disposal and improper waste management regulations [2]. Certain waste has potential benefits to reuse for same processing unit or building process of other unit. The problem lies in identifying which residue has potential use and what is the fate of that residue when it is used in the other work. There are certain wastes which are not defined by RCRA as solid waste; such as coal combustion residues, drinking water sludge, sewage sludge; they are rarely described as hazardous waste for which we cannot simply dump to the land fill [3]. The risk associated with the waste to the environment and human is the important criteria for different management options such as reuse, dump in landfills etc. The two typical ways considered in the risk assessment of waste materials are 1) Direct exposure through the ingestion, dermal contact [4]. 2) Contamination through the contamination of ground water [4]. The common pathway way of evaluating risk of waste on environment and human is leaching to the ground water. This risk 83

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assessment helps us in managing option and it gives the information regarding need to clean up contaminated sites which represents the greatest threat and to what level sites must be remediated. One of such major industrial waste is coal combustion residues.

Figure 1: Global coal production [5]

In this paper my objective is to discuss the trend of coal combustion residues especially fly ash in world, common ways of risk to environment, present following tests to evaluate that risk and its disadvantage, need to have new framework to evaluate risk with stating its advantages and limitations. Coal combustion residues are the major industrial waste producing in the world which has many beneficial reuse options, but it contains constituents of chemical concern which is harmful to environment and human. As globally coal production is increasing every year, residues producing from the combustion are also increasing and need for proper management options also increasing. In the figure 2 Non Beneficial is considered as economical burden to the generator, viewed as limited value added. Simple Transform Manufactures are value added products that can be obtained by simple transform strategies like blending, processing. Elaborate Transform Manufactures are high value added products extracted by advanced processing strategies [6]

Figure 2: Coal combustion residue strategies

Comparing the generation and utilisation of coal combustion residues of main countries during the year of 2009, 2010, and 2011, the china had generated highest coal combustion residues around 375Mt in 84

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year 2009 and 480 Mt in 2011 with percentage of utilisation is 60 in 2009 and 68 in 2011. Israel is the only country with 100 percentage of utilisation in these years.

Figure 3: Countries with their production and utilisation of CCR in the years of 2009, 2010, 2011 [4]

The figure4 indicates the fly ash generation is increased from 57 Mt in 2014 to 65.77 Mt in 2008 and decreases to 45 Mt in the year 2014 and similar trend follows for bottom ash too. Regarding India, Indian coal consumption of 1300 million tonnes of coal equivalent (Mtce) in 2040 is 50% more than the combined demand of all OECD countries and second only to China in global terms. India coal contains 3055% of ash [8].

Figure 4: Fly ash and Bottom ash generated and utilisation from the year 2000 to year 2014 in United States of America [7]

As seen from above figure majority of the fly ash is reused in cement and followed by reclamation of low lying areas etc. The common risk associated when the disposed waste is when it comes to contact with moisture in the form of precipitation, surface water, and water present in the fill itself, this process is explained through leaching. When this moisture contacts with industrial waste, the soluble solid constituents will start dissolving into liquid by percolation or diffusion, but the extent of the dissolving depends on the many conditions [11]. 85

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Figure 5: Indian fly ash generation and utilisation [9]

Figure 6: Utilisation of fly ash in Indian in year of 2010 and 2011 [10]

This process is known as leaching and moisture that leaches or formed is known as leachate, forms when liquid percolates through permeable material and it contains suspended, dissolved material. So, the general way of evaluating risk is pathway of leaching to the ground water and for evaluating this risk we need to understand the process and factors that effects and controlling the leaching process [3]. Controlling parameters There are different factors controlling the leaching process, they are grouped them in form of physical factors and chemical factors. Some of the important factors controlling leaching are Table 1: Factors controlling leaching Chemical factors

Physical factors

pH

Particle Size

Liquid to solid ratio

Porosity

Redox

Rate of mass transport 86

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Chemical factors

Physical factors

Sorption

Temperature

Complexation

Fill geometry

1.2 Different leaching tests While calculating the risk through leaching, the test should be done such that all factors should be included. Leaching tests are majorly classified into two types [11] 1.2.1 Batch tests These tests are known as static tests, in these tests specific amount of waste is allowed to contact with specific amount of liquid which acts as leaching fluid for fixed time, and contaminant release mechanism is found using chemical analysis to the obtained leachate. The major assumption made in these batch tests is attaining of equilibrium at the end of fixed time, where it doesn‘t happens in actual field scenario [3] and for this reason these are known as short term tests, where long term release scenario cannot be predicted using these tests. These batch tests are used to simulate specific environmental scenarios and the will not information about release mechanism in various environmental scenarios. Some of the batch tests followed worldwide is [11]:     

Extraction Procedure Toxicity (EP-TOX, US EPA Method 1310) California Waste Extraction Test (WET, California, 1985) Multiple Extraction Procedure (MEP, US EPA Method 1320) Synthetic Precipitation Leaching Procedure (SPLP US EPA Method 1312) American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM D 3987-85) extraction

1.2.2 Flow through and flow around tests These tests are known as dynamic tests, in these tests leaching fluid is allowed to flow through the waste material or fluid is allowed to flow around tests depends on waste materials (monolith and granular samples) and resulting leachate is continuously or intermittently collected[11] . These tests are used to simulate long term releasing scenarios and gives information regarding kinetics of contamination mobilization. In flow through tests liquid is allowed to pass through the compacted granular waste sample in open container and resultant leachate is collected and examined for parameters of interest like L/S, time releasing mechanism etc. Some of the flows through tests are [11]:   

prEN 14405, Up flow percolation test ASTM D 4874, Standard Test Method for Leaching Solid Waste in a Column Apparatus NEN 7343, Column Test

The most common acceptable tools for Leachate assessment is Toxicity characteristic leaching procedure (TCLP) and Synthetic precipitation Leaching procedure (SPLP), these are generally basic characterisation tests. Generally TCLP was designed to simulate material sitting in a Landfill for number of years and determines the mobility of organic, inorganic contaminants present in the waste/Residue and TCLP is used to determine whether a solid waste is a toxicity characteristic hazardous waste (40CFR261), it is used to determine whether hazardous waste is sufficiently treated prior to land disposal (40CFR268) [13]. Whereas SPLP simulates the material sitting in-situ exposed to rainfall, actual field conditions and determines the movement of organic, inorganic contaminants. SPLP is commonly used by regulatory agencies to assess leaching risk from beneficially used waste materials. 87

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Major disadvantages of using these basic characterization tests are     

Site specific decision making cannot be done Both are single point tests, as pH maintained in these is specific. We can rarely observe this pH happening in natural conditions. In the span of 18 hours the equilibrium cannot be reached. Data generated is not enough to analyze the material specific property [13] These tests are some times over estimated or under estimated [13].

We need to have a much more comprehensive way to look all factors affects the leaching and standard protocols in form of framework that address the all concerns of the regulatory tests and helps to take site specific decision making easily. These leads to development of The Leaching Environmental Assessment Framework (LEAF) an USEPA research funded framework, which provides a large data and insight into leaching process. The LEAF consists of leaching tests, data management tools, mass transferring model and QA/QC for material production 2.0 LEAF leaching tests Table 2: Different LEAF tests **Test Name

Description

Method-1313

Liquid-Solid Partitioning as a Function of pH using a Parallel Batch Procedure

Method-1314

Liquid-Solid Partitioning as a Function of Liquid-Solid Ratio(L/S) using an Up-flow Percolation Column Procedure

Method-1315

Mass Transfer Rates in Monolithic and Compacted Granular Materials using a Semidynamic Tank Leaching Procedure

Method-1316

Liquid-Solid Partitioning as a Function of Liquid-Solid Ratio using a Parallel Batch Procedure

2.1 Method-1313 This is a parallel batch extraction procedure which determines the liquid-solid partitioning as a function of pH on which metal concentration depends. This test consists of preparing of extract solutions whose pH target ranges from 2-13, on addition of sulphuric acid/ potassium hydroxide, material to be tested. The l/s ratio is to be maintained at 10 mL extractant/g dry sample (g-dry) and they are rotated around 28+2 rpm for certain time which is depends on particle size, this method is not applicable for characterizing the release of volatile organic analytes (e.g., benzene, toluene and xylenes). Table 3: Rationale of different Ph used in LEAF 1313 [14] pH TARGET

RATIONALE

2+0.5

Provides estimates of total or available COPC content

4+0.5

Lower pH limit of typical management scenario

5.5+0.5

Typical lower range of industrial waste landfills

7+0.5

Neutral pH region; high release of oxyanions

8+0.5

Endpoint pH of carbonated alkaline materials

9+0.5

Minimum of LSP curve for many cationic and amphoteric COPCs

12+0.5

Maximum in alkaline range for LSP curves of amphoteric COPCs

13+0.5

Upper bound (field conditions) for amphoteric COPCs

10.5+0.5

Substitution if natural pH falls within range of a mandatory target 88

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2.2 Method 1314 This method is designed to Liquid-Solid Partitioning as a Function of Liquid-Solid Ratio (L/S) using an Up-flow Percolation Column Procedure This method is intended to obtaining a series eluates of granular method which is used to show cumulative release of concentrations of COPS as function of L/S ratios [15].

End cap

Granular packed material

Pump Figure 7: LEAF 1314 column apparatus

This method consists of packed granular material in a percolating column of 30 cm long and 5cm diameter and allowing reagent water** through the packed material and collecting the eluates of different L/S ratios of 0.2, 0.5, 1, 1.5, 2, 4.5, 5.0, 9.5 and 10 ml/g-dry material [15]. 2.3 Method 1315 Place a layer of sand to fill the remaining gap between the sample packing and the interface between the column and inflow end cap. When enough test material is available to pack a full column, the sand layer at the inflow end of the column should be approximately 1-cm. This gap may be larger if less test material is used. This is a semi dynamic tank test that is intended to know the mass transfer behaviour and rate as function of leaching time for COPS. This test deals with two types of materials namely monolithic (Brick), compacted granular material. The test consists of immersing the material in eluate (Reagent water) for specific period of time, for monolithic all faces are exposed, where as for compacted granular material only one face is exposed and compacted to optimum moisture content when immersed. When material is contact with reagent water for definite contact period the mass transfer takes till equilibrium is achieved, then sample is removed and periodic renewal of water should be taken, difference in weight is noted as mass transfer, which tells the amount of Eluant absorbed into the solid matrix at the end of each leaching interval. This leaching characterization method provides intrinsic material parameters for release of inorganic species under mass transfer controlled leaching conditions. This method is not applicable to characterize the release of organic analytes with the exception of general dissolved organic carbon [16]. For a compacted granular material the minimum size should be 5 cm in the direction of mass transfer should be done, L/A must be maintained at 9 ± 1 mL/cm2 .

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2.4 Method 1316 This method consists of five parallel extracts of L/S 10.0, 5.0, 2.0, 1.0, 0.5 mL/g-dry and a Blank without solid materials which is used to identify any interferences. In total, six bottles are tumbled in an end-over-end fashion for a specified contact time based on the maximum particle size of the solid .Extract pH and specific conductance measurements are then taken. The eluate constituent concentrations are plotted as a function of L/S and compared to QC and asses. This method provides solutions that are considered to be indicative of leachate under field conditions only where the field leaching pH and L/S ranges are encompassed by the laboratory extract final conditions and the LSP is controlled by aqueousphase saturation of the constituent of interest. This method is not used for characterizing release of volatile organic analytes [17]. Table 4: Advantages and disadvantages of LEAF Advantages

Disadvantages

Large data will be available which include all leaching controlling factors

No specific method (guidance) is there to handle such large data

Testing can be done according to site specific condition like limited Ph

There is worry about repeatability as limited number of Labs available and cost

Decision regarding Beneficial reuse, site remedial measures, effectiveness of treatment can be made easy

Wide range of pH range used in the tests does not represent site conditions

A site protocol can be developed by LEAF[13]

May contradict SPLP data[1]

2.5 Guidelines for interpreting and compiling leaf test results As mentioned above TCLP and SPLP are just screening tools to decide whether waste is hazardous or not. It is single point tests, we can know just we can dump waste or not. But LEAF is an integrated framework which considers all factors affecting leaching deep. As large amount of data is generated from the test, it may or may not reflect potential problem of using a CCR as beneficial use in actual site conditions [13]. Therefore before developing such large data certain guidelines are followed   

If a large amount of data required first find all site specific characteristics like pH, Hydraulic conductivity, Hydraulic gradient, and soil type. This can be used for calibration of LEAF results If a single concentration level of contaminant is required for Yes or No decision of leachability. It is best to go for risk-based approach where the site specific maximum contaminant level is developed according to accepted scientific protocol [13] First define the objective clearly, what tests are required to perform to reach specific goal. Based on that consult geo environmental, industrial experts who can interpret Data from LEAF

2.6 considerations for an integrated leachability test program The following are a few items that should be considered when attempting to develop an integrated leachability test program for CCRs:    

Continue to use the TCLP or SPLP tests as the screening methods, and use the appropriate LEAF method on tiered-basis as information is needed about the leaching characteristics [13] Work with engineers who can interpret TCLP, LEAF, SPLP results of various industries Develop a larger body of data, over a period of years using a combination of the TCLP and SPLP results, and applicable LEAF methods Try to know the limitation and value of TCLP, LEAF, SPLP for given material

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3.0 Conclusions Huge amount of industrial waste in the form of coal combustion residues are generated all over world which has some potential beneficial reuse. But when they are used for another process there is maximum chance of contaminating environment when it contact with water through process of Leaching. The most common tools for leaching assessment is SPLP and TCLP , but these tests are single point tests , that is it considers single pH conditions, site specific decision such as Beneficial reuse of secondary materials cannot be done using these tests. This leads to The Leaching Environment Assessment Framework (LEAF) for the evaluation of the physical and chemical properties of industrial wastes and secondary materials, which considers all factors that effect leaching in deep. The LEAF methods are expected to provide useful information, additional guidance and research is needed before they can be used to make and/or influence site specific decisions about leaching from a CCR beneficial reuse site. References 1. 2. 3.

4. 5.

6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

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17.

Townsend. T. G., L. M. J. Roessler., W. Cheng., V. Intrakamhaeng., M. Hofmeister., N. Blasi. ―Application of New Leaching Protocols for Assessing Beneficial Use of Solid Wastes in Florida‖; TAG Meeting.; October 14. Tiwari. M. K., S. Bajpai., U.K. Dewangan., and R.K.Tamrakar. Suitability of leaching test methods for fly Ash and slag A review. 2015. Journal of Radiation Research and Applied Sciences. 8: 523-537. T. Townsend , Yong-Chul Jang , T. Tolaymat .‖A final report on Leaching Tests for Evaluating Risk in Solid Waste Management Decision Making‖; Department of Environmental Engineering Sciences ,University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, March 31, 2003. Xing Zhang.‖ Management of coal combustion wastes‖; CCC/231 ISBN 978-92-9029-551-8; January 2014. Accessed on September 18th 2016 International Energy statistics Article ―Independent Statistics and analysis, U.S Energy information administration. https://www.eia.gov/cfapps/ipdbproject/iedindex3.cfm?tid=1&pid=7&aid=1&cid=regions,&syid=2008&eyid=20 12&unit=TST. Accessed on September 18th 2016 Heidrich. C., H-J Feurerborn, A. Weir. ―coal combustion production: a global perpective‖; 2013 world of coal ash conference (WOCA); April 22-25, 2013. Coal facts., American coal ash association ―; https://www.acaa-usa.org/. Accessed on September 20th 2016 International Energy statistics represented in the article ‗International Energy Outlook 2016. http://www.eia.gov/forecasts/ieo/coal.cfm Accessed on September 18th 2016 Md. E. Haque; ―Indian fly-ash: production and consumption scenario‖; Internat. J. Waste Resources, Vol. 3(1)2013:22-25. Md. A .Ahmad, Md ShahnawazȦ, Md. Faiz Siddiqui; ―A Statistical Review on the Current Scenario of Generation and Utilization of Fly-Ash in India‖ ;International Journal of Current Engineering and Technology. 4(4) A Report to the Legislature, ―An Assessment of Laboratory Leaching Tests for Predicting the Impacts of Fill Material on Ground Water and Surface Water Quality‖; December 2003 Publication No. 03-09-107. Accessed on September 20th 2016. D.S. Kosson, A.C. Garrabrants, H.van der Sloot,S. Thorneloe, R.Benware, G.Helms, and M. Baldwin. ―The Leaching Environmental Assessment Framework as a Tool for Risk‐informed, Science‐based Regulation‖; 19 June 2012. Accessed on September 21st 2016 J. Hattaway, Christopher D. Hardin and John L. Daniels. ―Recommended Guidelines for the Use and Application of the Leaching Environmental Assessment Framework (LEAF) for Coal Combustion Residuals‖; 2013 World of Coal Ash (WOCA) Conference. April 22-25. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Draft Method 1313-pH Batch Extraction Leaching Test. Vanderbilt University School of Engineering, Nashville, TN, the Energy Research Centre of the Netherlands, Petten; November 2012. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Draft Method 1314-Up-Flow Percolation Column Procedure. Vanderbilt University School of Engineering, Nashville, TN, the Energy Research Centre of the Netherlands, Petten; November 2012. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Draft Method 1315-Semi-dynamic Tank Leaching Test Vanderbilt University School of Engineering, Nashville, TN, the Energy Research Centre of the Netherlands, Petten; November 2012. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Draft Method 1316-Liquid-Solid Ratio Batch Extraction Leaching Test. Vanderbilt University School of Engineering, Nashville, TN, the Energy Research Centre of the Netherlands, Petten; November 2012.

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Contribution of Biodegradable Plastics to Global Methane Production Thilini Silva1, V.R Sankar Cheela2, Brajesh Dubey3,* 1

Department of Environmental Health, College of Public Health, East Tennessee State University, Johnson City, USA 2 Research Scholar, Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Kharagpur, Kharagpur, India 3 Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Kharagpur, Kharagpur, India *Corresponding Author: Email- [email protected] ABSTRACT Manufacture of biodegradable Plastics is a newly emerged sector, which originated to design degradable plastics by common biological organisms such as, bacteria, algae and fungi. Innovation of bioplastics specifically resulted to conquer the monopoly of petrochemical plastics in the market since; petrochemical plastics have become a burdensome issue due to economic stress, environmental impacts and resource shortage caused by utilization of nonrenewable petroleum oil. Since biodegradable plastics are designed to degrade in the biological environments, the most common and feasible method of end of life scenario is landfills. Objective of the present study is to estimate maximum additional methane generation via biodegradable plastics under landfill anaerobic conditions. Literature was reviewed on currently available types of biodegradable plastics, individual polymers comprised, production capacity (year 2007) and methane production data from individual polymers. Empirical data for methane generation were based on the published experimental literature on individual polymers under laboratory simulated landfill conditions using thermophilic anaerobic sludge digestion. Methane generation in organic molecules was theoretically calculated based on derived currently available chemical equations, assuming standard temperature and pressure conditions. Global methane contribution by biodegradable plastics was calculated only using theoretical values since no sufficient data were available at experimental conditions. Study demonstrates 0.011% of global contribution of methane by biodegradable plastics if entire production capacity in year 2007 is assumed to be landfilled and completely biodegraded. 1.52% of methane is contributed to global emissions, if 90% of petrochemical plastics are substituted by biodegradable plastics, which the percentage of petrochemical plastics could be technically substituted according to the reports of PROBIP (2009). In comparison of theoretical and experimental data, experimental data was in the range of 55.968.84% upon theoretical data. The estimated values demonstrate a low level of methane emission compared with other anthropogenic methane sources, presenting a negligible impact to global methane emission and/or global warming by biodegradable plastics. Keywords: Biodegradable Plastics, Landfills, Anaerobic Degradation, Global Warming, Methane; International Society of Waste Management, Air and Water

Introduction Plastics are synthetic, typically long chain polymeric molecules. Substitution of natural materials by plastics came about to the scenario back in 1907 after invention of synthetic polymer ―Bakelite‖ from phenol and formaldehyde (Thompson et al., 2009). Improvement of the synthesis methods and techniques 92

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have ameliorated the quality of plastics with more stable and durable properties (Shah et al., 2008 ). Today plastics have become an indispensable part of the humans‘ life particularly due to their extensive use in packaging, cosmetics, chemicals, and detergents. Plastics we use today are synthesized materials extracted from crude oil, coal and natural gas (Seymour, 1989) which is termed as Petroleum based plastics. Property of high persistency (very slow biodegradation rate) of plastics have created being resistant to environmental degradability which mounted societal awareness and concerns of proper disposal and management (Albertsson et al., 1987). Wide variety of plastics are manufactured including polypropylene, polystyrene, polyvinyl chloride, polyethylene, polyurethane and nylons with estimated global production of approximately 140million tons per year (Shimao 2001). Thus excessive uses of plastics have exerted a huge pressure globally in terms of saving of confined crude oil, waste disposal and management, and environmental recreation. To overcome the problems related to petroleum based plastics attention of scientists have devoted their attention that lead to promote research activities to give rise to alternative materials, intended to degrade through biological processes (Shah et al., 2008, Lenz and Marchessault, 2004, Amass et al., 2001). A new type of thermoplastic polyester was first produced by Imperial Chemical Industries Ltd- London in 1982, which was considered to be completely biodegradable (Anderson and Dawes, 1990). The invented product is known as biodegradable plastic since, it‘s degraded by environmentally available microorganisms. Term Bioplastic (BP) is perplexingly used today to interpret bio-based and biodegradable materials. However the study will mainly consider on the Biodegradable plastics (BDP), which is intended to use as a promising solution for the petroleum based plastics. According to ASTM definition of BP, BP is a degradable plastic in which the degradation results from the action of naturally-occurring microorganisms such as bacteria, fungi, and algae (Narayan, 1999). Many different types of BPs have been successfully produced and have invaded the market during past few years. BPs are synthesized using plant extracted polymers or use of growth of microorganisms. Tailoring the properties of plant extracted polymers via chemical modification of the main polymer by hydrolysable or oxidisable groups and using polymer blends (Amass et al., 1998) have amended BP to use in a broad range of applications contained with novel and beneficial characteristics. The primary goal expected over invention of BPs was the environmental concerns including waste management, reduction of greenhouse gas release, and saving of non-renewable energy (petroleum oil and gas). Apart from that secondarily, economic aspects and new technical opportunities came into scenario (PROBIP, 2009). Today BPs are popular compounds used in packaging materials, surfactants, as biomedical materials (eg: wound dressings, drug delivery, Surgical implants), and agricultural compounds (eg: control the fertilizer and pesticide release). BPs used as packaging materials has led to excellent management strategy mainly to prevent environmental accumulation (Amass et al., 1998). Only 0.3% (0.36 million metric tons) of the worldwide production of conventional plastics has replaced by biodegradable plastics by the year of 2007. In year 2007 world plastic generation was reported as 205 million tons (Gervet and Nordell., 2007). However 90% of the conventional plastics are estimated the percentage is capable of technically substituted by BPs. There is an upsurge in generation of bio based plastics globally that resulted in an estimated global growth of 38% from 2003 to 2007 (PROBIP, 2009). Initially when BPs were entering to the market (1990) no standard procedures were existed to investigate the biodegradability of the plastics. To prevent misconceptions with biodegradability of BPs, standards have been developed by standard organizations to identify the literal biodrgradability of BPs in commodity (Mohee et al., 2007). At the end of the service life BPs wind up in landfills, anaerobic treatment plants or composting facilities. Based on the degradable properties and the properties of the material end of life, the alternatives vary. Landfill disposed BPs will ultimately undergo anaerobic biodegradation where, the materials are disintegrated to methane, carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulphide, ammonia, hydrogen and water as a result of series of microbial metabolic interactions (ATSDR, 2010). Methane gas is a well-known and important by product which public attention has paid as a global warming gas and also as an economically viable biofuel. The study is a preliminary attempt to investigate the levels of additional methane gas released if end of life option is chosen to be a landfill using commonly available types of BPs globally, with different biodegradability levels.

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Background Types of BPs Literature reports numerous types of BPs in the market today, such as starch plastics, Poly glycolic acid (PGA), Poly lactic acid (PLS), poly lactic acid-co-glycolic acid, poly 3- hydroxybutanoate (P3HB), Poly 3- hydroxyl valerate (PHV), Polyethylene succinate (PES), Poly butylenes succinate, Poly propiolactone (PPL), starch blends, etc (Figure 1)(Shah et al., 2008, PROBIP, 2009), derived from renewable resources such as starch, plant based oils, or cellulose (Beta analytic, 2010). The study covers 5 major groups of BDPs currently available in the market with details on different manufacturers engaged in manufacturing process (Table 1). Except these main groups mentioned, chitin (polysaccharide), protein (collagen, casein), and amino acid based BDPs are manufactured in insignificant levels, which are not covered in this study. Main group of polymer contributes the global BP production is Cellulose plastics, which the production capacity is approximately 4000Mt per annum. To be considered as a bioplastic, it should be certified legally through standards, EN 13432 or EN 14995 in Europe, ASTM D-6400, ASTM D6868, ASTM D6954, ASTM D7081 in United States, DIN V4900 in Germany or ISO 17088 in other countries (Beta analytic, 2010, ASTM, 2010). As mentioned earlier all BPs are not biodegradable and the biodegradability is based essentially on the molecular structure of the compound. ASTM D-6400 requires 60-90% decomposition of BPs within 180 days in natural environment in order to be considered as a biodegradable plastic. ASTM has demonstrated both aerobic and anaerobic standard methods to identify (respectively in composting environments and anaerobic digestion processes) the extent of biodegradability of BDPs (Narayan, 1999). Decomposition Degradation and potential degradability of a particular BDP varies depending on the environment exists: anaerobic or aerobic (Ishigaki et al., 2004). Based on the degradation property of a particular BDP, end of life option should be chosen, whether it is to be disposed in a landfill or composting facility. Different types of soil microorganisms (bacteria and fungi) are responsible for the biodegradation of different types of BPs specifically (Shah et al., 2008). Rate and process of biodegradation of BPs rely on the Soil properties, nature of the pretreatment, characteristics of the polymer such as tactility, mobility, molecular weight, functional groups present, additives, availability and optimal growth of specific microorganisms (Artham and Doble, 2008, Glass and Swift, 1989, Gu et al., 2000). Initially biodegradation starts with disintegration of the polymer via physical and biological forces. Some fungal hyphae are able to penetrate the polymer structure and cause cracks and swelling of the material (Griffin, 1980). Heating, cooling, freezing thawing, wetting and drying like physical forces also contribute the mechanical degradation process (Kamal and Huang, 1992). Generally high molecular weighted polymers have a lesser potential to biodegrade than the low molecular weighted compounds. Broadly extracellular and intracellular microbial enzymes are responsible for biodegradation process, and then converted into oligomers, dimers and monomers which can be easily penetrable into bacterial cells. Thus utilizes for bacterial energy production releasing CO2, CH4, and H2O (Hamilton et al., 1995, Gu et al., 200). Present study will be given emphasis landfills, as the end of life time option. Less data is available on the biodegradation of BDP in landfill anaerobic conditions than aerobic composting. Thence more investigations have to be implemented and few have been reported (Yagi et al., 2009). In a landfill high percentage is readily degraded by anaerobic communities in anoxic conditions. As a result of series of physical, chemical,l and biological reactions that take place in a landfill, landfill gas is produced, with varying compositions based on the type of waste contained (Barlaz et al., 1990). Anaerobic degradation of carbon, Hydrogen and Oxygen containing substance is given by the Buswell equation as follows (Yagi et al., 2009). CnHaOb + (n- a/4 – b/2) H2O  (n/2 + a/8 – b/4) CH4 + (n/2 - a/8 + b/4)CO2 (A) Anaerobic decomposition of Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen and Nitrogen containing substance is given as follows (Behera et al., 2010). CaHbOcNd + ((4a-b-2c+3d)/4) H2O NH3…………………



((4a+b-2c-3d)/8) CH4 + ((4a-b+2c+3d)/8) CO2 + d (B) 94

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CO2 and CH4 are the main gaseous substances released during anaerobic degradation of any compound. Methane produced in landfills is recovered as an energy source where provides an economic advantage. However if not recovered, methane would readily enter to the atmosphere, which is listed as one of the major contributor to global warming. Methane is an effective heat trapping agent in the atmosphere and over 20 times more potent than CO2 (USEPA, 2010 a). Studies have reported on methane yields obtained via anaerobic biodegradation for few polymers (Cellulose ester, Polycaprolactone and Poly lactic acid) and most are yet to be studied. Methane as a potent global warming gas Global warming is understood as the main causation of global climate change. Global warming is caused due to increase of green house gases in the atmosphere such as Carbon dioxide, methane, Nitrous oxide, and water vapor (US composting council, 2009). Methane is considered as a green house gas with high heat trapping capacity which lasts approximately 9- 15 years in the atmosphere. Global warming potential (GWP) of green house gases are represented in relation to a reference gas, CO 2, where GWP is considered as 1. Global warming potential of methane gas is 21 which infers, 21 times more effective heat trapping agent than CO2. Methane is emitted to the atmosphere mainly from anthropogenic and natural sources. 50% of methane in the atmosphere is attributed to anthropogenic sources such as fossil fuel combustion, biomass burning, rice cultivation, animal husbandry, and waste management. Contribution of anthropogenic methane to global green house gas emission was 282.6 million tons in the year 2000 (22.9%) as declared by USEPA (2006). Natural sources of methane emissions include emissions from wetlands, permafrost, termites, oceans wild fires and fresh water bodies. Levels of methane emitted from each region or country depends on factors, such as climatic conditions, industrial and agricultural lands, energy type used and waste management procedures. Largest methane emission human related sources in USA are landfills, animal husbandry, and manure management where the second highest of the list goes to landfills. In the aspect of global methane production, landfills attributed the third highest source of emission and globally methane contribution by landfills was over 12% for year 2000 (USEPA, 2010 b). Organic compounds in a landfill, upon decomposition release methane as mentioned above and recent estimation suggests that 72% of MSW stream contained with organic substances: paper, food scraps, yard debris, textiles/ leather, and wood. Percentages of each MSW component landfilled was respectively, 34%, 12%, 13%, 7%, and 6% (US composting council., 2009). Thus methane generation from each MSW component may be assumed being in the same order as above from each MSW component, since methane production is proportional to the carbon amount in an organic substance. Thus paper is the main methane gas contributor to the atmosphere from a landfill while others play a minor role. BDPs is novel emerging organic compound set in the landfills and also a new global source of methane emitting from a landfill. Gas Generation model Landfill gas estimation is useful for landfill operators, regulators, energy users and energy recovery project owners to investigate how gas is produced and recovered in a particular time period. USEPA has generated a Landfill methane gas estimation model to simulate the gas production in landfills using first order decay curve, which is written as, M(t) = M0 e –kt. Where M(t) is the mass of a batch waste remaining at any time, M0 is the initial mass of waste, k is the decay rate (time -1) and t is the time since decay was begun. Gas production is directly correlated to mass lost, which is termed as L 0 (m3 of methane per metric ton of waste). Total Volume of gas (G0) that can be produced by the degradation of mass of weight (M0) is, calculated using the equation, G0 = L0 M0. BDP is a newly emerging landfill component which contributes the global methane generation. The study will provide an estimation of additional methane produced upon this new arrival. Methods Study was based on estimation of additional methane gas amount produced from landfills with subsequent emergence of BDPs to the market. Literature was reviewed related to brand names, quantity, polymer types incorporated and biodegradability (especially in terms of methane production) of BDPs commonly found in the global market (Table1 and Table 2). Manufacturer and quantity data obtained were associated with the year 2007. This study has considered only biobased and non biobased BDPs and non 95

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degradable bio based or non biobased plastics have not been used for analysis as they are incapable of degrade in a landfill and release methane. Study was carried out in 4 steps. Step 1: Methane production per day was calculated using published experimental data on methane gas production in simulated landfill conditions assuming total manufactured BDPs were being landfilled (Table 2). Biodegradability of a particular BDP is likely to vary based on the percentages of individual polymers contained in the blend. Although production capacity was available in respect to a particular brand name, no production data was available for individual polymers separately. Since a particular producer manufactures different types of BDP materials related to textile, agriculture, biomedical items and packaging, percentages of individual polymers used for blends vary largely from each other even within the same brand name. Therefore it‘s difficult to pinpoint a distinct percentage for each polymer in a particular BDP being manufactured. Further data on percentages of each polymer are neither readily available from the manufacturers‘ website nor descriptive studies have done regarding percentages. Therefore brand names with multiple polymer types were assumed to be equally distributed, thus manufactured capacity from each polymer was obtained by averaging the manufactured capacity of the particular brand name. Most published literature was based on the biodegradability of individual polymer types rather than the biodegradability of a particular brand name except for Mater Bi starch BDP (Mohee et al., 2007). Step 2: Methane production per day was calculated using theoretical stoichiometric methane production data assuming total biodegradation of the compound and total manufactured BDPs (2007) were being landfilled. Brands with multiple numbers of polymers, percentages of individual polymers are assumed equally distributed as mentioned in step1 (Table 3). Methane gas amount released is theoretically calculated using the chemical equations (A) and (B). Maximum biogas (CO2, CH4 and NH3) amount produced by degradation of 1 kilo ton of Poly lactic acid ((C2H4O2)n) was calculated to be 7.5 x 10 5 m3 ((106/60) x 22.4x 2) at standard temperature and pressure. CH4: CO2 ratio for poly lactic acid is 1:1. Theoretical maximum volume of CH4 produced calculated according to the combined gas law was reported to be 3.73 x 10 5m3, assuming total biodegradation of the compound. Table 3 displays the maximum theoretical methane volume produced at standard temperature and pressure for C, H, O and N related polymers intended to discuss in this study. Step 3: Maximum methane production was calculated considering the amount of BDPs being landfilled per year when 90% (the possible amount that can be technically substituted by BPs from petrochemical plastics in use today) of petrochemical plastics were substituted over BPs. All BDPs produced are assumed to be readily (during a period of year) biodegradable in this scenario. Step 4: Contribution of landfilled BDPs to global methane emission was calculated using the total methane emission data obtained from step 3 and step 4. Results and Discussion Data on methane generation (Table 2, step 1) was obtained from published experiments on anaerobic decomposition of individual polymer compounds, simulating landfill, thermophilic conditions by using anaerobic sludge as the medium in controlled laboratory conditions. However, since different authors have used different conditions with different types of sludges and diversed microbial communities, (affects diversity of microbial communities) (Abou-Zeid et al., 2004) would affect the reliability of the study in utilizing the values for comparison, due to introduction of many biases. It was not possible to estimate global methane production based on published experimental data since sufficient data were not available to cover a reasonable number of polymers attended this study. However, estimation for global methane production from BDPs was able to obtained by using theoretical calculation to approach the objectives as showed in step 2, Table 3 (see appendix for calculations). If assumed the entire manufactured BDPs in year 2007 were landfilled and total landfilled is completely biodegraded, the methane amount produced was calculated to be 8.31 x 10 8m3. Global contribution resulted was 0.011 % in this scenario (see appendix). MSW stream is declared to be composed of 205 million tons of petrochemical plastics in year 2003 (Garnet and Nordell, 2007). The amount of BDPs that could possibly substitute to petrochemical plastics was calculated to be 184.5 million tons. Assuming equal proportions of different BDPs tabulated in Table 96

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2 are being landfilled, the amount of methane released is calculated to be 1.06 x 1011m3 / year. 90% substitution scenario is an estimation undertaken to understand whether methane released causes significant contribution to global anthropogenic methane gas emission, in its maximum level of BDP manufacture. The scenario is responsible for 1.38% of global methane contribution. This was 116% of total landfill methane generation based on the year 2006 total methane emission (USEPA, 2006), which is higher than the total current landfill methane generation. The values were obtained on the basis of 2007 BDP manufacture data however expected total plastic production will also be raised apparently at the time of 90% substitution petrochemical plastics upon BDPs. Total BP production capacity amounted to be in year 2020 is 1.5-4.4 million tons (PROBIP 2009). In comparison of the methane yields (m3/kt) from theoretical stoichiometric calculations and laboratory measurements (Table 4), highly vary. It is obvious that, experimental methane production in laboratory conditions is lower than the theoretical data. Percentage of experimental methane emission was in the range of 55.9-68.84% of the theoretical values, when compared the methane emission levels of available experimental data (PCL and PCL). Methane amounts will be further diminished if methane emission is calculated considering the experimental data. Efficiency of biodegradation process occur in a landfill governs the rate and amount of methane generated into the atmosphere. Numerous factors such as size of waste particle, composition of waste, pH, temperature, design of the landfill, nutrients and as the most important factor moisture control the methane emission in a landfil (Micales and Skog, 1996, Augenstein and Pacey, 1991). Rathje and Murphy (1992) have demonstrated mummification of refuse under levels where, a landfill does not receive optimum level of moisture impeding degradation or methane release (Barlaz et al., 1987). Bogner and Spokas (1993) have shown that carbon conversion value of 2540% for even readily degradable materials in a landfill and Aragno (1988) reported 35-40% organic matter degradation to Carbon dioxide and methane under ideal laboratory conditions. However in the present study Methane generation resulted was higher than the published literature, demonstrating higher methane emissions from BDPs than other sources such as wood, paper, etc. Therefore under actual landfill conditions released methane amounts is lesser than the controlled laboratory obtained values as confirms by published data and data from the present study . Further degradation process in a landfill takes place over decades of periods and even after 20-30 years of period large quantities of non-degraded portions have been observed even for readily degradable materials (Micales and Skog, 1996). Therefore methane yields per year should be more lessen than the quoted values in the study. Efficient and effective use of landfill methane as a beneficial fuel or enrgt source would further alleviate the methane release into the atmosphere in landfills (Gregg, 2010). Summary and Conclusions The study estimates maximum additional global theoretical methane resulted from decomposition of BDPs which is a novel methane source emerged from landfills. Results suggest that the global contribution of BDPs to methane generation is comparatively less compared with other anthropogenic sources. However in comparison of the methane emission from BDPs, with other landfill components, BDPs are likely to contribute a considerable amount of methane, which demonstrated the highest amount of methane emission other landfill components. Experimental data evidences an overestimation of the theoretical estimates. Study has come across with many assumptions in each depiction scenario, which weakens the estimation. However study provides an estimation of the additional methane gas released globally due to BDP landfilling, where no studies or estimations have done so far in a maximum possible logical and scientific way utilizing available data. Further studies on individual polymer degradation are essential in order to strengthen and verify the results obtained for sound literal estimations.

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References Albertsson, A. C., Andersson, S. O., Karlsson, S. 1987. The mechanism of biodegradation of polyethylene. Polym Degrad Stab 18,73–87. Amass, W., Amass, A., Tighe, B. 1998. A review of biodegradable polymers: Used, Current Developments in the synthesis and characterization of biodegradable polyesters, blends of biodegradable polymers and Recent advances in biodegradation studies. Polymer international. 47, 89-144. Anderson. A. J., Dawes, E. A. 1990. Occurrence, metabolism, metabolic role and industrial uses of bacterial polyhydroxyalkaonates. Microbiol Rev. 54:4, 450-472. Aragno, M. 1988. The landfill ecosystem: a microbiologists look inside a ―black box‖. In the Landfill. Lecture notes in Earth Sciences #20, ed. P. Baccini. Springer Verlag. New York. 15-38. In: Micales, J. A., Skog, K. E. 1996. The decomposition of Foresy products in landfills. International Biodeterioration & Biodegradation 39. 2-3. 145158 Artham, T., Doble, M. Biodegradation of Aliphatic and Aromatic Polycarbonates. Macromol Biosci 2008;8(1):14–24. ASTM Standards and Engineering Digital library. 2010. ASTM international. http://www.astm.org/DIGITAL_LIBRARY/TOPICS/PAGES/section08_stds.htm Accessed October 2010. ATSDR (Agency for Toxic substances & Disease Registry). 2010. http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/hac/landfill/html/ch2.html. Accessed July 2010. Augestein, D., Pacey, J. 1991. Landfill methane models, Proceedings from the Technical sessions of SWANA‘s 29th Annual International Solid waste exposition, SWANA, Silver Spring, MD. 87-111. In: Micales, J. A., Skog, K. E. 1996. The decomposition of Foresy products in landfills. International Biodeterioration & Biodegradation 39. 2-3. 145-158. Barlaz, M. A., Ham, R. K., Schaefer, D. M. 1990. Methane production from Municipal refuse: A review of enhancement techniques and microbial dynamics. Environmental Science and Technology. 19, 6. 557-584. Barlaz, M. A., Milke, M. W., Ham, R. K. 1987. Gas production parameters in sanitary landfill simulators. Waste manag. And Res. 5, 27-39. Behera, S. K., park., J., Kim, K., Park, H. 2010 Methane production from waste leachate in laboratory-scale simulated landfill. Waste management. 30. 1502-1508. Bertoldi. M., Sequi, P., Lemmes, B. 1996. The Science of composting. 1st edition, Glasgow. Chapman & Hall. Beta analytic Corporation. 2010. http://www.betalabservices.com/biobased.html. Accessed october 2010. Bogner, J., Spokas, K. 1993. Landfill CH4:rates, fates and role in global carbon cycle. Atmosphere. 25. 369-386. Gervet, B., Nordell, B. 2007. The use of crude oil in plastic making contributes to global warming. Renewable energy research group, Division of Architecture and Infrastructure, Lulea University of Technology, Sweden. Glass, J. E., Swift, G. 1989. Agricultural and Synthetic Polymers, Biodegradation and Utilization, ACS Symposium Series, 433. Washington DC: American Chemical Society. 9–64. Gregg, J. S. 2010. national and regional generation of municipal residue biomass and the future potential foe wasteto-energy implementation. Biomass and Bioenergy. 34. 379-388. Griffin, G. J. L. 1980. Synthetic polymers and the living environment. Pure Appl Chem. 52. 399–407. In: Shah, A. A., Hasan, F., Hameed, A., Ahmed, S. 2007. Biological degradation of plastics: A comprehensive review. Biotechnology Advances. 26, 246-265. Gu, J. D., Ford, T. E., Mitton, D. B., Mitchell, R. Microbial degradation and deterioration of polymeric materials. 2000. In: Revie W, editor. The Uhlig Corrosion Handbook. 2nd Edition. New York: Wiley.. 439–60. In: Shah, A. A., Hasan, F., Hameed, A., Ahmed, S. 2007. Biological degradation of plastics: A comprehensive review. Biotechnology Advances. 26, 246-265. Hamilton, J. D, Reinert, K. H, Hogan, J. V, 1995. Lord WV. Polymers as solid waste in municipal landfills. J Air Waste Manage Assoc. 43. 247–51. Ishigaki, T., Sugano, W., Nakanishi, A., Tateda, M., Ike, M., Fujita, M. 2003. The degradability of biodegradable plastics in aerobic and anaerobic waste landfill model reactors. Chemosphere. 54. 225-233. Kamal, M. R., Huang, B. Natural and artificial weathering of polymers. In: HamidSH, Ami MB, Maadhan AG, editors. Handbook of Polymer Degradation. New York, NY: Marcel Dekker; 1992. p. 127–68. Lenz, R. W., Marchessault, R. H. 2004. Bacterial Polyesters: Biosynthesis, biodegradable plastics and biotechnology. American Chemical society. 6:1. Micales, J. A., Skog, K. E. 1996. The decomposition of Foresy products in landfills. International Biodeterioration & Biodegradation 39. 2-3. 145-158. Mohee, R., Unmar, G. D., Mudhoo, A., Khadoo, P. 2007. Biodegradability of biodegradable/degradable plastic materials under aerobic and anerobic conditions. Waste Management. 28, 1624-1629. Narayan, R. 1999. ASTM standards help define and grow a new biodegradable plastics industry. ASTM standardization News. 36-42. PROBIP (Product overview and market projection of emerging bio-based plastics). 2009. Europen polysaccharide Network of excellence and European Bioplastics. Rathje, W., Murphy, C. 1992. Rubbish:The archeology of garbage, new York: Harper Collins.250. 98

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Seymour, R. B. Polymer science before&after 1899: notable developments during the lifetime of Maurtis Dekker. J Macromol Sci Chem 1989;26:1023–32. Shah, A. A., Hasan, F., Hameed, A., Ahmed, S. 2007. Biological degradation of plastics: A comprehensive review. Biotechnology Advances. 26, 246-265. Shimao, M. 2001. Biodegradation of plastics. Curr Opinion Biotechnol 12,242–247. Thomas, N., Clarke, J., McLauchlin, A., Patrick, S. 2010. Assessing the environmental Impacts of oxo-degradable plastics across their life cycle. Loughborough University. Thompson, R.C., Swan, A. H., Moore, C. J., Saal, F. S. 2009. Our Plastic Age. Phil. Trans. Soc. 364, 1973-1976. United States Composting Council. 2009. USCC Position statement: Keeping organics out of landfills. USEPA (United States Environmental protection Agency). 2008. Municipal Solid waster generation, Recycling and Disposal in the United States: Facts and Figures. USEPA (United States Environmental protection Agency). 2006. Global Mitigation of Non-CO2 Green house gases. Office of Atmospheric programs, Washington, DC. EPA 430-R-06-005. USEPA (United States Environmental protection Agency). 2010a. http://www.epa.gov/climatechange/glossaary.html#GWP. Accessed October 2010. USEPA (United States Environmental protection Agency). 2010b. http://www.epa.gov/methane/. Accessed October 2010. Yagi, H., Ninomiya, F., Funabashi, M., Kunioka, M. 2009. Anaerobic biodegradation tests of polylactic acid and polycaprolactones using new evaluation system for methane fermentation in anaerobic sludge. Polymer Degradation and Stability. 94. 1397- 1404.

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Table 1: Manufacturers and amounts of BDP manufactured in year 2007

Producer A

1

Country of production

Trade Name

Polymer type

Polymer Name

Cellulose Plastics (with regerated cellulose and cellulose esters)

Lenzing viscose Lenzing modal Tencel

Worldwide production (kt.p.a.) in 2007

Biodegra dability

2046

Viscose modal and encel fibers

Cellulose ester (CA) Cellulose acetate propionate(CAP) Cellulose acetate butyrate(CAB

590

Fully biodegrad able

500

Fully biodegrad able

Lenzing

GLO

2

Birla

India, Thailand, Indonesia

Birla Cellulose

Viscose modal and encel fibers

Cellulose acetate Cellulose acetate propionate Cellulose acetate butyrate

3

Formosa Chemicals & Fibre

Taiwan

NA

Viscose Staple fibres

Cellulose xanthate

140

Fully biodegrad able

72

Fully biodegrad able

4

Kelheim

Germany

Danufil, Galaxy, Viloft

Viscose Staple fibres

Cellulose ester Cellulose acetate propionate Cellulose acetate butyrate

5

Celanese

US

NA

CA flakes, tows and filament

Cellulose ester (Cellulose acetate)

250

NA

200

NA

6

Eastman

US

NA

CA tows and filament, CAB, CAP

Cellulose ester Cellulose acetate propionate Cellulose acetate butyrate

7

Rhodia Acetow

Germany

NA

CA tows

Cellulose ester (Cellulose acetate)

130

NA

8

Daicel

Japan

NA

CA tows

Cellulose ester (Cellulose acetate)

90

NA

Other

74

B

Polylactic Acid (PLA) polymers

151

9

PURAC

Taiwan

PURAC

Polylactic acid (PLA)

75

Fully biodegrad able

1 0

Nature Works

US

Ingeo

Polylactic Acid

70

Fully biodegrad able

C

Other

6

Starch blends

153 40

Fully biodegrad able

Fermented starch

40

Fully biodegrad able

starch blends

20

Fully biodegrad able

1 1

Novamont

Italy

Mater Bi

Starch blends

1 2

Rodenburg

Newzealand

Solanyl

1 3

Biotec

Denmark

Bioplast

Starch/ Polycaprolactone (PCL)*

100

Thilini Silva et al. / Waste Management & Resource Utilisation 2016 Country of production

Producer

D 1 4

Tianan

Polymer type

Worldwide production (kt.p.a.) in 2007

Polymer Name

Other

53

Polyhydroxy alkanoates

2

Canada

E 1 5

Trade Name

PHBV, PHBV and Ecoflex (petrochemical polymer)

Enmat

poly(3hydroxybutyrateco-3hydroxyvalerate) (PHBV)

US

F

Renuva

Fully biodegrad able

2

Polyurethane from Biobased polyol Dow

12.3

Polyurethane

8.8

Fully biodegradable

Other

3.5

Other biodegradable polymers

140

1 6

DuPont

Japan

Biomax

PBST/PET copolymer

Poly(butylene succinate terephthalate) Poly(ethylene terephthalate) (PET)

1 7

Novamont

Japan

EatBio

Polytetramethylene adipate- coterephthalate (PTMAT)

15

Fully biodegradable

Ecoflex

Poly butylene adipate-cobutylene terephthalate (PBAT)

14

Fully biodegradable

1 8

BASF

Denmark

Biodegra dability

Other

90

NA

21

Data Source: (PROBIP, 2009), NA-Data Not Available, * Data source: Bertoldi et al., 1996. Table 2: Literature published on methane production, biodegradability of polymers incorporated to BDPs and calculated methane production levels.

Polymer

Initial mass (g)

Methane volume (L)

Days of incuba tion

Methane production (%)

Biodegrada Bility (%)

Methane volume (m3/ kt)/ L0 *

Global polymer production (kt/annum) M0

Volume of methane gas (G0) (m3/day)**

Polylactic acid

10

2.57

22

53.8

91

257,000

151

3.9 x 107

Mater Bi (Starch Blend)

1.96

0.245

32

99.11

26.9

24,500

40

9.8 x 106

Polycaprol actone

10

6.59

22

65.8

92

659,000

20

1.3 x 10 7

Referen ces Yagi et al., 2009 Mohee et al., 2007 Yagi et al., 2009

* Calculated methane volume (m3/kton) based on published data. ** Calculated methane amounts according to the USEPA gas estimation model

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Table 3: Maximum theoretical methane amounts released during anaerobic biodegrdation of major polymer types in standard temperature and pressure conditions

Polymer

Production capacity (kt/annum)

Theoretical methane production (m3/kt)

Theoretical methane production (m3/yr)

Cellulose acetate

668.76

6.2 x 10 5

4.1 x 10 8

Cellulose acetate butyrate

448.76

4.0 x 10 5

1.8 x 10 8

Starch

20

4.1 x 10 5

8.3 x 10 7

Polycaprolactone

20

7.36 x 10 5

1.5 x 10 7

Poly lactic acid

Poly lactic acid

151

3.73 x 10 5

5.6 x 10 7

Polyhydroxy alkaonates

poly(3-hydroxybutyrate-co3-hydroxyvalerate)

20

1.1 x 10 6

2.2 x 10 7

Polyurethane based polyol

Polyurethane

8.8

5.5 x 10 5

1.3 x 10 4

Polyethylene terephthalate

45

6.5 x 10 5

2.9 x 10 7

Polytetramethylene adipate co- terephthalate

15

1.47 x10 6

2.2 x 10 7

Polybutylene adipate -cobutylene terephthalate

14

7.0 x 10 5

9.8 x10 6

1411.32

7.0 x 10 7

8.31 x 10 8

Major polymer type Cellulose based Starch blends (Mater Bi)

Other

Total theoretical Methane production due to C, H, O polymers in year 2007 if assumed all manufactured polymers being landfilled

Theoretical total methane generation per year is estimated to be 8.4 x10 8m3 based on year 2007 manufactured BDP capacity. Table 4: Comparison of theoretical and experimental methane emission levels Polymer

Experimental Methane volume (m3/ kt)

Theoretical methane amount (m3/ kt)

% experimental emission in relation to theoretical emission

Polylactic acid

257,000

373,333.33

68.84

Polycaprol actone

659,000

1,178,947.37

55.9

Figure 1: Molecular structures of polymers involved in the production of common BDPs 102

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Appendix Calculations Step 1 Volume of methane gas (G0) (m3/day) calculated according to the following EPA gas model equation. G0 = L0 M0 G0 - Total Volume of gas produced by the degradation of compound/ waste M0 – Mass of the waste L0 - m3 of methane per metric ton of waste Step 2 Theoretical Calculation of methane amount produced by cellulose acetate ((C10H18O5)n) is shown below as an example assuming a weight of 1 kilo ton (= 10 9 g) Following equation gives the total biogas (CH4 + CO2) amount released by the polymer (Yagi et al., 2009)., Mass of the polymer x Volume 1 mole of gas at std x # of carbon moles in the Molecular weight temperature & pressure molecular structure 10 9 g/218 g/mol x 22.4 x 10 -3 m3 x 10 = 1.03 x 106 m3 Buswell equation, CnHaOb + (n- a/4 – b/2) H2O (n/2 + a/8 – b/4) CH4 + (n/2 - a/8 + b/4)CO2 In cellulose acetate methane moles CO2 moles Total biogas emitted

= 48/8 n = 27/8 n = 75/8n

Under standard temperature and pressure, V α n 6 For total biogas amount, 1.03 x 10 α 75/8n For methane gas, v α 48/8 n (v- methane gas released) Therefore v = 6.2 x 105 m3 # of moles from each element

Fraction of moles

Poly mer C

H

O

N

C H4

C O

To tal

Mole cular weight (g/mol)

Total bio gas volume (m3/kt)

Methane amount (m3/kt)

Total produ ction (kt/yr)

Total CH4 gas produced (m3/yr)

2

CA

10

18

5

-

6

4

10

218

1.0x107

6.2x10 5

668.76

4.1x108

CAP

12

18

10

-

5.7 5

6. 25

12

322

8.3x106

4.0x10 5

448.76

1.8x108

Starc h

6

10

5

-

3

3

6

162

8.3x106

4.1x10 5

20

8.3x107

PCL

6

10

2

-

3.7 5

2. 25

6

114

1.2x107

7.4x10 5

20

1.5 x107

PLA

2

4

2

-

1

1

2

60

4.5x106

3.7x10 5

151

5.6x107

PHB V*

4

6

2

-

2.2 5

1. 75

4

86

1.0x107

1.1x10 6

20

2.2x107

4

4

2

2

2

4

84

1.1x107

PET

10

14

4

-

5.7 5

4. 25

10

198

1.1x107

6.5x10 5

45

2.9x107

PTM AT*

10

16

4

-

6

4

10

200

1.1x107

1.5x10 6

15

2.2x107

12

18

3

7.5

4. 5

12

210

1.3x107

103

Thilini Silva et al. / Waste Management & Resource Utilisation 2016 # of moles from each element

Fraction of moles

Poly mer C

H

O

N

C H4

C O

To tal

Mole cular weight (g/mol)

Total bio gas volume (m3/kt)

Methane amount (m3/kt)

Total produ ction (kt/yr)

Total CH4 gas produced (m3/yr)

426

1.2x107

7.0x105

14

9.8x106

262

1.0x107

5.5 x105

8.8

4.8x106

Sum

1411.3 2

8.31x108

2

PBA T

22

34

8

-

13. 25

8. 75

22

PUR

12

26

4

2

7.5

4. 5

14

* 2 separate monomers are involved for the polymerization process. Methane amounts have calculated separately for individual monomers and summed to obtain the total amount. Theoretical methane production per year was calculated following the procedure as in step 1 for all polymers. Step 3 Assumes 90% substitution of BDPs over petrochemical plastics. Theoretical value of methane obtained per year was projected to calculate the amount at the substitution scenario. Methane amount released when landfilled 1442.52 kilo tons = 8.31 x 10 8m3/yr (step 2) Amount of petrochemical plastics produced in 2003 = 205 million tons Amount of BDPs should produce at 90% substitution scenario =(90/100) x 205 = 184.5 million tons Methane gas released during 90% substitution

= 8.31 x 10 8m3 x 184.5 x106 ton 1442.52x 103 ton = 1.06 x 1011 m3 / year

Step 4 Global methane emission by anthropogenic sources = 282.6 million tons Projection of the mass of gas to volume at standard temperature and pressure, PV = nRT V= (m/M) RT/ P V- Volume of gas at standard temperature and pressure m - Mass of gas M – Molecular weight of the gas R – gas constant (L atm/ mol K ) T - absolute temperature (298K) P- Pressure (1atm) n- # of moles Therefore, volume of total methane emission = 6.9 x1012 m3 Total methane emitted with addition of BDPs to landfills =6.9 x1012 + 1.06 x 1011 =7.0 x 1012 m3/yr Global methane contribution in year 2007 if assumed all BDPs being landfilled = (7.59 x 10 8/7.0 x1012)x 100%. = 0.011 % Global methane contribution at 90% petrochemical plastic substitutions scenario = (9.7 x 1010/7.0 x1012)x 100%. = 1.38.

104

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Arsenic Contamination of Ground Water in West Bengal : A Report Reetushri Sen, Sutripta Sarkar* Department of Food and Nutrition, Barrackpore Rastraguru Surendranath College Barrackpore, India *Corresponding Author: Email- [email protected] ABSTRACT Water pollution is a major problem faced by modern societies. Industrial and domestic wastes are dumped into water bodies making them unsuitable for human utilization. Most of the city dwellers in India draw underground water for domestic consumption. However, high quantity of heavy metals like arsenic is a major contaminant of underground aquifers especially in the eastern state of West Bengal (renamed Bengal). It has been reported that around 50 million people living along the Ganga- Bramhaputra basin are affected by the high levels of arsenic in drinking water. Besides causing hyperpigmentation and ‗black foot disease‘ it affects several human systems leading to cancer. A total of 59 samples were collected from tube wells in domestic dwellings covering 6 districts in West Bengal and pH, iron, phosphate and arsenic content were measured using field testing kits (Nice chemicals Pvt. Ltd., India). Presence of microbial contaminants was detected by plating water samples in EMB agar medium. Relative abundance was calculated for arsenic, iron, phosphate and microbial contaminants. While arsenic was found to be most abundant in Burdwan district, iron was highest in Nadia district. However, in both the cases sample size was small. Highest arsenic content of 1mg/ml was reported from Dumdum area in North 24 Paraganas and Chetla area in Kolkata. High content of iron and phosphate along with arsenic was found in Haripal (Hooghly district). Coliforms were also detected in a few samples. Despite a lot of awareness being raised about safe drinking water, many people are oblivious of the fact that it is critical to a healthy living. In the current study most of the samples were collected from domestic or community tube wells. Water was still being drawn from sources which were found to be contaminated by high level of arsenic. There is an urgent need of implementation of technologies which effectively remove arsenic and other heavy metals. Keywords: Water pollution, heavy metal contamination, arsenic content; International Society of Waste Management, Air and Water

Introduction Water is considered polluted if some substances or conditions are present in such a degree that it renders the water unsuitable for use [1]. Human activities have lead to pollution of water sources including ground water. Human groundwater contamination can be related to waste disposal (private sewage disposal systems, land disposal of solid waste, municipal wastewater, wastewater impoundments, land spreading of sludge, brine disposal from the petroleum industry, mine wastes, deep-well disposal of liquid wastes, animal feedlot wastes, radioactive wastes). Large quantities of organic compounds are manufactured and used by industries, agriculture and municipalities which pollute the underground aquifers. Arsenic contamination of ground water is estimated to be affecting 144 million people across the world [2]. 105

Reetushri Sen et al. / Waste Management & Resource Utilisation 2016

Exposure to arsenic causes dermal changes like pigmentation, hyperkeratoses, ulceration, skin cancer etc. Acute and chronic exposure also effect liver, kidney, heart and lungs. It also has significant effect on gastrointestinal, haematological, neurological, developmental, reproductive and immunologic health due to mutagenic, genotoxic and carcinogenic properties [3]. A dose-response relation between cumulative arsenic exposure and prevalence of diabetes mellitus was observed [4]. According to the World Health Organisation permissible limit of arsenic in drinking water should not exceed 10 ppb [5] however it has been reported that the risk of arsenic toxicity remains even at that low level [6]. The present study was undertaken to assess the current status of water pollution in ground water in West Bengal. Samples were collected from 6 districts from domestic and community tube wells. Samples were analysed for arsenic, iron, phosphates, total hardness and microbial contamination. Material and Methods Sample Collection The samples were collected from the area of Howrah, Liluah, Belur, Bally in Howrah district. Uttarpara (Makhla), Hindmotor (Dharmatala), Konnagar, Nabagram, Rishra Sreerampore, Sreerampore, Mahesh (Sreerampore), Haripal, Dankuni in Hooghly district. Burdwan, Bandel in Burdwan district. Madhyamgram, New Barrackpore, Leningarh, Dumdum, Panihati, Sodepore, Ghola (Sodepur), Barrackpore college, Kolepara (Barrackpore), Naihati, Icchapur, Shyamnagar, Basirhat, Barasat, Keventer (Barasat), Amtala (Barasat), Selempore (Nilgangue) in North 24 Paraganas district. Kalyani, Kalyanibash and Halishahar in Nadia district. Garia, Tollygaunge, Chetla, Behala, Thakurpuker Joka, Ruby, Rajpur, Desopriyo Park , M.G Road, Sector 5, Baguihati, Science city in Kolkata. Total of 59 samples of which 5 were from Howrah, 15 from Hooghly, 2 from Burdwan, 21 from North 24 Paragnas, 13 from Kolkata and 3 from Nadia, were collected in triplicate in 50 ml sterilized container. Samples were stored in -200C until analysed. Detection of arsenic, iron, phosphate and total hardness Arsenic, iron, phosphate and total hardness was detected by water analysis field kits manufactured by Nice Chemicals Pvt. Ltd., India. Arsenic was detected by using the classical Gutzeit method [7] based on the reaction of arsine gas with mercuric bromide.

Microbial Contamination Determination Water samples were plated in EMB agar plates (Eosin Methylene Blue Agar) to estimate the quantity of fecal coliforms. Its composition is as follows - Peptic digest of animal tissue – 10 gm /l, Dipotassium phosphate – 2 gm/l, Lactose - 5 gm/l, Sucrose -5 gm/l, Eosin-Y - 40 gm/l, Methylene blue 0.065 gm/l, Agar –13.50 gm/l, pH 7.2. 100µl of sample was plated in triplicate and incubated at 37 0C for 24 hours. Statistical Analysis Tests were carried out in triplicate. Standard deviation was calculated on triplicate values. Relative abundance (%) were formulated byNo. of samples containing arsenic, phosphate, iron Total sample

x 100

Results and Discussions Access to safe drinking water is essential to health, a basic human right and a component of effective policy for health protection. Ground water can be contaminated through various pollutants, one of them is arsenic. The groundwater arsenic problem has raised wide spread concerns in different parts of the 106

Reetushri Sen et al. / Waste Management & Resource Utilisation 2016

world and results reported by various agencies is alarming. According to D.N. Guha Mazumder [4] more than 6 million people in West Bengal, India are exposed to arsenic contaminated ground water. Singh [8] observed that elevated concentrations of arsenic exists in ground water of nine districts of West Bengal, namely Murshidabad, Malda, Nadia, North 24 Paraganas. South 24 Paraganas, Burdwan, Howrah, Hooghly and Kolkata. In this study high content of arsenic have been found in the underground water in the districts of North 24 Paraganas. Burdman, Howrah, Hooghly, Kolkata and Nadia (Table 2). The relative abundance of arsenic was found highest in Burdwan followed by Kolkata (Figure 1). However, sample size was small from these districts. Highest arsenic content of 1mg/ml was reported from Dumdum area in North 24 Paraganas and Chetla area in Kolkata.

Figure 1:

Relative abundance of iron was highest for Nadia district followed by Hooghly and Kolkata. Many of the technologies which remove arsenic depend on the co-precipitation of iron and arsenic. A linear corelationship has been found in the arsenic and iron removal by treatment plants [9]

Figure 2:

Mc Arther et.al [10] reported that West Bengal has high arsenic and phosphate in some wells. In this study the sample from Haripal, Hooghly showed high arsenic along with high phosphate and iron content (table 2). Relative abundance of phosphate was highest in Burdwan and North 24 Paragnas 107

Reetushri Sen et al. / Waste Management & Resource Utilisation 2016

districts. Samples from Uttarpara ( Makhla) , Rishra and Haripal in Hooghly district, Burdwan in Burdwan district, Madhyamgram, New Barrackpore, Leningarh, Panihati, Barrackpore, Naihati, Halisahar, Icchapur, Kaliyanibash, Shyamnagar, Bashirhat in North 24 Paraganas district, and Tollygangue, Behala, Rajpur, Sector 5 in Kolkata have marked level of phosphate in ground water.

Figure 3:

Microbial contaminations are also present in quite a few samples. These are may be due to unhygienic environment of water source or storage of water. Microbes mainly E.coli is found in the area of Howrah in Howrah district, Uttarpara (Makhla), Rishra, Sreerampore (Mahesh) in Hooghly district. Barasat (Amtala) in North 24 Paraganas and Garia, Chetla M.G. Road, Baguihati in Kolkata.

Figure 4:

Water hardness was found to be maximum in at least three samples from Kolkata (around 400 ppm in terms of CaCO3) (Table 1). This may be due to the presence of insoluble calcium, magnesium and phosphate salts. Most of the samples were collected from domestic and community tube wells. It was appalling to note that people were using water from contaminated sources. Water sources where treatment plants were installed or filtration facility was available were not necessarily free from heavy metal contamination. 108

Reetushri Sen et al. / Waste Management & Resource Utilisation 2016

Table 1: Depicts the pH, temperature and hardness of the samples collected from the six districts covered under the study District

Howrah

Hooghly

Burdwan

North 24 Parganas

Area

pH

Temp. (degree celcius)

Hardness (ppm of CaCO3)

Howrah

7.1

28

58

Liluah

6.41

23

22

Belur 1

7.15

25

224

Belur 2

7.1

25

140

Bally

7.06

25

46

Uttarpara(Makhla)

7.58

31

96

Hindmotor(Dharmatala)

7.15

20

42

Hindmotor

8

30

156

konnagar 1

6.1

20

80

konnagar 2

7.2

31

142

Nabagram 1

6.9

20

234

Nabagram 2

7.2

25

72

Nabagram 3 ( filter)

7.3

25

58

Rishra 1

7.9

29

180

Rishra 2

6.92

20

264

Sreerampore 1

8.28

20

57

Sreerampore 2

7.56

25

174

Sreerampore(Mahesh)

6.49

31

84

Haripal

6.7

25

262

Dankuni

6.36

20

90

Burdwan

6.93

25

140

Bandel

7.28

25

48

Madhyamgram

6.99

18

68

New Barrackpore

6.86

30

124

New Barrackpore (filter)

8.23

29

144

Leningarh

7.2

30

26

Dumdum

7.02

25

56

Panihati

7.2

20

84

Sodepore

7.03

25

250

Sodepore(Ghola)

7.39

29

180

Barrackpore

6.72

20

198

Barrackpore college(filter)

7.12

20

36

Barrackpore college

6.32

25

160

Barrackpore 3

6.95

18

146

Noihati

7.11

20

200

Icchapur

6.24

20

146

shyamnagar

6.52

29

160

109

Reetushri Sen et al. / Waste Management & Resource Utilisation 2016

District

Area

pH

Temp. (degree celcius)

Hardness (ppm of CaCO3)

Basirhat 1

7.61

30

32

Basirhat 2

7.3

25

258

Barasat

7.26

30

120

Barasat, Keventer area

6.43

20

260

9

29

126

Selampore (Nilgunge)

7.1

25

98

Garia

7.19

29

400

Tollyguange

6.88

30

200

Chetla

7.5

20

58

Behala

7.35

30

200

Joka , thakurpuker

7.4

25

136

Ruby

6

29

480

Rajpur

6.58

20

200

Desopriyo park

7.5

25

220

Desopriyo park(filter)

7.1

25

114

Sciencecity

7.81

20

380

M.G road

7.65

31

84

Sector 5

6.8

30

106

Baguihati

6.59

20

200

Halisahar

7.2

25

206

kalianibash

7.1

29

144

kalyani

6.12

29

100

Barasat( Amtala)

Kolkata

Nodia

Table 2: Depicts the quantity of Iron, Phosphate, arsenic and Microbial contamination in the samples obtained from the six districts District

Howrah

Hooghly

Area

Iron

Phosphate

Arsenic

Microbial Contamination**

Howrah

BDL*

BDL

BDL

Detected ( mean-17, sd-8.88)

Liluah

BDL

BDL

BDL

Not detected

Belur 1

BDL

BDL

BDL

Not detected

Belur 2

1mg/ml

BDL

BDL

Not detected

Bally

BDL

BDL

BDL

Not detected

Uttarpara(Makhla)

BDL

0.5mg/l

BDL

Detected (mean-23.33,sd-9.291)

Hindmotor(Dharmatala)

BDL

BDL

BDL

Not detected

Hindmotor

BDL

BDL

BDL

Not detected

konnagar 1

BDL

BDL

BDL

Not detected

konnagar 2

BDL

BDL

BDL

Not detected

Nabagram 1

BDL

BDL

BDL

Not detected

Nabagram 2

BDL

BDL

BDL

Not detected

Nabagram 3 ( filter)

BDL

BDL

BDL

Not detected

Rishra 1

0.5mg/l

BDL

BDL

Detected (mean-5.33,sd-3.51) 110

Reetushri Sen et al. / Waste Management & Resource Utilisation 2016

District

Burdwan

North 24 Paraganas

Kolkata

Area

Iron

Phosphate

Arsenic

Microbial Contamination**

Rishra 2

BDL

0.25mg/l

BDL

Not detected

Sreerampore 1

BDL

BDL

BDL

Not detected

Sreerampore 2

0.5mg/1

BDL

BDL

Detected (mean-14.66,sd-7.50)

Sreerampore(Mahesh)

BDL

BDL

BDL

Detected (0.607)

Haripal

1mg/l

1mg/l

0.05mg/l

Not detected

Dankuni

BDL

BDL

BDL

Not detected

Burdwan

BDL

1mg/l

.05mg/l

Not detected

Bandel

BDL

BDL

.05mg/l

Not detected

Madhyamgram

BDL

0.5mg/l

BDL

Not detected

New Barrackpore

BDL

0.5mg/l

0.5mg/l

Not detected

New Barrackpore (filter)

BDL

0.5mg/l

BDL

Not detected

Leningarh

BDL

0.5mg/l

BDL

Not detected

Dumdum

BDL

BDL

1.0mg/l

Not detected

Panihati

BDL

0.5mg/l

BDL

Not detected

Sodepore

BDL

BDL

0.1mg/l

Not detected

Sodepore(Ghola)

BDL

BDL

0.05mg/l

Not detected

Barrackpore

BDL

0.5mg/l

0.5mg/l

Not detected

Barrackpore college(filter)

BDL

BDL

BDL

Not detected

Barrackpore college

BDL

BDL

BDL

Not detected

Barrackpore 3

BDL

BDL

BDL

Not detected

Noihati

BDL

0.5mg/l

BDL

Not detected

Icchapur

BDL

0.5mg/l

BDL

Not detected

shyamnagar

BDL

0.5mg/l

BDL

Not detected

Basirhat 1

0.05mg/l

BDL

0.1mg/l

Not detected

Basirhat 2

BDL

2mg/l

BDL

Not detected

Barasat

BDL

0.5mg/l

0.05mg/l

Not detected

Barasat, Keventer area

BDL

BDL

BDL

Not detected

Barasat( Amtala)

BDL

BDL

BDL

Detected (mean-4.33,sd2.081)

Selampore (Nilgunge)

BDL

BDL

0.05mg/l

Not Detected

Garia

BDL

BDL

BDL

Detected (mean-12,sd-6.557)

Tollyguange

BDL

0.5 mg/l

0.5mg/l

Not Detected

Chetla

BDL

BDL

1.0mg/l

Detected (mean-25.33,sd-5.507)

Behala

BDL

0.5mg/l

BDL

Not detected

Joka , Thakurpuker

BDL

BDL

BDL

Not detected

Ruby

BDL

BDL

0.75mg/l

Not detected

Rajpur

BDL

0.5mg/l

0.75mg/l

Not detected

Desopriyo park

BDL

BDL

BDL

Not detected

Desopriyo park(filter)

BDL

BDL

BDL

Not detected

Sciencecity

BDL

BDL

0.5mg/l

Not detected 111

Reetushri Sen et al. / Waste Management & Resource Utilisation 2016

District

Nadia

Area

Iron

Phosphate

Arsenic

Microbial Contamination**

M.G Road

0.5mg/l

BDL

BDL

Detected (mean-9,sd-3)

Sector 5

BDL

0.5mg/l

BDL

Not Detected

Baguihati

5mg/l

BDL

BDL

Detected (mean-10.66,sd-7.76)

Halisahar

BDL

0.5mg/l

BDL

Not detected

kalyanibash

BDL

BDL

BDL

Not detected

kalyani

0.5mg/l

BDL

BDL

Not detected

*BDL – Below detectable level **Colony count given is that obtained per 100µl

Conclusions All the districts covered in the study showed high level of arsenic in ground water which has been reported earlier as well. Water is an indispensible part of human life and its pollution or contamination can lead to several diseases. Strong policy framework, better management techniques, awareness and community involvement is needed to deal with this critical problem. Acknowledgements The Authors wish to thank University Grants Commission [UGC approval no. F. PSW – 186/ 1112 (ERO) dated 25/01/2012] for financial support and to the Principal and Teacher-in-charge, Barrackpore Rastraguru Surendranath College for providing infrastructure. References 1) Owa, F.D. (2013) Water Pollution: Sources, Effects, Control and Management. Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences. Vol. 4 No.8, 65-68. 2) Clancy, T. M., Hayes, K.F., Raskin, L. (2013) Arsenic Waste Management: A Critical Review of Testing and Disposal of Arsenic-Bearing Solid Wastes Generated during Arsenic Removal from Drinking Water. Environ. Sci. Technol. 47, 10799-10812. 3) Mandal, B.K. and Suzuki, K.T. (2002) Arsenic around the world: A Review. Talanta. 58, 201-235. 4) Guha Mazumder, D.N (2008) Chronic arsenic toxicity & human health. Indian J. Med. Res. 128, 436-447. 5) Chatterji, A and Chatterji, U (2010) Arsenic abrogates the estrogen- signalling pathway in rat uterus. Reproductive Biology and Endocrinology. 8, 80 6) Prozialeck WC, Edwards JR, Nebert DW, Woods JM, Barchowsky A,Atchison WD (2008). The vascular system as a target of metal toxicity. Toxicol Sci, 102(2):207-218 7) Gutzeit,H., (1891) Pharm. Zeitung 36, 748 – 756. 8) Singh, A.K. (2006) Chemistry of arsenic in ground water of Ganges-Brahmaputra river basin. Current Science vol.91, No. 5. 9) Dahi, E and Liang, Q. ( 1998) ―Arsenic Removal in Hand Pump Connected Iron Removal Plants in Noakhali, Bangladesh ― presented at International Conference on Arsenic Pollution of Ground Water in Bangladesh : Causes, Effect and Remedies, Dhaka, 8-12 February. 10) Mc Arther, J. M et al. (2004) Natural organic matter in sedimentary basins and its relation to arsenic in anorexic ground water; the example of West Bengal and its world wide implications. Applied Geochemistry Vol 19, 12551293.

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Organisational Learning as the Linking Management and Lean Manufacturing

ISWMAW

Pin

between

Waste

Rodrigo Lozano1,2,*, Ola Wiklund1, Kaisu Sammalisto1 1

University of Gävle, Kungsbäcksvägen 47, Gävle, Sweden Organisational Sustainability, Ltd. 40 Machen Place, Cardiff, UK CF11 6EQ *Corresponding Author: Email- rodrigo.lozano 2

ABSTRACT Research and practice in Corporate Sustainability (CS) has been increasing; however, most of the efforts have focussed on technical or managerial ploys. Although a number of authors have proposed organisational learning as a mechanism to better incorporate CS, research on the topic is still limited. This paper proposes that organisational learning can be a linking pin between Waste Management and Lean Manufacturing. Learning is a complex and iterative process with relationships between individuals, groups, and their company. Organisational learning can help to question technocentric and managerial approaches, and better link concepts such as waste management and lean manufacturing to better prevent and eliminate waste (through overproduction, waiting, transport, processing, inventory, movement, defects, or employee creativity) through continuous improvement of employees. Keywords: corporate sustainability; waste management; lean manufacturing; organisational learning; waste hierarchy; International Society of Waste Management, Air and Water

Introduction Research and practice in Corporate Sustainability (CS) has been increasing (e.g. Benn, Dunphy, & Griffiths, 2006; Dyllick & Hockerts, 2002; Miller Perkins & Serafeim, 2015). Dyllick & Hockerts (2002, p. 131) defined corporate sustainability (CS) as: ―…meeting the needs of a firm‘s direct and indirect stakeholders, such as shareholders, employees, clients, pressure groups, communities without compromising its ability to meet the needs of future stakeholders as well‖. Lozano (2012) defined CS to be ―Corporate activities that proactively seek to contribute to sustainability equilibria, including the economic, environmental, and social dimensions of today, as well as their inter-relations within and throughout the time dimension while addressing the company‘s system (including Operations and production, Management and strategy, Organisational systems, Procurement and marketing, and Assessment and communication); and its stakeholders (including the environment)‖. Both definitions highlight that companies have to address stakeholders, and that they must be addressed holistically and systemically, by including the four dimensions of sustainability (economic, environmental, social, and time dimensions). Most of the CS efforts have been addressing the economic and environmental dimensions (e.g. Atkinson, 2000; Costanza, 1991; Reinhardt, 2000), mainly through technocentric, e.g. through waste management, and managerial approaches, e.g. through lean manufacturing. However, such approaches tend to be 113

Rodrigo Lozano et al. / Waste Management & Resource Utilisation 2016

deficient since they focus on addressing the effect and not usually the cause. Although some authors (e.g. Benn, Dunphy, & Griffit, 2014; Lozano, 2008) have proposed to engage holistically with ‗people‘ in changing companies (and organisations), e.g. through organisational learning, in order to help them become more sustainability oriented, there is still limited research on the topic. This paper is aimed at discussing the role of organisational learning, as a proxy for the social sustainability dimension, as the linking pin between waste management and lean production. The rest of the paper is structured in the following way: Section 2 provides a discussion on waste management; Section 3 presents a brief introduction to lean manufacturing; Section 4 discusses how organisational learning can serve as the linking pin between waste management and lean manufacturing. Waste management

Least Favourable Option

Waste management is recognised as an essential prerequisite for sustainability (UNEP, 2011; UNHSP, 2010). Waste management has shifted from a mere pollution prevention and control exercise, towards a more holistic approach (Papargyropoulou, Lozano, K. Steinberger, Wright, & Ujang, 2014). The waste hierarchy (see Figure ), the ‗3Rs‘ (Reduce, Re-use, Recycle) was introduced as a framework to better manage resources (Barton, Dalley, & Patel, 1996), where waste is instead considered as a resource (Bringezu & Bleischwitz, 2009), and thus have economic and environmental benefits (Barrett & Scott, 2012; Defra, 2011; WRAP, 2010). The waste hierarchy prioritises waste prevention over re-use, recycle, recovery, and disposal. Most of the literature on waste management has focused on material waste (e.g. solid waste management or energy).

Figure 1: The Waste Hierarchy Source: (Papargyropoulou et al., 2014)

Lean manufacturing Lean manufacturing focusses on high quality products in the most efficient and economical way while incorporating less human effort, less inventory, less time to develop products, and less space and yet highly responsive to customer demands (Wong & Wong, 2014). It is aimed at deciphering the value added activities from those that are waste in an organisation and its supply chain (Comm & Mathaisel, 2005). Lean has been engraved in the heart of manufacturing practices to bring an organization to the forefront of business excellence (Wong & Wong, 2014). This only happens if lean is embraced as an ideology (Bhasin, 2011). 114

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Comm and Mathaisel (2005) proposed the following steps for the implementation of lean manufacturing: 1) Optimizing the flow of products and services, either affecting or within the process, from concept design through point of use; 2) Providing processes and technologies for seamless transfer of, and access to, pertinent data and information; 3) Optimizing the capability and utilization of people; 4) Implementing integrated product and process development teams; 5) Developing relationships built on mutual trust and commitment; 6) Continuously focusing on the customer; 7) Promoting lean thinking at all levels; 8) Continuously processing improvements; and 9) Maximizing stability in a changing environment Lean also provides opportunities for a positive and fulfilling working environment for employees, due the employees' involvement in and ownership of problem-solving and improvement activities, more diversified work functions requiring varied skills and abilities, and increased cross-functional and interorganizational functions (Jørgensen, Matthiesen, Nielsen, & Johansen, 2007). Despite successful lean applications in many organizations, the journey to implement lean is not easy and is bound to encounter various challenges: As with other management systems lack of common vision, good leadership and communication often result in halting the implementation process or that the focus is on the lean tools rather than the aims of lean (Halling & Renström, 2013; Liker, 2007). Also uncertainty of the demand, pressure or lack of it from customers and top management, lack of training and problems with knowledge transfer and not having an effective implementation method cause problems (Wong & Wong, 2014). Three Japanese terms are key to lean manufacturing and waste management: 1) Kaizen; 2) Kanban; and 3) Muda. Kaizen means ‗improvement through continuous change‘ (Nishida, Koshijima, & Umeda, 2010). Kaizen is aimed at work area transformation and employee development to achieve specific goals in an accelerated timeframe (from four days to a week (Farris, Van Aken, Doolen, & Worley, 2009; Isenberg, 1997; Styhre, 2001). Kaizen is based on three golden rules: 1) Housekeeping, which includes separating unnecessary things from necessary ones and keeping the latter, ordering carefully and efficiently the objects not rejected in the separation, keeping all the machines and the environment clean, and systematising and continuously practicing the previous activities; 2) Elimination of waste, including excessive resources, overproduction, excessive inventory, non-useful tasks, waiting time, and waste in transportation. This has to be done through cost reduction, as well as productivity improvements; and 3) Standardisation, achieved by improving self-discipline and following the previous rules (Dominici, 2003). Kanban refers to a ‗signal card‘, i.e. a requirement of the exact quantity required in subsequent processes to every process along the production line and the suppliers, thus connecting them to each other and to the regulation of production, supply and conveyance processes (Dominici, 2003). This system aims to eliminate waste during the manufacturing process (Katori, 2009). Muda is a term referring to activities (including products or services) that are wasteful, unproductive and do not add value (Dominici, 2003; Oka, 2013; Wikipedia, 2010). Muda refers to the management and strategy part of the company system with economic and environmental implications.

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Liker (2007) proposes eight non-value-adding wastes: 1) Overproduction; 2) Waiting (time in hand); 3) Unnecessary transport or conveyance; 4) Over processing or incorrect processing; 5) Excess inventory; 6) Unnecessary movement; 7) Defects; and 8) Unused employee creativity. Though lean is not initiated based on the reason of sustainability, both approaches have a lot of elements and end results in common (Wong & Wong, 2014). Product and process life cycle considerations examine ways to achieve sustainability objectives over the entire life cycle of a product (Fliedner & Majeske, 2010). Elimination of material waste directly meets sustainability objectives (Fliedner & Majeske, 2010; Wong & Wong, 2014). Most think of how lean may support ecological preservation by reduction of waste of raw materials and energy supplies or even the economic stability for an organization that provides opportunities for future growth and prosperity (Jørgensen et al., 2007). Lean production and environmental (e.g. waste) management show some similarities, having both a strong commitment to zero-waste and efficiency-driven practices. Lean practices have a positive impact on environmental performance. Lean practices and green practices may not have a positive effect on both operational and environmental performance (Galeazzo, Furlan, & Vinelli, 2014). Linking waste management and lean manufacturing through social sustainability and learning Learning is recognised as a key skill to achieve SD (Lozano, 2014). Constant learning helps to change mental models and behaviour (Clarke & Roome, 1999; Lozano, 2008; Senge, 1999)). It is ―…a building block for long-term success on the path toward sustainability‖ (Doppelt, 2003)). According to Liker (2007) for Toyota; ―Nothings starts until we have trained and educated our people‖ , where training, learning and HR development is crucial and fundamental for the company. Learning1 can also be defined as the process of acquiring knowledge, then creating and refining mental models (Penrose, 1959; Rosner, 1995; Schein, 1969). Learning depends not only on opportunities to learn, but also on costly investments to exploit such opportunities, and it needs to be continuous to facilitate changes in the other types of mental attitudes (Lozano, 2014). Organisations learn through individuals (Senge, 1999). Individual learning can facilitate group learning, which in turn facilitates organisational learning; organisational learning, in turn, facilitates group learning, and this in turn individual learning (Lozano, 2008). Congruence plays a key role in this process (Senge, 1999). A lack of congruence results in frustration, dissatisfaction, loss of control, and even to sabotage of sustainability initiatives (Lozano, 2008). In group learning, individuals collaborate to learn (Lozano, 2008; Senge, 1999). The combined intelligence in the team exceeds the sum of the intelligence of its individuals, and the team develops extraordinary capacities for collaborative action (Senge, 1999). Organisational learning for SD is a complex and iterative process (Zadek, 2004), where organisations have the potential to learn from their successes and from their mistakes (McIntosh, Leipziger, Jones, & Coleman, 1998). Even though organisations learn all the time (Lessard & Amsden, 1996), learning can be hindered by bureaucracy (Gill, 2003), and deeply rooted traditions. Commonly, learning has been considered to follow a linear path, where knowing is followed by understanding, and this in turn by application. Steiner & Posch (2006)) propose an alternative path, called circular learning, where application feeds back into knowing (Figure 5). According to Kolb (1983), learning is a continuous cycle from experience to reflection to conceptualisation and then to experimentation.

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Learning is different from schooling and training. Schooling, according to Orr (1992), has to do with mastering basic functions measured by tests. Training refers to the inculcation of rote habits, the acquisition of skills (Lessard & Amsden, 1996; Rosner, 1995), and systematic instruction of a particular task.

Figure 2: Learning cycle Source: (Kolb, 1983)

Lozano (2014) synthesised (see Table 1) the works of Argyris‘ (1977)) and Senge (1999) on learning loops, divided into single-loop, double-loop, and triple-loop learning, with the learning typology of Doppelt (2003)), who separates learning into adaptive, anticipatory, and action learning. Table 1: Learning typologies according to their loops and processes. Source: (Lozano, 2014) Loops Processes Single

Double

Triple

Adaptive

Passive

Proactive

*

Anticipatory

Forecasting

Backcasting

Discerning

Action

Coaching

Experiential

Inquisitive

* Not applicable, since triple-loop learning focuses on developing new methods and approaches to arrive at re-framings, whilst adaptive learning involves the search for direct solutions to immediate problems. Lower types of learning (e.g. passive learning) that do not question the underlying principles of the organisation, tend to increase bureaucracy, and curtail response to internal and external stimuli. Discerning and inquisitive learning can play important roles in facilitating organisational ‗metanoia‘ by questioning current mental models and developing new theories, methodologies, and processes (Lozano, 2014). Conclusions Research and practice in CS has been increasing, where definitions highlight that companies have to address stakeholders, and that they must be addressed holistically and systemically, by including the four dimensions of sustainability (economic, environmental, social, and time dimensions). Most of the CS efforts have been mainly through technocentric, e.g. through waste management, and managerial approaches, e.g. through lean manufacturing. Although some authors have proposed to engage holistically with ‗people‘ in changing companies (and organisations), e.g. through organisational learning, in order to help them become more sustainability oriented, there is still limited research on the topic. Technocentric (i.e. only focussing on waste elimination) and managerial ploys are deficient, especially when they are relied upon as a sole ‗fix‘. The answer lies in engaging holistically in: Making sure that ‗people‘ are engaged in the changes in all the elements of the company system. A more sustainable individual will influence her/his team and, thus, better help to incorporate and institutionalise CS. 117

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This paper proposed to link Waste Management and Lean Manufacturing through organisational learning. Learning is a complex and iterative process with relationships between individuals, groups, and their company. Organisational learning, especially discerning and inquisitive learning, can help to question technocentric and managerial approaches, and better link concepts such as waste management and lean manufacturing to better prevent and eliminate waste (through overproduction, waiting, transport, processing, inventory, movement, defects, or employee creativity) through continuous improvement of employees (as shown in Figure ).

Figure 3: Organisational learning as a link between Waste Management and Lean Manufacturing

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Socio-Economic and Demographic Profile of Waste Pickers in Brazil and India V.R. Cruvinel1,*, L.H.P. De Lira2, Sadhan Kr. Ghosh3 1

PhD, Department of Public Health, University of Brasília, Brasília, Brazil Campus UnB Ceilândia, University of Brasília, QNN 14, AE, Ceilândia Sul, Brasília, Federal District, Brazil 2 Graduating, University of Brasília, Brasília, Brazil Campus UnB Ceilândia, University of Brasília, QNN 14, AE, Ceilândia Sul, Brasília, Federal District, Brazil 3 Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Jadavpur University, Kolkata, India *Corresponding Author: Email- [email protected] ABSTRACT In Brasilia, the capital of Brazil we still have the bigger dump from the Americas. There are more than two thousands of waste pickers working in bad conditions without safety. In India all over the country the waste pickers work for the collection and segregation of waste from different places including dump sites. The socio economic condition and the occupational health and safety hazard of the waste pickers are very bad conditions though they are the agent for bringing the environment livable for the citizen. The purpose of this research is to show the reality of the socio-economic profile, demographic and social security condition of these workers and compare with waste pickers in Brasilia, the capital of Brazil, Bangalore and Kolkata, India. This is a narrative review. The following socio-economic data found in Brasilia were: 65.4% of waste pickers receive less than US$250 per month; just 33.20% receive financial support from the federal government. Only 12.7% contribute to social security. The demographics data indicate that most waste pickers (60%) are women; 36.5%ofthe sample has only primary education. The average age is 39.4 years. Most of these workers are associated with organizations. In Bangalore and Kolkata, the capital city of the state of Karnataka and West Bengal respectively, there are nearly 20.000 waste pickers; 25% of them are formally organized. A significant number of them are between 18 to 40 years of age, the majority is women and illiterate; 70% earn between US$44.7 to US$89.4 per month. Both groups are economically and socially vulnerable. Their occupational health hazards are also vulnerable. Their access to water, sanitation and housing facilities in the city are inadequate. Most waste pickers from both Countries are exempt from a number of benefits, such as retirement for length of service, maternity pay, leave sick, among others. One of the main needs of waste pickers of India is the inclusion of informal workers in the social protection service, making them part of the universal security system. In Brazil, it is necessary to reinforce the importance of the contribution of social security, which can guarantee assistance in case of disability. Therefore demonstrates the need to strengthen strategies to improve the quality of life, income and working conditions of these pickers. Keywords: Solid waste segregators, Social Security, Socioeconomic factors, Solid waste collection, Sanitary Landfill; International Society of Waste Management, Air and Water

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Introduction The environment has suffered from inadequate waste disposal in the entire world. The industry produces increasingly disposable products, advertising stimulates increasingly need to buy the most varied materials. The food industry has as main product, more individual parts, which increases the amount of large amounts of waste from the food. According to CEMPRE (Business Commitment for Recycling), in Brazil, 40% of waste still has the main destination, dumpsites and landfills without the necessary environmental care. According to data released by the IBGE (Brazilian Geography and Statistics Institute) in 2015, Brazil, located in South America, currently with 204.450 million of inhabitants. India is a country located in South Asia and is characterized by having the second largest population in the world, with 1.21 billion people. The population of India is 6 times greater than that of Brazil. According to a document prepared by the Department of Economic and Social Affairs of the United Nations, India will overtake China as the most populous country in the world in 2022, with about 1.4 billion people. According to the SNIS (National Information Sanitation), in 2013, Brazil generated about 193 tons of waste daily, but only 169 were collected, which shows that of all waste produced in Brazil, 87% was collected. According to IPEA (Institute of Applied Economic Research), in a new study released in 2010, Brazil loses about 2.4 billions of dollars to bury waste that could be recycled. 14 million tonnes of garbage is generated everyday by the 377 million people living in urban India, now the world‘s third-largest garbage generator (INDIASPEND, 2014). According Central Pollution Control Board of India and Centre for Science and Environment, of the total Municipal Solid Waste generated in India daily, only 83% of what is generated is collected and only 29% of MSW collected is treated. The proper management of solid waste is a common problem between the two emerging countries, causing large dumps the cities that cause negative impacts to the environment and health of the population and especially the collectors. Landfills pollute the air, causing numerous respiratory problems, pollute the soil, preventing planting activities and still pollute streams, rivers, water table and the seas, often making the water unfit for consumption. General objective: This work aims to present a comparative analysis of Socioeconomic and demographic profile of solid waste pickers in Brazil and India. Specific objectives: Identify the demographic profile of the collectors of both countries. Describe the Socio-economic profile of the collectors of both countries. Address advances and discussions that seek the improvement of working conditions in both countries. National policies about waste management; In Brazil, with the approval of the National Policy on Solid Waste in 2010, responsibility for solid waste has to be shared between the government, companies and the population, setting goals and guidelines that must be met by each sector. In addition, the policy determined that dumps throughout Brazil were closed by the year 2014 and landfills would be opened, which would be discarded all that what could not be recycled. 1. The policy has several objectives to be followed by the sectors involved in the management of solid waste The Public Sector: 123

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                 

Cities should make plans to manage solid waste in the best possible way, taking into account the collectors and their needs; Cities should close the dumps and create landfills receiving organic waste; Municipalities must organize the separate collection of recyclable materials that meets the entire population, supervising and controlling the costs of this process; Municipalities should encourage the participation of collectors in cooperatives to improve their working conditions; The Government should conduct campaigns to encourage people to separate organic waste from recyclables; Public agencies are required to send their recyclable materials for cooperatives; The Companies: The law provides that companies make investments to improve the treatment of waste; Companies have benefited from cheaper raw material from recycled materials; Support the creation of voluntary surrender stations and cooperatives; The Collectors/Cooperatives: They should join the cooperative in order to improve the working environment, reducing health risks and increasing income; Always Seek partnerships with businesses and the public sector to carry out the selective collection and recycling; Through partnerships and the work of the cooperative, the waste will increase in quantity and quality, thus increasing the income of the cooperative and consequently the income of collectors; Cooperatives promote courses and enabling training to improve productivity. The Population: You will be responsible for separating recyclables in residence; Adhere to the educational campaigns on the sorting of waste;

2. Situation about the Waste management in Brazil and in Brasilia According to data from the Solid Waste Diagnostic Report, the Federal District, a region which is the capital of Brazil, produces about 8,500 tons of garbage a day, 6,000 tons from construction and 2,500 tons from homes and trade. Among all this amount of garbage, only 5% approximately is recycled. The recycled waste is the main source of income of many people working autonomously or associated with cooperatives. The Federal District government has been trying to change the destination of the waste produced in the region. The garbage that has been disposed in the Structural Dump (the largest in Latin America, currently) goes directed to landfills and warehouses managed by recycling cooperatives. Approximately 3 thousand people crowd at the dump in search of any material that can be sold. With the closure of the dump, only cooperatives have access to recyclables. Thus, it is necessary that the self-employed to join, ensuring that they will continue surviving the recycled material. 3. Number of waste pickers; Socio-economic profile, demographic and social security condition; Brazil Number of Waste Pickers

229.568

% of men

67%

% of women

33%

Contribute to Security Average Age Average Income Illiteracy rate among collectors

India

15.4% 39.4 US$ 151.5 20.5%

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4. Standards According Sonia Dias (2011), in Brazil a worker with a Carteira de trabalho (CT) is covered by a body of labour laws – Consolidação das Leis do Trabalho (CLT) – which contains rules for fair labour relations, including a minimum wage, work hours, 30 days of vacation per year, entitlement to insurance, retirement pay, six months unemployment wages and other rights. Workers with a CT are in formal jobs and have the CT for life whether in temporary or continuous employment. 5. Strategies to strengthen the waste pickers work Compulsory membership divided opinions of collectors, on the one hand the collectors will have access to the pension plan, fixed working hours, among other privileges that the Consolidation of Labor Laws of Brazil provides, on the other hand, workers will be removed from the informality that it is one of the attractions for part of collectors. Some collectors see the garbage dump, the opportunity to work the day and time that is convenient, is to obtain monthly income or to supplement income. Faced with this impasse, the government together with the cooperatives tries to seek a way to solve the problem. There are now in the Federal District, about 33 organized institutions that make the selective collection, these institutions are associations and waste pickers cooperatives. When a collector part of these organized institutions, it is seen as part of a group that seeks to improve working conditions, also seeking greater visibility in society and the importance of the work performed by the collector. The collector is seen as a responsible worker to withdraw from nature what can be recycled. In 2002, the collectors have obtained a great victory when they were legally recognized as a professional category, made official by the Brazilian Classification of Occupations (CBO). The Recyclable materials are recorded by the number 5192-05. 6. Issues and challenges in tabular form for Indian and Brasil One of the biggest challenges facing the government and the cooperatives is to adapt the working conditions of collectors, so they can join the new form of formal employment. Many collectors are drawn to the collection of waste precisely the informality, it is important to note that the formalization of the way of work of collectors is a means of making the strongest class, bringing benefits and better conditions of employment. References Brasil. Presidência da República. Lei n. 12.305, de 2 de agosto de 2010. Institui a Política Nacional de Resíduos Sólidos; altera a Lei nº 9.605, de 12 de fevereiro de 1998; e dá outras providências. Brasília: Planalto, 2010 Brasil. Situação Social das Catadoras e dos Catadores de Material Reciclável e Reutilizável. Brasília: IPEA, 2013. Dias, Sonia. Statistics on Waste Pickers in Brazil. WIEGO-Women in Informal Employment Globalizing and Organizing. May, 2011 Constantini, Luca. Índia vai superar a China e se tornará o país mais populoso em 2022. Disponível em: Acesso em: 12/07/2016 Banerjee, Poulomi. Gone to waste: How India is drowning in garbage, Disponível em: Acesso em: 12/07/2016 Chittoor, Archana. Infographic: Waste in India. Disponível em: Acesso em: 12/07/2016

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Public Private Partnership (PPP) Approach for Sustainable Solid Waste Management (SWM) in Faridpur Municipality Md. Fariduzzaman1,*, Mohammed Nayeemur Rahman2, Uttam Kumar Saha3 1

Senior Urban Planner, Practical Action Bangladesh, Faridpur, Bangladesh Senior Monitoring Officer, Practical Action Bangladesh, Faridpur,Bangladesh 3 Head of Energy and Urban programme, Practical Action Bangladesh, Dhaka, Bangladesh *Corresponding Author: Email- [email protected] 2

ABSTRACT Faridpur is one of the 324 secondary and small towns in Bangladesh where more than 150000 people live and generate daily 55 tons solid waste. The municipality collects around 20 ton wastes from dustbins and kitchen markets and dispose crudely in roadside. The rest of the wastes disappear in drains, surface bodies and open places and creates foul environment, water logging and bring adverse threat to public health and environment. Practical Action supported Faridpur municipality to design and deliver a pilot scheme on integrated sustainable waste management which consider the whole waste service and value chain. The pilot project introduced door step waste collection services to 5000 households. A significant portion of collected wastes are transferred to a recycling plant by motorized three wheelers. The recycling plant has both aerobic and anaerobic treatment facility to produce organic fertilizer (2 tons/month) and biogas (180 m3/month). Monitoring system has been developed to maintain the standard and quality for marketing of compost and to assess the satisfaction of both waste collection service and compost users. The municipality hired a local private development agency named WORD (member of the coalition for Society for the Urban Poor) for operational responsibility and running services with income from waste collection fee and selling of compost and biogas. A multi stakeholders committee lead by Municipality has been formed and enhanced their capacity for monitoring, supervision and coordination of improve attempts to tackle waste problems. This pilot scheme has created at least 20 full time green jobs and reduces 91 ton carbon annually. Appropriate selection of private agencies and staffs, behavior changes of municipal dwellers for safe disposal of wastes, availability of land to establish recycling plant, certification of organic fertilizer, coordination among stakeholders, local capacity building is key challenging areas to promote integrated sustainable waste management. Keywords: 3Ps (Public private partnership), SWM (Solid Waste Management), ISWM (Integrated sustainable waste management); International Society of Waste Management, Air and Water

1.0 Introduction Bangladesh is one of the fastest urbanizing countries across the world. Currently, around 53 out of 160 million people live in the urban areas and generate waste 20,000 tons/day. The Urban Local Authorities (11 City Corporations and 324 Municipalities) are responsible to provide solid waste management services and adopt ―end-of-pipe‖ approach– collect-transport-dispose for a livable and 126

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healthy environment of urban dwellers. The Conservancy section of municipalities/cities usually collect wastes from dustbin, street, drains and transport by open truck, trolley and finally dispose to low land, water bodies or landfill. The indiscriminately disposed wastes cause blockage in the drainage system which leads to flooding in the streets, bad smells, and produce greenhouse gas. 2.0 Situation of Faridpur Municipality The case of Fardipur which is a secondary town is not different from others where more than 1, 50,000 people live and generate daily 55 tons solid waste. The municipality collects around 20 ton wastes from dustbins, kitchen, markets and dispose crudely in roadside. The rest of the wastes disappear in drains, surface bodies and open places and creates foul environment, water logging and bring adverse threat to public health and environment. Safe Management of Wastes was identified as one of the pressing demands and reflected adequately in Pourashava Development Plans (PDP) and Master Plans. 3.0 Integrated Solid Waste Management (ISWM) Integrated Solid Waste Management (ISWM) is an approach for sustainable management which covers all aspects of waste streams including: generation, segregation, transfer, sorting, treatment, recovery and disposal. It brings a wide range of stakeholders like community, local authorities, NGOs, inorganic waste traders, informal waste workers, service providers and donors coordinated by municipalities and strongly promote public private partnership considering different aspects of technical, environmental, health, financial, economical, and institutional with policy, legal and political arena. Practical Action shared this approach with municipality in 2007 and they became interested to promote.

Figure 1 ISWM Frame work

4.0 Background of PPP WORD NGO who is the member of a coalition of 13 NGOs in Faridpur called Society for the Urban Poor – SUP was selected by the Waste Steering Committee of Faridpur municipality to assist for the implementation of a pilot project on ISMW. Following roles were identified and agreed by all three parties i.e Faridpur municipality, WORD and Practical Action, Bangladesh and subsequently signed an agreement.

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Figure 2: ISWM Business Model Table.1: Roles of stakeholder‘s Role of WORD

Role of Faridpur Municipality

Role of Practical Action, Bangladesh

Organize awareness raising campaigns on safe disposal of wastes and to promote the uses of organic fertilizers

Form and undertake regular meeting of waste management steering committee

Provide technical assistance to Faridpur municipality and WORD for designing, manufacturing and construction of equipment, vehicles and physical facilities

Introduce and manage the quality of door step waste collection services with users satisfaction

Provide land and for construction of waste recycling plants and facilities for secondary transfer of wastes to treatment plants

Technical and Management training for Human Resources involved in waste management

Manage the operations of waste recycling plants to produce standard and marketable fertilizers and biogas

Supervise the quality of services and products promoted by WORD

Advise WORD for standardization, quality control and certification of waste recycled products

Ensure occupation health, safety, hygiene, decent environment and wages of waste workers

Launch vigilance actions to stop unauthorized waste disposal

Capturing evidences and external communications for learning exchanges and policy advocacy

Establish and maintain transparent record of financial transection of business and submit reports

The pilot project introduced primary waste collection services from houses/institutions and recycling to produce compost.

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5.0 Methodology Waste management is a raising concern for country like Bangladesh. The upward trend of urbanization is threatening the situation. The paper depicted the situation of Faridpur Municipality of Bangladesh. All the data has been collected from Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics. Information are collected from the conservancy section of Faridpur Municipality and from WORD – a local NGO involved in waste management process with Faridpur Municipality under PPP.

6.0 Waste Collection Service Practical Action, Bangladesh assisted WORD NGO to introduce door step waste collection services in 2007 and currently serve 5100 HH which is only 19% of total 25941 HHs. The collectors with protective dress, musk and gloves use 17 tri-cycle vans and collect 3 tons wastes daily and transfer 0.5 tons to treatment plant and the rest they dump to nearby secondary transfer station set by municipality. Prior to introduction of the service, WORD NGO adopt below steps

7.0 Waste Recycling 7.1 Waste to Compost 129

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A significant portion of collected wastes are transferred to a recycling plant by motorized three wheelers. The recycling plant has both aerobic and anaerobic treatment facility to produce organic fertilizer (2 tons/month). The composting facility consists of 12 chambers of 4.53 cubic meters each made of perforated hollow sand blocks.

A number of PVC pipes perforated around the periphery are placed in chambers to circulate the necessary oxygen in all layers of wastes. The mixed wastes are segregated by workers with adequate safety measures in sorting station and place the organic portion in composting chambers and keep days for decomposition when the box is filled with wastes. During the maturation period, waste workers record the temperature and spray water in case of above 20 degree Celsius. The matured wastes are taking out after 56 days and place one corner of the plant for further maturation. Matured compost are then dried and screened and tested in laboratory before final packaging. Below figure and diagram will show the processes and steps to produce nutritive and marketable organic fertilizers

Waste Collection

De boxing (2 weeks for further maturation)

Transportation

Drying (Moisture control)

v Dumping at recycling plant v Sorting (Organic & Inorganic) v Putting Organic waste in the composting plant v Process time (Temperature and Moisture control) v 8 weeks for composting

Screening v Quality control (Nutrient and pathogen analysis) v Certification v Branding and Packaging v Promotion and Marketing v Users Satisfaction

Figure 3: Waste to compost processing steps 130

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7.2 Compost Marketing Development: WORD was assisted to assess the local markets of organic fertilizer including traders from retailers to wholesalers, suppliers, distribution channels, demand, product price supporting services, business environment. WORD has developed linkage with Department of Agriculture and seeks assistance for agriculture officers/assistants to undertake learning sessions with farmers and demonstrations at farmer‘s field for the demand generation. Following the assessment of markets, WORD adopted below strategies

Figure 4: Marketing Mix- Product Distribution

WORD NGO has developed local market to sell average 2 ton/month. 8.0 Monitoring and Coordination WORD established a system to register complains both from waste collection and compost users. The executive who receive the call and pass it to respective staffs for necessary actions. The Conservancy section of municipality also monitors the presence of any unauthorized disposal of wastes in pilot areas. The Waste Management Steering Committee of Faridpur municipality coordinates the attempts initiated by multi stakeholders for tackling wastes problems. In addition, Practical Action, Bangladesh also support municipality to assess satisfaction of the service users by survey and participatory focus group discussions. 9.0 Impacts The pilot project introduced waste collection and recycling to produce organic fertilizer. This has created visible and tangible impacts in cleanliness of different clusters, created green jobs and employment for unemployed adult male and female for poverty reduction from this waste value chain, increasing soil fertility from the uses of organic fertilizers, reduced pollution form safe disposal of wastes. The demand for waste collection services drastically increased after the pilot and WORD extended their business coverage. 10.0 Result Under PPP Faridpur Municipality is covering 5100 HHs which is 19% of its total HHs. Producing waste to compost 1 ton every month and earning BDT 15000 by selling compost and contributing to the green environment. More than 20 poor people are employed in the whole management. 4 HHs are using waste to bio-gas saving BDT 500/hh/month. The success of Faridpur has been replicated in Jessore municipality who has a large population of 40000 HHs. 11.0 Challenges: The pilot project faced a number of challenges from different stakeholders Community: Lack of awareness on segregation and safe disposal of wastes, less willingness to pay for door step waste collection services. Similarly lack of willingness of farmers to use organic fertilizers 131

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Municipality: Traditional mind set of conservancy department, lack of coordination among departments, lack of competent human resources, in adequate infrastructures, logistics and budgets, lack of institutional capacity to design and manage public private partnerships. Private Service Provider: lack of willingness to share business transactions, tendency to exclude poor customers and less attention on occupational health and safety of waste workers Legal: The certification of organic fertilizer is complex and lengthy which restrict the commercial marketing of organic fertilizers. 12.0 Learning: The key learning form the pilot projects is      

Effective participation of service users, and actors involved in waste service and value chain is needed towards achieving long term financial sustainability of ISWM attempt Role of Media needs be promoted to inform people and raise mass awareness towards safe disposal of wastes. Organizing informal workers and mobilizing to formalize and cab be engaged to deliver deliver improve waste services. Municipality – NGO/private partnership worked well delivering improved waste management services Built the confidence of stakeholders and received policy attention Found potential to scale up for nationwide scaling

13.0 Recommendations for realization of potentials Level

Actions

Household and Community Level

   

Awareness on Source Segregation of Wastes Safe storage and disposal/delivery of wastes Train and follow up the house assistant for safe disposal Willingness to pay for service fee for door step collection services

Municipal Level

  

Development of waste management plan Mobilize Resources locally from private sector participation Capacity building of conservancy department – monitoring and supervision to assess citizens satisfaction Promoting local champions and introduction the concept of declaration of zero waste/healthy clusters Introduction of vigilance and legal actions against polluters

  National Level

     

National Action Plan with milestones for operationalize the 3R strategy More research & Development for diversified Waste Recycling options with business model Media engagement for National Awareness Raising on safe handling of wastes Development of Institutional and Regulatory framework for waste management National Market development for organic compost Development of National Network (i.e Waste Management Experts Associations) for knowledge and learning exchanges

14.0 Conclusion: Under Public Private Partnership Faridpur Municipality is covering 19% of its total HHs. Producing waste to compost and contributing to the green environment. More than 20 poor people are employed in the whole management. 4 HHs are using waste to bio-gas saving BDT 500/hh/month. The Waste Management Steering Committee of Faridpur municipality coordinates the attempts initiated by 132

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multi stakeholders for tackling wastes problems. In addition, Practical Action, Bangladesh also support municipality to assess satisfaction of the service users by survey and participatory focus group discussions. The success of Faridpur has been replicated in Jessore municipality and other big cities indicating the necessity and prospects of PPP to solve the issues. 15.0 Acknowledgement: The authors are grateful to the team of WORD who are directly involved with the whole waste management process and the expert team from Practical Action Bangladesh. The authors would like to express their sincere gratitude to the Faridpur Municipality authority and the whole waste management study team. References Baseline report, IUD-II Project, Faridpur, 2012 J Vaughn, ―Waste Management: A Reference Handbook‖. UNEP, IGES ―National 3R strategy of Bangladesh‖ 2009 UNDP ―Bangladesh Urban forum‖ Dhaka, December 2011 UPPR, UNDP ―Poor Settlements in Bangladesh‖, December 2011,

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Waste Management & Resource Utilisation www.iswmaw.com

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Critical Environmental Analysis on Land Disposal of Fly Ash Generated from Coal Fired Thermal Power Plants towards Groundwater Contamination followed by Policy Recommendations A. Bandyopadhyay* Professor, Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Calcutta, India Ex-Member, State EIA Authority of Jharkhand, MoEFCC, India *Corresponding author: Email- [email protected] ABSTRACT Approximately 500 million tons of coal is consumed annually by 140 thermal power plants in India generating approximately 170 million tons of fly ash. The disposal of such a huge amount of ash is one of the major problems of the country. The ash is in general disposed to ash ponds. Carryover of ash from the pond into the surface water bodies from the thermal power plants are often noticed in most cases leading to contravention of Indian regulations. Punitive measures from the regulatory authorities even in the form of economic penalties did not yield environment friendly results. These are the reasons, that the Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India, in its notification mandates all new thermal power plants to conceive 100% ash utilization prior to obtaining environmental clearance, which clearly indicates that ash for new thermal power plants has became ―land banned waste‖. Fly ash has shown to have various uses such as making construction based materials, ceramics, extractive recovery, production of ferro-alloys, multiwalled carbon nano tubes, industrial pollution control, mine stowing, exporting dry Fly-Ash to Bangladesh. Besides these applications, its use for agricultural crop produce was suggested by Fly Ash Utilization Programme (FAUP) under the aegis of Technology Information, Forecasting and Assessment Council (TIFAC). In contrast, many researches have emerged in recent years, stemming from the application of fly ash on land, on the adverse effects of the environment from ground and surface (river) water contamination to genotoxicity to crops owing to the presence of the heavy metals in fly ash in India. An attempt has therefore, been made in this article to assess these conflicting studies to put forward the possible counter measures prior to utilization of fly ash for agriculture followed by methods for disposal of fly ash averting leaching of toxicants holistically. Keywords: Fly ash, Genotoxicity, Ground water contamination, Heavy metals Soil amendment; Plant productivity, Mutagenicity; International Society of Waste Management, Air and Water

1.0 Introduction Coal fired thermal power stations produce fly ash as a coal combustion residue. The ash content coupled with the combustion characteristics in the boiler mainly attributes to the generation of fly ash. In principle, fly ash production depends on the coal quality that contains a relatively high proportion of ash to the tune of 35 to 45% under Indian condition (Singh and Siddiqui, 2003). Approximately 500 million tons of coal is consumed per annum by 140 thermal power plants in India that approximately produce 170 134

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million tons of fly ash per annum (CEA, 2013). The disposal of such a huge amount of ash is one of the major problems of our nation and such is the problem of the developing nations as of now. The ash is in general disposed in basins or landfills near the power plants commonly called as ash ponds. This ash is often referred to as pond ash. The water from the ash pond in India is allowed to discharge onto river after a decantation process within the ash pond system directly or through canals. Carryover of pond ash into the surface water bodies from the thermal power plants are noticed in some cases leading to contravention of the relevant Indian environmental regulations. Punitive measures from the regulatory authorities even in the form of economic penalties are taken in such a situation for yielding environment friendly results. Ash disposal thus creates a massive environmental threat to the surroundings of a coal fired thermal power plant in this country. Also making land available for ash disposal is becoming a real challenge now-a-days. These are the reasons that Ministry of Environment, Forests and Climate Change, Government of India, in its notification mandates all new thermal power plants to conceive 100% ash utilization programme prior to obtaining environmental clearance. Besides the application of fly ash in host of construction activities, its use on land for agricultural crop produce was recorded as a viable alternative. However, using fly ash for agriculture would not always lead to beneficial effects for crops, though earlier findings suggested that application of fly ash in small quantities into agricultural fields were beneficial for crop management. Using fly ash as fertilizer at commercial scale is not common in any countries since coal ash contains heavy metals, other non-essential elements and boron that can adversely affect the production, soil and ground water qualities. Fly ash utilization onto land for agriculture therefore, has to take into consideration about its possible adverse effects. In the light of the above findings, an attempt has been made in this article to develop an understanding on the beneficial effects of fly ash on soil and agricultural as well as adverse impacts on land disposal. Critical appraisal of the literature on these two specific aspects will reveal the ways for recommendations for better fly ash management in India. 2.0 Beneficial effects of using fly ash onto soil In order to reduce the land acquisition for the ash ponds, many applications have been identified for consuming fly ash generated from the thermal power plants for cements, concrete, bricks, macadams, pavement, land reclamation, wood substitute products and road base/embankments (Asokan et al., 2005). Fly ash also has been shown to have various potential uses such as Brick Manufacturing, Light Weight Aggregates, Roads and Embankments, Semi Rigid / Rigid Pavements, Sub-Base/Base Construction, Reclamation of Land (Abandoned Ash Pond), Exporting dry Fly-Ash to Bangladesh and Mine stowing. Besides the use of fly ash for the aforementioned activities improving soil has also been investigated since long back in India. Some of which are discussed here. Giardini (1991) investigated on the use of swine manure with fly ash on to land and reported that balancing between monovalent cations like, Na + and K+; and bivalent cations like Ca2+ and Mg2+ would occur and such balancing between cations would optimize the availability of Ca and Mg ions which otherwise proved to be detrimental to the soil. The flocculation or the aggregation of soil particles, especially clay types, is enhanced by the presence of Ca for keeping the soils friable that enhances water penetration. This results in the penetration of roots to hard or compact layers of soil. Sodium is easily replaced by calcium at the clay exchange sites so as to raise the soil flocculation and stability. The application of a mixture of fly ash, paper and pulp industry sludge and farmyard manure showed (i) a considerable increase in the pH values, (ii) variation of the soil physicochemical properties, and (iii) increased yield of rice crop (Hill and Lamp, 1980; Molliner and Street, 1982). Gaind and Gaur (2003a,b) reported on the enhancement of the chemical and microbiological properties of the compost of fly ash (40–60%) with wheat straw and 2% rock phosphate (w/w) for 90 days, but the compost did not exert any adverse impact on either on microbial population or on the C:N ratio. They had also examined the potentiality of the fly ash at various combinations with soil (w/w) for using as a carrier for diazotrophs (Azotobacter chroococcum, Azospirillum brasilense) and phosphobacteria (Bacillus circulans, P. striata) that showed maximum viability in fly ash alone or soil:fly ash combination at a ratio of 1:1. Khan and Singh (2001) reported that tomato cultivars grown on fly ash amended soils had showed higher levels of tolerance to wilt fungus Fusarium oxysporum. Grewal et al. (2001) reported increased grain yield and straw yield of pearlmillet (Pennisetum sp.) followed by wheat by the application of fly ash 135

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(5–20% w/w) in the plough layer (0–15 cm). Higher seed germination rate and root length of lettuce (Lactuca sativa) was reported by Lau and Wong (2001) by the addition of weathered fly ash @ 5%. Soil amendment was investigated by using fly ash for a variety of other crops (Adriano et al., 1980). Cheung et al. (2000) and Vajpayee et al. (2000) described that the use of fly ash in to soil to vegetate the landfill areas was an alternative for effective management of fly ash produced as a coal combustion residue that would serve for stabilization as well as providing a pleasant landscape. Interestingly, the use of fly ash on land for agricultural crop produce was recorded as a viable alternative by the Fly Ash Utilization Programme (FAUP) under the aegis of Technology Information, Forecasting and Assessment Council (TISFAC) of Department of Science and Technology, Government of India. 3.0 Adverse effects in using fly ash on soil Besides the beneficial effects of fly ash on various activities, its impact on ground has also reported to be deleterious which are described here in this section for our improved understanding. Effect of fly ash, especially the leach ability of toxicants, on ground water is strongly influenced by the physico-chemical characteristics of ash and hydrogeologic gradient underneath and climatic conditions of the land or the disposal site (Theis et al., 1978; Kopsick and Angino, 1981). Owing to the presence of higher levels of soluble salts, it was observed that weathered fly ash deposits cause more ground water contamination. Though there was a higher release of soluble salts initially in the case of unweathered ash, it declined rapidly with time (Kopsick and Angino, 1981; Hjelmar, 1990). Walia and Mehra (1998) studied the impact on water quality of river Yamuna due to discharge of overflow from ash pond of I.P. thermal power plant of capacity 200 MW on the west bank of the river. A two year seasonal survey was conducted. It was reported in the survey that the pond overflow significantly increased the concentration of heavy metals like Cd, Cr, and Zn besides other trace elements in the river water. This investigation was helpful in assessing the effect of wet disposal of ash on the river limnology and understanding the solubility of various elements in the ash ponds. Praharaj et al. (2002) has investigated the levels of metal contamination in groundwater due to fallout of suspended particulate matter from the stack of a thermal power plant near Angul, Orissa, India, and leaching from its ash pond. Analyses of groundwater showed the level of contaminations in respect of some of the heavy metals like Cu, Pb, and Zn. Higher values for Pb were reported in groundwater that were determined from the enrichment factors of these elements characterized by the maximum contaminant levels stipulated by the United States Environmental Protection Agency. Mandal and Sengupta (2005) investigated on the geochemical and radiometric analysis of the pond ash to assess the quantity of toxic elements that were likely to contaminate the soil and the groundwater system. Trace element analysis revealed sufficient enrichment of heavy metals Pb, Cu, Ni, and As in pond ash than their crustal abundances, and preferably in the lighter size fractions. The enrichment of As was above WHO guidelines for drinking water that clearly indicated significant contamination of the groundwater from the toxic elements leached from the ash pile. Sushil and Batra (2006) reported on the heavy metal content of fly ash and bottom ash from three major coal fired thermal power plants in North India, using flame atomic absorption spectrometry. Two of these three plants disposed ash into ash ponds while the other disposed it in the dry form. Ash samples from the ash ponds and dry ash were collected and were analyzed that showed values of heavy metals for instance, Cr, Pb, Zn, Cu and Ni well above the detectable levels. Singh et al. (2007) developed empirical models for the prediction of various trace metals i.e., Mn, Cu, Fe, Zn and Pb found in the leachates generated from the ash ponds of various thermal power plants. The predicted concentrations of the trace metals varied within 3% of the observed values in the leachates generated from the ash ponds of four Indian thermal power plants with standard deviation varying between 0.001 and 0.032. Singh et al. (2008) studied the effects of various concentrations of fly ash (0 to 20%) on heavy metal accumulation, growth, and yield responses of palak (Beta vulgaris). The sample of fly ash, for their study, was collected from Hindustan Aluminum Company, Renukoot, Sonbhadra Uttar Pradesh, India. It was reported that application of fly ash on land caused reductions in growth, biomass and yield responses of B. vulgaris. Furthermore, it was also noted that the concentrations of all the heavy metals, for instance, Cu, Zn, Cd, Pb, Ni and Cr were notably increased with increasing concentrations of fly ash. Therefore, land application of fly ash for the agricultural soils of a region, where leafy vegetable were grown was not recommended. Jambhulkar and Juwarkar (2009) conducted a field test on a 10-hectare area on ash pond at Khaperkheda Thermal Power Plant, Nagpur, India. The main objective of the study was to find out the potential of the metal accumulation of different plant species. The concentration of heavy metal in fly ash were determined and their relative abundance was found in the order of 136

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Zn>Cu>Ni>Cr>Pb>Cd. It was further reported that all metals were accumulated in Cassia siamea at higher concentrations compared to other species. Singh et al. (2010) carried out investigation to analyze the heavy metals concentration of fly ash and pond ash from Badarpur thermal power plant located in Delhi. The samples of the fly ashes were analyzed for the presence of heavy metals viz., Cr, Ni and Zn and the detectable levels of these metals were found in both fly ash and pond ash. The concentration of Ni was higher as compared to Cr concentration. No ash pond lining was employed in the construction of the ash pond, hence proper disposal mechanisms for fly ash were recommended to be undertaken to eliminate leaching of heavy metals surrounding water bodies as well as ground water. 5.0 Policy recommendations for better fly ash management Critical appraisal of the existing literature on land based disposal of fly ash generated from the coal fired thermal power plant revealed several deleterious effects though its use on agriculture crop produce shown to have better growth and soil improvement. The construction based activates and extraction of valuables could be the ways for its sustainable consumption. From the foregoing analysis it is conceivable that there are enough scopes of improvement of the current strategies on the disposal of fly ash on land for agriculture. The major policy recommendations are detailed below under Indian conditions (Bandyopadhyay, 2009a; 2009b; 2009c; 2014): 1) Toxicity Characteristics Leachate Procedure (TCLP) study or similar other study is to be carried out, 2) Estimating the contamination level to fix the target, 3) Planning methods for safe land based disposal of fly ash, 4) Trials of fly ash amended soils for each crop to be grown, 5) Eco-toxicological studies need to be undertaken for plants, 6) Alternative sites for disposal of fly ash need be identified, 7) Reviewing the existing Rules for fly ash management. 6.0 Conclusions Approximately 500 million tons of coal is consumed annually by 140 thermal power plants in India generating approximately 170 million tons of fly ash. The disposal of such a huge amount of ash is one of the major problems of the country. Ash disposal creates a massive environmental threat to the surroundings of a coal fired thermal power plant in this country. Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India, in its notification stipulates all new thermal power plants to conceive 100% ash utilization programme prior to obtaining environmental clearance, which clearly indicates that ash for the new thermal power plants has became ―land banned waste‖. Besides the application of fly ash in host of construction activities, its use on land for agricultural crop produce was recorded as a viable alternative a legion of researchers owing to its capacity to improve soil texture, buffering the soil pH, capacity to provide nutrients for plant growth. It had shown also other advantages like increased water holding capacity, decreased bulk density of soil, cation balance, enhanced growth of agricultures so on and forth. Simultaneously contradictory findings were also reported in the literature by a legion of investigators that clearly demonstrated that land application of fly ash even disposal to ash pond might cause surface as also ground water contamination by heavy metals. It could adversely affect soil and vegetation. Tolerant plant species were studied that showed bioaccumulation of heavy metals. Mutagenicity and genotoxicity effects on vegetables were reported due to land application of fly ash that might lead to adverse effects on vegetation and on the health of exposed human populations. Apparently, land or soil application of fly ash for agricultural crop produce appeared to be a unique approach for fly ash management in a situation where nation like India is over-burdened with the quantum of huge fly ash generated annually. But, it may not lead to safer environmental management practice on a long term basis. In the light of these findings, the knowledge gaps and future scope of research are identified. Finally several recommendations are proposed for effective management of fly ash holistically.

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Dr. H.L.Roy Building. Jadavpur. December 14–16, 2009. Bandyopadhyay, A., 2014. Utilization & Safe Disposal of Fly Ash generated from Thermal Power Plants: A Critical Environmental Analysis. Presented at the Conference on Utilization and Disposal of Ash Organized by Bokaro Power Supply Company Ltd. in association with Times of India, Bokaro, June 25, 2014. CEA, 2013: Central Electricity Agency. Annual report 2012 – 2013. Available at http://www.cea.nic.in/reports/articles/thermal/fly_ash_final_111213.pdf Accessed on June 16, 2014 Cheung, K.C., Wong, J.P.K., Zhang, Z.Q., Wong, J.W.C., Wong, M.H., 2000. Revegetation of lagoon ash using the legume species Acacia auriculiformis and Leucaena leucocephala. Environmental Pollution 109, 75–82. Gaind, S., Gaur, A.C., 2003a. Evaluation of fly ash as a carrier for diazotrophs and phosphobacteria. Bioresour. Technol. 95, 187–190. Gaind, S., Gaur, A.C., 2003b. Quality assessment of compost prepared from fly ash and crop residues. Bioresour. Technol. 87, 125–127. Giardini, L., 1991. Aspetti agronomici della gestione dei reflui zootecnici. Rivista di Ingegnaria Agraria 12, 679–689. Grewal, K.S., Yadav, P.S., Mehta, S.C., Oswal, M.C., 2001. Direct and residual effect of fly ash application to soil on crop yield and soil properties. Crop Res. 21, 60–65. Hill, M.J., Lamp, C.A., 1980. Use of pulverized fuel ash from Victorian brown coal as a source of nutrients for pasture species. Aust. J. Exptl. Agric. Animal Husb. 20, 377–384. Hjelmar, O., 1990. Leachate from land disposal of coal fly ash. Waste Manage. Res. 8, 429–449. Jambhulkar, H. P., Juwarkar, A. A., 2009. Assessment of bioaccumulation of heavy metals by different plant species grown on fly ash dump. Ecotox. Environ. Safety. 72(4), 1122–1128. Khan, M.R., Singh, W.N., 2001. Effects of soil application of flyash on the fusarial wilt of tomato cultivars. Int. J. Pest Manage. 47 (4), 293–297. Kopsick, D.A., Angino, E.E., 1981. Effect of leachate solutions from fly and bottom ash on groundwater quality. J. Hydrol. 54, 341–356. Lau, S.S.S., Wong, J.W.C., 2001. Toxicity evaluation of weathered coal fly ash amended manure compost. Water, Air Soil Pollut. 128, 243–254. Molliner, A.M., Street, J.J., 1982. Effect of fly ash and lime on growth and composition of corn (Zea mays L.) on acid sandy soils. Proc. Soil Crop Sci. Soc., FL 41, 217–220. Mandal, A., Sengupta, D., 2005. Radionuclide and trace element contamination around Kolaghat Thermal Power Station, West Bengal –Environmental implications. Current Science, 88(4), 617 – 624. Praharaj, T., Swain, S.P., Powell, M.A., Hart, B.R., Tripathy, S., 2002. Delineation of groundwater contamination around an ash pond Geochemical and GIS approach. Environ. Int. 27, 631–638. Singh, A., Sharma, R.K., Agrawal, S. B., 2008. Effects of fly ash incorporation on heavy metal accumulation, growth and yield responses of Beta vulgaris plants. Bioresour. Technol. 99, 7200–7207. Singh, L.P., Siddiqui, Z.A., 2003. Effects of fly ash and Helminthosporium oryzae on growth and yield of three cultivars of rice. Bioresour. Technol. 86, 73–78. Singh, G., Gupta, S.K., Kumar, R., Sunderarajan, M., 2007. Mathematical Modeling of Leachates from Ash Ponds of Thermal Power Plants. Environ. Monit. Assess. 130, 173–185. Singh, R., Singh, R.K., Gupta, N.C., Guha, B.K., 2010. Assessment of heavy metals in fly ash and ground water – a case study of NTPC Badarpur Thermal Power Plant, Delhi, India. Poll. Res. 29 (4), 685–689. Sushil, S., Batra, V. S., 2006. Analysis of fly ash heavy metal content and disposal in three thermal power plants in India. Fuel. 85, 2676–2679. Theis, T.L., Westrick, J.D., Hsu, C.L., Marley, J.J., 1978. Field investigation of trace metals in groundwater from fly ash disposal. J. Water Pollut. Control Fed. 50, 2457–2469. Vajpayee, P., Rai, U.N., Choudhary, S.K., Tripathi, R.D., Singh, S.N., 2000. Management of fly ash landfills with Cassia surattensis Burm: a case study. Bul. Environ. Contamin. Toxicol. 65, 675–682. Walia, A., Mehra, N.K., 1998. A seasonal assessment of the impact of coal fly ash disposal on the river Yamuna, Delhi: 1. Chemistry. Water, Air, and Soil Pollution. 103, 277–314. 138

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The Indian Resource Panel: A Mechanism to Promote Resource Efficiency Policy throughout the Indian Economy U. Becker*, T. Fernandes, R. Arora, A. Banerjee, M. S. Saluja GIZ, New Delhi, India *Corresponding Author: Email- [email protected] ABSTRACT India‘s rapid economic growth necessitates rapidly increasing resource consumption. However, resource extraction, processing, use and disposal typically have considerable environmental impacts. In addition, there are concerns about the adequate and affordable supply of resources in the future, especially for certain critical resources for which India is highly import dependent. Therefore, resource efficiency is critical for sustainable development in India going forward. While considerable resource reuse and recycling is already existent in the Indian economy, there is no overall strategic approach to resource efficiency such as those adopted by European Union nations. The Indo-German bilateral cooperation project ―Resource Efficiency and Sustainable Management of Secondary Raw Materials‖, funded by the German Ministry of Environment, Nature Conservation, Building and Nuclear Safety is being jointly implemented by Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) GmbH and the Indian Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC). The project aims to promote policy and institutional frameworks that improve resource efficiency and secondary material reuse. In addition to demonstrating successful resource efficient practices in selected sectors, the project has also supported the MoEFCC to institute an Indian Resource Panel (InRP), the first of its kind in India, with the mandate to advise the Government of India on implementation of resource efficiency strategy and policies throughout the Indian economy. One of the first tasks of the panel was to undertake a baseline assessment of the policy landscape in India related to resource use. A detailed analysis was undertaken of all existing policies at different stages of the life cycle – mining, design, manufacturing, consumption, and waste management. Gaps and potential synergies were identified that would be the basis of policy recommendations to promote resource efficiency across the entire value chain. This paper presents the objectives of the InRP and highlights results of this comprehensive policy assessment, including a case study of the automotive sector. Keywords: Resource efficiency, India, Indian Resource Panel, Policy analysis; International Society of Waste Management, Air and Water

1.0 Introduction and Background India‘s rapid economic growth necessitates rapidly increasing resource consumption. Even though per capita resource consumption in India is still relatively low compared to developed countries, in absolute terms India was already the 3rd largest consumer of materials in 2009 after China and the USA [1]. From 1.7 billion tonnes per year in 1980, India‘s total material consumption increased to 4.8 billion tonnes 139

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in 2009 [2], and is projected to increase dramatically to 14.2 billion tonnes in 2030 [3]. However, resource extraction, processing, use and disposal typically have considerable environmental impacts [4]. In addition, there are concerns about the adequate and affordable supply of resources in the future, especially for certain critical resources, for example cobalt, nickel, copper, phosphate, etc., on which India is highly import dependent [5]. Therefore, resource efficiency (RE) is critical for sustainable development in India going forward. While considerable resource reuse and recycling is already existent in the Indian economy, there is no overall strategic approach to resource efficiency such as those adopted by European Union nations [6]. In 2009, India‘s resource productivity was USD 716 per tonne of material used versus a global average of USD 953 per tonne. While resource productivity increased significantly in India between 1980 and 2009, the increase was well short of what was achieved in China and Germany [7]. 2.0 Objectives of the Indian Resource Panel The Indo-German bilateral cooperation project ―Resource Efficiency and Sustainable Management of Secondary Raw Materials‖ (in short: Resource Efficiency), funded by the German Ministry of Environment, Nature Conservation, Building and Nuclear Safety (BMUB), is being jointly implemented by Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) GmbH and the Indian Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC). The project aims to promote policy and institutional frameworks that improve resource efficiency and secondary material reuse. In addition to demonstrating successful resource efficient practices in selected sectors, the project has also supported the MoEFCC to institute an Indian Resource Panel (InRP), the first of its kind in India, with the mandate to advise the Government of India on implementation of resource efficiency strategy and policies throughout the Indian economy. The panel is comprised of ten experts from government, academia, industry and civil society, and is supported by a Secretariat housed in the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB). The InRP has been set up to advice the Government of India (GoI) and relevant stakeholders on the potential for enhancing resource efficiency and productive use of secondary raw materials in the Indian economy. As part of its advisory role, the Panel is expected to underscore resource efficiency in the context of the existing policies and programmes of the Government of India like ―Make in India‖, ―Clean India‖ and ―Smart Cities‖. Additionally, as mentioned earlier, the Panel is also required to analyse and draw conclusions of the existing policies related to resource efficiency and secondary raw materials like the National Environment Policy (NEP), Waste Management Rules and R&D schemes for better management of secondary resources. One of the first tasks of the panel was to undertake a baseline assessment of the policy landscape in India related to resource use. A detailed analysis was undertaken of all existing policies at different stages of the life cycle – mining, design, manufacturing, consumption, and waste management. Gaps and potential synergies were identified that would be the basis of policy recommendations to promote resource efficiency across the entire value chain. This paper presents highlights results of this comprehensive policy assessment. 3.0 Methodology of the Policy Analysis Paper The policy analysis has been conducted in three steps: Step 1: Identifying Policies at stages of life cycle and overarching policies An inventory of policies that are applicable to the different stages in the life cycle of products (except for the mining/extraction stage where the focus will be on metal ores and non-metallic minerals) – design of products, manufacturing process, consumption phase of the product and post-consumption (or end-of-life phase) of the product was prepared. National level environmental policies, for instance the Environment Protection Act, 1986, NEP, etc. have been analysed as overarching policies, but different stages have also addressed specific concerns/ gaps from their respective analysis, which are applicable to the overarching policies.

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Step 2: Gaps and Opportunities in Existing Policies The second step involves identification of gaps and opportunities in existing policies in the context of resource efficiency and secondary resource management (SRM). Step 3: Gaps in Policy Landscape This analysis highlights the linkages between different policies and programs and the impact of those linkages on emphasizing the role of resource efficiency and secondary resource management. Overlaps in gap and opportunities of different policies have been identified and linked to the landscape policy analysis. Figure 1 below summarizes the methodology:

Figure 1: Schematic representation of the methodology of the policy analysis paper

4.0 Key Results of the Lifecycle Gap Analysis The key findings of the lifecycle gap analysis is summarised below: 4.1 Mining Gaps: The policy analysis exercise conducted for the mining stage revealed that although the framework exists, it has a limited focus on resource efficiency at the mining stage. Further, best available techniques/technologies (BAT) for efficient mining are missing. Mine closure plans do not address social issues and lack scientific rigor during the closing down process. Currently, the mine sector administrators or environment sector regulatory mechanisms do not adequately take into consideration regional environmental and social impact assessments or studies based on carrying capacity for planning mine leases and overall mine development in regions. Also, the plans do not focus on linking Mining and Mine Closure plans. Opportunities: The National Mineral Policy could look into aspects related to co-production of metals as byproducts from the base metal ores extracted, thereby maximizing resource recovery and minimizing waste, this would promote resource savings. Emphasis also needs to be given on promoting Research and Development for technologies that maximise this co-production of by-product metals from base metal ores. This would enhance raw material security on the one hand and give the country‘s manufacturing sector a competitive edge on the other. Cooperative legislation should enable mining of minor minerals wherever feasible by local cooperatives and reviving the traditional cooperative societies at the state level this would in turn enable drawing out a mining framework through understanding local perspectives on various aspects of extraction and damages. 141

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4.2 Design Gaps: Currently, the policies pertaining to the design of products, the National Design Policy (2007) for instance, do not address RE and SRM and have no environmental standards and guidelines for the same. The Eco-Labelling Scheme of the Government of India, ECO-Mark does not cover resource intensive products like building materials (extensive use of sand and soil), car manufacturing (steel, aluminium, critical metals), etc. Opportunities: An integrated approach in the Science, Technology and Innovation Policy of 2013 and the inclusion of RE and SRM as key elements in the policy can go a long way in achieving the goal of sustainable and inclusive growth. Lifecycle impact assessments of production and product designs, with emphasis on resource efficiency and promotion of the use of secondary raw materials can be incorporated in design policies. The Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) can mandate emphasis on RE and SRM standards and guidelines for product designers and manufacturers. 4.3 Production/Manufacturing Gaps: While flagship programmes like Make in India provide special assistance to energy efficient, water efficient and pollution control technologies through Technology Acquisition and Development Fund (TADF) there is no mention of RE and SRM issues in any of the national level manufacturing policies. Additionally, industrial infrastructure promotion policies also do not address the need for emphasizing RE and SRM towards a sustainable industrial economy. The BIS standards, although widely referred to in the manufacturing industry, lack standards for RE and SRM. Opportunities: Voluntary Standards like the MoEF&CC‘s Corporate Responsibility for Environmental Protection (CREP), 2003, could have significant positive impact on the adoption of RE and SRM, but needs appropriate accompanying measures like dissemination and awareness generation in partnership with industry bodies and chambers of commerce. Agencies similar to the Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE), which designs instruments for energy efficiency, need to be institutionalized for the promotion of RE and SRM tools in industry. Capacity building of regulatory bodies as well as small and medium enterprises should be a core focus area to promote RE and SRM in the production phase. Helpdesks may be created in a Public Private Partnership (PPP) mode between Industry Associations and State Pollution Control Boards to create awareness regarding benefits of RE and SRM to industry. 4.4 Consumption Gaps: The analysis for the consumption stage revealed that consumption decisions are largely influenced through taxation. Taxation rates are not differentiated, as a result, consumption of resource efficient products or products that use secondary resources are not incentivised. Eco-Mark scheme has not been successful in creating awareness towards the use of environmental products. The Public Procurement Bill (2012), although a step in the right direction towards creating markets for sustainable products, does not promote the consumption of products made using resource efficient practices or secondary resources. Opportunities: Given that consumption is behaviour dependent, most opportunities lay in awareness and capacity building programmes. Nationwide media campaigns like the Jaago Grahak Jaago campaign of the Ministry of Consumer Affairs could be key in this regard. Another way to curb consumer attention towards RE and SRM products is by introducing incentives through tax systems. Differentiating the tax rate between regular products and products made in a resource efficient manner and with secondary resources is a good technique to get the customer‘s buy-in. The Public Procurement Bill could also introduce the

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concept of RE and SRM and the importance of purchasing such goods. This would enable the space for new RE and SRM product markets. 4.5 Post Consumption (or End-of-Life) Gaps: The post consumption stage is most vital for SRM, especially in a country like India, where high economic growth rates are accompanied with rising incomes and increasing consumption resulting in the generation of large volumes of waste (valuable and non-valuable). As existing policies relevant to this stage of the lifecycle are revisited and revised to adapt to the current scenario, there is a relatively greater emphasis on issues related to RE and SRM, yet none of the policies close the loop as they mostly adopt approaches which are not comprehensive and leave vagueness with regards to responsibilities, ownership and financing tools. It is well known that the informal sector is the backbone of efficient waste recycling in India, however, all the waste rules (except solid waste and plastic waste rules) have failed to incorporate this underprivileged section of society in the formal waste management mechanism. Opportunities: The introduction of standards for resource efficient recycling is a requirement that is essential to all existing relevant policies/programmes. Furthermore, the efficiency criteria should be balanced with the social criteria as a large part of the recycling occurs in the informal sector. Therefore, RE should not be used as a barrier for the informal sector mainstreaming. To the contrary, focusing on the comparative advantages of the informal (in collection, segregation and dismantling) and formal sector (in advanced technological solutions for scientific disposal and recovery of materials (and energy), models promoting cooperation between the two could be developed. Extended producer responsibility must be used as a fundamental principle for waste management, especially for material rich waste streams like e-waste, end of life vehicles, packaging waste, etc. Further, waste management should be made a key element of industrial policy as it would contribute to acquiring low cost raw materials for industrial development. 5.0 Result of Sectoral Analysis using the Automotive Sector as a Case Study Examination of potential policy interventions at a particular stage of the life cycle allows us to identify the existing policies and the potential instruments that have been used to address the different stages of the life cycle. However, to identify the gaps in ensuring that the life cycle thinking is embedded in policymaking, there is a need to examine policies that have an impact on the same sector throughout the different stages of the life cycle. This step is critical because a sector is influenced by policies drawn up by different Ministries at the national level, as well as the policies promoting the sector at the state level. Mainstreaming RE and SRM into policy making needs a holistic approach whereby all the stages of the life-cycle need to be considered by the different Ministries involved in policymaking in a particular sector. This would imply that a coordinated approach needs to be developed for policies that influence the sectors. Four sectors of key importance to India, where the existing policy landscape can be improved by incorporating RE and SRM issues by linking policies influencing different stages of the lifecycle were selected for analysis: Information Technology (IT), Automotive, Cement, and Iron & Steel. The results of the Automotive sector analysis is briefly summarised below. 5.1 Raw Material Production The mine exploration technologies being used in India are obsolete and substantial technology gaps exist in exploration techniques and equipment which has implications on resource extraction and resource use in extraction. Given the energy and water intensive nature of mineral extraction, there are provisions laid down by the National Mineral Policy 2008, Minerals and Mining Development Regulatory Act 2015 and the Sustainable Development Framework 2011 that encourage efficient extraction of minerals. But these policies/frameworks do not put emphasis on specific minerals including those important for the automotive sector.

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5.2 Manufacturing and Assembly Stage Foreign Direct Investment: Automatic approval for foreign equity investment up to 100% in the manufacturing of automobiles and its components under the Auto Policy of 2002 brings new intermediate goods, additional capital for production, technology transfers (for more efficient technologies and those enhancing use of secondary raw materials) and skills in the form of externalities and technology spill overs. The technological spill over effects on domestic manufacturers can be in the form of enhanced efficiency and diffusion of knowledge in the long-run. Incentives for R&D: The Auto Policy 2002 also allowed for weighted tax deduction under the Income Tax Act, 1961 for sponsored research and in-house R&D expenditure. Further, for every 1% of the gross turnover of the automobile manufacturing company that is expended during the year on Research and Development for adoption of low emission technologies and energy saving devices, there is a rebate on the applicable excise duty. The 12th Five Year Plan of the Government of India emphasizes the need to achieve global standards in operational efficiency and for this the government also seeks to promote international cooperation in emerging areas of automotive technologies. It is important that there are incentives designed that would encourage the use of resource efficient technologies and promote the use of secondary raw materials in production of automobiles. 5.3 Use and Service Stage Auto Fuel Policy, 2003 provided the base to the Government for drafting a roadmap on long term emission and fuel availability. The roadmap focuses on the availability and usage of various auto fuels (including LNG, Hydrogen and Biofuels) for emission control, energy security and fuel efficiency. It also promotes eco-friendly cars in the country such as CNG based vehicles, hybrid vehicles, electric vehicles, and mandatory blending of 5 per cent ethanol in petrol. Safety regulations: The Automotive Mission Plan 2016-26 (AMP 2026) recognizes that vehicles need to comply with global standards of safety in line with the UNECE World Forum for Harmonization of Vehicle Regulations. These standards, while ensuring safety, do not compromise on improvements in fuel efficiency. Similarly, there should be identified standards and labelling that not only promote fuel efficiency, but also establish quality and environmental criteria to promote resource efficiency and use of secondary raw materials in production of automobiles. 5.4 End-of-life Management Stage Even though there is no specific regulation in India governing end-of-life vehicles (ELVs), the issue is slowly gaining prominence. Currently, retired vehicles in India usually end up in the informal sector where, after dismantling, the auto components are either refurbished or sent for recycling. Not surprisingly, the efficiency of material recovery is quite low as the workers are not trained and lack the equipment to dismantle and recycle auto components [8]. While some aspects of ELV recycling are addressed by vehicular policy, environmental policy as well as the different wastes management rules, other aspects are not yet covered by the law. 6.0 Recommendations from the Analysis Based on the detailed analysis of the existing policies and discussions amongst the Panel members and its Secretariat, the following recommendations have been put forward as initial steps to promote RE and SRM in the Indian context. Overarching Framework for Resource Efficiency and Secondary Resource Policy: There are policies related to different stages of the life cycle but most of these policies do not explicitly take into account RE or SRM issues. Rather than introducing policy changes one by one on a case by case basis, we need an overarching framework for Resource Efficiency and Secondary Resource Policy. This could take the form of a National Policy for Promotion of Resource Efficiency and Secondary Resources Management. The policy document would outline the fundamental principles for RE and SRM applicable for the Indian economy. It would then identify the key themes relevant to the Indian context and 144

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outline those thematic strategies. The policy could then be a reference point for the different line Ministries while developing their future strategic plans. Like the National Environmental Policy, it can recommend measures that will trigger policy and implementation level changes in different stages of the lifecycle across sectors which need not be legislative in nature. In addition, once an overarching framework is in place it could trigger amendments to relevant regulations like the Mining Act, programmes like Make in India, Digital India, etc. and other relevant policies. An overarching framework can reduce the time required to achieve the desired objective significantly. Development of Standards for RE and SRM: Standards are the cornerstone of any economy and act as tools to enhance the resource efficiency and use of secondary resource management across sectors. In the absence of standards, ministries and departments can‘t recommend specific targets for RE and SRM. Whereas, if standards are available, enterprises can be asked to follow the standards and achieve the desired target of RE and SRM. The main advantage of introducing RE and SRM concepts through standards in India is the existing fairly successful system of following BIS standards for quality and safety. A significant level of compliance to BIS standards exists for a variety of goods and widespread public awareness regarding BIS standards will ensure awareness creation about RE and SRM issues. The BIS can be encouraged to develop standards for products by including RE and SRM concerns covering the different stages of the lifecycle. A starting point could be an industry wide dialogue on developing industry initiated voluntary standards for RE and SRM. Once voluntary standards are introduced, the next step could be incentives for following the standards and once RE and SRM issues are mainstreamed even mandatory compliance with RE and SRM related BIS standards could be introduced. 7.0 Conclusion The first task of the Indian Resource Panel is to take a holistic view of the Indian economy from the perspective of resource efficiency and identify gaps in the existing policy landscape. The key results of the analysis was summarised in this paper and recommendations were made that were deemed to be most logical first steps. As engagement on resource efficiency policy increases, the Panel will consider more detailed and sector specific analyses and recommendations. 8.0 Acknowledgements The study was made possible due to the Indo-German Bilateral Resource Efficiency project. The authors would like to thank study partners Development Alternatives, TERI and Adelphi, as well as acknowledge the input and guidance of the Indian Resource Panel members. References 1. 2.

3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

IGEP. (2013). India‘s Future Needs for Resources: Dimensions, Challenges and Possible Solutions. Indo-German Environment Partnership. New Delhi: GIZ-India. Singh, S. J., Krausmann, F., Gingrich, S., Haberl, H., Erb, K. H., Lanz, P., Mertinez-Alier, J., and Temper, L. (2012): India‘s biophysical economy, 1961–2008. Sustainability in a national and global context. Ecological Economics, Vol. 76, pp. 60–69. IGEP. (2013). India‘s Future Needs for Resources: Dimensions, Challenges and Possible Solutions. Indo-German Environment Partnership. New Delhi: GIZ-India. CSE. (2008). Rich Lands Poor People: Is ‗Sustainable‘ Mining Possible? Centre for Science and Environment, New Delhi. IGEP. (2013). India‘s Future Needs for Resources: Dimensions, Challenges and Possible Solutions. Indo-German Environment Partnership. New Delhi: GIZ-India. European Commission. (2011). A resource-efficient Europe- Flagship initiative under the Europe 2020 Strategy. Brussels. IGEP. (2013). India‘s Future Needs for Resources: Dimensions, Challenges and Possible Solutions. Indo-German Environment Partnership. New Delhi: GIZ-India. CPCB, Chintan and GIZ. (2015). Analysis of End-of-Life Vehicle Sector in India. New Delhi: Central Pollution Control Board. 145

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Knowledge and Practices of Municipal Solid Waste Workers: Findings from Focused Group Discussions P.T. Nandimath1,*, N.S.N Rao2, U. Subramaniyan2, B. Mishra2, B.R. Kalidindi2, R. Shrivatava2, S. Panta2, H. V. PavanKumar2 1

Padmashree School of Public Health, Bangalore, India Bruhat Bengaluru Mahanagar Palike Bangalore, India *Corresponding Author: Email- [email protected] 2

ABSTRACT Solid waste workers are exposed to substantial levels of physical, chemical and biological toxins from the point waste is generated and collected to the point it is disposed. They are at risk of developing allergic diseases, respiratory infections, musculoskeletal disorders, gastrointestinal infections, and injuries due to work related accidents. The high exposure statistics highlight the nether prevention methods, under utilization of preventive measures such as using personal protective measures, lack of education and training. The workers can be protected from work hazards and prevented from various diseases and conditions by employing safety procedures and ensuring effective and adequate use of personal protective measures. There is a huge gap between knowledge and practices of safe handling of municipal solid waste among workers in India. With this background a qualitative study was conducted to understand the knowledge and practices of municipal solid waste handlers in Bangalore city. The study highlighted fair good knowledge about waste segregation and different types of waste but few lacked knowledge about sanitary waste. Almost all the workers were provided with safety gears but very few used them as they were not comfortable. Most of the workers suffered from common ailments but utilized private health care facility and ended up spending high for health care. Workers lacked the facilities like drinking water, toilets and restrooms. Findings of the study have been employed to design a survey for the entire solid waste workers of Bangalore and to develop occupational health and safety manual and behaviour change interventions. Keywords: Municipal solid waste workers, Segregation, Occupational health hazards; International Society of Waste Management, Air and Water

1.0 Introduction 1.1 Background Municipal solid waste workers are generally exposed to variety of occupational health hazards and conditions.2 Solid waste workers are exposed to substantial levels of physical, chemical and biological toxins from the point waste is generated and collected to the point it is disposed. 7 There is lot of evidence available to prove the fact that the municipal solid waste handlers are at risk of developing allergic diseases and disorders, respiratory infections, musculoskeletal disorders, gastrointestinal infections, and injuries due to work related accidents.3, 4, 5, 6, The most evident pathway for infectious diseases is by activation of faeco - oral route basically by eating, drinking water and smoking, without adhering to the universal 146

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precautions.8The communal waste is basically comprised of organic and bio- aerosol usually stuffed with microorganisms like bacteria, fungi, viruses, endotoxins, and various organic and inorganic chemicals which are potentially hazardous.9, 10 11 There is a huge body of research to assess the impact and morbidity data about occupational exposure to solid waste amongst municipal solid waste workers. Identification and assessment of occupational health risks among the solid waste workers is receiving increasing importance because of reported statistics on exposure among the solid waste workers.7 These exposure statistics highlight the nether prevention methods, under utilization of preventive measures such as using personal protective measures, engineering controls, lack of education and training and other such interventions. However control of these conditions at work and enforcement of appropriate hygiene measures is difficult due to lack of hygiene standards especially in developing countries like India. It is evident that workers can be protected from work hazards and prevented from various diseases and conditions associated the waste handling by employing safety procedures and ensuring effective and adequate use of personal protective measures.5 With urbanization and industrialization the volume of the waste generated is drastically increasing. With increase in the waste generation, there is lot of attention paid on the occupations that are associated with waste management. Most of the jobs associated with solid waste management are dangerous. In US, collection of refuse and recyclable material was considered as worlds 6th most dangerous occupation in 2016 with the rate of 27.1% deaths per 1,00,000 workers.6 People employed in collecting waste, cleaning sewage pits and drains, sweeping roads and collecting and disposing of human and animal excreta, and animal corpses are called pourakarmikas ( these also include manual scavengers, sewer workers, sanitation workers).1 There are few studies that emphasize the health risks and magnitude of the disease burden among the solid waste workers in India. Very little is known about the utilization of the health care facility for the health problems associated with solid waste handling and its occupational hazards. The occupational health problems also have synergistic effect of poverty and malnutrition and habits like alcoholism. Alongside this the socioeconomic factors such as poverty, lack of education, poor housing conditions , poor diet, meagre pay and inadequate health facilities and benefits pose high risks for various diseases.1 In industrialised countries the occupational health impacts have been significantly brought down with the result of introduction of standard norms for solid waste management, but the burden in the developing countries is still very high and needs to be addressed .there a little knowledge about the hazards of solid waste to the workers in developing countries. The protection for the workers is also very minimal. There remains a significant difference in knowledge and practices of safe handling of municipal solid waste among the waste handlers in India. Workers do not follow safety precautions; rarely use personal protective gears to protect themselves. With this background a qualitative study was conducted to understand the knowledge and practices of municipal solid waste handlers in Bangalore city. Bangalore generates nearly about 4000 tons of Solid Waste every day. BBMP is carrying out collection, street sweeping, transportation, processing and disposal of Municipal Solid Waste. BBMP has a system of door to door collection for collecting the Municipal solid waste. About 80% of the collection and transportation activities have been outsourced. About 23,000 Municipal solid waste workers (pourakarmikas) are being utilised for municipal solid waste management. . Among these around 3000 are directly employed by BBMP and around 20,000 are employed by contractors. These solid waste workers/ pourakarmikas major role is   

Collection and transportation of household waste by auto tippers and push carts Sweeping of roads, streets, footpaths and pavements, cleaning of road side drains, uprooting of vegetation. Gangmens are employed for intensive cleaning of public areas like playgrounds, burial grounds etc. 147

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The present study has highlighted the knowledge and practices of solid waste handlers about waste segregation, occupational problems prevalent among them. This study has highlighted the risks and gaps in knowledge and practices of municipal solid waste workers and untoward health problems and to suggest possible measures to safeguard the health of the workers. However control of these conditions at work and enforcement of appropriate hygiene measures is difficult due to lack of hygiene standards especially in developing countries like India. It is evident that workers can be protected from work hazards and prevented from various diseases and conditions associated the waste handling by employing safety procedures and ensuring effective and adequate use of personal protective measures. 2.0 Methodology To critically assess the working conditions, knowledge about waste segregation, practices of the solid waste workers and to gain an insight into the occupational health problems among these workers a qualitative study was conducted among the municipal solid waste handlers in Bangalore city. 2.1 Aim The primary aim of this qualitative study was to understand the nature of work of solid waste workers, the knowledge, practices, occupational hazards and health problems associated with their work. The secondary aim of the study was to develop occupational health and safety manual for the solid waste workers. 2.2 Objectives 1) 2) 3) 4)

To assess the knowledge of municipal solid waste workers regarding waste segregation. To assess the protective measures used by solid waste workers while collecting the waste. To know the occupational hazards and health problems prevalent amongst solid waste workers To assess the health facilities utilised by solid waste workers

2.3 Qualitative study Focus group discussions to understand the nature of work, the knowledge, practices, occupational hazards and health problems were conducted among municipal solid waste workers in Bangalore. Total of seven Focus group discussions were conducted in 4 zones of Bruhat Bengaluru Mahanagar Palike. (BBMP) Among the eight zones and 198 wards of BBMP, Yelhanka, Hebbal, Peenya and Rajarajeshwari Nagar zones were selected based on the convenience. Two focused group discussions each (one for pourakarmikas directly employed by BBMP and another for pourakarmikas employed by contractors) were conducted in all the four zones which were selected. The participants were representative of the wards that were to be covered. The participants consisted of Pourakarmikas including sweepers and auto drivers, gang men, water man, inspectors and supervisors. Each focused group discussion had around 20-25 participants. The broad themes of enquiry for the focused group discussion are as follows.     

Nature of work, Safety at workplace, Knowledge on waste segregation, Health status and occupational health problems and, Awareness and utilization of health facilities.

The responses of the participants were recorded in writing and in an audio recorder. 148

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3.0 Findings 3.1 Nature of work The municipal solid waste workers comprised of both employed directly by BBMP and employed by private contractors. Most of them were from poor socio economic status. Both the government and contract employees work from 6 am till 12 pm on everyday basis. Some of workers had recently joined the job and some were working since the inception of BBMP the then corporation. The range of employment was between 3 weeks to 25 years. Most of them were illiterate and only few had primary education. Most of them reported that they had 3- 4 children and said they had maximum of primary education. Most of them expressed that they never wanted their children to be in this job. The worker employed directly by BBMP was paid around 200/- and the one employed by contractor was pain 250/- per day. All these workers were provided with health cards and with the medical facilities such as free medical services and insurance. Both the group were provided with gloves, shoes, uniforms and safety equipments. But the facilities such as pay for the work, provision of safety equipments, uniforms, gloves, shoes etc were found to be better with the employees with contractors. Most of the workers, both under BBMP and contractors responded that illiteracy, poverty and helplessness were the main reason to choose the job. Even though they were not happy with the kind of the work and the pay for their work they were helpless to be in the job. For some of the families it was a vicious cycle where their children were also forced to be in the same job because of lack of alternative job and poverty. 3.1.1Garbage collectors Auto tipper / Autos and pushcarts are used for the primary collection of garbage. An Auto tipper was provided for every 1000 households and a pushcart for every 200 households. Daily collection and transportation of waste is done with auto tippers only with driver and helper. Push cart collection only is done in slum areas. The waste collected by the auto and push cart is collected at an assigned point and the waste is then transported by tractors or compactors for disposal. Sometimes the drivers of the auto tippers have to carry the dead animals along with the waste. The solid waste also contains wastes from toilets, wastes from establishments like hospitals which include contaminated instruments like blades, needles and sharp instruments. On an average garbage collector by auto tippers (door to door) would cover around 800-1000 houses a day. Street sweepers would cover the stretch of the street allotted to each sweeper. They dump the segregated waste at a specified point for further transportation. These points would be identified by health inspectors or by contractors. 3.1.2 Street sweepers These workers basically sweep the roads, streets, footpaths and pavements. They also trim the plants and public gardens. The waste is collected and dumped at the assigned point and further transported for the disposal. 3.1.3 Drain cleaners/ slit cleaners The men are involved in cleaning the drains from 6 am in the morning. Each worker is expected to clean 2 -4 drains by 2 pm in the afternoon. During the rainy season the amount of waste in the drains is quite high and may clog the drains and hence the cleaning of drains would be more frequent during rainy season. Sometimes, they even lift the stone slabs and open the drain to clear the block.

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3.2 Safety at workplace In order to safeguard the workers, provisions of safety measures like masks, gloves, boots and uniforms is mandatory. Each pourakarmika is provided with apron, gloves, boots and masks. In addition to this each worker is provided with an ID card which has to be displayed during their working hours. Many of the BBMP employed workers stated that the gloves were torn within a week and are not been replaced. The situation was same with the employees under private contractors. But the common finding was that most of them were comfortable to wear the apron and uniforms but the mask and gloves were not comfortable. Some of them also complained that they will not get a new one when they request. Most of the women sweepers said that they do not wear mask , gloves during the working hours. The common reason for not using gloves and masks was that the workers feel very uncomfortable and hot in them and hence refuse to wear it during the long working hours. Mr Prasad, 28 years old slit remover said ―we are provided with gloves, shoes and uniforms, but it is uncomfortable to wear. We sweat and it is itchy‖ Even though everyone was aware about the safety measures and their benefits none of them were practicing the use of personal protective gears. This may cause exposure to various toxic waste and inhalation of noxious gases. Adding to this most of them also said that to tolerate the foul odour they often consume alcohol. 3.3 Knowledge and practice about waste segregation BBMP emphasises Segregation at source. Various IEC activities have been conducted intensively to embark the importance of segregation. The households are required to segregate their wastes into two categories namely wet and dry waste. At the later stage, household hazardous waste like discarded medicine, sanitary napkins, diapers, batteries paints etc is proposed to be collected separately. When enquired about the knowledge on segregation almost everyone had a fair knowledge about segregation. Mrs latha, garbage collector –door to door, said that ―segregation is separation of different waste substances into different groups‖ Mrs Dyavamma said ―separating plastic covers, bottles, milk covers from other waste like paper, wooden pieces etc is segregation‖- a garbage collector. Both the workers under BBMP and private contractors had a fair knowledge about segregation of waste. They also had an understanding about the importance of segregating the waste. Some the workers said they separate the waste into different categories which helps simplifying the process of waste management. Some of them quoted that they separate different waste which have resale value like plastics, paper, card board, metals, etc and sell them to waste pickers, and use coconut shells as firewood. Most of the workers quoted that separate the plastics materials and sell it and get money out of it. Mrs Latha said‖ we collect plastic covers, tooth brush, buckets and we sell to the factories and get money for breakfast and tea‖ Mrs Manjula stated that ―plastics and paper if separated can be recycled, whereas papers and vegetable waste can be used as manure, other dry waste can be dumped or burnt‖ the clarity about the importance of segregation was not appreciated much. Both the employees under BBMP and under private contractors were able to define dry and wet waste. Mr Rmachandra quoted that ―dry waste means which is dry like plastic, paper, iron pieces, wooden pieces etc and wet waste is like household waste, waste from hotels, vegetables, leftovers, etc‖ Sanitary waste was perceived as wet waste and was disposed with wet waste by some of the workers who were newly appointed. But few of them were also able to describe hazardous waste. They 150

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mentioned that they separate the medical waste such as needles, medicines, and other medical waste separately. 3.4 Status of health and health care utilization by the pourakarmikas 3.4.1 Health status and problems The common health problems stated by the workers were fever, headache, weakness, vehicle hits, joint pains, itching, difficulty in breathing, skin rashes, workplace accidents and injuries such as needle pricks, wounds and cuts from equipments, insect bites etc. Mrs Lingamma , 45 year old lady said that ― it often happens that we have minor cuts and injuries, we bleed also, but nothing will happen we will wash the wound and start going‖. Most of them feel that injuries and health problems are a part of their job as their job is to handle waste which is hazardous. Most women complained of joint pains and back aches. They take pain killers regularly and will continue to work. 3.41 Alcohol related illnesses Most of the workers both men and women disclosed the widespread consumption of alcohol and were a major health concern and a major risk for their health. They feel the necessity of consuming alcohol during work as it makes them feel unconscious about the flighty sight and odour. On an average they spend around 50 /- on alcohol. Compounded with this is the use of beedis and tobaccos by both men and women which also is a health concern. Alcohol use is a serious mental illness but also has devastating influence on other systems of the body. Mr Murugan said ―Everybody consumes alcohol before work. It is very common. Alcohol gives strength to tolerate the dirt, filth and smell while working, it masks our pain‖. Mr Mohan quoted about his fellow colleague that, his colleague was consuming alcohol for almost every day for more than 20 years and had liver disease, but still he continues to consume because without alcohol none of them can work in that nauseating place. 3.4.2 Utilization of health facilities Most of the workers were not satisfied with the health facilities provided. Most of the workers visit a private clinic for any of their ailments. They responded that the private clinics as they are nearby and they charge less money they wish to go to private clinic. Some of them also stated that government and private do not make any sense because both the places they need to pay. A very few said that they avail the health services at ESI hospitals. Some of them completely denied of utilizing ESI (Employees State Insurance) facilities because they have to wait for a long and would lose a day‘s pay which they cannot afford to. They felt that government doctors are careless about the poor people and do not respond aptly to their ailments. They also said that the procedure to get an approval for any health facility under ESI is time consuming and if illiterate it may be complicated for them. Few felt the distance of the facility as a barrier for utilization of the services. But in contrast few of them had utilised ESI facility and were happy. Most of them opined that the health facility is for major diseases, but for minor ailments they have to spend out of their pocket. Mrs Ratnamma quoted that her husband has a surgery and was appreciating the facility provided to her. She quoted that ― I went with my card and everything was free for my husband and he is well now‖. Use of alcohol, tobacco and harsh working environment are the risk factors for premature deaths of waste handlers. Most of the workers felt that their health has deteriorated because of the present job. Along with this under inadequate healthcare facilities and under utilization of free health care facilities for various reasons finally put them in such a position that they end up paying huge amount on their health.

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3.5 Occupational and health facilities Municipal solid waste workers were denuded with basic facilitates like toilets and drinking water. Only few of them responded that they were able to use pay and use toilets. But most of them said that they go in open places or near the bushes or in open sites for toilet. Those who work near ward offices were fortunate enough to use the office toilets. Drinking water was also a concern for the workers. Few of them said that they ask in nearby houses/ hotels or bakeries for drinking water. Some of them pathetically quoted ―sometimes we ask drinking water but they won‘t give drinking water rather, they collect water from washroom taps and give‖. Most of the workers stated that they do not have any provisions to keep their food during their working hours. Hence most of them do not carry food along with them during work. Mrs Shanthi quoted that‖ If some of the residents give them leftover food either we eat it then and there or we keep it near a clean place so that they can carry when they go back to home, but still they are not sure of stray dogs snatching the food‖. Most of the workers said they are also devoid of water to wash their hands before they eat food. Some of them stated that ―we do wash our hands but not properly because we may not get enough water and sometimes we ask soap from hotels or residents to wash.‖ 3.6. Expectations and improvements in occupational and health facilities Almost everyone expected water facility for drinking and provisions to wash the hands. They also expressed the need for toilet facilities at the workplace and restrooms to change after work. Mr Anand pathetically quoted that ―we stink badly when we finish our work, and we feel humiliated and hesitant to sit next to others while travelling back home. If we are given a restroom at least we can sit with comfort along with others.‖ They also insisted that the health facilities should be made available free of cost for all kinds aliments and disease and should be treated with dignity by the doctors at government facility. They also expressed for the hike in their salary. 4.0 Remarkable points from the group discussions 1) 2)

3)

4) 5) 6) 7) 8) 9) 10)

Nature of the work and exposure to potentially hazardous environment for the workers under BBMP and under private contractors were similar. The workers have sufficient knowledge on waste segregation and about wet and dry waste. But few of them were unaware about the sanitary waste and its segregation which needs to be emphasized. Almost everyone is provided with protective gears like gloves, masks, boots and uniforms but they are not being used either because they are of low quality or they get worn off easily or the workers feel uncomfortable using. Hence there is need to emphasise on the importance of using the protective gears and to provide better quality protective gears. Both the workers were facing the same financial problems and issues and have feel of hopelessness for their current job. Various health problems are common among them and these problems are complicated with alcohol consumption. Even though health care facility is been provided it is not reaching the people and they end up paying huge amount of money on health care. There is urgent need to provide these workers with basic facilities like drinking water, facilities to wash their hands and restrooms to change after their work. Awareness programmes should be planned about the health care facilities availability and how to utilize them as most of them were illiterate and were not familiar with the system. Awareness programmes about various disease and conditions due to their work and how to prevent them should be proposed. Regular health monitoring of the workers thorough screening camps and checkups should be initiated to safeguard the health of the workers. 152

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5.0 Future scope of work Survey- With the findings of the present study a large scale survey for around 23,000 municipal solid waste workers in Bangalore is proposed to understand the common occupational health problems and to assess the working environment of these workers. The study will also bring out the needs of the workers and help in improving the facilities for the workers. Manual for occupational health and safety- Health and safety manual for training the municipal waste workers on various health problems and measures to prevent them is developed and is under the process of approval. Behaviour change communication activities - Behaviour change communication activities and modules are developed for emphasizing the importance of using personal protective gears and to bring in a behaviour change in effectively using the protective gears. Acknowledgements We would like to thank the BBMP and the entire staff for their co-operation, the pourakarmikas who shared their valuable comments and opinions for the study. We also acknowledge students of Padmashree School of Public Health who were part of the study for their contribution throughout the study. References Abdou MH. Health impacts on workers in landfill in Jeddah City, Saudi Arabia. J Egypt Public Health Assoc. 2007; 82:319–29. Borrello P, Gucci PM, Musmeci L, Pirrera A. The microbiological characterization of the bioaerosol and leachate from an urban solid refuse dump: Preliminary data. Ann Ist Super Sanita. 1999;35:467–71. Dorevitch S, Marder D. Occupational hazards of municipal solid waste workers. Occup Med. 2001; 16:125–33. George Rachiotis, Dimitrios Papagiannis, Efthimios Thanasias, George Dounias, and Christos Hadjichristodoulou . Hepatitis A Virus Infection and the Waste Handling Industry: A Seroprevalence Study. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2012 Dec; 9(12): 4498–4503. Krajewski JA, Tarkowski S, Cyprowski M, Buczyńska A. Characteristics of jobs and workers employed in municipal waste collection and disposal by the city of Lodz. Med Pr.2000;51:615 Kuijer PP, Sluiter JK, Frings-Dresen MH. Health and safety in waste collection: Towards evidence-based worker health surveillance. Am J Ind Med. 2010;53:1040–64. Malta-Vacas J, Viegas S, Sabino R, Viegas C. Fungal and microbial volatile organic compounds exposure assessment in a waste sorting plant. J Toxicol Environ Health A.2012;75:1410 Mehrad Bastani, Nurcin Celik, and Danielle Coogan. Risks for Occupational Health Hazards among Solid Waste Workers , Environment and Human Health. Oxford Research Encyclopaedia, Environmental Science, advance summary August 2016. Poulsen OM, Breum NO, Ebbehøj N, Hansen AM, Ivens UI, van Lelieveld D, et al. Collection of domestic waste. Review of occupational health problems and their possible causes. Sci Total Environ. 1995;170:1–19. Rushton L. Health hazards and waste management. Br Med Bull. 2003; 68:183–97 Sukanya R, Kannamedi B O, Rakhal G. Health issues of sanitation workers in a town in Karnataka: Findings from a lay health-monitoring study. The National Medical Journal of India 2015: Vol. 28, NO. 2,

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Waste Management & Resource Utilisation www.iswmaw.com

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Incorporation of Policy in Development Control Mechanism Facilitating Waste Management: A Study on Megacity Dhaka Kamrul Hasan Sohag1,*, Rezaul Karim2 1

Deputy Director (Town Planning), Rajdhani Unnayan Kartripakhsa (RAJUK), (Capital City Development Authority of Bangladesh), Dhaka, Bangladesh 2 Professor, Department of Urban and Rural Planning, Khulna University, Khulna, Bangladesh *Corresponding Author: Email- [email protected] ABSTRACT Development control process of cities facilitates infrastructure development including waste management as well. Development control is a mechanism to promote planned urbanization in Dhaka Metropolitan Development Plan which is also known as master plan of Dhaka city. This is comprehensive planning for inter sectoral development including waste management. Detailed area plan prepared under DMDP identified landfill sites, waste dumping sites, location of Central Effluent Treatment Plants (CETPs) for industrial zones, building plan permission imposing garbage dumping location in each building. Dhaka is a spontaneously developed megacity comprising an area of 590 sq. mile where sustainability of solid waste management is a challenge to city planning. Rajdhani Unnayan Kartripakkha (RAJUK) is an autonomous institute constituted by Town Improvement Act, 1952. Rajuk is responsible for preparation of master plan, development and development control of greater Dhaka area. In Bangladesh, local Government institutions are responsible for waste management function. Under Rajuk jurisdiction, there exist four city corporations, three pourashavas which performs the functions of domestic waste collection and disposal. Dhaka South city Corporation has already implemented two sanitary landfill locations identified in Rajuk master plan. The implementation of the master plan of Dhaka is vested to different sectoral agencies as Local Government Institutions, utility agencies, public and private organizations. Almost all the organizations have some lacking and limitations. A comprehensive policy framework can definitely show the sustainable waste management system consisting action plan for the organizations in their respective jurisdiction. As per the development control policy RAJUK impose waste bins in approving buildings. In case of Industrial building, effluent treatment plan is being compulsorily imposed by RAJUK. The policy contributed in reducing wastewater dumping into the river and natural canals. This study represents the emergence of holistic policy of Development Control Mechanism facilitating Waste Management and how it contributes in planned urbanization Keywords: International Society of Waste Management, Air and Water

1.0 Introduction Bangladesh is the ninth most populous country and twelfth most densely populated countries in the world. In particular, the projected urban population growth rate from 2010 - 2015 is 3% (UN, 2012). With this population growth, there is an increasing problem of waste management particularly in the larger 154

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cities. Currently, according to an UNFPA report, Dhaka is one of the most polluted cities in the world and one of the issues concerned is the management of municipal waste (Bhuiya, 2007). There is an increasing rate of waste generation in Bangladesh and it is projected to reach 47, 064 tons per day by 2025. The Waste Generation Rate (kg/cap/day) is expected to increase to 0.6 in 2025. A significant percentage of the population has zero access to proper waste disposal services, which will in effect lead to the problem of waste mismanagement (Alamgir et al., 2007). The total waste collection rate in major cities of Bangladesh such as Dhaka is only 37%. When waste is not properly collected, it will be illegally disposed of and this will pose serious environmental and health hazards to the Bangladeshis (Enayetullah et al., 2005). Bangladesh has minimal waste collection coverage which forces majority of the waste to be dumped in open lands. These wastes are not disposed of properly, where general wastes are often mixed with hazardous waste such as hospital waste (Enayetullah et al., 2006). In a report on solid waste management in Asia, the data showed that, in Dhaka, only about 42% of generated waste is collected and dumped at landfill sites, and the rest are left uncollected. As much as 400 tons are dumped on the roadside and in open space (Bhuiya and G. M. J. A., 2007). As such, these improperly disposed wastes pose serious health implications to the people where it may have the potential of transmitting diseases (Ahmed et al., 2009). Due to the lack of funding, there are also insufficient subsidies put in place for the issue of waste management in Bangladesh. Hence, there are essentially no proper disposal facilities to cater to the rapid creation of waste. At present there is no secured landfill site available in the country for disposal of hazardous industrial wastes (Kabir et al., 2012). This paper is intended to present a holistic policy proposal for sustainable Waste Management policy for Dhaka Megacity Region. Implementation of Landfill Sites Four thousand tonnes of waste are deposited at Matuail Landfill proposed and identified by RAJUK master plan in the southern outskirts of Dhaka every day. Matuail is the largest waste site in Dhaka as it is responsible for 65 percent of the total waste generated. However, according to a 15 month study conducted in 2003 by the Japanese International Cooperation Agency (JICA), only 44 percent of all waste generated is collected. When garbage is illegally deposited into waterways, the fisherman lose their livelihood; and the fish, their habitat. Dhaka South City Corporation, a self-governing corporation that is associated with the task of running the affairs of the city since 1864 implemented the project to increase the scope of its waste maintenance facilities in order to combat the odor, drain clogging, pollution and mosquitoes that afflicts many parts of Dhaka. Open dumping is a pressing problem leading to groundwater pollution, environmental contamination and emission of greenhouse gases (GHGs). Each day, approximately, 1800 tons of MSW is dumped in the only official landfill site – Matuail. DCC spends 1.5% (601,350 Bangladesh Taka (BDT)/day) of the total budget for land filling operation and management. Land required for disposal of MSW in Dhaka is estimated to be 110 ha per year.

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Municipal Solid Waste Management (MSW): A Global Perspective Not only developing countries but also globally, municipal solid waste management MSWM) is a critical and multifaceted problem (Barton et al., 2008, Chen et al., 2010, Manaf et al., 009). Globally, municipal solid waste (MSW) generation was estimated about 1.6 billion tons in 2002 (Pappu et al., 2007), and it is predicted that, by year 2025 and 2050, solid waste generation will reach 2.2 and 4.2 billion tons/year, respectively; faster than rate of urbanization in large metropolis (Council, 2013). In recent years, developing countries started improving municipal solid waste management (MSWM) practices. Increasing urban solid waste is neither properly managed nor appropriately disposed. Major inhibitors for MSWM for developing countries, includes low level of technical know-how knowledge, financing MSW management, particularly in collection, transport and disposal mechanism, considering resource recovery (Henry et al., 2006, Imam et al., 2008, Shekdar, 2009). Several researchers from developing countries discussed improper MSWM in their respective cities (Alavi Moghadam et al., 2009, Henry et al., 2006, Manaf et al., 2009, Pokhrel and Viraraghavan, 2005, Sharholy et al., 2008, Troschinetz and Mihelcic, 2009, Zhen-Shan et al., 2009). Human health and biological degradation is affected by improper management of MSW that leads to socio-economic degradation (Abu Qdais, 2007, El-Fadel et al., 2002, Shekdar, 2009). Dhaka is the capital city of Bangladesh, with a population over 7 million and the highest population density (129,501 people/square km) in the world. The city is located on latitude 23° 42′ 0″ north and longitude 90° 22′ 30″east. The population growth rate of Dhaka city in the last decade was 56.5% which is among the highest in the world (Hossain, 2008). With current pace of urbanization, waste generation is increasing exponentially. It is found that MSW generation in the city is 4634.52 tons/day (Alamgir and Ahsan, 2007a, Concern, 2009). Socio-economic condition, standard of living and rate of urbanization are some of the influencing factors for exponential growth of MSW, especially in the urban and semi-urban areas of developing countries Existing Policy Framework for Waste Management for Dhaka Megacity Region Waste Management Policy Options in DAP Study Detailed Area Plan (DAP) study reveals that collection of solid wastes in important road sides is a common practice in Dhaka and in rural parts, solid wastes are thrown in adjacent low lying areas (RAJUK, 2010). Existence of Sanitary landfills is extremely deficient. DAP proposed industrial landuse planning categorizing in two landuse category of General and Heavy industrial zones respectively with specific policies for those two zones. It proposed relocation of hazardous industries from residential zones and provisions for approving building plans as per designated landuse category. Waste Management Policy in Building Construction Rules, 2008 The root law of constructing building is ‗East Bengal Building Construction Act, 1952. As per provision of this Act ‗Dhaka Mohanagar Imarat (Nirman, Unnayan, Sangrakkhan o Oposaran) Bidhimala, 2008 was enacted which does not provide any fruitful and effective policy regarding waste management. Following are some provisions of waste management in this rules mentioned in clause 59 (Gha) (RAJUK, 2008):    

There should be specific location for domestic waste dumping bins in the courtyard of every building Institutions like hospitals, laboratories, factory buildings which produce solid, chemical etc. wastes should be provided with waste collection and disposal system Any types of wastes should not be fallen directly to the water bodies, canals, lakes and rivers Chemical or poisonous wastes should not be disposed in drains, dustbins, sewerage lines, water retention ponds, or disposed underground without treatment

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Proposed Solid Waste Management Policy Framework for Dhaka Megacity Region According to World Health Organization (WHO) solid waste is defined as useless, unwanted or discarded materials and is not free flowing. Solid waste is the term now used internationally to describe non-liquid waste materials arising from domestic, trade, commercial, industrial and agricultural as well as public sector (WHO, 1971). Some specific proposals are proposed for the solid waste management policy framework for Dhaka megacity region. The proposals are presented in the following tables table 2 and table 3. Table 2: Activity wise proposed policy framework for domestic wastes Sl.

Activity

Master Plan Intervention

Strategy

Implementing Agency

1.

Providing spaces for Sanitary Landfill, dumpsites and dustbins

Provide site locations

Detailed Area Plan

RAJUK

2.

Waste Reduce, Reuse and Recycling

Provide space for Recycling

Impose 3R

Local Government and Civil Society/NGOs

3.

Controlling waste dumping into water bodies

Earmark of water bodies

Awareness generation

RAJUK/LGs

4.

Land reclamation using waste mass

Earmark of reclamation sites

Public-Private Partnership

RAJUK, LGs and Civil Society/NGOs

5.

Resources regeneration from wastes

Policy preparation for regeneration

Compost and organic fertilizer Promotion of SME

NGOs and Private Entrepreneurs

6.

Renewable Energy Reproduction

Policy preparation

Facilitation, Funding, Incentives

City Corporations, Pourashavas

7.

Capacity Building of waste Management Departments

Policy preparation

Institutional Strengthening

City Corporations, Pourashavas

8.

Marketing of organic fertilizer

Policy preparation

Tax Rebate for Roof Top Gardening

LGs, Agriculture department, NGOs, Private Entrepreneurs

9.

Household Level Waste segregation

Incorporation in Building Construction Rules, BNBC

Separate dumpsites/bin locations in approved plans

RAJUK

10.

Waste Diversion target

Policy Incorporation

50% by 2015, 65% by 2020, 70% by 2025

City Corporations, Pourashavas

Table 3: Activity wise proposed policy framework for industrial wastes Sl.

Activity

Master Plan Intervention

Strategy

Implementing Agency

1.

Relocation of Industries through zoning

Provide site locations

Land use Plan

RAJUK

2.

Designing and Implementation of industrial Estates

Provide space for Garments Polli, Knitting and dying, Textiles, Chemical and Polluting zones

Site Selection in Master plan

RAJUK, BSCIC, Ministry of Industries, Professional Institutes as BGMEA & BKMEA

3.

Prohibition of waste disposal in watershed

Earmark of water bodies

Awareness generation

RAJUK/LGs, NGOs

4.

Provision of Central Effluent

Earmark of CETP sites in

Public Private

RAJUK, LGs and Civil 157

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Sl.

Activity Treatment Plant (CETP)

Master Plan Intervention master plan

Strategy Partnership, Incentives

Implementing Agency Society/NGOs, DONORs

5.

Provision of ETP in every industrial building

Incorporation in Building Construction Rules, BNBC

Imposition in building plan approval, DOE Clearance

RAJUK, DOE

Recommendations for Triggering the Waste Management Policy Framework Following recommendations are made for triggering the waste management policy framework for Dhaka megacity region:    

        

In context of megacity, a detailed and clearly defined waste management strategy should be incorporated in its solid waste management master plan. Secured landfill sites must be identified in the master plan for disposal of hazardous industrial wastes. There should be specific policy or guideline on efficient use of domestic and or agriculture waste for production of energy or fertilizer. RAJUK, DCC and pourashavas should take step for increasing number of Town Planners, Civil Engineers and Environmentalists in their regular setup for preparing, analyzing the City Master Plan and design urban development projects including Solid Waste Management projects for the mega city region. There should be strong partnership among city corporations, pourashavas, private sector and NGOs for functioning the waste management policies. Public awareness, participation and civic perception should be improved in adopting institutional mechanism to engage the residents, public organizations, NGOs and stakeholders in decision making and implementation of waste management schemes. Existing waste management infrastructures such as waste bins, sanitary landfills, waste treatment and recycling facilities should be improved. Private sector should be facilitated for landfill gas recovery and carbon trading based composting from organic wastes. As per recommendations of the Bangladesh Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper, the concept of 3R (Reduce, Reuse and Recycle) should be imposed for sustainable waste management practices. Awareness generation of all concerned stakeholders through campaigns should be made for controlling waste dumping into water bodies. Public Private Partnership should be enlightened for effective service delivery in urban solid waste management. Household level waste segregation should be done through separate dumpsites/bin locations as per directives of the Building Construction Rules, 2008. Capacity building of Waste Management Departments of City Corporations and Pourashavas should be strengthened.

Conclusion Megacity Dhaka lacks a comprehensive waste management policy which is economically feasible, technologically suitable, socially acceptable and technically competent. Here rapid urbanization and population growth posed a great challenge of urban management threatening quality of life of its citizens. In Dhaka, inadequate policies, lack of institutional capacity and financial constraints are responsible for poor waste management. It is a demand of time to formulate megacity master plan incorporating comprehensive waste management policy for sustainable environmental governance.

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Reference Abu Qdais, H. (2007): Techno-economic assessment of municipal solid waste management in Jordan. Waste management 27, 1666-1672. Alamgir, M. & Ahsan, A. (2007): Municipal Solid Waste and Recovery Potential: Bangladesh Perspective. Iran. J. Environ. Health. Sci. Eng., 2007, Vol. 4, No. 2, pp 67 – 76. Alavi Moghadam, M., Mokhtarani, N.,Mokhtarani, B., 2009. Municipal solid waste management in Rasht City, Iran. Waste Management 29, 485-489. Barton, J., Issaias, I., Stentiford, E.I. (2008): Carbon–Making the right choice for waste management in developing countries. Bhuiya, G.M.J.A. (2007): Bangladesh. Solid Waste Management: Issues and Challenges in Asia, pp 28-32. Enayetullah, I. & Khan, S.S.A. & Sinha, A.H.M.M. (2005). Urban Solid Waste Management Scenario of Bangladesh: Problems and Prospects. Waste Concern Technical Documentation, Dhaka. Enayetullah, I. (2006): Community Based Solid Waste Management Through Public-Private-Community Partnerships: Experience of Waste Concern in Bangladesh", Waste Concern, Dhaka. Henry, R.K., Yongsheng, Z.,Jun, D. (2006): Municipal solid waste management challenges in developing countries– Kenyan case study. Waste management 26, 92-100. Hossain, S. (2008): Rapid urban growth and poverty in Dhaka city. Bangladesh e-Journal of Sociology 5, 1-24. Kabir, M.H. & Jashimuddin, M. & Hossain, M.M. (2012). Problems and prospects of Solid Waste Management in Bangladesh: Future Policy Direction. Proceedings of the International Conference on Industrial Waste Management and Process Efficiency. Department of Civil Engineering, DUET, Gazipur, Bangladesh. Pappu, A., Saxena, M.,Asolekar, S.R. (2007): Solid wastes generation in India and their recycling potential in building materials. Building and Environment 42, 2311-2320. RAJUK (1995): Detailed Area Plan, Dhaka Metropolitan Development Plan (DMDP), RAJUK, MOHPW, Dhaka. RAJUK (2008): Dhaka Mohanagar Imarat (Nirman, Unnayan, Sangrakkhan o Oposaran) Bidhimala, 2008, RAJUK, MOHPW, Dhaka. Roy, T.K. (2001): Implementation of Municipal Solid Waste Management Improvement Proposals for Khulna City in the Master Plan and Structure Plan of Khulna Development Authority (KDA). Proceedings of the WasteSafe 2011-2nd International Conference on Solid Waste Management in the Developing Countries, Department of Civil Engineering, KUET, Khulna, Bangladesh. UN (2012). Country Profile: Bangladesh. UN, New York City, United Sates of America. WHO (1971). Urbanization and Its Implications for Child Health Potentials for Action. WHO, Geneva, Switzerland.

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Role of Indian Standards for Effective Management of Solid Waste B. Sandhya* Scientist-D, Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi, India *Corresponding Author: Email- [email protected] ABSTRACT Industrialization and modernization have brought many benefits to the societies across the globe. However, the footprints of those activities remained as massive irrecoverable impacts on the environment leading to air, water and land pollution. Eventually, the environment became hostile to the living kind. Ex: catastrophes, climate changes etc. Specifications, standards, guidelines, rules and regulations played a major and crucial role in stabilizing the industrialization activities and making them a success to meet the demands of the markets. While various organs of the governments set the rules, standards etc, stakeholders ripe out the fruits by effectively implementing them in their operations. Therefore, initially, the focus and the priority of the governments and the stakeholders was to encourage production of quality products. Resource efficiency, use of clean technologies, waste management etc. were secondary to the quality of the product or product performance. This was necessitated by the demand as well competition in the markets for the quality products. Consequently, most of the standards and regulations were towards product specifications or test methods for product‘s quality performance. Of late, realization of impacts of anthropogenic activities specifically industrial activities on the environment and the cumulative reactions of the later on the former, lead to instill rules and regulations to lessening the damage to the environment. Serious consequences of anthropogenic activities such as depletion of the natural resources also one of the reason for stressing on sustainability. Climate Change conventions, Rio Declarations and other protocols have also brought in a paradigm shift in the anthropogenic activities. Never than late, Governments are now taking measures to tackle the environment through various measures such as regulation for control of air emissions, water emissions, restricted use of ozone depleting substances etc. In case of Solid Waste, Swacch Bharat initiative of the Government is the latest scenario to manage the solid waste in a holistic way such that no waste is directed to land fill. This depicts the paradigm shift in the Government‘s approach to control the behavior activities of citizens of India through effective management of Municipal Solid Waste. Keeping the latest developments in the area of solid waste management and keeping the present context of India in focus, Bureau of Indian Standards has reviewed the Solid Waste Management scenario in India and decided to progress the standardization in this area, encompassing all aspects of standards namely guidelines, product standards, test methods etc for management of solid waste including Municipal waste as well as industrial waste. BIS is also actively engaged in International standardization on the subject of ‗waste management‘. Environmental Labelling scheme namely Eco Mark scheme operated by BIS is inclusive of ‗resource efficiency‘ and ‗secondary raw materials‘. Incorporation of parameters relevant to ‗efficient use of natural resources‘ and ‗use of waste‘ as a secondary raw material in the Product standards ensures effective Solid Waste Management within the gates of the manufacturing organization is one initiative towards management of industrial waste. Also, sector specific guidelines for management of Solid Waste in the sectors help the industry to improve their performance to ‗zero waste‘. This paper provides an overview of the present scenario of national and international standardization in the area of ‗solid waste management‘ including the future road map of standardization at national level. Keywords: Standardization, Resource Efficiency, Sustainability, Solid Waste Management; International Society of Waste Management, Air and Water

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Introduction Main alms of industrialization, modernization and changing life styles to human kind are ever evolving ‗healthy and better conditions for quality and comfortable live‘. However, the ancillaries that are required to create the favorable conditions to begin with, a spacious and comfortable house, nutritious food, medical facilities, mechanization, clothing etc. Over a period of past 5 centuries, the focus of the mankind was to invent something for the betterment of life of human kind. Based on the inventory of the inventions in 20th Century, UNESCO has confirmed that average life expectancy increased from 39.9 years to 49.9 years between 1960 and 1994; The infant mortality rate dropped by over 40% in the same period, falling from 166 per thousand live births to 97 per thousand; The percentage of the population with access to safe water has almost doubled in the past two decades, rising from 24% in the period 1975-80 to 42% in the period 1990-96; Real GNP per capita has grown from US$990 in 1960 to US$1377 in 1994. This data is more pertinent to least developed/developing countries.1 Other Innovations helped to improve energy sector, Construction, agriculture, transport, medical activities which have laid strong foundations for industrialization. Every contemporary empire, state or a country has put their performance indicator majorly in terms performance of industrialization namely ‗Gross Domestic Product‘ which itself is a 20th century invention2. Though the main objectives of the industrial revolution was to improve quality of life of mankind, it has been realized of late that quality of environment also part of quality of life. Air pollution, water pollution, land pollution, public places littered with garbage caused by industrialization, modernization and changing life styles made the human habitat no longer safe and healthy. ‗Green revolution‘, ‗white revolution‘ along with industrial revolution are such examples for the case of India. Excessive use of pesticides was inevitable to accelerate the agriculture produce. However, prolonged and excessive use of pesticides resulted in degradation of human health and ground water quality in the surrounding areas3 is an example of exploitation of environment by anthropogenic activities. Eventually, the initial and fundamental benefit for the mankind ‗better and healthy conditions to live‘ lost its sheen. Apart from local pollution, industrialization also created global pollution such as ‗ozone depletion‘, ‗global warming‘ etc from which the mankind is no longer able to escape, but to review the activities and change themselves as much as possible4. This paradigm shift will help to minimize the impacts on the environment as well as self-healing by the environment. Through Montreal Protocol drawn in 1987, many countries voluntarily committed to avoid large scale use of CFCs such that the CFCs already released into the atmosphere vanish after their life of 50 years and allow the environment to recover on its own. Recent news articles 5 confirmed that ozone layer is healing on its own and shrinked substantially than the earlier. Indian Standards therefore are the guiding factors for the stakeholders to review their activities and to improve them to minimize impacts of their activities on environment. Standards, Rules, Regulations - Industrialization In the debate of ‗who is first among ‗specifications and standards‘ or ‗rules and regulations‘, one would agree that ‗specifications and standards‘ are first to industrialization followed by ‗rules and regulations‘. This is applicable to the situations where the demand for products or services is to meet the basic amenities. Therefore to promote the industrial activities in India, Shri Jawaharlal Nehru, laid foundation for the building of Bureau of Indian Standards in 1954.6 Also to pace the national standardization activity with International standardization, Bureau of Indian Standards took part in constitution of International Organization for Standardization, ISO in 19467.

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Initially, that is till 1970‘s, apart from specifications, test methods, code of practices for products and industrial operations, Indian Standards used to prescribe limits for air emissions, effluents etc. Subsequently, Water Act brought out in 1974 set for establishment of pollution control board8 at center and states. Till that time, norms for industrial effluents specified in Indian Standards were followed by industries voluntarily. Contemporary developments enacting Environmental rules and regulations under the purview of MoEF and CPCB emphasized the need for attention on environmental impacts that the industrial operations lay while performing their activities. Apart from the organs of Government, stakeholders play a major role in setting the standards, rules or regulations. Industry Associations, Non-Governmental organizations, individual experts contribute a lot through sharing of their experiences and knowledge to frame the standards in the context relevant to national, international etc9. Voluntary Standards – Solid Waste Management Initially, Air pollution, Water Pollution and land pollution within or surrounding an industrial premises were used to be the issue of concern based on its relevance to the local environment. Rules and regulations also mostly focused on these issues to attribute the pollution absolutely to the particular source. Of late, international practices, emphasized the need of controlling pollution in all the operational areas associated with the industry both on upstream and downstream supply chains and value chains. ISO 1400110 Environmental Management Systems introduced by ISO in 1990s brought a revolutionary thought process towards tackling of environmental issues. The main ingredient of the standard is inclusiveness of all significant environmental issues associated with the activities of the organization as well as all applicable legal requirements. This has laid down paths to analyze environmental issues beyond the physical boundaries of the organization, however, which are in their control. Industries also started analyzing their operations, processes with life cycle perspective such that, appropriate measures taken from the design stage of the organization can lessen the environmental impacts. Indian Standards such as IS/ISO 14006:201111 help the organizations in establishing, documenting, implementing, maintaining and continually improving their management of eco-design as part of an environmental management system (EMS). While organizations thrive to lessen the impacts of their activities on the environment, it is appropriate for them to demonstrate their actions through self-declarations, labels, certification schemes etc. This mechanism will improve confidence among the industry as well as satisfaction to the customers to showcase their integrity towards environment. Apart from the main tool i.e ISO 14001 which encouraged voluntary commitments for tackling environment, supporting tools in the areas of environmental labelling, life cycle analysis, environmental performance evaluation motivated the organizations to clean the environment ‗under the carpets‘.12 Many international organizations are motivating the industries further by introducing various kinds of certification schemes/labelling schemes to maintain and communicate their commitment towards environment for the knowledge of the stakeholders or customers. Non-governmental organizations are playing a dominant role in unearthing the inherent environmental issues associated with the products and in creating awareness among the public regarding the environmental impacts associated with the products. Apart from the acts, rules and regulations, commitments by the nations in conventions also help in reducing the pollution. Montreal protocol and Basal convention are such examples. While encouraging the members to tackle the pollution, they differentiate the responsibilities based on ‗capabilities and affordability‘ of the nations. Studies say that more than 500 million people of India still live without access to electricity. This is an indicator of the affordability of India towards sustainability. Hence, countries like India were given the privilege of exploiting resources for poverty eradication. Therefore it is important for one and all to give priority to existence and survival while tackling environment.

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However, it is the high time to provide such breakthrough for Solid Waste Management which is also a component of environmental pollution. Life cycle analysis of various products provides an idea of materials which are involved with the product as well as the waste generated at various stages of the product including end of life stage. IS/ISO 1404013 and IS/ISO 1404614 provide principles, guidelines and requirements for life cycle assessment of products. In case of waste generated by household, communities, commercial establishments etc, awareness and voluntary commitment of the citizens is the prime requirement. There are varied practices all over the globe to manage the solid waste generated from various sources. Further, Temporal and geographical conditions also decide the methods to be adopted for treatment of solid waste. India being a combination of various climatic zones, such diverse treatment methods shall be established through standards. Therefore, it is necessary to develop various protocols, tools etc in the form of Indian Standards to manage solid waste majorly at the source of generation including treatment methods appropriate to geographical and temporal conditions. Solid Waste Management Scenario in India Till recent past, Environmental management in India was being managed through Legal commitments which measure the pollution in absolute quantifies. Various tools, measurement methods, documentation etc essential to demonstrate quantitative compliance to these legal commitments have been developed by various organizations in India. THE AIR (PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF POLLUTION) ACT, 1981 and The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974 are such examples. Such legal mechanisms have been introduced of late in the area of solid waste management through intervention of Hon‘ble Supreme Court of India in the year 2000. However, due to diversity of the nature of which environment is an element, legal commitments alone cannot be sufficient to tackle pollution. Unlike air and water, Solid Waste confine its impact to mostly to the surrounding environment. Therefore Indian Standards play a major role to take up voluntary commitments by the concerned. Soon after the globalization, the very first effect that was identified was Solid waste due to packaging of goods/consumables. While encouraging change of life styles very rapidly, Globalization is leaving the footprints in the form of solid waste. This was confined initially to urban areas, became a menace now in rural areas also. Though waste has its own resourcefulness, exploitation of the same was not realized till recent past. Generation of Solid Waste in tonnes and as well as its indiscriminate disposal left the municipalities in helpless situations15. The situation is grimmer when it comes to processing or treating the unsegregated MSW, as only minor portion of these wastes were processed. The problem becomes more complex with a host of refuge material being dumped as municipal waste including plastics, e-wastes, biomedical wastes, etc. The task therefore is enormous and challenging for the country, if it has to provide to its citizen a healthy environment to live in. The roles of all stakeholders including regulators, urban local bodies and the public at large are very important and need to be defined, propagated and implemented. Processes need to be identified, established and implemented in the entire chain of solid waste management. In case of India, Solid Waste including municipal waste is being managed through various Rules/Manuals issued by Ministry of Environment and Forest and Climate Change, and Ministry of Urban Development, Govt of India. These are covering solid waste generated from urban and rural communities, hazardous waste from various sources, bio-medical waste, E Waste, Construction and Demolition Waste, Plastic Waste. Though these rules and regulations in place, lack of common practices and methods across the nation made solid waste management much chaotic. Rules and regulations for solid waste generated from few sectors such as Mining, Transport (majorly road, shipping) and agriculture are awaited. Mismanagement of Agricultural crop residue by burning and contributing to emission of greenhouse gases (CO2, N2O, CH4), air pollutants (CO, NH3, NOx, 163

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SO2, NMHC, volatile organic compounds), particulates matter and smoke thereby posing threat to human Health16 is a typical example of the present situation in India. Also, indiscriminate mining including abandoning the mines in unscienfic way are another areas of concern. However, ‗Swacch Bharat initiative‘ of Govt of India in the meantime injected awareness among all across the nation and garnered enormous support to tackle solid waste across all corners and sectors. Bureau of Indian Standards also accordingly analyzed the present scenario in India and identified the gaps which need to be fulfilled by developing appropriate Indian Standards for implementation across the solid waste chain. Standardization in Solid Waste Management – National and International Scenario On the subject of ‗Solid Waste‘, standardization is being carried out through a sectional committee in BIS namely ‗Solid Waste Management Sectional Committee, CHD 33‘. Focus of this sectional committee till now had been on development of standard for industrial solid wastes and only few standards dealing with municipal solid wastes were developed. Considering the importance of Municipal Solid Waste and other solid wastes generated through industrial and other sources, ‗Solid Waste Management Sectional Committee, CHD 33‘ has been re-constituted by giving representation to important stakeholders namely MoUD, CPCB, MoEF and municipal authorities of few metropolitan cities, industry bodies and large scale industry groups which generate Solid Waste. The scope of the committee17 is: To formulate Indian Standards on 1) Specifications, Terminology, methods of sampling and characterization of solid waste 2) Codes of Practices on reduction, recycling, reuse and treatment of Solid wastes 3) Guidelines and codes of practice for Solid waste disposal Exclusion: Bio- Medical Waste, Nuclear Waste, Plastic Waste, Construction & Demolition Waste. At the international level, there is no specific international standards organization focused on development of international standards for Solid waste management. In case of International Organization for Standardization, ‗ISO/TC 275 Sludge recovery, recycling, treatment and disposal‘ deals with standardization of the methods for characterizing, categorizing, preparing, treating, recycling and managing sludge and products from urban wastewater collection systems, night soil, storm water handling, water supply treatment plants, wastewater treatment plants for urban and similar industrial waters 18. ‗ISO/TC 297 Waste management, recycling and road operation service‘ deals with Standardization of equipment for waste management, recycling, public cleaning and road operation. Taking into particular account technical and logistical aspects. Drafting of International Standards for products and procedures as well as safety requirements for the collection, transport, storage and transfer of solid and liquid waste19. Standards on Characterization and Recovery Processes relating to Municipal Solid Waste are available mainly from the standards bodies of developed countries namely USA (ASTM), Japan (JIS), China (SAC), Russia (GOST) and European Union (CEN). Apart from the national standardization activities, Bureau of Indian Standards is an active participating member of both ISO TC 275 and ISO TC 297. BIS ensures to the possible extent to put forth the concerns of India on the ISO standards emanated from these committees such that they are applicable in Indian context without any implications on trade and industry of India. Gaps & Road Map – Indian Standards to supplement Waste Rules Regulations and guidelines issued by MoEF & CC and MoUD provide regulatory framework for handling Solid Waste. However, Standard Operating Procedures and specifications for harmonizing the products and processes associated with Solid Waste as identified below are essential for supplementing the regulatory framework. 164

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Municipal Solid Waste  

 

Separate processes for segregation, collection and utilization of solid waste from various sources such as household/community are not available. Disposal techniques such as composting, incineration etc have not yet been harmonized. Keeping in view the growing volumes of waste, the present scenario of centralized processing and disposal at city/town level need to be disintegrated and a de-centralized mechanism need to be implemented may be at ward/constituency level to reduce putrefaction and transportation of waste to larger distances. This will also solve the problem of holding/ acquiring large area of lands. Test methods for testing of waste to classify as bio-degradable, organic etc may be required. Codes of Practices and Requirement standards may be essential for the processes and technologies which can be adopted for processing of MSW such as incineration, composting, Bio-Methanation.

Hazardous Waste   



Only few specifications for treatment and disposal of wastes and leachates developed by CPCB are available for the chemicals scheduled in HW rules, 2016. There are no specified test methods to characterize a ‗waste‘ as ‗Hazardous waste‘. Establishment of test Methods may be essential to test the Hazardous effluents from the processes. There are no sectoral guides through which hazardous waste can be reduced, reused or recycled for a process which is enlisted in HW rules. Sectoral standards on the management of Hazardous Solid Waste such as process, characterization and disposal till the end of life cycle of wastes need to be developed. Standards for collection, storage and transports of hazardous waste need to be developed including requirement standards for equipment, bins, containers.

E-Waste   

There are no specific methods for dismantling, treatment, reuse and disposal of E-Waste. Valuable metals and useful materials extracted from E-Waste to be fully reused by industries. However, there are no mechanisms to maintain or declare the inventory of either E-Waste or extracted components. Process standards for handling, collection, reception, storage, transportation, dismantling, recycling, treatment and disposal of E Waste need to be developed.

Other Wastes Indian Standards may be developed for Sectors wherein mining waste, agriculture waste etc can be utilized. Conclusion Based on the above road map, Solid waste management sectional committee, CHD 33 initiated the task of developing Indian standards for management of Solid waste generated in urban/rural conglomeration. To begin with, the committee has fragmented the sources that are generating solid waste (other than industrial waste) into various categories namely household/ community, commercial establishments, public places, transport establishments etc. For the first step, the committee had picked household/community and developed IS 16557:201620. IS 16557 deals with management of solid waste generated from household/ community emphasizing segregation of waste at house/community level into solid waste and wet waste. It encourages the household/ community to manage organic wet waste through various means such as composting, biomethanation. It provides detailed guidance to further segregate dry waste into various types such as Biomedical waste, hazardous waste, e-waste, plastic waste, so as to divert them to the respective waste collectors for effective utilization of its resourcefulness. 165

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It also provides guidelines to handle domestic hazardous waste, domestic bio-medical waste and domestic e-waste in a safe manner for further disposal as per the procedures laid down in the respective rules. IS 16557 has been identified as a useful supplement to Solid Waste Rules, 2016 issued by Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change. Based on the uptake of IS 16557 by the respective authorities, BIS would develop further standards for management of solid waste generated from other sources such as commercial establishments, markets, public places, shopping malls etc. In case of Industrial solid waste, BIS has been developing sector specific guidelines for management of solid waste generated due to the activities of the sector. CHD 33 has recently developed SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT IN THE FERTILIZER INDUSTRY – CODE OF PRACTICE for management of Solid waste in a fertilizer industry. Other sector specific guidelines are in pipeline. Apart from the above guidelines, concepts of ‗resource efficiency‘ and ‗secondary raw materials‘ also are being incorporated in product standards wherever feasible without compromising the quality of the product. IS 455 : 2015 Portland Slag Cement – Specification (Fifth Revision) and IS 1489 (Part 1) : 2015 Portland Pozzolana Cement — Specification Part 1 Fly Ash Based (Fourth Revision) etc are few among those Indian Standards which allow utilization of waste/by products of other industries such as slag generated by steel plants and flyash generated by thermal power plants. Based on the relevance of these materials with the sustainability goals, they also can be categorized as ‗environmental performance indicators‘. Based on these indicators, a product can be issued with ECO mark to promote the confidence of the manufacturer as well as to provide satisfaction to the customer. All the activities involved in solid waste management such as segregation, collection, handling, transporting and disposal require various equipment such as collection equipment, transportation equipment etc including personal protection equipment. Therefore, the concerned technical department of Bureau of Indian Standards can collectively involve in developing Indian Standards for all the activities involved in Solid Waste Management. Therefore, it is essential for the stakeholders to identify the essential areas within Solid Waste management for which BIS shall develop Indian Standards on top priority. Thereby, the collective effort of the eminent experts involved in standardization activities of BIS can effectively contribute to support Swacch Bharat initiative.

References: 1) The 20th century: 100 years of scientific creativity http://www.unesco.org/bpi/science/content/press/anglo/6.htm 2) GDP: One of the Great Inventions of the 20th Century https://www.bea.gov/scb/account_articles/general/0100od/maintext.htm 3) Effects of Environmental Pesticides on the Health of Rural Communities in the Malwa Region of Punjab, India: A Review Article in Human and Ecological Risk Assessment 20(2):366-387 · November 2013 4) INDUSTRIAL GROWTH AND ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION - Dr. Singh Ahuti, Research Paper Environmental Science E-ISSN : 2454-9916 | Volume : 1 | Issue : 5 | Dec 2015 5) 5https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2016/jun/30/ozone-layer-hole-appears-to-be-healing-scientistssay 6) http://bis.org.in/ebook/startpage.html- Promoting quality through standards – Bureau of Indian Standards 7) International Cooperation - http://www.bis.org.in/sf/international_cooperation.asp 8) http://cpcb.nic.in/Introduction.php 9) Standard Formulation - http://www.bis.org.in/home_std.asp 10) ISO 14001:2015 Environmental Management Systems – Requirements with Guidance for use 11) IS/ISO 14006:2011 Environmental management systems -- Guidelines for incorporating eco-design 12) ISO 14000 - Environmental management - http://www.iso.org/iso/iso14000 13) IS/ISO 14040:2006 Environmental management -- Life cycle assessment -- Principles and framework 14) IS/ISO 14044:2006 Environmental management -- Life cycle assessment -- Requirements and guidelines 15) P.U. Asnani (CEPT, Ahmedabad), Chapter 8: Solid Waste Management India Infrastructure report, 2006, IIT Kharagpur. 166

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16) Emission of Air Pollutants from Crop Residue Burning in India, Niveta Jain, Arti Bhatia, Himanshu Pathak, Centre for Environment Science and Climate Resilient Agriculture, Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi- 110012, India. 17) Programme work of Chemical Department of BIS 18) http://www.iso.org/iso/home/standards_development/list_of_iso_technical_committees/iso_technical_comm ittee.htm?commid=4493530 19) http://www.iso.org/iso/home/standards_development/list_of_iso_technical_committees/iso_technical_comm ittee.htm?commid=5902445 20) IS 16557:2016 Solid Waste Management - Segregation, Collection and Utilization at Household/ Community Level – Guidelines.

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A Very Wide Range of Challenges and Inconsistencies in the Revised Municipal Solid Waste Management Rules, 2016 Asit Nema* Foundation for Greentech Environmental Systems, New Delhi, India *Corresponding Author: Email- [email protected] ABSTRACT The recently enacted MSW Rules, 2016 are found to embrace the same old paradigm of segregation and treatment so as to avoid landfilling, as was the case with their precursor MSW (Handling and Management) Rules, 2000. As a matter of fact the new Rules incorporate more complexities in terms of segregation in multiple streams; decentralised treatment down to each habitation and institution; virtually prohibiting disposal of organics in landfills but mandate installation of LFG collection and utilisation system, and thereby make implementation more difficult. In their zest to promote decentralised treatment and resource recovery, the Rules also appear to be fully waste centric and do not take into account norms for town planning, landuse zoning, urban aesthetics, sensitivities and sensibilities of urban residents and potential adverse impacts on account of inevitable malfunction of such facilities. Over the last two decades and more while a large number of treatment plants have become dysfunctional, the Rules have still shown their preference for technology prescription, however, no outcomes are defined in terms of environment and public health; likewise while compost is positioned as one of the most desired outputs, the associated adverse impacts during its production on adjoining communities and on food chain upon its application on edible crops are not being recognised. Apparently no lessons have been drawn from the experience of last 16 years and therefore the revised Rules are characterised by a fairly wide range of inconsistencies. Evidently there is a need for embracing objectivity and incorporating several amendments on an urgent basis, if environment and public health are to be protected on priority. Keywords: International Society of Waste Management, Air and Water

1.0 Introduction After sixteen long years of living with some kind of regulatory system, India now has the revised regulation system called Municipal Solid Waste Management Rules, 2016. It is widely known that the precursor system entitled ‗Municipal Solid Waste (Management and Handing) Rules, 2000‘ could not be implemented even by a single urban local body (ULBs) across the country. The MSW Rules, 2000 attempted to introduce, among others, the paradigm of source segregation and diversion of organics from landfills by way of elaborate treatment of waste; virtually prohibited provision of sanitary landfills and mandated construction of inherently unviable treatment plants from the points of view of resource recovery and minimizing blockage of land for waste disposal. However, out of around 8000 odd ULBs (urban local bodies) across the country, one can count on fingers those which have been successful in complying with only few aspects of the Rules but not in entirety. It is not surprising, because the MSW Rules, 2000 168

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envisioned a Utopian setting, and as a result there was significant disconnect with the ground realities in terms of urban citizens‘ level of concern and commitment towards environment on one hand; and lack of expertise, capacity and resources on the part of ULBs on the other hand. Notwithstanding the dismal experience of last 16 years, the revised MSW Management Rules, 2016 are embracing even higher degree of complexities which will make them more difficult to implement. Although the revised Rules have incorporated number of positive aspects e.g., broad applicability over almost all types of urban settlements, delineation of diverse stakeholders at central and state levels and defining their responsibilities, recommendation for formation of state level advisory body, mandating submission of annual reports by ULBs and treatment plant operators, proposing home composting as an option for waste management, emission norms for incineration plants, etc.; this paper brings out a set of complexities therein which make the task of effectively managing municipal solid waste and safeguarding public health more challenging; and therefore argues for modification of the Rules by adopting objectivity and incorporating experience of last couple of decades. 2.0 The Challenge of Segregation at Source Under Section 4, clause 1(a) of the revised Rules, 2016 it has been made mandatory for every household to segregate waste in multiple streams viz., biodegradable, non-biodegradable, hazardous and now even sanitary waste. However, given the significant socio-economic diversity in the Indian society, the significant disparity of education, and the deficit in awareness, concern and commitment towards environment in particular and public health in general, segregation of domestic waste uniformly all across a urban settlement into biodegradable and non-biodegradable streams is an extremely challenging proposition. In most middle and upper income households it is the domestic servants who handle waste and they are least concerned because of, among others, lack of education. Typically one could find over 300 different types of materials in domestic solid waste and it is simply not possible to educate domestic workers all across a town, let alone in one household to consistently segregate into multiple streams. Over the last sixteen years - post MSW Rules, 2000, we do not have even a single community in any of the urban centres across the country which can claim to have achieved and sustained this practice over an extended period of time. It is to be recognised that Indian society is already doing a significant level of segregation and recovery in the form of newspapers, glass and plastic bottles, metal items, etc. Typically every housewife in middle and lower income households takes out all such items which have some residual economic value and she is well supported by a vast network of Kabariwallas (itinerant waste collectors) across the country. Likewise, unlike US or Europe, Indian households do not discard their white goods, electronic items, car tyres, etc. along with their domestic waste. Instead such waste items are again sold to Kabariwallas who in turn dismantle and extract each and every reusable or recyclable component. In the West from where the concept has come, segregation is primarily for paper, metal and glass bottles, (besides of course domestic hazardous waste), etc. Further, over there the concept of segregation of bio- and non-biodegradable waste as it is practiced, it is primarily for bulk waste, e.g., grass cuttings from lawn mowing operations, dry leaves in fall season, department stores, hotels and restaurants, etc. and not for post-consumer food waste i.e., meat (biodegradable) and bones (non-biodegradables) from individual households as is being attempted under the revised MSW Rules, 2016. Therefore, over and above the existing segregation practice of the Indian society, laying further emphasis on source segregation of biodegradable and non-biodegradable fractions amounts to significant costs for municipal bodies in terms of publicity for awareness creation and behaviour change; provision of separate containers and vehicles for collection and transport; multiple vehicle trips, etc. From logistics point of view this does not turn out to be a practicable and feasible proposition and therefore over the last 16 years no community, ULB or service provider has been able to achieve such a paradigm in the country. As if the challenge of segregation of biodegradables from non-biodegradables was not enough, under Section 4, clause 1(b) the revised MSW Rules, 2016 have ambitiously introduced further complexity by mandating segregation of ‗sanitary waste‘ i.e., sanitary napkins, tampons, nappies, baby and adult 169

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diapers, etc. It appears that the Rules consider compost (and accordingly, the so called biodegradable fraction of waste out of which compost is produced) to be rather sacred and therefore mandate sanitary waste to be kept separate. It will be far too challenging to keep sanitary waste separated all through its journey from household to the treatment plant, or shall we say the dump site. Interestingly the Rules permit mixing of sanitary waste with ‗dry waste‘, which is again intriguing as it will expose the eventual dealers/ handlers/ recyclers of dry waste to pathogens. Evidently the whole paradigm of waste segregation is simply impractical and Utopian for a highly disorganized society as is the case in India. Where a large number of urban residents are practicing open defecation; where a university professor in Delhi carelessly disposes of radioactive waste with general solid waste; where a large number of small hospitals and nursing homes dispose of hazardous hospital waste indiscriminately; where a large number of municipalities burn horticulture waste (dry leaves and branches which the Mother Nature gives by and large in segregated form) indiscriminately and with impunity; where people have no regard for traffic rules and civic sense, expecting families from low and middle income sections of the society to segregate their waste on a day-in-and-day-out basis is simply Utopian (the higher income group is any way far removed from these matters!). This is also a highly impractical proposition as it does not consider challenges of implementation and monitoring at households level on the part of a typical ULB. In this respect it is to be recognised that the first inviolable rule in effective solid waste management is collection efficiency. Before residents are asked to go for source segregation of solid waste, ULBs must show effectively that they have reliable and efficient collection programmes, else they stand to lose credibility. Further, it is virtually impossible to have an efficient collection programme until ULBs have a well-organised and designated site for delivery of the collected waste. Worldwide, every successful solid waste management system has a fixed delivery site – a landfill and a treatment site. On the contrary, on one hand the MSW Rules, 2016 are not allowing construction of landfill sites but on the other hand they are mandating waste segregation. 2.1 Segregation of waste generated during large events Under Section 4, Clause 4 the Rules mandate organizers of large events (> 100 invitees) to take care of segregation of the generated waste. In the case of a marriage party, it appears that the Rules expect father of an India bride to be busy in segregation instead of ensuring her smooth Bidai ! Or the guests to be mindful of what goes where! This is an impractical proposition as it expects the society to become waste centric but does not consider challenges of implementation and monitoring on the part of ULBs. 2.2 Storage of segregated horticulture waste Under Section 4, Clause 1(d), the Rules mandate storage of horticulture waste at source. However, in dry form this kind of waste is prone to catch fire and therefore poses risk to households and community/ estate, unless it is stored in a closed container and/or quickly processed. Therefore, such a provision is not conducive for safety and well-being of residents of a household with garden and the surrounding community. In absence of proper in-situ storage and treatment; and lifting service by ULB, households will resort to putting the waste on fire which will cause localised air pollution. 3. Scope of Burning the Waste Inside one‘s Premises Under Section 4, Clause 2 while disposal, burning or burying outside premises is prohibited; apparently this leaves scope for burying and burning within one‘s premises and this is exactly what is happening in Kerala where the State Government has amended Municipal Act1 whereby all households/ properties/ establishments are required to retain waste within their premises and ensure appropriate treatment. As a result, burning of waste in backyards of homesteads is now a common sight in several towns of Kerala. 1

Kerala Municipality (Amendment) Act, 2012.

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4. The Challenges of Decentralised Treatment Under Section 4, Clause 6, 7 and 8, the Rules mandate all residential colonies, gated communities, market associations, institutions, hotels and restaurants to arrange for treatment of biodegradable waste within their premises. This is an extremely short-sighted proposition which is assuming the society/ respective players to become waste centric at the cost of performing their main Dharma (it is not their job or responsibility and they do not have time, energy, resources and expertise to do so). This proposition is fraught with several challenges: a. This amounts to dereliction of duty on the part of ULBs as they are the ones who are responsible for lifting/collection, transport, treatment and safe disposal of waste and thereby safeguard environment and public health. b. This amounts to violation of town planning and land-use policies and norms as incompatible activity of waste treatment is being recommended in residential, commercial and institutional areas. As if this is not enough, sewage management agencies on the same lines are recommending decentralised sewage treatment while unreliable power supply has anyway compelled people to install decentralized private generators. This policy and fascination with decentralisation of essential municipal infrastructure carries the risk of undermining aesthetics, quality of life, property valuations and public health. This is so because at the gross level solid waste treatment plants (and likewise sewage treatment plants) have the inherent characteristics of causing odour and fly nuisance while spilling of waste brought by all the vehicles along the approach roads will be a bonus. In addition, such plants are known to release bioaerosol - suspension of airborne particles of 1-100 micron that contain living organisms. On account of their fine size, bioaerosols can easily enter and infect lungs and also cause skin infection, asthma, etc. Unfortunately as of now there are no guidelines or air quality norms in India on bioaerolos as apparently this has not be recognised to be an issue. Evidently decentralisation comes with a high risk to public health in areas surrounding waste treatment facilities. c. Experience of last 16 years shows that decentralized treatment initiatives come to a naught within a short span of time because of, among others (a) paucity of resources, expertise, interest and commitment on the part of residents in colonies or gated communities; and (b) odour nuisance as a result of inevitable malfunction and consequent demolition/ vandalism by affected parties. 5.0 There is no Energy, it‘s Primarily Incineration Under Section 6, Clause 1(b) the Rules mandate formulation of a policy on, among others, ‗wasteto-energy‘ (WtE). And under Section 10, the Rules mandate Ministry of New and Renewable Energy to facilitate infrastructure creation and provision of subsidy for setting up of WtE plants. However, the Rules do not seem to be drawing lessons from the experience of last 20 years where a number of treatment plants (cutting across all technologies viz., WtE, RDF, biogas and composting) have closed down despite having availed considerable subsidies. When it comes to WtE, it is not really the energy which is the main output of an incineration plant. This is especially so in a warm climate country like India where the overall energy utilisation efficiency for any feedstock in a WtE plant is as low as 22-25%; while in a cold climatic setting due to the benefit of the feasibility of cogeneration (combined heat and power system), typically the energy utilisation efficiency is in excess of 65%. Therefore, in a warm climate country the WtE paradigm is only notional as it essentially corresponds to simple incineration rather than gainful energy generation on commercially viable terms. As a result, fundamentally such plants need to be viewed as incinerators where the main benefits are intangibles – i.e., waste volume reduction to the extent of 90%, saving of area required for eventual safe disposal, and safeguarding of public health at all times. Secondly, it has to be recognised that there is no energy in the Indian MSW – it has lots of moisture, wet organics, sand, dust, stones, construction debris, etc. and the calorific value is seldom more than 4.6 MJ/kg (way below the desirable lower limit of 6.7 MJ/kg for self-sustaining combustion).

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As long as the Rules and the policy perceive WtE plants to be ‗standalone power plants‘ and do not place premium on the intangibles (by way of user charges/ tipping fee/ gate fee), they will continue to close down due to financial unviability. 6.0 Provision of Finances and Unrealistic Timelines Under Section 6, Clause 1(f), the Rules mandate provision of project finances to ULBs for setting up, among others, treatment plants. Moreover, under Section 22, the Rules recommend timeframe of 1, 2 and 3 years for compliance with diverse provisions. MSW Rules, 2000 had also adopted the same timeframe and we know that even after 16 years there is not a single ULB which can claim to comply with the said Rules in entirety. Evidently the timeframe is ambitious, unrealistic and unfeasible, considering the fact that now there are around 8000 ULBs/ census towns across the country. Secondly, considering such a large number of ULBs, it needs to be recognised that there is not enough capacity in the country to develop such projects and implement envisioned works (planning, designing, environmental and social clearances, preparing contract documents, inviting bids and awarding contracts, financial closures, construction, etc.) within such a short time frame. Showing haste in creation of such infrastructure carries the risk of wasteful expenditure and poor implementation, as has been the case in the past. Evidently no lessons appear to be drawn from the experience of the last 16 years. 7.0 No Agency for Monitoring Quality of Compost and Its Impacts Under Section 7 and 8, while defining duties of the Department of Fertiliser (Min. of Chemicals and Fertilisers), and Ministry of Agriculture, the Rules do not specify which agencies across the country shall be responsible for ensuring quality of compost derived from municipal solid waste; its suitability or otherwise for application on food crops; monitoring impact on soil and food crops; monitoring impact on public health, etc. Compost derived from MSW invariably contains comparatively high levels of heavy metals, antibiotics, weed seeds, pathogens and contraries such as glass, etc. Heavy metals in particular pose the rick of cancer among consumers of crops grown using such compost and therefore in several advanced economies it is not recommended for food crop application. The Rules do not make it clear as to which agency will be responsible for monitoring how compost is being used, how much is getting sold and for what applications it is being sold, etc. 8.0 Overlooking Burning Of Waste At Dump Sites Under Section 14 while defining duties of the Central Pollution Control Board, apparently the Rules do not take into account serious issue of rampant and indiscriminate burning of waste on open dumps sites. In this respect the Rules do not define what action should be taken, by whom and against whom such actions should be taken? Evidently, the urban local bodies have a lot to answer as they do not set up properly designed sanitary landfills, but continue to dispose of waste in open dumps and allow it to burn on its own (due to release of landfill gas) or to be burnt by rag pickers (due to unrestricted access). 9.0 Decentrlised Treatment Impairs Quality of Life Under Section 11, Clause 1(h), the Rules mandate State Urban Departments and their Town and Country Planning Organisations to make provisions in land use plans for decentralised treatment. However, as described earlier this provision carries severe risk of undermining public health and quality of life. Under Section 11, Clause 1(l), in the zest for implementing decentralised treatment paradigm the Rules apparently do not recommend (or rather waive off) buffer zone for smaller treatment units/ plants (with capacity < 5 MT/day). Evidently every time there will be a malfunction (and there are too many and too frequent in the case of a typical waste treatment plant), they will make lives of nearby residents miserable on account of odour, flies, etc. The accumulated waste (approximately 5 MT/day x 60 days x 0.75 = 225 MT) and the resultant odour nuisance will invariably lead to adverse psychosomatic impacts (viz., nausea, headache, loss of appetite), general decline in health and skin infection, etc. 172

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Under Section 15, Clause (m) and (q), the Rules again mandate local authorities of urban agglomerations and village panchayats of census towns to set up decentralised or on-site treatment facilities (either composting or biomethanation) in market areas. These recommendations are completely impractical as they call for creating infrastructure with inherent potential for odour nuisance in dense commercial and residential areas. Secondly, small ULBs have neither the resources nor the expertise to sustain operations of such facilities, let alone take environmental and social safeguards. It is therefore not surprising that several such small plants in the past have malfunctioned and closed down; and eventually they were either vandalised, demolished or abandoned. Under Section 15, Clause (p), the Rules prescribe ‗processing‘ of horticulture waste in public parks and gardens again on decentralised basis. This provision carries the risk of spoiling aesthetics of public parks and runs contrary to the concept of offering amenities to the general public for recreation. It appears that the people who have framed these rules are heavily focused on the objective of getting rid of waste without any regard to public sensibilities, sensitivities, aesthetics, etc. Lastly, decentralised paradigm does not allow economy of scale; instead, it requires multiple teams of skilled operators and maintenance staff which is a costly proposition. 10.0 Prohibition on Land Filling of Mixed Waste Under Section 15 Clause (w) and Schedule-II Section A, Clause (d), only residual waste/ process reject is allowed to be disposed of into landfills. Municipal Solid Waste Management Rules, 2000 had also mandated that mixed MSW shall not be disposed of in sanitary landfills, and it should perforce be treated. Ideally the intent is to reduce volume of waste and thereby reduce the land area required for sanitary landfilling (but unfortunately, the moment a ‗processing‘ plant is installed, it is perceived to be standalone profit centre like an industry). In this context, provision of a ‗treatment‘ plant is understood to be compulsory as interpreted by state and central regulatory authorities – notwithstanding the inherent technical-commercial unviability and affordability on the part of ULBs. In this respect it is noteworthy that in 2005-06 the Surat Municipal Corporation was not allowed to commission its well designed and constructed sanitary landfill site for several years because it did not have a ‗treatment plant‘ in place; As a result the landfill was kept empty while the mixed municipal waste was disposed of openly on an adjoining plot of land - in the process the landfill experienced degradation due to climatic factors; the public did not have the benefit of improved environment and health; and the investment of over Rs. 4 Crore did not yield desired results. There are several such cases across the country. Further, this clause imposes unrealistic conditions on service providers/ plant operators/ municipal authorities to reduce treatment plant rejects and residuals. Drawing from this, typically municipal authorities stipulate a limit of as low as 20% residuals post treatment in their contracts, which entail significant capital investments for multiple stages of treatment. However, from technical and scientific point of views it is extremely challenging to reduce rejects below a certain level (in reality it comes down to only around 50%) without defying the laws of nature and the law of diminishing returns. On this aspect it is also noteworthy that some technology providers create confusion by promising zero rejects and residuals and unjustly attempt to influence bidding process in their favour (e.g., take the case of GurgaonFaridabad waste treatment plant under JNNURM which is now defunct any way). Imposition of significant restrictions on the nature of the material that can be disposed of into landfills is counterproductive as that fraction which is not allowed to be disposed of either piles up in open dumps sites (most often right in front of the engineered SLF), or disposed of in rivers/sea or remains in unorganised heaps all across the city which undermine environment, public health and safety. While the concern and intent of ‗reducing the burden on landfill‘ are noble, but they should not be at the cost of the environment and public health. In this context it is pertinent to present proven hierarchy of technical options practiced worldwide, as shown in Exhibit 1, wherein the option of landfill represents bedrock of a robust, integrated and 173

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effective solid waste management system. As against this proven hierarchy, as shown in Exhibit 2 the MSW Rules, 2016 embrace an evangelistic and impractical inverted hierarchy wherein landfill is given the least priority while bulk of the problem is presumed to be addressed through the intractable 3R or 4R measures, viz., reduce, reuse, recycle and recover. With recent implementation of the Seventh Pay Commission recommendations, the economy in general will witness more consumption rather than reduction. Moreover, looking at the changing lifestyles, and rising aspirations to achieve increasingly higher standard of living, the 3R paradigm is only a rhetoric; and municipalities and waste managers should not be taking recourse to that alone.

Reuse

Recycle

Waste diversion

Reduce

Recover (e.g., Composting, WtE, etc.)

Sanitary landfill

Waste disposal

Preferred direction for implementation

Further, the Rules appear to prescribe a series of options for reuse of inerts (e.g., making bricks and pavement blocks, etc.) which shows that prima facie the intent and priority of the Rules is not safeguarding public health at least cost but pursuing the paradigm of resource recovery at any cost. However, as mentioned earlier, every incremental processing of the waste material comes at a significant cost which does not necessarily translate into commensurate value addition and price realisation. Evidently as shown in Exhibit 3, most of the so called processing facilities face severe financial challenges and irrespective of technology or geographical location close down in short- to medium-terms (Nema, 2009).

Aspirational direction

Exhibit 1: Hierarchy of Options for Sustainable and Effective Waste Management

Exhibit 2: Evangelistic inverted and Impractical Hierarchy Embraced by the MSW Rules, 2016 174

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Exhibit 3: Closed Treatment Plants across the Country Technology Composting

Location of closed plants - Trivendrum, Vijaywada, Bangalore (2) - Kolkata, Asansol, Durgapur, Jagganathpuri - Mumbai (3), Thane, Ahmadabad - Delhi (2), Gwalior, Bhopal, FaridabadGurgaon - Shimla, Shillong - All Air Field Stn. (6) - Kanpur, Barielly

Causes of closure Odour nuisance, community resistance; poor techno-commercial viability; lack of market for compost; lack of financial support by ULB, etc.

Vermi-composting

- Mumbai (400 MT/d) - Suryapet, Ramagundam - Chalisgaon, Phaltan

High sensitivity to climatic factors; high vulnerability to predators, etc.

Biomethanation

- Lucknow - Chennai, Vijaywada

Odour nuisance, community resistance; poor techno-commercial viability; lack of financial support by ULB, etc.

Mass burn

- Timarpur @ Delhi

Poor techno-commercial viability; lack of financial support by ULB, etc.

Refuse Derived Fuel

Same as above.

Pyrolysis

- Baroda, Mumbai, Jaipur - Bangalore, Hyderabad, Guntur-Vijaywada - Pune

Plasma Arc

- Nagpur (Hazardous industrial waste)

Lack of feedstock.

Technological and financial challenges, lack of grid connectivity.

Note: This is only indicative and not a comprehensive list.

By imposing such restrictions, on one hand the Rules apparently do not recognise sanitary landfill as the most robust, flexible, forgiving and least cost option of waste management; prevent adoption of the option of ‗bioreactor‘ landfill which allows combined treatment and disposal of organic waste without investment in a plant, but maximise capture of landfill gas for possible conversion into energy (Nema and Baker, 2008) ; and on the other hand make it virtually compulsory to set up capital intensive treatment plants which are prone to high wear and tear, corrosion, break down and represent depreciating assets. This is one of the most contentious and unfeasible clauses of the MSW Rules which must be objectively reappraised and removed. 11.0 Overwhelming Challenges in Treatment of MSW Under Section 15, Clause (m) and Clause (v), it is noteworthy that the Rules are prescriptive in terms of technology, instead of focusing on public health outcomes. For instance, the Rules prescribe construction of, among others, compost, biogas or vermicompost plants with the underlying intent ‗for optimum utilisation of various components of solid waste‘. Secondly, under the same clauses the Rules recommend decentralised treatment to ‗reduce transportation costs‘. However, it needs to be recognised that the main objective of a MSW treatment plant is basically to reduce the volume of waste (which is putrefying, pathogenic, offensive and at times contains hazardous material) as well as to render it as innocuous as possible for eventual safe disposal but not to make use of it for production of any value added products and generate profit therefrom; or to reduce transportation cost. Setting up decentralised treatment plants with the objective of reducing transport costs is also running contrary to safeguarding urban aesthetics and public health. Some of the common challenges faced by all solid waste treatment plants comprise (a) severe wear and tear and corrosion of equipment and as result, very high breakdown and need for frequent replacement, (b) lack of any guarantee on quality and quantity of feedstock and as result severe shock loadings on sensitive biological processes, (c) very adverse environmental and social impacts, and as a result the 175

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affected communities virtually get ostracised and take recourse to litigation. On top of these, there are very wide range of technology specific challenges which are described in the paragraphs that follow. 11.1 The challenges of earthworms As regards vermicomposting for scaled-up application for MSW treatment, it needs to be recognised that this is not an option for addressing city level challenge where waste quantities are very large. Earthworms are very sensitive to climatic factors (temperature variation), feedstock quality/toxins, moisture content, etc. and are typically characterised by very high die-off rate. They are also easy prey for raptors and reptiles alike. Further, it has been found that indigenous species are not effective and instead one needs to procure exotic species at fairly high prices. Therefore, recommending this as an option for scaled up facilities is not pragmatic. 11.2 The challenges of composting Compost made out of MSW invariably contains heavy metals, toxins, antibiotics, weed seeds, pathogens, glass, sharps, etc. therefore it is not suitable for food crop application. Secondly, compost has very low nutrient value and very low shelf life therefore farmers are not very motivated to use it. Thirdly, while compost production is 365 days, its demand is only three times a year coinciding with sowing seasons; and as a result the plant operator has very poor cash flow. 11.3 The challenges of anaerobic digestion The bacteria in the biogas reactors are highly sensitive to (a) fluctuation in temperature (cannot tolerate more that ± 2⁰C and therefore lack of insulation and addition of large quantity of cold water in winter severely affects their performance); (b) fluctuations in feedstock quality, consistency and feeding rate; and (c) toxicity due to heavy metals, etc. As a result performance of the technology is very unreliable, i.e., over the seasons there is high fluctuation in gas production. Next, the gas is highly corrosive which adversely affects plant and equipment and reduces their effective lifespan. The gas engines required for conversion of biogas into energy have to be imported - they turn out to be very expensive, and their spare parts are either not easily available or they are too expensive to procure. Further, the capex involved in a biogas plant is almost an order of magnitude higher compared a compost plant. Lastly, in absence of the possibility of cogeneration (combined heat and power) the net energy utilisation efficiency is as low as 22% which makes the whole proposition commercially unviable. 11.4 The challenges of refuse derived fuel/ incineration Typically Indian MSW contains fairly high moisture and non-combustibles (viz., sand, stones, dust, silt of road side drains, construction debris, etc.) and as a result its calorific value is low. It does not burn on its own, instead it requires auxiliary fuel which entails additional cost for the operator. Secondly, the boiler of a WtE plant experiences severe damage to its tubes due to the higher presence of inerts. Thirdly, an RDF/incineration/WtE plant requires skilled manpower to operate the plant. Fourthly, it requires robust emission control system. Lastly, as mentioned earlier, in this case also the net energy utilisation efficiency is as low as 22%. As a result of the above described technological challenges, any entrepreneur operating a MSW treatment plant based on any technology without any financial incentives finds it next to impossible to sustain operations beyond 3-4 years. Therefore it is necessary that the whole issue of waste treatment be looked objectively and after taking into consideration the experience of a large number of failed plants across the country over the last one and a half decade. It appears that the revised Rules have not drawn lessons from the experiments of last 16 years where the results have been most unfavourable. In view of the above, instead of going down to the level of specifying treatment technologies, the Rules should ideally restrict themselves to specification of performance standards in terms of, among others, environment and public health and be more open towards sanitary landfills.

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12.0 What If There is No Compliance? Over the last 16 years, while not a single ULB could achieve compliance with MSW Rules, 2000, we do not have a case of any one of them being taken to court for any punitive action. It is so because the Rules did not have any clauses to that effect. Likewise, it is found that in their new version the MSW Rules, 2016 there is no mention of any specific punitive action that can be initiated against any ULB in case of either non-compliance with the strict and ambitious timeline; with collection and safe disposal of waste; or due to adverse socio-environmental and public health impacts. 13.0 There is No such Thing as Temporary Storage Under Schedule-I, Section (A) Clause (xi) and Schedule-II Section A Clause (c), the Rules variously mandate provision of ‗temporary storage‘ / ‗temporary processing site‘/ ‗temporary landfill site‘ at each landfill site. This is with the objectives of (a) storing the incoming waste for the duration over which treatment plant may not be operational, and (b) saving landfill volume. However, this provision runs contrary to the basic premise of a sanitary landfill which is provided to take care of, among others, such emergencies e.g., shut down or closure of treatment plants, arrival of excess or incompatible waste loads, inclement weather, etc. By insisting on ‗temporary storage‘ (which will be nothing but license for open stocking and open burning) of a large quantity of putrefying waste (say @300 MT/day x 30 days of plant closure = 9000 MT) the Rules do not seem to take into account (a) the potential adverse impacts on the environment and public health and (b) the associated cost of multiple handling of waste. Actually when it comes to proper operations of sanitary landfills, there is nothing called ‗temporary storage‘ of municipal waste. 14.0 There is No Sewer Line Next to Landfill Under Schedule-I, Section D, Clause (iii), regarding management of leachate, interestingly the Rules suggest, among others, disposal of treated leachate into sewer lines. This recommendation assumes as if a landfill is located within a city and a sewer line is passing nearby. Under the same clause the Rules recommend ‗recycling of treated leachate‘; however international best practice is the other way round - to recycle untreated leachate with the objective of, among others, getting it treated during its passage through the landfill and also enhance landfill gas production for gainful use. This shows that the Rules are rather idealistic and do not align with established best practices. 15.0 There is no Scope for Landfill Gas Here Under Schedule-I, Section (F), Clause (i) and Clause (iii), amazingly and intriguingly the Rules recommend enhanced recovery of landfill gas (LFG) by way of installation of, among others, collection system and gas wells; and its utilisation for power generation. This is amazing because on one hand the Rules prohibit disposal of organic material in the landfill which is the singular factor which contributes in generation of LFG; and on the other hand the same set of Rules recommend installation of infrastructure for its collection, treatment and utilisation (a turbine or an IC engine/ generator system) which is capital intensive. In absence of organics, there is no scope of ‗enhanced recovery of LFG‘ and power generation on commercial terms and the operator will not be able to recover the investment. Evidently, and as in previous several instances, this provision of the Rules is purely academic. 16.0 Should there be Human Settlements on Landfills? Under Schedule-I, Section (H), Clause 2, the Rules allow use of closed landfill sites for human settlement after 15 years of closure. Apparently the Rules do not take into account the risks of release of poisonous LFG over an extended period of time; the risks of indiscriminate drilling of bore wells by residents in search of groundwater and withdrawal of possibly contaminated water therefrom; or still worse, the risk of subsidence due to prolonged degradation and compaction of waste or due to earthquake or heavy downpour, etc.

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17.0 There can be No Composting Sans Air Pollution Control Under Schedule-II, Section A, Clause (f), the Rules recommend monitoring of air quality to determine odour nuisance, however they do not specify the appropriate composting technology of ‗aerated static pile‗ (ASP) which is followed worldwide to minimise odour nuisance. An ASP system ensures regular supply of air into rotting pile of waste and thereby does not allow formation of anaerobic conditions which essentially lead to odour nuisance. It will be pragmatic if the Rules made this recommendation which will save many ULBs from litigation and compost plants from closure. 18.0 Conclusions It is evident that on the whole the revised MSW Rules, 2016 are not very different from the original MSW (Management and Handling) Rules, 2000. The revised Rules have embraced the same old paradigm and have not drawn lessons from the experience of last 16 years and more, where it is known that none of the municipalities - large, medium or small alike across the country was able to comply with them. It is also evident that the Rules are heavily inclined towards waste ‗processing‘ - converting waste into wealth and energy, and least towards safe disposal of waste into sanitary landfills which represents a least cost and most robust and dependable option. Based on this analysis one is therefore constrained to feel that, it would be perhaps not inappropriate to call the revised Rules as Municipal Solid Waste (Promotion of Treatment Plants and Prevention of Sanitary Landfill) Rules, 2016. The rigorous analysis also establishes that the new regulatory framework lacks an objective and practical approach, and as a result the country will continue to witness the same poor level of municipal solid waste management as has been the case over the last several decades and environment and public health will continue to suffer. It is therefore imperative that the revised MSW Rules, 2016 should urgently and necessarily be amended. References Nema, Asit (2009). Report: Risk factors associated with treatment of mixed municipal solid waste treatment in the Indian context. Waste Management and Research, 27 (10): 996-1001. Nema A and Baker L (2008). Bioreactor landfill - a sustainable option for municipal solid waste treatment and disposal in India. Project Notes under the Indo-US Financial Institutions Reform and Expansion Project – Debt Market Component, FIRE (D).

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Implication of New Plastic Management Rules on Indian Industries – Challenges & Recommendations A. Bhattacharya* NITIE, Mumbai and Tata Motors Limited, India *Corresponding Author: Email- [email protected] ABSTRACT Dependency on plastics in Indian Industries has increased many folds in recent years because of their unique characteristics and this stupendous rise in use of plastics means rise in plastic waste generation. There were statutory laws formulated by government but they had loop holes which made implementation difficult. New Law tries to addresses those gaps and has implemented radical changes with focus on primary ownership of Plastic Waste Management to the Waste Generators, Producers, Brand Owners etc. A detailed component wise comparison between old rule and the amended rule has been done and the implication of those changes on Indian Industry is presented here. Although the new rule is more stringent and comprehensive, there are few challenges in implementing these rules which calls for overhaul of complete solid waste management system. This paper tries to addresses some of those challenges with a concept based Waste collection & Segregation system. Keywords: Plastic Waste Management, Waste Collection & Segregation International Society of Waste Management, Air and Water

Introduction Plastics has proved to be a revolution specially for industries like packaging, infrastructure, agriculture, automotive, healthcare and FMCG segments who use plastic in variant forms in their value chain (A Review of Plastic Waste Management Strategies). Plastics, today have replaced traditional material for packing and carry bags because of their low cost, durability, flexibility, inert nature and easily availability1. In India, consumption of plastics grew at a CAGR of 16% in the last five years and touched USD 32 Bn in FY 15. The Indian packaging industry constitutes 4% of the global packaging industry. The per capita packaging consumption in India is low at 4.3 kg, compared to developed countries like Germany and Taiwan where it is 42 kg and 19 kg respectively. However, in the coming years Indian packaging industry is expected to grow at 18% p.a wherein, the flexible packaging is expected to grow at 25 % p.a. and rigid packaging to grow at 15 % p.a. 2 As the urbanization increased growth and consumption of plastics also increased and also plastic waste. The plastics waste is now considered as a detrimental Environmental menace. The main problem with plastic waste as compared to other wastes is the time taken for decomposition. For example, a plastic bottle takes 450-500 years to decompose where as a simple plastic bag might take 200-1000 years.3

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Why Plastic Waste Management Is Difficult The traditional approach towards Plastic waste management has always been focusing on the end of the pipeline. Focus on segregation of plastic waste that has been collected as part of the municipal waste and treat them by recycling or dumping them on designated landfill sites. This approach heavily depends on the efficiency of the collection & segregation system. In India, this activity is primarily handled by respective municipal corporation whose infrastructure for handling of solid waste is woefully inadequate. Poor littering habit of the general public has aggravated this problem. With the intension of controlling the usage of plastic bags, different state governments (Bengaluru /Bangalore, Maharashtra, Delhi, Punjab (Chandigarh) Rajasthan, Himachal Pradesh, Goa and West Bengal) authorities had imposed restrictions on use of thin plastic carry bags. It is realized that this restriction on plastic carry bags is not the solution – rather it would encourage use of alternate materials like paper bags etc. creating an increased environmental pollution in the real sense and ultimately leading to the cause of climate change. Rate of generation of this plastic waste is another issue. For E-waste which is generated at the end of the life cycle of the Electrical & Electronic Equipment (EEE), so one can calculate the amount of E-waste generated by correlating the production rate of these EEE items and their respective life cycle. But in case of plastic waste, it is generated at the point of consumption. For example, once you buy a food item and consume it, the packaging material becomes a Plastic waste. This waste, if only collected through any channel, will be accounted in the overall plastic waste generation quantity or else it will be missed. This makes the calculation of Plastic waste tedious.4 Comparison of Old & New Rule Baseline Regulatory norms did not give any responsibility to the producers, Importers or Brand Owners who use Plastics as their raw materials. Responsibility for development & implementation of effective plastic management was with Local bodies which was a major drawback. There were major amendments that were made in Plastics Management Rules 2016 which supersede the earlier version. Following are the gist of the changes that were made: 5 & 6 Plastic Waste (Management and Handling) Rules, 2011

Plastic Waste Management Rules, 2016

Likely impact

Application Conditions of manufacture of carry bags were exempted for exclusively for export purposes, received by the owner or occupier of the manufacturing unit.

Same. But it doesn‘t apply to units involved in packaging of gutkha, tobacco and pan masala

Pan masala & gutkha producing companies will incur additional cost who use plastics for their packaging activities

Roles & Definition Not Present

New Roles and definitions included. Crucial ones like Brand Owner, Institutional Waste Generator, Producer, Street vendor, Waste generator etc.

With more role clarity better accountability can be defined. Better accountability means better management system

Conditions Not Present

Manufacturers and sellers of compostable plastic carry bags shall obtain a certificate from the Central Pollution Control Board before marketing or selling

Authorization means these units also have to comply with the statutory requirements of this rule.

Thickness of carry bags made of virgin or recycled

Thickness of carry bags & Plastic Sheets made of virgin or recycled plastic should not

The increasing thickness of plastic carry bags and stipulating 50-micron 180

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Plastic Waste (Management and Handling) Rules, 2011 plastic should not be less than 40 microns. Nothing mentioned about Plastic Sheets.

Plastic Waste Management Rules, 2016 be less than 50 microns.

Likely impact thickness for plastic sheets will likely increase cost of material Which will in turn reduce the tendency to provide free carry bags. This will also incentivize the waste pickers by generating more revenue.

Responsibility of Gram Panchayat Not Present

The role of gram panchayat in rural areas is similar to the role of local bodies in Urban areas.

Plastic Management is still in implementation stage in urban areas. But focusing on plastic management in rural stage from the beginning is going to help as Indian industries are seeing rural sector as the next biggest market.

Responsibility of Waste Generators Not Present

 Waste Generators including institutional

 Earlier there were no specific

generators, event organizers shall not to litter the plastic waste. They are required to segregate waste, store and handover the waste to authorized agency.

responsibilities for the event organizers, institutional generators

 Pay user fee as prescribed by bye laws of local bodies.

 Increasing the scope of waste generators definition, will better the segregation and thereby improve the management of waste.

Responsibility of Producers, Importers & Brand Owners Not Present

 Producer, Brand Owner need to work out operating model for waste collection system for collecting back the plastic waste generated after the desired use of the product within a period of six months in consultation with local authority / State Urban Development Department and implement with two years thereafter.

 This plan shall be submitted to the SPCB while applying for Consent to Establish or Operate or Renewal. After 6 months of publication of these rules, no producer manufacture or use any plastic or multilayered packaging for packaging of commodities with registration from concerned SPCB or committees.

 If

CTE/CTO renewed before the notification of these rules, shall submit such plan within six months from the date of notification and implement with two years thereafter.



The introduction of take back system of waste generated from various products by the Producers/ Brand owners of those products would improve the collection of plastic waste, its reuse/ recycle.



This will compel industries to integrate reverse logistics in their operating model. It is no more some order winner criteria but order qualifier criteria.



This will also generate business opportunities in the market. For entrepreneurs, this is an opportunity to collaborate with different industries who can outsource their take back system of Plastic waste and dispose it effectively and efficiently.

Registration Registration was only required for recyclers & manufacturers

Producers are also required to get registered by respective SPCB in Form I. Registration will not be renewed unless action plan given by the producer for Plastic waste management is available.

By registration, producers are also brought under the scope of the rule. For registration, producers have to make action plan, create infrastructure, facilities or engage 3rd party dedicated for effective plastic management.

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Plastic Waste (Management and Handling) Rules, 2011

Plastic Waste Management Rules, 2016

Likely impact

Responsibility of retailers & street vendors

 The local body shall

 The shopkeepers and street vendors who

 The imposition of plastic waste

be responsible for plastic waste management system and for performing the associated functions may seek financial assistance from producers to set up the Waste Management System

provide plastic carry bags shall register with local body on payment of plastic waste management fee of minimum INR 48,000 @ rupees four thousand per month.

management fee on retailers and street vendors will force them to collect cost on carry bags which in turn make the public to either switch over to other bags or reuse of carry bags, reduce the Plastic waste generation.

 No carry bags shall be made available free of cost by retailers to consumers.

 The

Municipal authority may by notification determine minimum price of carry bags.

 Only the registered shopkeepers or street vendors shall be eligible to provide plastic carry bags for dispensing the commodities

 The registered shop keepers shall display at prominent place that plastic carry bags are given on payment not to sell

 Vendors selling or providing commodities to consumer in carry bags or plastic sheet or multilayered packaging, which are not manufactured and labelled or marked, as prescribed under these rules. are liable to pay such fines as specified under the bye-laws of the local bodies.

 Will strengthen financial status of local authorities and improve Plastic Waste Management System.

 The rules is silent on the mode of payment of such money collected from pricing of carry bags by the retailers to Municipal authority

State Level Monitoring Committee Committee Structured in mentioned.

Strengthened suitably

Addition to the list

 Municipal Commissioner,  Commissioner, Value Added Tax or his nominee, Sales Tax Commissioner or Officer, representative of

   

Plastic Association, Drug Manufacturers Association, Chemical Manufacturers Association

Director, Municipal AdministrationConvener Meeting Once in 6 Months Reporting Cycle

 SPCB

shall submit annual report on the use and management of plastic waste to the

31st July, 2016

CPCB before the 30th September CPCB shall prepare a consolidated annual report on the use and management of plastic waste and forward it to the Central Government along with its recommendations before the 31st December of every year.

31st August of every year

To maintain uniformity in submission of Annual report in all waste management rules

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Challenges & Recommendations Challenge 1: Collection of Waste from consumers The biggest impact of these amendments will be on the producers, importers and brand owners which were outside the purview of this rule so far. The biggest challenge is the collection & segregation of plastic waste from the regular garbage in the landfill. Better means is segregation at the household level which is not only environmentally effective but also cost effective 7. The main obstacle is the lack of awareness & incentive among general public on effects of segregation of household garbage and traditional means of garbage collection system (door to door or Garbage drums) which forces families to combine all waste together and dispose them, due to which segregation becomes a tedious job at the processing units. A viable solution can be a modified and more effective waste collection & management system. Local Municipal authorities/ local bodies/ independent authorized private waste handlers will set up & operate solid waste processing & recycling facilities as per the existing practice. The waste can be collected from door to door collection system but in modified dustbins which can have 4 different compartments for 4 different kind of waste - biodegradable / Wet waste, Plastics, Glass & E Waste with different labels (Different categories can be made depending on the different waste classification of different areas). These bins will be property of the Local Municipal authorities/ local bodies/ independent authorized private waste handlers and to be replaced every day (On replacement basis just like Gas cylinder distribution system). This way, the waste can be segregated properly and the bins can be maintained as well for hygiene & function. This is also cost effective for the consumer and easily acceptable. The cost of these bins, processing cost and disposal cost can be borne by the producers, brand owners or importers depending on the sale in the respective area. Due to better segregation, waste plastic, glass & E Waste can be collected in their original form and can be sold to authorized parties for recycling or processing earning these local bodies revenue. This will ensure:   

Better waste segregation at the household level making the waste management effective. Consumers will be happy to have colorful, sleek designed dustbins which is free Sustainable business model for the Local Municipal authorities/ local bodies/ independent authorized private waste handlers with potential to earn profit from this.

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Challenge 2: Payment of registration fees by street vendors As the amended rule speaks about a registration fees from the retailers and street vendors, the major challenge is collection system of this fees from this huge segment. The total number of street vendors in the country is estimated approximately 10 million. They ensure the availability of goods and services at cheaper rates to people. The average earnings of street vendors are low – ranging between INR 40 and 80 per day.8 With such regular low income, it will impractical to levy a charge of four thousand rupees per month on them. Collection of the fees will also be an uphill task for local authorities as these are not registered nor fixed shops. This segment is highly price sensitive and in absence of strong enforcement and penalty, they will continue to use cheapest plastic available to give it to consumers to carry the buy. Hence to restrict the distribution of plastic carry bags by these street vendors, price of carry bags can be increased or banning of 40-micron plastic supply will also serve the purpose. This will encourage customers to reuse their carry bags and there reduce consumption of Plastic carry bags.9 Challenge 3: Substitute for multilayered plastic specially for food industry Packaging consists of various categories of material types like paper board, metals, plastic, wood, glass and other materials. However, 'Plastic Packaging' has the highest share in types of materials used in the packaging industry. Plastics today form the foundation of our ―convenience consumer culture‖. Globally, Plastics comprise of 42% of packaging with the combination of rigid and flexible plastics in packaging2. Hence putting a complete ban on use of multi layered plastic can only be effective if there is viable, sustainable and cost effective substitute for packaging. Bio-based plastic products are material which is made from biomass and can degrade naturally in a matter of years. The traditional, petroleum based variety accounts for about 99% of world's plastic and much of that will still be decomposing for centuries. The main challenge with making this as a viable solution to the problem is it‘ cost. It is expected that with high volume demand of production and a stress on green chemistry by community, the cost of production will come down and be more attractive and sustainable option vis-à-vis the traditionally produced plastics. Many polymers like PLA (Poly Lactic Acid), PHA (Poly Hydroxyalkanoates), Bio PTT (Poly Trimethyl Terephthalate), Bio PDO (Propanediol) etc. form the upcoming trends.10 Apart from these new revolutionary plastic substitutes, the more effective way in today‘s community structure would be to strengthen the solid waste collection & processing system which will ensure that whatever waste is generated is processed and recycled and least amount end up in the landfill. If managed properly, this process can also generate revenue for the process owner. There are several studies & trail projects done to support this.11

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Conclusions With the rise in population and purchasing power, industries are growing and so is consumption. And with this, there is an exponential rise in the waste generation. The major concern lies with plastic which makes the rate of generation much more than rate of decay. The only way to keep the process stable & sustainable is if we can make the rate of decay faster by using Biodegradable packaging material or avoiding plastic waste ending up in layers of landfill. If we want to achieve the latter, Solid waste Management needs a revolutionary change which starts from educating the general public of effects of segregation and giving them user friendly mechanism for proper waste segregation at source. References 1. 2.

Kenneth Marsh, PH.D., and Betty Bugusu, PH.D. food Packaging—Roles, Materials and Environmental Issues. Vol. 72, Nr. 3, 2007—JOURNAL OF FOOD SCIENCE ―A Report on Plastic Industry Knowledge and Strategic Partner January 2016‖ – 2nd National

Conference of Plastic Packaging – The Sustainable Choice. U.S. National Park Service; Mote Marine Lab, Sarasota, FL Assessment of plastic waste and its management at airports and railway stations in Delhi - CPCB report – December 2009. 5. Plastic Waste (Management and Handling) Rules, 2011. 6. Plastic Waste (Management and Handling) Rules, 2016 7. Omesh K. Bharti, Baldev Bharti, Vibhor Sood. Segregation at Household level and local composting not only helps protect environment but is also a cost effective proposition for ULBs- A pilot study. Volume: 5 | Issue: 3 | March 2015 | ISSN - 2249-555X 8. http://wiego.org/informal_economy_law/street-vendors-india 9. Kanupriya Gupta and Rohini Somanathan. Consumer responses to incentives to reduce plastic bag use: evidence from a field experiment in urban India. November 2011 10. Zaki Kuruppalil, Ph.D. (Green Plastics: An Emerging Alternative for Petroleum Based Plastics?). Proceedings of The 2011 IAJC-ASEE International Conference. ISBN 978-1- 60643-379-9 11. ―Successful Innovations in Solid Waste Management Systems – Examples from 5 local bodies in Tamil Nadu‖. UNICEF Report 3. 4.

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Viability-Gap Assessment for Municipal Solid Waste based Waste to Energy Options for India Suneel Pandey1, Nidhi Maurya2, Anjali Garg2 1

Director, Green Growth & Resource Efficiency Division, The Energy and Resources Institute (TERI) India Habitat Centre, New Delhi, India 2 Green Growth & Resource Efficiency Division, The Energy and Resources Institute (TERI) India Habitat Centre, New Delhi, India *Corresponding Author: Email- Email: [email protected] ABSTRACT Most of the urban local bodies in the country are grappling with the problems of proper management of Municipal Solid Waste. With limited finances at their disposal they are unable to provide proper treatment and disposal to the waste collected in cities. As the solid waste streams in most cities contain around 50% of organic waste, waste-to-energy projects provide viable option for treating this waste. This paper examines the viability of two waste-to-energy options (biomethanation and RDF based projects) which have been implemented with some degree of success in the country. The projects with capacities – 3 MW, 5 MW and 10 MW were considered for bioemethanation route and single project with capacity 6.5 MW was considered for RDF based option. The viability-gap analysis shows that there exists a funding gap of Rs. 0.24 per kWh, Rs. 0.82 per kWh and Rs. 1.51 per kWh, respectively of biomethanation options and gap of Rs. 2.35 per kWh for RDF based option. The funding gap to some extent can be met by availing certified emission reductions (3 MW projects would not require any more funding) but would require more support in terms of subsidies for these projects to be financially viable in India context. Keywords: Waste-to-energy, biomethanation, RDF, Certified Emission Reduction, financial viability, levelised unit cost of electricity; International Society of Waste Management, Air and Water

1.0 Introduction There are close to 7000 cities and notified towns across India representing an urban population of around 300 million, generating almost 1,15,000 TPD (tonnes per day) of municipal solid waste (MSW) (Pandey and Saraswat, 2009). The solid waste generated in the country has grown in a rapid manner over the last decade. This is mainly due to rapid urbanization, rising consumption patterns, related increase in MSW generation, change in waste characteristics over the year and lack of awareness and public apathy towards the seriousness to deal with the issue. MSW is a highly variable and heterogeneous, multicomponent material, which varies both seasonally and geographically. Bulk of this waste is being dumped in the open in an uncontrolled manner resulting into pollution of water bodies and land and causing uncontrolled emission of methane. It is estimated MSW generated would require about 1240 hectares of land every year for its disposal (CPCB, 2013). In case the estimated degradable organic portion of MSW is processed biologically, though the volumetric calculation indicates expected reduction of land as 90%, in actual practice it could reduce the waste load on landfills substantially. 186

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The calorific value of the MSW is contributed by biodegradable content of the waste such as food waste and non-biodegradable organic content such as waste paper, plastics, rags, wood, leather, etc. The characteristics and variability of MSW as a fuel has a significant impact on its behaviour as a fuel in combustion and other thermal processing systems. In addition to the variability in composition, MSW is notoriously difficult to handle, and to feed in a controlled manner to incinerator and other equipment. This is reflected in the design of MSW handling and feeding systems, and has a significant knock-on effect on the difficulties encountered in the control of the combustion conditions in conventional incineration plant. MSW is also a high slagging and fouling fuel, i.e. it has a high propensity to form fused ash deposits on the internal surfaces of furnace and high temperature reactor, and to form bonded fouling deposits on heat exchanger surfaces. Urban local bodies (ULBs) in India – responsible for municipal solid waste management – have been under pressure to safeguard public health and maintain compliance with the legislative framework as provided by the Municipal Solid Waste (Management and Handling) Rules of 2000 and now 2016 notified by Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India. ULBs in recent years have developed and launched various initiatives for transforming service levels and for improving compliance with these rules. Despite, these efforts, the situation of MSW management and compliance of ULBs with the MSW Rules remain far from satisfactory. Resource, capacity and financial constraints have resulted in poor collection, transportation and safe disposal of MSW. In addition clandestine disposal of biomedical waste and electronic waste has not made the task of ULBs easy. While daily collection efficiency is typically 50-60% (except for metro cities like Delhi and Mumbai where it has been reported in the range of 80-90%), only around 13% of waste is treated/processed and literally nothing is disposed as per the provisions of MSW Rules (CPCB 2013). This problem can be significantly mitigated through adoption of waste-to-energy (W2E) technologies for treatment and processing wastes before disposal. It not only reduces the quantity of wastes, but also improves its quality to meet the required pollution control standards, besides generating substantial quantity of energy. As per the draft National Master Plan (NMP), 2006 by MNRE (Ministry of New and Renewable Energy, Government of India), there is potential to generate around 2200-2300 MW of the power in the urban areas of the country if this waste can be properly segregated. Biomass and municipal solid waste (MSW) have widely been accepted as important locally available renewable energy sources with low carbon dioxide emissions (Udomsri et al., 2010). 2.0 Objective of the Research The availability of source segregated waste and cost of infrastructure both in terms of capital and operation and maintenance costs remain major barriers for gainful implementation of such W2E options in Indian cities. There is therefore a need to look at various non- regulatory barriers, particularly technological and financial aspects and to evaluate mechanisms that could make such projects viable and attractive in the future. 3.0 Current scenario As of now, as per the MNRE, three projects for energy recovery from MSW with an aggregate capacity of 17.6 MW had been set up in India at Hyderabad, Vijayawada and Lucknow. Of these projects, the ones at Hyderabad and Vijayawada are projects based on refuse derived fuel (RDF) and operational while the one at Lucknow was based on biomethanation. The plant was shut down only after a year of operation at much lower capacity despite biomethanation being identified as most attractive option for W2E in NMP of MNRE. Only operating project based on MSW to energy is 16 MW project at Okhla in Delhi. Other urban waste projects include a 1 MW project based on biomethanation of cattle dung at Ludhiana; a 0.5 MW project for generation of power from biogas at sewage treatment plant at Surat; and, a 150 kW plant for vegetable market and slaughterhouse wastes at Vijayawada.

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4.0 Energy generation potential Any one or all W2E technologies, landfill with gas recovery, biomethanation, gasification or incineration, can be considered to be applicable for W2E projects utilizing sorted MSW as the feedstock. Amongst these options, landfill with gas recovery is excluded as a potential technology option in view of the MSW Rules, 2016, which state that landfilling shall be restricted to non-biodegradable, inert waste and other waste that are not suitable either for recycling or for biological processing. Land filling shall also be carried out for residues of wastes processing facilities as well as pre-processing rejects from waste processing facilities. Land filling of mixed waste shall be avoided unless the same is found unsuitable for waste processing. Under unavoidable circumstances or till installation of alternate facilities, landfilling shall be done following proper norms. In the Indian context, out of total generation of MSW, generally 50% is organic fraction. Looking at performance of W2E projects operating in Hyderabad, Vijayawada and for the limited period in Lucknow, it is also safe to assume that every 150 tonnes of organic waste would produce around 1 MW of power which would be minimum requirement for the projects using above mentioned technologies to be technically and financially viable. So cities generating atleast 300 TPD of MSW would be candidate for W2E projects in the country on stand alone basis. As per CPCB assessment there are at present 31 such cities producing around 36,000 TPD of MSW. The annual power generation potential of these cities processing MSW would be around 36000 MW. 5.0 Financial viability W2E projects provide for a beneficial way of disposing off MSW. Among the technology options like incineration, biomethanation, use of Refuse Derived Fuel (RDF), gasification and pyrolysis, conventional MSW incineration is considered as an important sustainable solution for waste management and energy recovery, apart from being cost-intensive, provides low overall efficiency due to corrosive nature of the flue gases in the boiler (Petrov and Hunyadi 2002; Otoma et al., 1997). On the other hand, biomethanation and RDF-based projects have proven to be commercially viable in Indian market. Hence for the sake of assessing the cost of power generation from such projects, we have considered only two options (biomethanation and RDF-based projects) for financial analysis. In case of biomethanation, three cases are developed depending on the capacity of plant to process the waste. In case the waste generated in the city is around 450 tonnes per day (TPD) of organic waste then a small capacity plant (3 MW) would be sufficient. On the other hand, if the waste generated in the city is around 1500 TPD of organic waste as in large cities like Delhi, than a higher capacity plant would be needed. Thus three cases are developed i.e. 3 MW plant that can process upto 450 TPD, 5 MW plant that can process upto 750 TPD and 10 MW plant that can process 1500 TPD of organic waste. While in case of RDF, it is necessary to operate it at a certain level. It would be economical only in case of city which generates atleast 500-700 TPD of organic waste, such as in the city of Hyderabad. Thus in case of RDF only one capacity plant is taken of 6.5 MW that can process upto 700 TPD of organic waste. 5.1 Inputs and assumptions 5.1.1 Technical parameters The technical inputs and assumptions used for estimating the levelised cost of power generation using biomethanation and RDF based waste to energy plants are summarised in Table 1. Table 1: Technical inputs and assumptions Particulars

Units

Biomethanation

RDF

Plant capacity

MW

3

5

10

6.5*

Organic waste processed

TPD

450^

750^

1500^

700*

Life of plant^

Years

15

15

15

15 188

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Particulars

Units

Biomethanation

RDF

Capital Cost

Rs Crores

40.25^

57.30^

102.00^

60.00*

Land cost *

Rs Crores

0.3

0.5

0.6

0.4

Operation & Maintenance (O&M) Cost

Rs Crores

2.72^

4.13^

8.25^

3.00*

Annual escalation in O&M cost^^

%

4.83

4.83

4.83

4.83

Debt-Equity ratio**

Ratio

70:30

70:30

70:30

70:30

Interest rate**

%

12.00

12.00

12.00

12.00

Repayment period (including 1 years moratorium)**

Years

10

10

10

10

Return on Equity#

%

14.00

14.00

14.00

14.00

Discount rate (weighted average cost of capital i.e. WACC)

%

12.60

12.60

12.60

12.60

Capital Recovery factor

%

15.16

15.16

15.16

15.16

SOURCES: ^ Based on National Master Plan for Development of Waste-to-Energy in India, Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE), Government of India; details available at: www.mnre.gov.in, accessed on 25th July 2008 * AS PER DISCUSSION WITH STAKEHOLDERS ^^ BASED ON AVERAGE WHOLESALE PRICE INDEX (WPI) FOR LAST THREE YEARS I.E. 2005-06, 2006-07 AND 2007-08; DETAILS AVAILABLE AT: https://reservebank.org.in/cdbmsi/servlet/login/, ACCESSED ON 25TH JULY 2008 ** BASED ON FINANCING NORMS AS GIVEN BY IREDA. # BASED ON CERC NORMS FOR RETURN ON EQUITY FOR POWER GENERATING PLANTS

5.1.2 Generation For computing annual generation for each case assumptions regarding parasitic consumption during the plant operations and annual operating hours are assumed on the basis of the NMP for development of W2E projects in India as prepared by MNRE. The assumptions as well as computation of annual generation are being presented in Table 2. Table 2: Estimation of annual generation Particulars

Units

Biomethanation

RDF

Plant capacity (A)

MW

3.00

5.00

10.00

6.50

Parasitic consumption (B)

MW

0.45^

0.75^

1.50^

1.00*

Net electricity for sale (C=A-B)

MW

2.55

4.25

8.50

5.50

Annual hours of generation (D)

Hours

7920^

7920^

7920^

6132*

Annual generation [E=(C*D)/103]

MU

20.20

33.66

67.32

33.73

S O U R C E S : ^ Based on National Master Plan for Development of Waste-to-Energy in India, Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE), Government of India; details available at: www.mnre.gov.in, last accessed on 25th July 2008 * As per discussion with stakeholders

5.2 Levelised cost of power generation In order to estimate the levelised cost of power generation, the annutised capital cost (i.e. the capital cost levelised over the life of the project i.e. 15 years for each technology), annual O&M cost and annual fuel cost are estimated. 5.2.1 Levelised capital cost Levelised capital cost is estimated by multiplying the capital cost of each type of plant with the discount factor and Capital Recovery Factor (CRF). 189

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Determination of the discount rate The discount rate has been arrived at based on the Weighted Average Cost of Capital (WACC). For arriving at the WACC, the debt equity ratio and the rate of interest for the debt has been assumed to be 70:30 and 12%, respectively based on the financing norms specified by Indian Renewable Energy Development Agency (IREDA). The rate of return on equity is taken as 14% which is based on norms for rate of return on equity for generation companies as given by Central Electricity Regulatory Commission (CERC). Capital Recovery Factor (CRF) Power generation involves substantial up-front capital commitments. Thus, for computing fixed cost of a project over its whole life there is a need to provide for a discount factor, which would convert this one time investment into costs, distributed equally over the life of the system i.e. 15 years in this case. For this purpose CRF is computed. It is the ratio of a constant annuity to the present value of receiving that annuity for a given length of time. CRF in case of MSW projects, for each type of technology, at 12.6% discount rate and life of 15 years comes out to be 15.2%. Table 3 summarises the levelised capital cost for each type of MSW technology. Table 3: Levelised capital cost MSW technology

Biomethanation

RDF

Plant capacity (in MWs)

Levelised capital cost (in Rs Cr)

3

6.15

5

8.75

10

15.55

6.5

9.15

SOURCE TERI estimates

5.2.2 Annual Operating and maintenance (O&M) cost The O&M cost for each case is taken as per the estimates presented by the NMP. These have further been escalated at the rate of 4.83% per annum. The escalation factor has been determined based on the average of the Wholesale Price Index (WPI) for last three years. Table 4 summarises the annual O&M cost for each type of MSW technology. Table 4: Annual O&M cost

MSW technology

Biomethanation

RDF

Plant capacity (in MWs)

Annual O&M cost (in Rs Cr)

3

1.60

5

2.43

10

4.86

6.5

1.77

SOURCE TERI estimates

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5.2.3 Annual fuel cost Fuel cost in case of W2E projects include the cost of waste as well as the cost of collection and transportation of such waste1 from source of generation to the plant site. As per national practice, however the waste is available free of cost in case of biomethanation plants; while in case of RDF projects the cost of waste includes the cost of processing the waste into fluff which is then used for power generation. Thus fuel cost in case of biomethanation plants is solely the collection and transportation cost of waste; while in case of RDF plants cost of fluff is also included. The cost of collection and transportation, in actual, varies from Rs.250 to 700 per tonne depending on the size of city and quantity of waste generated, collected and transported. Table 5 summarises the fuel cost assumed for each case. Table 5: Collection and transportation cost of MSW Particulars

Units

Biomethanation

Plant capacity

MW

3

5

10

6.5

Quantity of organic waste processed

TPD

450

750

1500

700

MSW Collection and transportation charges

Rs./tonne

250

475

675

475

Total Collection and transportation cost

Rs. Cr

2.48

7.84

22.28

8.50

Quantity of fluff generated

TPD

-

-

-

200

Cost of fluff

Rs./tonne

-

-

-

130

Annual fuel cost (including fluff cost) Rs. Cr 2.48 7.84 22.28 S O U R C E Based on discussion with stakeholders including Municipal Corporation of Hyderabad

RDF

9.16

5.2.4 Revenue from sale of by-product The levelised cost on case of plant based on biomethanation technology is further reduced as it earns extra revenue from sale of by-products. Bio-fertiliser is produced as a by-product of biomethanation process, which in itself is useful manure. Table 6 summarises the levelised unit cost of electricity (LUCE) generated from MSW based plants for each type of technology. Table 6: Levelised unit cost of electricity (LUCE) generation from MSW plants Annual Technology Plant Levelised Annual Total Less: sale of Net levelised O&M LUCE type capacity capital cost* fuel cost** levelised cost by-product^ cost cost Units

MW

Rs. Cr

Rs. Cr

Rs. Cr

Rs. Cr

Rs. Cr

Rs. Cr

Rs./kWh

3

6.15

1.60

2.48

10.22

2.48

7.75

3.84

Biomethanation 5

8.75

2.43

7.84

19.02

4.13

14.89

4.42

10

15.55

4.86

22.28

42.68

8.25

34.43

5.11

6.5

9.15

1.77

9.16

20.07

Nil

20.07

5.95

RDF

SOURCE TERI estimates Note: * Total capital cost is considered including land cost ** Total fuel cost consists of collection and transportation charges and cost of fluff (in case of RDF only) ^ Power generation from a biomethanation plant results in generation of bio-fertilizer which can be sold in market to earn additional revenue and hence reduce cost

1

The cost for collection and transportation of MSW from source of generation to the plant site also includes salary and wages of the staff involved

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5.3 Viability gap analysis This section presents the result of viability gap analysis for the scheme. Viability gap is computed by comparing the LUCE generation from each type of MSW technology and the benchmark tariff for MSW projects already existing in the country. The LUCE, for each type of MSW technology range between Rs.3.84 - 5.11 per kWh in case of biomethanation plants and is Rs.5.95 per kWh in case of RDF plant. While for purposes of computing the viability gap, benchmark tariff for MSW projects is assumed as Rs.3.60 per kWh. This is the existing highest tariff approved for MSW projects by Andhra Pradesh Electricity Regulatory Commission (APERC) in FY 2006/07. Table 7 summarises the viability gap for each type of MSW technology. Table 7: Viability gap (per unit) for each type of MSW technology Technology type

Plant capacity

LUCE of MSW

Benchmark tariff

Viability gap*

Units

MW

Rs./kWh

Rs./kWh

Rs./kWh

3

3.84

3.60

0.24

5

4.42

3.60

0.82

10

5.11

3.60

1.51

6.5

5.95

3.60

2.35

Biomethanation

RDF

SOURCE TERI estimates * Viability gap = LUCE of MSW plants – Benchmark tariff

5.3.1 Mechanisms to bridge the viability gap A combination of capital and interest subsidy along with funds from CDM benefits through CERs are used for bridging the above gap to make the MSW technology viable. Given the current low rates of CERs, most projects would require additional funding support to make them viable. 5.3.2 Role of government for financing the gap As these technologies are new and would also help in management of waste, Government can finance the remaining gap in case of medium-high capacity biomethanation (5 and 10 MW) and RDF (6.5 MW) plants through a combination of capital and interest subsidy. Further as the per unit gaps are marginal, this funding maybe provided in initial period only and can be removed after the technology becomes fully viable vis-à-vis conventional power systems. Capital subsidy Since the main barrier for power generation from waste to energy plants could be the high initial capital cost, it is necessary that this cost be reduced. Thus giving upfront subsidy in the form of reduction in capital cost can go a long way in promoting W2E to energy plants. In order to make biomethanation plant of high capacity i.e. 10 MW viable, a capital subsidy of 15% is proposed. While medium capacity biomethanation plant of 5 MW may not be given any upfront support through capital subsidy as per unit gap in this case is very small. Such plants may be given benefit of subsidised loans which can make the plant viable vis-à-vis conventional plants without putting any upfront burden on government. RDF plant, on the other hand, involves huge initial capital cost, thus a higher capital subsidy is proposed to be provided to such plants i.e. of 45%. Interest subsidy Along with capital subsidy, it is proposed to provide subsidised loans to reduce upfront investment by promoter. In the base case, 70% of the remaining capital cost (after subsidy) is considered debt at an interest rate of 12%. To improve the viability a subsidized interest rate of 7% is proposed (i.e. interest subsidy @ 5%) for both medium to high biomethanation as well as RDF plants. Table 8 summarises the mechanisms used for bridging the viability gap in case of MSW based plants. 192

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Table 8:Mechanisms to bridge the viability gap for MSW based plants Biomethanation

RDF

Particulars Units

3 MW

5 MW

10 MW

6.5 MW

LUCE

Rs./kWh

3.84

4.42

5.11

5.95

Less: Benchmark tariff

Rs./kWh

3.60

3.60

3.60

3.60

Viability Gap (VG) I

Rs./kWh

0.24

0.82

1.51

2.35

Less: Funds through CERs (per unit)

Rs./kWh

0.50

0.50

0.50

0.50

VG II

Rs./kWh

-0.26

0.33

1.02

1.85

Capital Subsidy

%

-

-

15%

45%

Interest Subsidy

%

-

5%

5%

5%

VG III S O U R C E TERI estimates

Rs./kWh

-0.26

0.00

0.00

0.00

Less: Funds through government

5.4 Fund requirement (per plant) In case of low capacity biomethanation plant i.e. 3 MW, there is no need for government financing as projects become viable after availing benefits through CERs alone, which would imply no additional burden on government. Further, use of funds from CERs and from government in form of capital and interest subsidy makes the medium to high capacity biomethanation (i.e. 5 and 10 MW) and RDF (6.5 MW) plants viable, by reducing the gap to zero. Table 9 summarises the additional funds required from the government for providing capital and interest subsidies to high capacity biomethanation and RDF plants. Table 9: Fund required from government towards subsidy (per plant) Fund required for capital subsidy

Fund required for interest subsidy

Total Fund required for subsidy per plant

MW

USD millions

USD millions

USD millions

3

-

-

-

5

-

3.3

3.3

10

5.1

7.4

11.2

6.5

6.8

1.9

8.7

Technology type Plant capacity Units

Biomethanation

RDF

SOURCE TERI estimates Note: Assuming Exchange rate as 1 USD = 68 INR

Further to have a more effective implementation of the MSW based projects and ensuring that waste is utilised in useful manner, a scheme is to be implemented in phased manner. It would be of utmost importance to implement the MSW based W2E options in various cities grappling with day-to-day waste management problems in a fast track manner. This would also ensure faster compliance of cities with the provisions of MSW Rules. It has been estimated earlier that larger cities generating atleast 450 TPD of organic waste can generate around 3600 MW of power annually by processing their organic waste. The present generation capacity is around 11 MW based on RDF projects. The wet waste in the cities can be processed by biomethanation process and the dry organic wastes like paper, plastics, rags, leather, etc can be used for RDF based power generation. Further, the fund required from government, to implement the targeted capacities, would depend on whether small capacity biomethanation plants are commissioned (in this case there would be no implications on government) or high capacity biomethanation or RDF plants are being commissioned (in this case there would arise financial implications for the government). 193

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6.0 Conclusions The financial viability-gap assessment shows that among the selected waste-to-energy options (biomethanation and RDF-based projects), the projects with capacities – 3 MW, 5 MW and 10 MW were considered for bioemethanation route and single project with capacity 6.5 MW was considered for RDF based option. The viability-gap analysis shows that there exists a funding gap of Rs. 0.24 per kWh, Rs. 0.82 per kWh and Rs. 1.51 per kWh, respectively of biomethanation options and gap of Rs. 2.35 per kWh for RDF based option. The funding gap to some extent can be met by availing certified emission reductions but would require more support in terms of subsidies for these projects to be financially viable in India context. Acknowledgement The authors wish to acknowledge the inputs received from various waste to energy project operator and convey their sincere thanks to funding of research by Asian Development Bank. References CPCB (Central Pollution Control Board). 2005. Solid Waste Generation in Indian Cities. Details available at , last accessed on 30 December 2008. Delhi: Central Pollution Control Board, Delhi CPCB 2013 CPCB. (2013). Status of municipal solid waste management. Central Pollution Control Board, Delhi Otoma, S., Mori, Y., Terazono, A., Aso, T., Sameshima, R., 1997. Estimation of energy recovery and reduction of CO2 emissions in municipal solid power generation. Resources Conservation and Recycling 20, 95–117. Pandey S and Sarawat N, 2009, Solid Waste Management, pp 177-194, in Green India: Looking Back to Change Tracks (Eds.) Divya Datt, Shilpa Nischal, TERI Press, New Delhi. Petrov, M.P., Hunyadi, L., 2002. Municipal solid waste boiler and gas turbine hybrid combined cycles performance analysis. In: 1st International Conference on Sustainable Energy Technologies (SET 2002), paper n. EES6, Porto, Portugal. Udomsri, S., Martin, A., Fransson, T., 2006. Possibilities for municipal solid waste incineration and gas turbine hybrid dual-fueled cycles in Thailand. In: 25th International Conference on Incineration and Thermal Treatment Technologies, Savannah, Georgia.

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Current Scenario of Municipal Solid Waste Management in India: A Review Z. Usmani1,*, V. Kumar2 1

Senior Research Fellow, Indian School of Mines, Dhanbad Jharkhand, India Assistant Professor, Indian School of Mines, Dhanbad Jharkhand, India *Corresponding Author: Email- [email protected] 2

ABSTRACT The increasing industrialization, urbanization and changes in the pattern of life accompanies the process of economic growth, giving rise to the generation of increasing quantities of waste leading to increased threats to the environment. During the recent years, technologies have been developed globally in order to reduce the amount of wastes considerably. However, solid waste management thrives to be one of the major environmental problems of developing countries like India. The problem of solid waste is affecting the urban environment of Indian cities. The municipal solid waste (MSW) amount is expected to increase significantly in near future as the country strives to attain an industrialized nation status by 2020. The solid waste management approach in India is extremely inefficient, utilizing old and obsolete system, technology for storage, collection, processing, treatment and disposal. There is no formal organized system for segregation of biodegradable and non-biodegradable solid waste. Solid waste management has become a challenge for the city authorities in a developing country like India, mostly due to the increasing generation of waste, the burden posed on the municipal budget. The present study reviews the present status of waste management in India. This study attempts to do an exhaustive review of solid waste management in India to get the glimpse of the present status and problems associated with municipal solid waste management (MSWM). The paper gives a detailed review of the characteristics, generation, collection, transportation, disposal and treatment technologies of MSW practiced in India. The study encourages the concerned authorities and research to work towards the betterment of waste management system through suggestions and recommendations. Keywords: Municipal solid waste, Generation, Composition, Management, Disposal; International Society of Waste Management, Air and Water

Introduction Solid waste generation in the world is about 1.3 billion tons per year and its volume is expected to increase to about 2.2 billion tons by 2025. India is a large country consisting of 29 States and 7 Union Territories. The three mega cities- Mumbai, Delhi, and Kolkata, being the major cities of India have a population of more than 10 million (Census, 2011a). Wastes are generated due to the activities of human beings thus posing risks to the environment and public health (Zhu et al., 2008; Saxena et al., 2010). The global impacts of solid waste are diverse. The continuous indiscriminate disposal of MSW is accelerating and is linked to poverty, poor governance, urbanization, population growth, poor standards of living, low level of environmental awareness (Ogu, 2000; Rachel et al., 2009) and inadequate management of environmental knowledge. Urbanization, economic development and better living standards in the cities 196

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have further led to an increase in the quantity and complexity of generated solid wastes (Rathi, 2007; Gidde et al., 2008). Solid wastes generally comprises of industrial, commercial, institutional, domestic, constructional and agricultural and miscellaneous wastes. MSW consists of a mixture of household and commercial refuse generated from the living community (Rajkumar et al., 2010). MSW generally consists of degradable (paper, textiles, food waste, straw and yard waste), partially degradable (wood, disposable napkins and sludge) and non-degradable materials (leather, plastics, rubbers, metals, glass, ash from fuel burning like coal, briquettes or woods, dust and electronic waste) (Herat, 2009; Jha et al., 2011). MSWM marks an important element towards sustainable metropolitan development. It involves waste segregation, storage, collection, relocation, carry-age processing and disposal of wastes in order to reduce its adverse impact on the environment. Municipal waste management becomes a reason of propagation of innumerable ailments, if not managed properly. (Kumar et al., 2009). There have been several reports of improper management of solid waste by several researchers in different cities of developing countries (Imam et al., 2008; Chatterjee, 2010; Jafari et al., 2010; Noorjahan et al., 2012; Das and Bhattacharya, 2013; Mohanty et al., 2014). Solid waste management has become a challenge for the concerned city authorities in several developing countries basically due to increased rates of waste production. In India, the approach of solid waste management is extremely inefficient using older technologies for storage, collection, processing, treatment and disposal. Low waste collection rates and inadequate transportation of MSWs are responsible for their accumulation at every nook and corner (Sharholy et al., 2007; Gidde et al., 2008; Bundela et al., 2010). The major environmental problem in management of wastes lies with that of MSW Industrialization, urbanization and the growing population has led to an increase in the rate of MSW. Improper management of MSW may cause several environmental impacts, public health risks and other socio-economic patterns thus affecting global economy and environment. Pollution such as solid waste, ozone depleting substances and green house gases are a resultant of urbanization. The varying waste characterization and generation patterns, increased population growth rates and industrialization are the prime reasons for driving attention of the concerned authorities towards accommodating the wastes (Idris et al., 2004). Aeging workers for picking up the wastes are a growing challenge in the management of waste in developing countries like India. There are several studies suggesting that re-use of solid wastes is a viable option for management of MSWs (Sudhir et al., 1996; Kasseva and Mbuligwe, 2000;) and is also desirable-socially, economically, and environmentally (Schoot Uiterkamp et al., 2011).It is necessary to strengthen the overall municipal management in order to improve the MSWM practice. Managing MSW involves an intensive service. MSW requires a strong social contact between the municipality and community. Municipalities require capacities in contract management, professional labor management and ongoing expertise in capital and budgeting and finance. MSWM is governed by MSW (Management and Handling) Rules, 2000 (MSWR) and implementation of MSWR is a major concern of urban local bodies (ULBs) across the country. Solid waste management is tough and very expensive especially tough to the urban poor who cannot afford the services and hence left to deal with waste disposal on their own. NCC which is mandated on solid waste management on the other hand is unable to deliver quality services to all the residents. Waste generation and its characteristics The characteristics and quantity of solid wastes vary from place to place. MSW generation rates are affected by economic development, public habits, local climate and the degree of industrialization. The higher the economic development, the greater the rate of urbanization, the higher the amount of solid waste produced. High income levels and urbanization are highly correlated and as the disposable income and living standards improve consumption of goods and services correspondingly increases, as does the amount of waste generated. Urban residents produce about twice as much waste as their rural counterparts. The composition of waste is influenced by various factors: population, level of income, sources, social behavior, climate, market for waste materials (Baldisimo, 1988). The detailed description of sources and types of solid wastes is given in Table 1.

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Table 1: Generators and types of solid wastes Source

Generators of solid wastes

Types of solid wastes

Residential

Single and multifamily dwellings

Food wastes, paper, cardboard, plastics, textiles, leather, yard wastes, wood, glass, metals, ashes, special wastes (e.g. bulky items, consumer electronics, white goods, batteries, oil, tires), and household hazardous wastes.

Industrial

Light and heavy manufacturing, fabrication, construction sites, power and chemical plants

Housekeeping wastes, packaging, food wastes, construction and demolition materials, hazardous wastes, ashes, special wastes.

Commercial

Stores, hotels, restaurants, office buildings, etc.

Paper, cardboard, plastics, wood, food wastes, glass, metals, special wastes, hazardous wastes.

Construction and demolition

New construction sites, road repair, renovation sites, demolition of buildings.

Wood, steel, concrete, dirt, etc.

Institutional

Schools, hospitals, prisons, government centres.

Same as commercial.

Process

Heavy and light manufacturing, refineries, chemical plants, power plants, mineral extraction and processing.

Industrial process wastes, scrap specification products, slag, tailings.

Municipal services

Street cleaning, landscaping, parks, beaches, other recreational areas, water and wastewater treatment plants.

Street sweepings, landscape and tree trimmings, general wastes from parks, beaches, and other recreational area, sludge.

Agriculture

Crops, orchards, feedlots, farms.

Spoiled food wastes, agricultural wastes, hazardous wastes (e.g. pesticides).

vineyards,

markets,

dairies,

materials,

Urbanization and uncontrolled growth rate of population are the prime reasons for making MSWs an acute problem. It is anticipated that population of India would be about 1,823 million by 2051 and about 300 million tons per annum of MSW will be generated that will require around 1,450 km2 of land to dispose it in a systematic manner, if ULBs in India continue to rely on landfill route for MSW management (Position paper on the solid waste management sector in India, 2009). Solid waste generation has increased upto 2.44 times during the last several decades (CPCB, 2013). The per capita waste generation rate is given in Table 2. The statistics of MSW generation in different states of India is given in Table 3. The municipal per capita waste generation among the different income groups reflects the income of the countries as in Figure 1. Table 2: Per capita waste generation in India

>2000000

Waste generation (kg/capita/day) 0.43

1000000–2000000

0.39

0.46

500000–1000000

0.38

0.48

100000–500000

0.39

0.46

pellet and the Plate 1.2, 1.3, 1.4, and 1.5 show the micro plastics under microscope. This is mainly contributed by the local situation of the area. Based on the Table 1, more abundant micro plastics was recorded at the West Coast of Peninsular Malaysia; represented by Melaka, Perak and Johor – Tg. Piai. Reason for its pronounce presence is because of the busy route along Straits of Malacca which is among the busiest straits in the worlds. Together with the over crowded seafishing activities also contribute more plastic components into these areas. Line type of micro plastics basically are connected to fishing activities such as setting and mending of fishing nets. Net loss at sea can also contribute towards more line plastics in the ocean or being washed onshore. Similarly to the fragment micro-plastics which is majorly contributed by broken plastic components from larger items into smaller pieces. This may be contributed by the littering habit on land and in the sea since all plastic litters tend to find their way to the beaches. Additionally, it showed the evidence of inappropriate disposal of plastics locally. However, none of the pellet micro plastics was found on the sites So, this signify the absence of pellet on the sampling areas.

Plate 1.2: Line type of micro plastic

Plate 1.3: Foam type of micro plastic

Plate 1.4: Film type of micro plastic

Plate 1.5: Fragment type of micro plastic 476

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The Table 2 and Table 3 showed the quantity of micro plastics collected in East Coast and West Coast of Peninsular Malaysia, which represented by Kelantan, Pahang and Johor – Sedili Besar for the East Coast, while Melaka, Perak and Johor – Tg. Piai represents the West Coast of Peninsular Malaysia. With the areas covered 7200 cm2 and the total micro plastics collected in East Coast of Peninsular Malaysia, the concentration of micro plastics recorded were 0.0661 item per area cm2. Whereas, for the West Coast covered 8100 cm2 areas with 2143 samples of micro plastics collected, the concentration recorded were 0.265 item per area cm2. Thus, through the concentration calculated, the micro plastics is highly concentrated along the West Coast of Peninsular Malaysia.

Table 2: Quantity of micro plastics collected in East Coast of Peninsular Malaysia Micro plastics

Fishing Village

Recreational Area

Fragment

255

60

Film

68

16

Line

63

11

Pellet

0

1

Foam

0

2

Table 3: Quantity of micro plastics collected in West Coast of Peninsular Malaysia Micro plastics

Fishing Village

Recreational Area

Fragment

610

590

Film

106

373

Line

216

156

Pellet

0

0

Foam

5

87

Table 4 showed the comparison of micro plastics collected in the fishing village and the recreational area. The area covered for the fishing village was 9000 cm2 whereas the area covered in the recreational areas was 6300 cm2. So, with the total number of 1323 samples harvested from the fishing village, the concetration recorded is 0.147 items per cm2. Table 4: Comparison of micro plastics collected in the fishing village and recreational areas Micro plastics

Fishing Village

Recreational Areas

Fragment

865

650

Film

174

389

Line

279

167

Pellet

0

1

Foam

5

89

For the recreational areas, with the total number of samples collected was 1296 samples, while the concentration was 0.206 items per areas cm2. It can be concluded that, the micro plastics were more concetrated in the recreational area. The reason behind it is that, more beach users were recorded visiting the sites. So, the potential of plastics or any sort of rubbish to be thrown away is higher as compared to the fishing village

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6.0 Conclusion Mangrove ecosystem are important for both terrestrial environments as well as aquatic ecosystem. So, such protection of the mangrove has to be enforced. Present study have concluded that while macroplastics were known as the major problem nowadays, yet micro plastics are much very abundance within the mangrove ecosystem specifically in Peninsular Malaysia. The most pronounce micro plastic types is line and fragment found within the area of fishing villages while pellet is the least abundant. The micro plastics were concentrated along the West Coast of Peninsular Malaysia as compared to the East Coast of Peninsular Malaysia and also, they were more abundance in the recreational areas. Thus, counter measures for protecting the ecosystem of mangrove forest from micro-plastic contamination is imperative. References Betts, K., (2008). Why small plastic particles may pose a big problem in the oceans. Environ. Sci. Technol. 42 (24), 8995–8995. Betty J.L. Laglbauer, Rita Melo Franco-Santos, Miguel Andreu-Cazenave, Lisa Brunelli, Maria Papadatou, Andreja Palatinus, Mateja Grego, Tim Deprez. (2014). Macrodebris and microplastics from beaches in Slovenia. Marine Pollution Bulletin 89, 356–366 Carpenter, E.J., Smith, K.L., (1972). Plastics on the Sargasso Sea surface. Science 175, 1240–1241. Charles James Moore (2008). Synthetic polymers in the marine environment: A rapidly increasing, long-term threat. Environmental Research 131–139. Claessens, M., De Meester, S., Van Landuyt, L., De Clerck, K., Janssen, C.R., (2011). Occurrence and distribution of microplastics in marine sediments along the Belgian coast. Marine Pollution Bulletin 62 (10), 2199–2204. Derraik, J.G.B., (2002). The pollution of the marine environment by plastic debris: a review. Marine Pollution Bulletin 44, 842–852. Fendall, L.S., Sewell, M.A., 2009. Contributing to marine pollution by washing your face: microplastics in facial cleansers. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 58 (8), 1225–1228. Gregory, M.R., Andrady, A.L., 2003. Plastics in the marine environment. Plastic Environment, 379–401. Hidalgo-Ruz, V., Gutow, L., Thompson, R.C., Thiel, M., (2012). Microplastics in the marine environment: a review of the methods used for identification and quantification. Environ. Sci. Technol. 46 (6), 3060–3075. Imhof, H.K., Schmid, J., Niessner, R., Ivleva, N.P., Laforsch, C., (2012). A novel, highly efficient method for the separation and quantification of plastic particles in sediments of aquatic environments. Limnol. Oceanogr.: Methods 10, 524–537. Jayanthi Barasarathi, Agamuthu, P, Emenike C.U, Fauziah S.H. (2014). Microplastic abundance in selected mangrove forest in Malaysia. Juliana A. Ivar do Sul, Monica F. Costa. (2014). The present and future of microplastic pollution in the marine environment. Environmental Pollution 185, 352-364. Martins, J., Sobral, P., (2011). Plastic marine debris on the Portuguese coastline: a matter of size? Marine Pollution Bulletin 62 (12), 2649–2653. Matthew Cole, Pennie Lindeque, Claudia Halsband, Tamara S. Galloway. (2011). Microplastics as contaminants in the marine environment: A review. Marine Pollution Bulletin 2588–2597. McDermid, K. J. & McMullen, T. L. (2004). Quantitative analysis of small-plastic debris on beaches in the Hawaiian archipelago. Marine Pollution Bulletin 48 (7-8), 790-794. Moore, C.J., (2008). Synthetic polymers in the marine environment: a rapidly increasing, long-term threat. Environ. Res. 108 (2), 131–139. Ng, K.L., Obbard, J.P., (2006). Prevalence of microplastics in Singapore‘s coastal marine environment. Marine Pollution Bulletin 52 (7), 761–767. Norén, F., (2007). Small plastic particles in Coastal Swedish waters. KIMO Sweden. Nur Hazimah Mohamed Nor, Jeffrey Philip Obbard. (2014). Microplastics in Singapore‘s coastal mangrove ecosystems. Marine Pollution Bulletin 278–283. Rios, L.M., Moore, C., Jones, P.R., (2007). Persistent organic pollutants carried by synthetic polymers in the ocean environment. Marine Pollution Bulletin 54, 1230–1237 Thompson, R.C., Swan, S.H., Moore, C.J., vom Saal, F.S., (2009b). Our plastic age. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 364, 1973–1976. Thompson, Richard C., Olsen, Ylva, Mitchell, Richard P., Davis, Anthony, Rowland, Steven J., John, Anthony W.G., Russell, Andrea E., (2004). Lost at sea: where is all the plastic? Science 304 (5672), 838.

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Possibilities and challenges to approach zero waste for Municipal solid waste management in Ho Chi Minh City Nguyen Thi Phuong Loan1,*, Tran Thi My Dieu2, Le Thi Kim Oanh2, Alice Sharp3, Sandhya Babel3 1

Center for Environmental Technology and Management, Co Giang ward, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam Department of Environmental Technology and Management, Van Lang University, Co Giang Ward, District 1, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam 3 School of Biochemical Engineering Technology, Sirindhorn International Institute of Technology, Thammasat University, Thammasat Rangsit Post Office, Pathum Thani, 12121; Thailand *Corresponding Author: Email- [email protected] 2

ABSTRACT The paper focuses on evaluating possibilities and challenges of practical applications of zero waste management for Ho Chi Minh City (HCMC). It is implemented in order to reduce the quantity of waste to be disposed of by the solid waste separation at source to get biodegradable organic materials and recyclable materials from municipal solid waste (MSW) for further reuse and recycling. Based on the current situation of MSW management system as well as analyzing results of researches, demonstration studies and projects for solid waste management in HCMC, technologies of composting, biogas recovery and electricity generation either from anaerobic digestion plant or sanitary landfill are appropriate. Effective recycling technologies to convert waste into valuable product seem to be solutions for approaching zero waste for MSW management in HCMC. Possibilities and challenges to reach this target have been discussed in this paper. Keywords: Municipal solid waste; zero waste; solid waste separation at source, biogas, composting, landfill; International Society of Waste Management, Air and Water

1.0 Introduction Ho Chi Minh City (HCMC) is a mega city, center of economic, cultural, education and training, science and technology. This is an important political position of the country. The total area of HCMC is 2,095 km2. HCMC has 24 districts in which 19 are urban districts and 5 rural districts. The HCMC has a total population of more than 10 million people with the population growth rate of 10.2% (Annual statistics book of 2013). According to economical report of HCMC in 2014, the average total gross domestic products (GDP) per capita in 2014 was 5,100 USD and HCMC contributed over 22.5% of Vietnam‘s budget, 30 % of GDP and 30% of Vietnam‘s social investment. Besides the accelerated economic growth and rapid urbanization, HCMC is facing serious urban and environmental management problems, of which MSW management is one of the biggest. The quantity of solid waste generated has been increasing significantly from 1992 to 2015 (Fig. 1). In 1992 total generated solid waste was only 490 tons/day but in 2014, total generated solid waste was 479

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about 9,000 tons/day in which the amount of solid waste disposed was 7,400 - 7,600 tons/day and the rest was sorted, traded, reused and recycled (Viet, 2015). The amount of waste generation has been increased as more and more people are migrating from rural to urban areas, economic recovery and rapid urbanization. From 2009 to now the solid waste growth rate is about 6 – 8% per year with average solid waste generation is about 1.0 kg/capita/day (DONRE, 2014). Therefore, municipal solid waste management has been considered as one the most severe environmental problem as the quantity of solid waste has increased while infrastructure for collection and treatment are not sufficient. The Government of HCMC has given priority to the problem and interest to promote effective and appropriate technology to be invested in solid waste management. Whether it is possible to approach zero waste for sustainable resource utilization in rapid urbanized as HCMC? And what possibilities and what challenges to reach this target are the core discussion drawn in this paper. The paper focus on analyse of the possibilities and challenges to approach zero waste for MSW in HCMC. This analysis is structured according to the zero waste management. It is designed as a diagnostic tool for decision-makers to look in a systematic way for suitable solid waste management solutions in condition of HCMC.

Figure 1: MSW generation in HCMC during 1992 -2015

2.0 Current situation of municipal solid waste management in Ho Chi Minh City MSW is collected separately from other kinds of waste (construction, sediment, hazardous and industrial, and medical waste). It is collected and transported directly or via transfer stations to sanitary landfills or composting plants. The recyclable wastes are separated during the collection process, these are sold to itinerant buyers or junk shop, and then to recycling companies. Generation sources and storage at sources Generation sources of MSW are residential areas with 02 million of households (villa, town house, and apartment building), 346 units (markets, restaurants, wholesale shops, supermarkets, and shopping centers), 354,661 units of hotels – motels, 12,502 units (medical centers, hospitals, and dispensaries), 4,730 units (offices, education and training organizations) and about 12 thousand industrial factories and enterprises. In which households take 57.9% of generation sources (DONRE, 2011; Truong et al., 2015). Households do not have standard containers for solid waste storage. Currently solid waste is stored in plastic bags, tins, bamboo containers, etc. Most households, especially those with confined living areas, use plastic bags to store their commingled waste. Offices, schools, etc. have their own type of containers. Markets store their solid waste directly on the floor or in containers. Many restaurants have special storage containers of food waste to be utilized a part as animal feed. No separation of MSW takes place at the 480

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source; all sorts of MSW are stored as commingle waste. However, most households separate the valuable wastes such as cans, plastic, paper, etc., from their waste and sell this to itinerant buyers. Also many individual waste pickers go around picking up valuable wastes from public waste containers or wastebaskets of the households (during the time the wastebaskets are waiting for collection in front of the houses) and sell these to itinerant buyers or junk shops. In general, the critical points related to the waste generation at sources are high amount of commingled solid waste generated, no standard containers for solid waste storage, and limited place at households for placing containers, high amount of leachate and malodour generation and lack of public awareness. Solid waste collection Collection, transfer and transportation of solid waste in HCMC have carried out by two systems: public and private system. The public system consists of Hochiminh city Urban Environment Company Limited (CITENCO) and 22 District Public Work Service Company Limited (DPWSCLs). The private system consists of informal collectors and cooperatives. The private collector force collects 60 % of solid waste and public collector force collects 40 % of solid waste generated in HCMC. MSW is transferred from generation sources to meeting points by informal collectors or DPWSCLs using pushcarts (660 litters) and from there; the trucks transport the waste to transfer stations by DPWSCLs and cooperatives. From transfer station, the waste is transported by CITENCO, DPWSCLs and Cong Nong Cooperatives to landfills or composting plants. Depending on the length and quality of the transport routes, the capacity of the trucks can be selected. Solid waste from sources along main streets is transported directly by CITENCO using big trucks (7-12 tons/truck) to landfills or composting plants or by small trucks (2 - 4 tons/truck) to transfer stations by DPWSCLs and Cooperatives. In addition, waste from alleys and along minor streets is transferred directly to transfer stations by informal collectors using small trucks (homemade with loading capacity of 500 kg). The collection equipment is not standardized. This is especially true for homemade vehicles of informal collectors. The homemade vehicle is self-designed and not adapted to the requirements of good hygiene. The volume of these vehicles is usually much higher than maximum of the amount of carried wastes. Regarding collection of MSW in HCMC, critical points are old and damaged narrow transport pathways in the dense areas; non-standardized collection facilities and lack of safety facilities; lack of collection skills and the activity of separating recyclable wastes causes delay in collection time and pollution; lack of monitoring and control; non-integrated management. Solid waste transfer and transportation There are 3 types of transfer stations in HCMC: (1) open heaps where waste is discharged on the floor in an open area with or without roof and fence; (2) transfer stations where waste is stored in a container or on the floor inside; (3) compress transfer stations where waste is compressed before transport to a landfill or a composting plant. HCMC has 33 transfer stations with total design capacity of 5,477 tons/day, in which 21 transfer stations of type 3; 9 transfer stations of type 2 and 3 transfer stations of type 1. According to annually report of HCMC DONRE (2014)100% of wastes generated were collected, transferred and transported. However, waste transfer and transportation is complex and inadequate for the following reasons: (1) there are many companies involved in this activity, including CITENCO, 22 public service companies, Cong Nong cooperatives and some private companies, which are working independently from each other. Therefore, it is difficult to organize and integrate the transport activities and transport routes; (2) inadequate infrastructure, such as narrow and badly paved transport routes, nonstandardized collection cars/trucks, lack of meeting points and transfer stations; (3) a lack of tools, guidelines, regulations to support the transport system; (4) poor management capacity and (5) insufficient funding. One of important factors affecting choice of effective recycling technologies is composition of solid waste. The survey of composition of solid waste during 2009-20015 is shown that it is becoming more complicated and differs for different generation sources (Centema, 2009, 2015). A common point of composition of solid waste from different generation sources is high biodegradable organic fraction and 481

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recyclable fraction is various from households, market, offices, hotels - restaurants, shopping centres. In addition, household hazardous wastes (HHW) are also found in the composition of MSW. Table 1: Composition of municipal solid waste generated in HCMC from 2009 – 2015 Results (%ww) Composition

Households

Schools

Sanitary landfill

Market

Composting plant

2009

2015

2009

2015

2009

2015

2012

2014

2015

Biodegradable fraction

74.3

64.8

28.7

25.5

86.8

87.8

68,9

67,9

53.2

Wood, straw

2.8

0.9

6.9

-

3.6

1.4

0,3

1.0

Paper

6.2

5.1

17.6

35.0

2.5

1.9

0,7 3,0

2,5

5.7

Plastic

5.2

10.5

25.9

34.9

4.3

7.5

16,0

16,4

12.9

Textile

1.0

3.2

1.1

1.0

0.4

-

5,0

7,2

10.7

Leather

0.2

-

0.1

-

-

-

-

-

-

Rubber

0.9

0.9

1.4

-

0.4

-

0,7

0,7

0.7

Glass

1.3

1.4

0.5

1.2

0.2

-

1,2

0,2

1.7

Nonferrous metal

0.7

0.6

2.1

-

-

-

1,6

3,6

0.3

Ferrous metal

0.3

0.2

0.7

-

0.3

0.1

-

-

-

Porcelain

0.8

0.5

0.6

-

0.1

-

-

-

2.4

Soil, sand

3.2

2.8

4.0

-

1.0

1.2

-

-

-

Ash

0.4

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

Styrofoam

0.3

1.0

9.8

1.5

0.4

0.2

-

-

0.8

Diaper

1.8

8.1

-

-

-

-

2,3

0,6

10.7

Clamshell

0.8

-

-

-

0.2

-

0,8

0,6

-

0.002

-

0.1

-

0.1

-

-

-

0.1

Hazardous waste

Note: ―-‖: no data Sources: Nguyen Trung Viet el al., (2014), CENTEMA (2009-2015) and DONRE (2009).

Solid waste reuse and recycling In a review of MSW treatment practices in HCMC, this section discusses about composting and recycling of valuable materials that are currently applied. Composting At present, HCMC has three composting plants: (1) Vietstar plant with capacity of 1,200 tons MSW/day; (2) Tam Sinh Nghia plant for 1,000 tons MSW/day; and (3)Vietnam Waste Solution (VWS) Company with capacity of 1,000 tons MSW/day. Two of these projects are USA based. Only Tam Sinh Nghia is a Vietnamese company. If three composting plants would run at full capacity, 100% of the biodegradable organic fraction of generated MSW would be treated to produce compost. However, VWS Company is not operating the composting facility because solid waste is not separated. The input of two composting plants is commingled waste and therefore the separation process has to take place after transport, which is complex, costly and requires a lot of labour. An abundant component in the MSW is plastics, which needs to be removed before the waste is composted. At Vietstar and Tam Sinh Nghia plant the plastics are separated, cleaned and processed to raw plastic material, which contribute to the income of the plant.

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The technology at Vietstar plant and Tam Sinh Nghia is aerated static pile composting (windrow composting). At present, capacity of Vietstar plant is 1,200 tons/day, in which 773 tons of solid waste for composting, 7 tons of solid waste for recycling plastics, and 420 tons of remain solid waste is buried at Phuoc Hiep No.3 sanitary landfill. The capacity of Tam Sinh Nghia plant is 1,000 tons/day, in which 350 tons/day for composting, 50 tons/day for recycling plastic and 600 tons/day of remain solid waste is burned by incinerator with capacity of 600 tons/day (DONRE, 2015). As mentioned above, the input of all composting plants is commingled waste, thus the compost product contains certain amount of hazardous household waste, glass and plastic, so that it leads to decrease in the quality of compost and it is very difficult to be sold in the market. Recycling With its about 10 million inhabitants, 14 industrial zones and about 25,000 small and medium scale enterprises, the amount of recyclable wastes can be collected about 1,400 to 1,800 tons per day (Viet, 2015). The recyclable wastes such as plastics, papers, glasses, metals are collected at several stages of the collection chain at households, at meeting points, during transport process and at composting plants. The recyclable wastes after seperation of households are sold to itinerant buyers, after that itinerant buyer sell recyclable wastes to junk shops and then these recyclable wastes further sort into different types prior to sell them to large junk shops or recycling facilities. Most of these recyclable wastes are processed by local recycling facilities. A part of the recyclable waste, like plastic and metal, is exported to China. Depending on the market price, some types of recyclable waste are collected more than others. Additionally, recyclable waste comes from other cities and provinces in the vicinity and is processed in HCMC. The recycling system in HCMC has about 1.100 – 1.200 junk shops and 740 recycling facilities to recycle about 2,000 tons of recyclable wastes per day. Besides this system has also created jobs directly for 16.000 – 18.000 unskilled labors and jobs indirectly for tens of thousands of labors in recycling facilities which uses this sources. Solid waste treatment and disposal Sanitary landfill The ratio of buried MSW at sanitary landfills accounts for 68.6 % of total solid wastes collected, this ratio do not achieve targets of 5 years plan of HCMC in the period 2010-2015 (only 40% are buried). At present, two sanitary landfills are operating. First, Da Phuoc solid waste treatment complex (VWS) is invested by California Waste Solution Company and this landfill is operating with capacity 5000 tons/day (increasing from 3,000 to 5,000 tons/day in 2015) and almost solid waste generated in HCMC is been transported to Da Phuoc sanitary landfill for disposal. Second, Tay Bac Cu Chi solid waste treatment complex is invested and managed by CITENCO with capacity of Phuoc Hiep No.3 sanitary landfill of 2,000tons/day, this landfill is used as reservation one and has being received the remain solid waste of Vietstar plant. Both operational landfills in HCMC are designed as sanitary landfill. However sanitary landfill is need lot of land as well as it is face serious environmental problems such as leachate, odour and pathogens. The current leachate treatment plants are not efficient or they are very expensive and most of them do not reach regulation of Vietnamese discharge standards. 3.0 Possibilities and challenges to approach zero of waste municipal solid waste in HCMC Table 1 shows biodegradable organic fraction accounts about 65% in domestic solid waste and if it is well separated at source, it can be used as a raw material for compost or fermentation processing instead of waste to be disposed of by landfill as usual. The proposed solution for zero waste management of MSW in HCMC is described in Figure 2. By applying solid waste separation at source, it is possible to get biodegradable organic materials and recyclable materials for further reuse and recycling. The biodegradable organic materials can be composting or biogas recovering and reusing or electricity production. This solution seems not new and is applicable in several countries in the world. However, in HCMCit is still at the early stage of the whole chain of biodegradable organic solid waste recovery, reuse and recycling. The recyclable waste (plastic, paper, metal, glass, rubber, etc.) has its own pretreatment and can be processed many products serving the needs of society. There are still questions on whether it is 483

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possible to following that chain of municipal solid waste management to achieve zero waste of such type of waste? What are difficulties or challenges? Are there other better solutions? And how to put this proposed solution into practice? Quantity of waste collection in HCMC 9000 tons/day

Solid waste separation at sources

Biodegradable organic materials: 5850 tons/day (65%) Biogas production and energy recovery plant 650 tons/day

Sanitary landfill Single cell 2000tons/day Biogas

Plastic recycling Metal recycling Glass recycling

Organic fertilizer

Soil amendment

Sanitary landfill or Incinerator (electric) 1530tons/day

Paper recycling

Composting plant 3200 tons/day Compost/soil amendment

Heat y

Electric ity

Remain wastes 1530 tons/day (17%)

Recyclable wastes: 1620 tons/day (18%)

Rubber recycling

Products

Figure 2: A proposed solution of a zero waste management system in HCMC

Several research projects have been carried out to evaluate possibilities to put this chain of solid waste management in HCMC into practice. Possibilities and challenges to recover ―biodegradable‖ from household solid waste According to Dieu (2014), a demonstration study on solid waste separation at source in Ben Nghe Ward, District 1, HCMC with participation of 90 households in two months have shown that solid waste composition of the pushcarts collecting household separated food waste contains 80-90% (by wet weight) of food refuse and the remaining is non-food waste components.The studied result also indicates that waste in a push-cart collecting remain wastes which is separated from households has a composition similar to that of the food waste. However, the ratio of these fractions has different correlation compared to that of the food waste. Thus if calculation for the wastes separated at source, waste generation rate of the food waste ranges from 0.31-0.40 kg/person/day and remain wastes is about 0.11-0.20 kg/person/day (typical value) is shown in Table 2. Table 2: Estimating quantity of clean and recyclable material after separating at households

Collected material

Food waste generation rate (kg/person/day)

Biomass Clean plastic bags Color plastic bags Plastic

Ratio in food waste (%) 68.8

Remain waste generation rate (kg/person/day)

1.9 0.31 – 0.4

2.9 1.3

0.11 – 0.20

Ratio in remain waste (%) 30.4

(g/person/day) 250 – 340

4.3

10.6 – 16.2

4.3

13.7 – 20.2

9.2

14.2 – 23.6

Quantity

Milk container

0.1

0.2

0.53 – 0.80

Combustible waste

11.0

44.4

82.9 – 132.8 484

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The demonstration study indicates that solid waste generation rate of household is in the range of 0.53 – 0.63 kg/person/day, accounted for 50% of total waste generated in whole City. Hence, the success of solid waste separation at source program will help in moving a remarkable amount waste into recyclable material, and influences the success of the program launched. The measuring result provides that after separated into two components, the potential for recovering biodegradable organic material from household solid waste for composting or biogas recovery in order to electric generation is considerable. This also helps in reducing waste to be disposed of by landfill about 2,500 – 3,400 tons food refuse /day. In 2007, a demonstration program of solid waste separation at the source was carried out at pilot scale in five wards (neighbourhoods) of District 6 of HCMC (DONRE, 2005; DONRE, 2009). Within this project, the households were given two waste storage containers: one for organic waste (compostable waste) and the other for the rest of the household waste. The results of this program after one and half year were not meeting expectations due to many reasons. These were, among others: (1) the integration among the stakeholders were weak; (2) the public awareness was not sufficient; (3) the lack of regulation/guidelines reduced the efficiency of the activities; (4) the infrastructure for this program was lacking or inadequate, such as a lack of appropriate collection trucks, absence of transfer stations for two different types of MSW, and there was no composting or anaerobic digestion plant to treat the collected organic waste; (5) lack of managerial experience and capacity building; (6) lack of funding. The government became aware that these issues have to be adequately addressed before restarting this program. So far, demonstration on solid waste separation at source in several districts in HCMC (District 1, 3, 5, 6, 10, BinhThanh) shows that it seems difficult to get households participated in the program, and it is still difficult to get ―pure‖ food waste for composting or biogas production. In the other words, secondary separation at composting or biogas production is still necessary. It seems still need longer time and efforts to really get solid waste separation at source implementation properly. Possibilities and challenges to produce compost from biodegradable waste As mentioned above, besides traditional composting of animal manure and agricultural waste at household scale, large-scale composting of biodegradable waste has also been developed in HCMC, especially during the last five years. Though the amount of domestic solid waste to be composted is low (24%), development of Vietstar and Tam Sinh Nghia composting plant are a good example for proving possibility to apply this technology in HCMC. In addition, several research projects had been carried out to evaluate possibility to apply, to increase capacity and improve quality of compost produced from biodegradable organic waste from households, schools, and markets (Truong et al., 2014; Dieu et al., 2014;). If based on composition of domestic solid waste of HCMC, it is obviously that composting can be a good choice as it contains high percentage of food waste (Dieu et al., 2014). The climate of HCMC is also suitable for biological processes, and a high demand for organic fertilizers/soil conditioners for agricultural and forestry areas. It has been shown that the amount of produced organic fertilizer is small compared to the effective demand and very small compared to the agricultural need (Giac Tam et al., 2006). Insufficient supply of organic carbon causes a strong deterioration of the soils in Viet Nam nowadays. However, it is also important to know that so far implementation of domestic solid waste composting plants in HCMC is still limited due to high investment and operational costs and low profits, operational problems as a result of high moisture and impurities from the input commingled domestic solid waste leading to decrease in the quality of compost. So it is very difficult to be sold in the market. Possibilities and challenges to produce biogas and recover energy from biodegradable organic waste The anaerobic digestion technology was applied in Vietnam only for pig manure, not MSW. The investigation on dry anaerobic digestion of MSW conducted in HCMC with a batch system in lab and pilot scale by Oanh, et al., (2012) showed that the biogas production reached 59 m3/ton of an input mixture. Besides, several researches on biogas recovery from biodegradable organic waste from markets and food refuse of households using both dry and wet anaerobic digestion carried out by Department of Environmental Technology and Management, Van Lang University for the period of 2013-2015 shows that 485

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it is possible to produce about 70-80 m3 biogas/ton of input material with about 50-60% of methane gas. This amount of biogas generation is not as high as compared to the yields reported in literature. However, it proves that anaerobic digestion is a reasonable technology in HCMC where there is a lack of electricity, especially in the dry season. The advantages of anaerobic digestions could be considered in the following aspects:   

  

High moisture content of biodegradable materials from domestic solid waste; It is possible to generate about 80 m3 biogas/ton of input material and thus about 160 kWh/ton. The digested sludge from anaerobic digestion process can be reused as raw material for composting with production capacity equivalent to 0.25-0.30 ton compost/ton of input material; HCMC has experience on electricity production from biogas and connection to the grid via operation of Go Cat sanitary landfill consisting dumping cells, a biogas collection system and generators. Therefore, the only important step now is to produce sufficient and high quality of biogas. The use of sanitary landfill cells as natural anaerobic digestion by only dumping separated biodegradable organic waste may be also simplest solution for biogas recovery and electricity production; Regulation of the government support to renewable energy, especially, energy generation from biomass; Anaerobic digestion requires lower land compared to composting and landfill technologies; Reducing environmental implication compared to composting and landfill technologies.

However, this technology has not been proved in Vietnam yet. So far, MSW anaerobic digestion facility is not available in HCMC and Vietnam yet and thus experiences on its operation is still lacking. In the other words, technical issues, economic and social benefits as well as challenges in practical application of this technology has not been well defined yet. Possibilities and challenges to recycling waste HCMC has established and grown a spontaneous system of sorting, collecting, trading and recycling valuable materials from MSW for decades. There are various stakeholders involve in this system: waste generators, waste pickers, itinerant buyers, informal collectors, authorized waste collection personnel, junk shops, and recycling facilities. HCMC has a really dense network of junk shops and recycling facilities to recycle about 2,000 tons of recyclable wastes per day. The recycling facilities belong to the private sector and recycling activities have developed, bringing a lot of benefits and work for the people especial poor people. The market of recycling products is large and no competition from other foreign companies. However, recycling technologies are mainly manual and backward with consume much energy, water as well as cause serious environmental pollution for residential areas. Although the recycling facilities don‘t meet the requirements of recycling waste purposes and environment protection; it is an important factor in the MSW management system. This sector has created great jobs for poor people with less skill, consumed the recyclable wastes and produced many products serving the needs of society. This is a big problem for economy and society of HCMC. 4.0 Conclusions and recommendations As this paper has shown as well the present system is still plagued by many shortcomings. We would like to start the discussion about these shortcomings from the perspective of the internationally widely adopted principle of the waste hierarchy. This principle prescribes solid waste management activities in an order of decreasing preference as follows: waste prevention (highest preference) > reuse and recycling > composting or/and biogas recovery and electricity production > landfill (least preferred). This order is based on the sustainability principle of maximum protection and recovery of the resources in waste. For HCMC application, this principle would mean a strong emphasis on activities that avoid the generation of wastes, stimulation of reuse and recycling and on recovery of valuable materials (like energy, compost and others) from collected wastes. From this perspective, separation of MSW at the source is important. Waste separation at source could reduce the flow of waste materials going to landfills and deliver recyclable materials in a pure form 486

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thus reducing the costs of processing and leading to products of a higher quality. While the waste hierarchy prescribes a preference for treatment technologies like composting and anaerobic digestion with utilization of biogas, waste is disposed of sanitary landfill (about 65% of collected solid waste) , and amount of MSW is composted (25% of collected waste) in 2015. The sanitary landfill is a big step forward in comparison to open dumping and open burning, landfill will reach its limits, sooner or later, there will be a lack of land, inhabitants will difficultly accept the environmental pollution associated with operation of landfills and the need to recover materials will grow, which demands other technologies. In the other words, how to put these technologies into practice that suites to HCMC condition is still a question. The zero waste management can be gone successfully into practice when having the combination of two aspects: policy and technology. Policies in relation to support to recycling sector are currently rather, the government of HCMC should promulgate such policies encouraging recycling waste and support funding to improve existing recycling facilities or invest recycling facilities with advanced technologies, it needs the investment from Private and Foreign sector via socialization for solid waste management. Finally, to enhance the environmental awareness and role of communities play an important role in increasing effective solid waste management so that attract the public participation and increase the community role in solid waste management waste separation at source, is very essential. In addition, human resources related to solid waste management have improved through many activities in capacity building and international cooperation for the last 20 years. If well and timely manage as improvements can be of great value. Acknowledgement The authors wish to acknowledge the financial support from the Asia-Pacific Network for Global Change Research (APN). References CENTEMA (2015), The report on situation of solid waste management in Hochiminh city, APN CENTEMA (2009), The report on data collection on solid waste management in Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam. Department of Natural Resoures and Environment - DONRE (2005), The demonstration program on solid waste separation at source, Ho Chi Minh City. Department of Natural Resoures and Environment – DONRE (2009), The report on current investment on solid waste treatment of HCMC in 2009 Department of Natural Resoures and Environment - DONRE (2009 and 2010), Report on composition and amount of domestic solid waste generated. Department of Natural Resoures and Environment – DONRE (2011), Oriented planning on solid waste management in HCMC to 2020 and vision to 2030‖ Department of Natural Resoures and Environment – DONRE (2014, 2015), Report on general data on situation of storage at sources, collection, transfer, transportation, treatment and disposal. Division of solid waste management, DONRE (2015), Report on the implementation result on minimization of environmental pollution in the period of 2011-2015. Giac Tam, P. T., D. H. Xo, J.C.L. Van Buuren, L. T. K. Oanh, N. K. Thanh, and T. T. T. Trang. 2006. Towards the reuse of municipal biowaste in Viet Nam - a case study about Ho Chi Minh City 2006. In Biowaste reuse in southeast asian cities - Asia pro-eco program. General Statistics Office (2014), Annual statistics book of Year 2013. Le Thi Kim Oanh (2012), Surmat decision support tool to select solid waste treatment technologies. Case study in HCMC, Vietnam. Nguyen Thanh Nhan (2008), the current situation of recycling sector in HCMC. Nguyen Trung Viet (2015), Solid waste separation at sources program. Necessary and sufficient conditions for SWM in HCMC, International Conference on Technological and Management Solutions for Climate Change Adaptation: Opportunities and challenges to Asian Countries. Tran Thi My Dieu, Le Minh Truong and Nguyen Trung Viet (2014). Composition and generation rate of household solid waste: reuse and recycling ability – a case study in District 1, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam, International Journal of Environmental Protection, Jun. 2014, Vol. 4, Iss. 6, pp. 73-81. Truong, L. M., Dieu, T. T.M., Hieu, N. M., Quan, H.T. (2014). Co-composting of school food remnant: a case study at 02 schools in Tan Binh district, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam. IJISET – International Journal of Innovative Science, Engineering & Technology, Volume 1, Issue 9, November 2014, pp. 574-582, ISSN 2348-7968. http://vietbao.vn, date 12/29/2014.

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Study on the Effective Reuse of Eggshells as a Resource Recovery from Municipal Solid Waste M.R. Sarder1,*, N.A. Hafiz2, M. Alamgir2 1

Engineering Section & Department of Civil Engineering, Khulna University of Engineering & Technology, Khulna, Bangladesh 2 Department of Civil Engineering, Khulna University of Engineering & Technology, Khulna, Bangladesh *Corresponding Author: Email- [email protected] ABSTRACT Since early period, Eggs have been used as food by human being and getting preferred day-to-day because of its nutritious content. The eggshells have been discarded as unfavorable ingredients which are accountable for the deterioration of the environment and also responsible for flies, mosquitoes and smell hassle. The mass of one eggshell is about 11 % of an egg and largely produced from households, food companies, hotels and restaurants etc. Littering of eggshells is a growth medium for microorganisms which can generate various illnesses in human body. Eggshells can become resources by proper management and recycling process. Egg shells are highly calcium rich substances and have many essential nutritional benefits for vegetation. Powdered eggshells can be utilized direct with soil as well as in composting to assure calcium rich compost thus valuable in reducing the plant diseases like blossom end root (BER) and also reduces the expense of the plantation. This research shows the management of eggshells at KUET campus. Eggshells have been generally obtained at KUET campus from student dormitories, cafeteria and domestic areas. The study reveals that the generation rate of eggshells is 19.49 kg/month which is the 0.17% of the total solid waste, while the overall generation rate of solid waste in the campus is 0.090 kg/capita/day. The properties of eggshells is measured as the contents of calcium, moisture, organic, carbon and nitrogen are 31.5, 3.23, 23.82, 13.23 and 0.601%, respectively while the values of C/N ratio is 15.75 and pH is 7.7. Keyword: Municipal solid waste, Eggshells, Resource recovery, Plantation; International Society of Waste Management, Air and Water

1.0 Introduction There are large numbers of hen eggs that are broken every day in food plants. The eggshells are often seen as a waste from the industry, whose generation can signify from 0.03 to 0.12 of the mass of the egg items acquired from egg (Russ and Meyer-Pittroff, 2004). Recently, Europe created about 10,600 million ton of eggs from which about 30% was directed to the egg breaking handling (Agra CEAS Talking to Ltd, 2008; FAO, 2012). Livestock Department‘s available research display that the household manufacturing of egg in Bangladesh is 7,303 million tons in the fiscal year 2011-2012 against the requirement of 15,392 million tons (Hossain and Hassan, 2013). The proper management and disposal of this waste have been regarded as an important issue for the food market for the concern of environmental security, due to not only the considerable amounts 488

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produced but also to its potential for bacterial growth or progression of pathogens (Russ and MeyerPittroff, 2004). Appropriate control techniques have not been well recognized for eggshells and disposal in dumps has been typically used (Tsai et al., 2008). Even so, recycle and restoration should be examined to avoid the waste of sources. Eggshells are waste products from hatcheries, houses, and junk food sectors (Phil and Zhihong, 2009; Amu et al., 2005) and can be easily gathered in a lot. Eggshells waste disposal plays a role in polluting the environment. Difficulties associated with disposal of eggshells consist of cost, accessibility of disposal sites, smell, goes and abrasiveness (Phil and Zhihong, 2009). However, they can be prepared into saleable products like manure, used in paintings, individual and animal nourishment and building components and to generate collagen from the membranes (Phil and Zhihong, 2009; Amu et al., 2005). Eggshells contain calcium and trace amounts of other smaller ingredients, i.e. magnesium, boron, copper, steel, manganese, molybdenum, sulphur, rubber and zinc (Bee, 2011). Eggshells calcium is possibly the best natural resource of calcium and it is about 90% absorbable (Bee, 2011). It is a significantly better resource of calcium than limestone or coral resources. Because of the high nutrients of eggshells, namely in calcium, its recycle by composting seems fascinating. In reality, the use of rich calcium compost to soil lacking in this nutrient may represent an option to promote eggshells recycling into a value-added item and thus restore a natural source included in this animal byproduct (Micaela et. al., 2013). Much vegetation experience from Blossom ends root (BER) disease due to lack of calcium in ground hence eggshells powder with soil is greatly beneficial to prevent BER diseases (Gaonkar and Chakraborty, 2016). The chemical compositions (by weight) of byproduct eggshells are as follows: calcium carbonate is 94%, magnesium carbonate is 1%, and calcium phosphate is 1%, while the calcium content is 28.2 to 41.2% and phosphorus content is 0.102% (Arpasova et al., 2010). However, Muir et al. (1976) revealed that the calcium content of the eggshells is 34.8%. Compositionally, eggshells are quite similar to that of our bones and teeth. It is advisable that individual with weak bones take 400-500mg calcium daily to complement nutritional resources. The powder should be taken together with some included magnesium, zinc, vitamin D3, K1, K2, strontium and boron for effective usage. Schaafsma et al. (2002) revealed a highly positive effect of eggshells calcium supplements (with included magnesium and vitamin D) on bone Mineral Density (BMD). In this research, the eggshells formulated group had considerable improve in bone strength and density in their hip bone after one year. The results indicate that healthy delayed post-menopausal women with sufficient calcium consumption at baseline may increase bone nutrient density of the hip within 12 months following the use of the chicken eggshells powder-rich supplement (King‘ori, 2011). The main objective of this study is to characterize the eggshells and to depict the reuse potential of eggshells as a resource recovery from solid waste generated at KUET campus. 2.0 Study Area This study is being conducting on the collected eggshells processed at the waste management plant situated in the campus of Khulna University of Engineering & Technology (KUET), Khulna, Bangladesh. Currently, it has about 4900 students, 18 Academic Departments under 3 Faculty, 3 Institute and having a count of population is around 7000 comprising students, teachers, officers, family members and other supporting workers. The university having an area of 101 acre area located at the North-West corner of Khulna City, about 12 km from the city center as shown in Figure 1. The university has adopted an oncampus solid waste management system with a waste management plant (WMP). The system comprises waste source separation, waste storage, collection, transportation, separation, composting, recycling, burning and disposal process. This initiative has improved overall environment of the university campus.

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Figure 1: Layout plan of KUET campus showing the location of WMP

3.0 Materials and Methods This study has been done by way of field level research, primary data selection and laboratory analyses. To evaluate the effective recycling of eggshells as a source restoration of solid waste, the following technique has been adopted. Two plastic containers have been provided at every student dormitory, residential and academic buildings for the source storage of rapidly biodegradable and slowly biodegradable/non-biodegradable waste separately. Solid wastes from common features have been gathered into containers which are placed into a light and portable concrete block to encounter from tilting and overturning as shown in Figure 2. These waste materials have been transferred every day to the WMP by using rickshaw van for ultimate treatment method as shown in Figure 3. The eggshells mainly produced into student dormitories, residences and cafeteria. The eggshells have been categorized in WMP as shown in Figure 4 and dehydrated after cleaning through normal water. The dried eggshells have been placed in an oven at a temperature of 105 °C for 24 hours. The oven dried eggshells have been turned into powder and sieved through #100 sieves and then necessary assessments have been conducted as shown in Figure 5.

Figure 2: Roadside dustbin for the storage of wastes

Figure 3: Collection and transportation of SW using rickshaw van 490

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Figure 4: Solid waste management plant including burning unit

Figure 5: Powdering of eggshells using traditional iron hammer

4.0 Results and Discussions Figure 6 describes the total waste generation rate at KUET campus from January, 2016 to May, 2016. The average waste generation rate has been found as 0.090 kg/capita/day which indicate that the waste generation rate is increasing from previous year. However waste generation rate depends on different factors such as food habit, weather condition, campus vacation and arranging different types of program etc. Figure 7 illustrates the composition of solid wastes generated at KUET campus and it has been observed that paper and food wastes are predominant. Also shows a negligible amount (0.17%) of eggshells has been produced but they are sufficiently enough for environmental deterioration of KUET campus if do not managed properly.

Figure 6: Total waste generation rate at KUET campus (kg/capita/day)

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Figure 7: Composition of Solid Waste generated at KUET campus

Figure 8: Monthly production of Eggshells at KUET campus

Figure 8 delineates the monthly eggshells production at KUET campus and it has been noticed that the average monthly eggshells generation is 19.49 kg and mostly generated from students dormitories, residential areas and cafeteria. However, in the month of April, the amount of eggshells is the highest which occurs due to the presence of the new students in the campus before the completion of course of the final year students. However, in average the rate of generation of eggshells with respect of people is almost constant. Table 1: Some major properties of Eggshells Properties of the Egg shell

Measured values

Calcium content

31.5%

Moisture content

3.23%

Organic content

23.82%

Carbon content

13.23%

Nitrogen content

0.84%

C/N ratio

15.75

pH

7.6

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The characteristics of eggshells as measured in the Chemistry laboratory of KUET is shown in Table 1. At least 3 specimens are measured for each element and the average value is given in the table. From the measured some representative characteristics, it can be seen that the value of calcium content is very high as 31.50%, while the organic, carbon, nitrogen and moisture contents are 23.82, 13.23, 0.84 and 3.23%, respectively. The value of pH and C/N ratio are obtained as 15.75 and 7.6, respectively. As a highly calcium content material, the eggshells is very helpful to provide necessary calcium to the plants if it is mixed with soil. Soil can easily absorbed calcium from eggshells powder and helpful for prevention of BER disease and enriched pH of acidic soil and may be used as calcium supplement for human. The decomposition of eggshells has been accelerated in slightly acidic soil and fineness of eggshells. 5.0 Conclusions This study reveals that the overall solid waste and eggshells generation at KUET campus are found as 0.090 kg/capita/day and 19.49kg, respectively and the eggshells is 0.17% of total solid waste generation. Eggshells contain 31.50% calcium, which is beneficial to increase the calcium in the soil if can be applied properly. The maximum portion of eggshells obtained at KUET campus is coming from boiled eggs. The properties of boiled eggshells may differ from non-boiled eggshells due to elimination of some components during heating. Finally, it can be concluded that that eggshells can be used as a valuable soil conditioner. References Amu, O.O., A.B. Fajobi and B.O. Oke, 2005. Effect of eggshell powder on the stabilization potential of lime on an expansive clay soil. Res. J. Agric and Biol. Sci., 1: 80-84. Arpasova H., Halaj M. and Halaj P. (2010). Eggshell quality and calcium utilization in feed of hens in repeated laying cycles. Czech J. Anim. Sci., 55, 2010 (2): 66–74. Bee, W., 2011. How to make calcium from egg shells. www. Healing naturally by Bee. Downloaded from the internet on 30/09/2011. FAO, 2012. FAOSTAT. Available from . Accessed 29.05.13. Gaonkar M. and Chakraborty A.P. (2016).Application of Eggshell as Fertilizer and Calcium Supplement Tablet.International Journal of Innovative Research in Science, Engineering and Technology Vol. 5, Issue 3. Hossain M.J. and Hassan M.F. (2013). Forecasting of Milk, Meat and Egg Production in Bangladesh. Research Journal of Animal, Veterinary and Fishery Sciences ISSN 2320 – 6535 Vol. 1(9), 7-13. King‘ori A.M. (2011). A Review of the Uses of Poultry Eggshells and Shell Membranes. International Journal of Poultry Science 10 (11): 908-912, 2011 ISSN 1682-8356 Micaela A.R.S., Margarida M.J.Q., Rosa M.Q.F. (2013). Co-composting of eggshell waste in self-heating reactors: Monitoring and end product quality. PII: S0960-8524(13)01409-0. Phil, G. and M. Zhihong, 2009. High value products from hatchery waste. RIRDC publication no. 09/061. [email protected]. Russ, W., Meyer-Pittroff, R., 2004. Utilizing waste products from the food production and processing industries. Critical reviews in food science and nutrition 44, 57–62. Schaafsma, Z., J.J. van Doormal, F.A. Muskiet, G.J. Hofstede, I. Pakan and E. van der Veer, 2002. Positive effects of a chicken eggshell powder enriched vitamin-mineral supplement on femoral neck bone mineral density in healthy late post-menopausal Dutch women. Br. J. Nutr., 87: 267-275. Tsai, W.-T., Hsien, K.-J., Hsu, H.-C., Lin, C.-M., Lin, K.-Y., Chiu, C.-H., 2008. Utilization of ground eggshell waste as an adsorbent for the removal of dyes from aqueous solution. Bioresource Technology 99, 1623–9.

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Material Stream in the Recycling Process for Spent Compact Fluorescent Lamp (SCFL) Seung-Whee Rhee*, Hyeong-Jin Choi Department of Environmental Engineering, College of Engineering, Kyonggi University, Suwon, Republic of Korea *Corresponding Author: Email- [email protected] ABSTRACT Material stream for recycling material and mercury from spent compact fluorescent lamp (SCFL) are fulfilled to estimate material composition in consecutive recycling process by an input-output approach. The system of recycling process for SCFL was established by SCFL crusher, screen separation system, 1st air separator, magnetic separator, 2nd air separator, mercury distillation system, and activated carbon adsorption. From the results of material stream of SCFL, more than 95% of materials of SCFL such as glass, phosphor powder, copper wire, ferrous metals, plastics, paper, and vinyl can be recovered. For material stream on mercury, mercury content in phosphor powder was highest among material compositions and total mercury amount in recycling materials from 1,000kg of SCFL was estimated to be 47.22g. In the system of recycling process for SCFL, mercury amount in vapor phase was measured with the result of 3,017mg in SCFL crusher, and 1,184mg in screen separation system. Total mercury amount in vapor phase was estimated to be 4,201mg which was only 8.17% of total mercury amount emitted from the system of recycling process. Hence, it was estimated that total mercury amount from the recycling process system of 1,000kg of SCFL in material stream was 51.42g in both recycling materials and vapor phase. Keywords: Material stream, Spent compact fluorescent lamp, Mercury, Recycling; International Society of Waste Management, Air and Water

1.0 Introduction Wastes containing mercury have been significantly considered nowadays because the Minamata Convention on mercury was adopted unanimously to be a global treaty in 2014. In Korea, the management of spent fluorescent lamps (SFLs) among wastes containing mercury have been concerned to protect human health and the environment from releases of mercury and mercury compounds 1-3. In 2014, the generation of SFLs was estimated about 140 million tubes and the recycling rate of SFLs may be less than 30% in Korea4. More than 70% of SFLs were not controlled properly and most of them were disposed in landfill sites or incinerators without any pre-treatments. Since SFLs contained mercury which is a toxic and hazardous substance, the control of SFLs is very important to prevent its adverse effects on the environment and human health5. In order to recycling wastes containing mercury such as SFLs, it is very important to investigate waste stream with hazardous substance to control and remove hazardous substance such as mercury in advance. Using a kind of technique of material flow analysis, waste stream, flow structures and the amount of materials for recycling process of SFLs are necessary to study in recycling fields. 494

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Material flow analysis (MFA) is a systematic assessment of the flows and stocks of materials within a system defined in space and time6. The approach model of MFA may help to develop material flow accounts for usage in official statistics to provide environmental performance data and to evaluate environmental impact assessment. In order to apply material flow analysis to waste recycling stream, closed loop of recycling stream was established with controlling pathways for material usage in recycling processes and estimated input fraction and output fraction to recycling processes with surroundings. Hwang and Jang (2015) estimated SFLs management in Korea using material flow analysis 7. They found that approximately 5.8 million units are disposed and treated in landfills and incineration facilities and the mercury disposed in landfills and treated in incinerators were found to be 38.3kg and 25.5kg, respectively. Zhang et al. (2016) studied the fate and flow of mercury in fluorescent lamps from manufacture to disposal using the material flow analysis (MFA) method in China8. The mercury contained in fluorescent lamps for domestic production, export, and import in 2011 was 29.31, 12.81, and 3.95 tons, respectively. Rhee et al. (2014) investigated mercury emission and mercury concentration in the components of SFL such as glass tube, phosphor powder, and base cap in recycling processes9. In this study, material stream in the recycling processes of SCFLs was investigated by using the input-output approach. The recycling processes for SCFL in pilot plant scale consist of SCFL crusher, screen separation system, 1st air separator, magnetic separator, 2nd air separator, mercury distillation system, and activated carbon adsorption. In each recycling process, input-output approach applied to estimate material stream of the components of SCFL and mercury amount in the components. In the recycling process of SCFL, total materials collected and recycled were estimated. Also, the mercury emission to air phase in each process was evaluated by the measurement of mercury concentration in vapor phase. Finally, it can be found the total amount of mercury in each SCFL unit by using the input-output approach. 2.0 Materials and Method 2.1 Materials The sample used in this study is 20W type SCFL and its components are as shown in Table 1. SCFL is composed of glass, phosphor powder, copper wire, ferrous metals, plastics, vinyl, paper and others. Out of the components, the glass is 49.27g occupying the greatest proportion and the phosphor powder is 0.89g holding the least proportion. In this study, the SCFL recycling process was established as a system and the material stream was performed by establishing 1,000kg of 20W type SCFL (10,627 units) as an input material. Table 1: The component of spent compact fluorescent lamps Wattage [W]

20W

Glass

g 49.27 ±1.28

% 52.36

Phosphor powder

0.89±0.05

0.95

Copper wire

4.57±0.32

4.86

Ferrous metals

11.27±0.75

11.98

Plastics

22.45±0.94

23.86

Vinyl

0.71±0.07

0.75

Paper

1.50±0.13

1.59

Others

3.44±0.25

3.65

Totals

94.10±3.79

100.00

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2.2 Recycling Process and Experimental Equipment In this study, the system was composed of 7 consecutive processes using the SCFL recycling facilities in pilot plant scale developed by Kyonggi University in Gyeonggi-do, Korea. The recycling process is composed of crushing process, sorting and recovery process and hazardous material treatment process. The name, capacity and functions of each process are shown in Table 2. The crushing process is corresponded to Process 1, sorting and recovery processes to Process 2-5, and the hazardous material treatment processes to Process 6-7. For mercury in vapor phase, mercury is controlled by Process 7 and mercury concentration emitted to atmosphere is less than 5㎍/Sm3 which is much lower than 2mg/Sm3 of the air quality standard in Korea10. The measurement of mercury emitted from the SCFL recycling process was performed from the materials and vapor phase generated from each process. In mercury analysis, DMA-80 using the gold amalgamation was used for the materials and the atomic absorption photometry was used in vapor phase based on the ultraviolet ray generated in the 254nm. Table 2: Capacity and function of process in lamp recycling facility Process No.

Plant

Capacity

Function

1

SCFL crusher

10,000 ea/day

Crushing SCFL

2

Screen separation system

1,000 kg/day

Separation of phosphor powder, glass, and copper wire from crushed materials

3

1st air separator

1,000 kg/day

Separation of paper and vinyl from crushed materials

4

Magnetic separator

1,000 kg/day

Separation of ferrous metals from crushed materials

5

2nd air separator

1,000 kg/day

Separation of glass and plastics from crushed materials

6

Mercury distillation system

100 kg/day

Stabilization of mercury from solid phase

Activated carbon adsorption

3

Adsorption of mercury vapor

7

15 m /min

2.3 Material Stream Method The material stream of the SCFL recycling process was performed by a basic method using inflow and outflow. In the material stream, overall flow chart for each process of SCFL recycling facility was established as shown in Fig. 1. Since the boundary was set to each process, the material stream was examined in each process. The material stream was performed using basic data such as the amount of input material, type of constituents, amount of substances, disposal materials. In addition, the material stream for mercury was analyzed by dividing into mercury in vapor phase and mercury contained in the output materials. Since tiny glass particles generated from the SCFL crushing process can be mixed with the phosphor powder, they need to be separated properly. The screen with pore size of 61㎛ was built in screen separation system to collect phosphor powder completely because the average particle size of the phosphor powder is approximately 45㎛9.

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Figure 1: Overall flow chart in recycling facility for SCFL

3. Results and Discussion 3.1 Material Stream on Spent Compact Fluorescent Lamp SCFL recycling process was set to entire system and the material stream for each recycling process was shown in Fig. 2. Process 1 was the crushing process using SCFL crusher to get the products less than 1.0cm of particle size. The output materials crushed in process 1 were recovered into each material through the sorting and recovery processes (Process 3-5). In Process 2, the glass (61~100㎛), copper wire, and the phosphor powder less than 61㎛ in particle size were recovered using screen separation system. In Process 3, the paper and the vinyl were recovered using 1st air separator. And then, in Process 4, the ferrous metals were recovered using magnetic separator and the glass (100㎛ 100㎛), 45.08kg of copper wire, 24.36kg of paper and vinyl, 121.67kg of ferrous metals, 245.19kg of plastics, 10.34kg of phosphor powder are recovered. The mercury content in recovered materials and the mercury amount in vapor phase were estimated to be 47.22g and 4.20g, respectively. Hence, total amount of mercury contained in 1,000 kg of SCFL was estimated as 51.42g. From the results of evaluating recovery rate and purity through material stream, it can be found readily more than 95% of materials of SCFL can be recovered. Acknowledgement This study was partially supported by the R&D Center for Valuable Recycling (Global-Top Environmental Technology Development Program) funded by the Ministry of Environment, Korea. (Project No. : GT-11-C-01-070-0) Reference Brunner, P. Rechberger, H. 2004. Practical hand book of material flow analysis. CRC Press 35-80. Cho, J.H., Eom, Y., Park, J.M., Lee, S.B., Hong, J.H., Lee, T.G. (2013) Mercury leaching characteristics of waste treatment residues generated from carious sources in Korea. Waste Management 33(7):1675-1681. Hwang, Y.J., Jang, Y.C. (2015) Material flow analysis of used fluorescent lamps for proper management. J. of Korea Society of Waste Management 32(6):591-598. Jang, E., Kim, K.R., Kim, K.H., Hur, T. 2012. Material flow analysis and human risk assessment of mercury. In Design for Innovative Value Towards a Sustainable Sociey. Springer Netherlands 888-890. Minisry of the Eviornment, Government of Japan. Waste & Recycling. https://www.env.go.jp/en/recycle/index.html (Accessed on 25 June 2016) Ministry of Evironment, Korea. 2016. Ordinance of the minisry of envrionment Korea No. 654. Park, J.D., Zheng, W. (2012) Human exposure and health effects of inorganic and elemental mercury. Journal of Preventive Medicine & Public Health 45(6):344-352. Rhee, S.W. (2015) Control of mercury emissions: policies, technologies, and future trends. Energy and Emission Contol Technology 4:1-15. Rhee, S.W., Choi, H.H., Park, H.S. (2014) Characteristics of mercury emission from linear type of spnet fluorescent lamp. Waste Management 34(6):1066-1071. Rhee, S.W., Park, H.S., Yoo, H.S. (2015) Efficient management system for mercury-contatining waste according to the current status of spent flurocesent lamps. Journal of environmental policy 14(1):135-158. US CFR (United States Code of Federal Regulation) 2010. Title 40: Land Disposal Restrictions (40 CFR Part 268). Washington DC, USA. Zhang, J., Chen, S., Kim, J., Cheng, S. (2016) Mercury flow analysis and reduction pathways for fluorescent lamps in mainland China. Journal of Cleaner Procduction 133(1):451-458.

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Biofuels from Indian Lignocellulosic Wastes through Pyrolysis: A Review with some Case Studies R. Chowdhury* Professor, Chemical Engineering Department, Jadavpur University, Kolkata, India *Corresponding Author: Email- [email protected] ABSTRACT This review presents the current status of the pyrolytic conversion of lignocellulosic waste to biofuels in India. The yields and characteristics of pyro-products from Indian lignocellulosic wastes have been discussed and the challenges in this conversion technology with respect to Indian wastes have been identified. Two case studies—one on catalytic co-pyrolysis and another on environmental analysis pyrolysis plant of waste jute , have been discussed and recommendations have been made. Keywords: International Society of Waste Management, Air and Water

Introduction The issues related to global warming and climate change have raised the arguments for the development of bio refining processes, particularly liquid biofuel production as a substitute for petroleumderived transportation fuels. Indian government has planned to achieve a target of 20% blending of fossil fuels with ethanol and biodiesel by 2017 (MNRE 2009)[1]. Due to concerns like high food prices, competition of land for food production, acceleration of deforestation, scarcity of water resources, negative impact on biodiversity and so on (IEA Bioenergy 2008) [2] involved in the 1st generation biofuel, the interest in developing 2nd generation liquid biofuels from nonfood lignocellulosic materials has increased. Lignocellulosic biomass is the only economically sustainable source of carbon for production of renewable liquid fuels or chemicals [3]. However, the effective utilization of lignocellulose is not always practicable due to the recalcitrance of lignocellulose to hydrolysis. Lignocelluloses are mainly composed of cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin, in addition to a small amount of pectin, starch, ash and extractives. Unlike biochemical processes the conversion through thermo-chemical routes is not restricted by the recalcitrance of lignocellulosic feedstocks. The thermochemical processes namely combustion, gasification and pyrolysis can utilize all components of lignocellulosics including lignin. Among all the thermochemical processes pyrolysis can generate all forms of fuels, namely solid i.e. pyro-char, liquid i.e. pyro-oil and gas i.e. pyro-gas through a single step. The yield of solid, liquid and gaseous products from pyrolysis can be adjusted by the manipulation of pyrolysis temperature. The pyro-oil generated through pyrolysis of lignocellulosic feedstocks is considered as a second generation bio-fuel which may be upgraded to be used in automobile sectors as well as for power generation. The pyro-gas can either be used for power generation or can be converted to green liquid fuels through Fischer-Tropsch process. The pyro-char can either be used for power generation or for soil amendment to avoid greenhouse gas (N 2O) emission. Pyrolysis also serves as the precursor process for both combustion and gasification. Understanding the versatility of pyrolysis process to address the challenges of waste management and mitigation of 502

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greenhouse gas emission, this article will focus on the review of research studies and the present status of pyrolytic conversion of Indian lignocellulosic wastes to energy sources with special emphasis on the characteristics of Indian wastes being pyrolyzed, the trends and characteristics of pyro-products and the challenges of the process. Two case studies, one on catalytic co-pyrolysis and the other on environmental inpact analysis of large pyrolysis plant, based on waste jute, will be discussed to elucidate the ways of mitigation of challenges in this area. Some recommendations will be made based on the overall survey and analysis. Pyrolysis Pyrolysis can be defined as a thermochemical decomposition of organic matters at elevated temperatures in absence of oxygen or any halogen compounds [4-9]. In the first step the pyrolyzing feedstock is decomposed to char, and volatiles. The condensable part of volatiles is called pyro-oil and the non-condensable part is called pyro-gas. This reaction step is known as primary pyrolysis. In the second step the components of pyro-gas react amongst themselves to generate new products. This reaction step is known as secondary pyrolysis. The reactions of primary and secondary pyrolysis processes may be represented as follows:

(1) Reaction scheme for Primary Pyrolysis The secondary pyrolysis reactions are as follows: C  H 2O  CO  H 2

(2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7)

C  CO2  2CO (CH2 )  H 2O  CO  2H 2 (CH2 )  CO2  2CO  H 2

CO  H 2O  CO2  H 2 CO  3H 2O  CH4  H 2O

According to reaction conditions the pyrolysis may be categorized as follows: Fast, Flash and slow pyrolysis. [10, 11]. The detailed difference amongst the three are listed below in table.1 Table 1: Different pyrolysis processes with operating parameters and products Product Yield (%)

Pyrolysis Process

Solid Residence Time (s)

Heating Rate (K/s)

Particle Size (mm)

Temp (K)

Slow

450 - 550

0.1 - 1

5 -50

Fast

0.5 - 10

10 - 200

Flash

< 0.5

>1000

Oil

Char

Gas

550 – 950

30

35

35

773K 6731173K 1173K 1173K 41.0 2.4 56.0

35.0 1.8 61.5

Indian Lignocellulosic Wastes SOC NP PP JW 6735735735731173K 1173K 1173K 1173K

48.8-54 9.0-6.0 32.0

59.2-35.8 20.0-30.0 25.0-26.0 9.2-8.5 4-1 8.0-8.3 21.9-9.6 64.0-66.0 65.0

LW 573-

TW 573-

65.0-49.0 67.0-45.0 63.0-62.0 10.0 10.0 3.2 10.0-40.0 10.0-35.0 33.4

From the analysis of the table, it is evident that while the carbon content of pyro-oil from all Indian lignocellulosic waste, as reported in the literature, lies in the range of 20-67%, the values of hydrogen and oxygen content are respectively in the ranges of 1.8-10 and 10-66%. According to the reported observations, for most of the lignocellulosic MSW, except textile waste, carbon content of pyrooil decreases with pyrolysis temperature. The hydrogen content is almost insensitive to pyrolysis temperature. From the analysis of the data, it appears that while for most of the wastes, the oxygen content of pyro-oil is invariant with temperature, for jute and lime waste the oxygen content increases with the increase in pyrolysis temperature. For sesame oil cake the oxygen content decreases with the increase with pyrolysis temperature. The higher heating values of pyro-oil obtained from rice husk and bamboo waste at pyrolysis temperature>773K, are 18.6 and 17.4 MJ/kg. The higher heating values of pyro-oil obtained using jute and wastes vary from 35-17 MJ/kg and 35-17 MJ/kg as the pyrolysis temperature is varied in the range of 573-1173K. For different Indian lignocellulosic MSW, the patterns of dependence of higher heating values of pyro-oil on pyrolysis temperature are depicted in Figure 2.

Figure 2: Dependence of higher heating values of pyro-oil on pyrolysis temperature

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From Figure 2, it is clear that there is a decreasing trend of heating values with temperature. Overall the heating values of pyro-oil obtained from lignocellulosic MSW lie in the range 17-32 MJ/kg. As observed by researchers, pyro-oil obtained from Indian lignocellulosic wastes contain alcohols, aromatic hydrocarbons, esters, alkyl phenols, oxy phenols, furan, carboxylic acids, ketones, aldehydes which are suggested to be formed through depolymerization and fragmentation of cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin. Characteristics of Pyro-char From the studies on pyrolysis of Indian lignocellulosic MSW [19-28], the values of carbon and oxygen content respectively increase and decrease with the increase with pyrolysis temperature. As a consequence there is, in general, an increasing trend of heating value of pyro-char, obtained from all lignocellulosic MSW, with pyrolysis temperature. Characteristics of Pyro-gas The gas chromatographic analyses of pyro gas obtained from pyrolysis of sesame oil cake, jute waste and lime waste of Indian origin have been performed. In all cases the main constituents are CO, CH4, H2 and CO2. Catalytic Pyrolysis Only one study [28] has been reported on the effect of catalysts on the pyrolysis of Indian lignocellulosic wastes. Alumina has been reported to be the best catalyst for the pyrolysis of jute waste. The activation energy of jute pyrolysis reduces from 9.15 kJ/mol to 3.5kJ/molin presence of 10% (w/w) alumina with respect to the quantity of jute being pyrolyzed. There is an overall increase of yield and decrease of oxygen content of pyro-oil obtained from Indian jute waste in presence of alumina. Co-pyrolysis Co-pyrolysis of mustard press cake [27] and Indian paper wastes have been performed by the present group. The bio-oil yield has been optimized through response surface analysis using the ratio between paper waste and mustard press cake as parameters. The following equation has been reported: Energy Yield (%) = + 51.72 + 0.77 * A – 10.21 * B – 0.88 * A * B + 2.50 * A2– 15.40 * B2 Where, A is the ratio of PW to MPC and B is the pyrolysis temperature (K).

EY %  POY *

HHVPO HHVMSW

EY: Energy yield; POY: Fractional yield of pyro-oil; HHVPO: Higher heating value of pyro-oil; HHVMSW: Higher heating value of pyrolysing MSW The maximum energy yield of 56.51% has been reported at temperature of 812K and paper waste to MPC ratio of 8.80:1. Challenges The reported results on research studies on pyrolysis of Indian lignocellulosic wastes reveal that although pyrolysis is an attractive route for the generation of biofuels from Indian lignocellulosic wastes, there exist a few burning challenges which need research attention. These are: a) high oxygen content of pyro-oil; b) scale –up of small scale pyrolysis unit based on laboratory data; c) necessity for the development of knowledge base on catalytic co-pyrolysis to handle different types of waste materials together; d) investigation on pretreatment processes for the upgradation of quality of pyro-products; c) necessity for the assessment of environmental impact of large pyrolysis plants.

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Case Studies In view of the challenges still remaining in the field of pyrolysis of Indian ligno-cellulosic wastes, results of two studies conducted by the present group appear encouraging. Case 1: Catalytic co-pyrolysis of jute waste and sesame oil cake Method: jute waste and sesame oil cake were co-pyrolyzedia a semi-batch pyrolyzer in the temperature range of 573-1173K. Alumina, ZnO, KCl, NaCl and sodium aluminosilicate were used as catalysts. Result: Results on the effect of catalysts on the pyro-oil yield at different pyrolysis temperature are shown in Figure 3. Alumina shows the highest catalytic effect and there is a large increase in the pyro-oil yield in presence of alumina, particularly up to 773K. Thus the catalytic pyrolysis can be followed to improve the performance of energy generation from the mixed feed of jute waste and sesame oil cake.

Figure 3: Effect of catalysts on the pyro-oil yield

Environmental Analysis of a large pyrolysis plant based on jute waste Environmental analysis of a 100 tpd jute waste pyrolysis plant was performed based on the kinetic data generated in the laboratory scale. Aspen Plus ® was used for the modeling. A scheme for the utilization of pyro-products was as follows: a) Utilization of Pyro-gas and a fraction of pyro-char for the substitution of energy needed for drying and pyrolysis; b) Utilization of residual fraction of Pyro-char for amendment of soil of an agricultural field situated at 20km from the pyrolysis plant, c) Utilization of pyrooil in a power plant using combined heat and power cycle. Total avoidance of CO2 is possible due to (1) utilization of char and gas for the supply of energy for pyrolysis and drying and thereby replacing grid electricity which is generated in coal based power plants in India, (2) replacement of diesel oil in the power plant by pyro-oil and (3) reduction of N2O (Equivalent CO2) emission by the replacement of nitrogen based fertilizer by pyro-char. Conversely, the emission of CO2 caused by transportation of pyro-oil and pyro-char from the pyrolysis plant to the power plant and agricultural field respectively has been debited. Avoidance of CO2, A CO2 has been correlated to pyrolysis temperature (T) and fraction (f) of pyro-char deposited in agricultural field and has been maximized with respect to these factors using response surface methodology. The maximum value of A CO2 of 1081g/kWh has been obtained at T=590oC and f=0.25.

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Recommendations From the review it is clear that although research studies are being conducted on slow pyrolysis of Indian lignocellulosic wastes, more knowledge base should be developed. The pyrolysis of agricultural residues should be studied more thoroughly. More emphasis should be given to solutions for the identified challenges faced by the process. The scale up exercise and environmental analysis should be started for more feedstocks using process simulation software. Conclusions The article has dealt with the research findings on pyrolysis of different Indian lignocellulosic feedstocks, both agricultural and municipal wastes. Detailed analysis of thermochemical characteristics of different feedstocks has been made. Trends of yield of different pyro-products along with their characteristics have been discussed. Finally challenges of this process have been identified and some recommendations have been made highlighting some encouraging results on two case studies on catalytic co-pyrolysis and environment analysis from the perspective of avoidance of CO2. The recommendations may be useful for commercial utilization of pyrolysis process for the valorization of Indian lignocellulosic wastes for the generation of second generation biofuels. References 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13.

14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20.

MNRE (Ministry of New and Renewable Energy). (2009). National Policy on Biofuels. Government of India, New Delhi. IEA (International Energy Agency). (2008). Bioenergy. From 1 st- to 2nd – generation biofuel technologies. An overview of current industry and RD&D activities. Agarwal A. K. (2007). Biofuels (alcohols and biodiesel) applications as fuels for internal combustion engines. Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 33(3):233–71. Torri Cristian, Daniele Fabbri (2014) Biochar enables anaerobic digestion of aqueous phase from intermediate pyrolysis of biomass. BioresourceTechnol, 172: 335 – 341. Murata Kazuhisa, Yanyong Liu, MegumuInaba, Isao Takahara (2012) Catalytic fast pyrolysis of jatropha wastes. J. Analytical and Applied Pyrolysis 94: 75 – 82. LuoGuanqun, Fernando L.P. Resende (2014) Fast pyrolysis of bettle – killed trees. J. Analytical and Applied Pyrolysis 110: 100 – 107. Liu Zhengang, Guanghua Han (2015) Production of solid fuel biochar from waste biomass by low temperature pyrolysis. Fuel 158: 159 – 165. LagoValentina, Charles Greenhalf, Cedric Briens, Franco Berruti (2015) Mixing and operability characteristics of mechanically fluidized reactors for the pyrolysis of biomass. Powder Technology 274: 205 -212. Lanzetta, M., Blasi, D.C.( 1998) Pyrolysis kinetics of wheat and corn straw. J. Anal. Appl. Pyrolysis 44 : 181– 192. Sinha, S.; Jhalani, A.; Ravi, M.R.; Ray, A. (2000) J. Solar Energy Soc. Ind. 10: 41–62. Ahmad, I.; Gupta, A.K. (2010) Pyrolysis and gasification of food waste: Syngas characteristics and char gasification kinetics. Appl. Energy 87: 101–108. Muruganan, S; Sai Gu (2015) Research and development activities in pyrolysis– Contributions from Indian scientific community – A review Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 46 :282–295 Baksy, A., The Bamboo Industry in India: Supply Chain Structure, Challenges and Recommendations (2013) Report of Researching Reality Internship (London School of Economics; Delhi University Enclave - St Stephen's College), Electronic copy available at: http://ssrn.com/abstract=2442953 Hiloidhari Moonmoon; Das Dhiman, Baruah D.C. (2014) Bioenergy potential from crop residue biomass in India, Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 32 :504–512 Ranjith Kharvel Annepu (2012) Sustainable Solid Waste Management in India. M.S. Dissertation of Earth Resources Engineering, Columbia University Central Public Health and Environmental Engineering Organisation (CPHEEO) (2005) Manual on MSW management. Kolkata Environmental Improvement Investment Programme, 2007 P. Mohanty, K. K. Pant, S. K. Naik, L. M. Das,and P. Vasudevan(2011) Fuel Production from Biomass: Indian Perspective for Pyrolysis Oil. Journal of Scientific and Industrial Research 70 : 668-74 Chowdhury R, Chakravarty, M, Bhattacharya P (1991) Modeling and Simulation of an Updraft Moving Bed Gasifier using Rice Husk as a fuel Material. Int J Energy Res 15 (7):593-602. Chowdhury R, Bhattacharya P, Chakravarty, M (1994) Modelling and Simulation of a Downdraft Rice Husk Gasifier. Int J Energy Res 18 (6):581-594. 510

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21. Bandyopadhyay S, Chowdhury R, Biswas GK (1996) Transient behaviour of Coconut shell pyrolysis : A Mathematical analysis. Industrial Engineering Chemistry Res 35 (10):3347-3355. 22. Bandyopadhyay S, Chowdhury R, Biswas GK (1999) Thermal Deactivation Studies of Coconut Shell pyrolysis. Canadian J Chemical Engineering 77 (5):1028-1036. 23. Ray R, Bhattacharya P, Chowdhury R (2004) Simulation and modeling of vegetable market wastes pyrolysis under progressive deactivation condition. Canadian J Chemical Engineering 82 (3):566-579. 24. Ray R, Bhattacharya P, Chowdhury R (2005) Studies on pyrolysis of vegetable market wastes in presence of heat transfer resistance and deactivation. Int J Energy Res 29 (9):811-828. 25. Sarkar A, Dutta S, Chowdhury R (2013) Mustard press cake pyrolysis and product yield characterization. Int J Scientific Engineering Res 4 (8) ISSN 2229-5518. 26. Sarkar A, Mondal B, Chowdhury R (2014) Mathematical modeling of a semibatchpyrolyser for sesame oil cake. Industrial Engineering Chemistry Res 53 (51):19671-19680. 27. Sarkar A, Chowdhury R (2016) Co-pyrolysis of paper waste and mustard press cake in a semi-batch pyrolyzer optimization and bio-oil characterization. Int J Green Energy 13 (4):373-382. 28. Poddar S, De S, Chowdhury R (2015) Catalytic pyrolysis of lignocellulosic bio-packaging (jute) waste-kinetics using lumped and DAE (distributed activation energy) models and pyro-oil characterization. RSC Advances 5 (120):98934-98945 29. Erta, M., and Alma, M. H. (2010) Pyrolysis of laurel (Laurusnobilis L.) ex-traction residues in a fixed bed reactor: Characterization of bio-oil and bio-char, J. Anal. Appl. Pyrolysis 88: 22–29. 30. Mene´ndez, J. A., Domı´nguez, A., Inguanzo, M., Pis, J. J. (2004) Microwave pyrolysis of sewag sludge: analysis of the gas fraction J. Anal. Appl. Pyrolysis. 71: 657–667. 31. Sarkar, .A. (2015) Studies on Pyrolysis of Spent Engine Oil and Lignocellulosic Part of Municipal Solid Waste (MSW). PhD (Engg.) Thesis, Jadavpur University, India 32. Phan, A. N., Ryu, C., Sharifi, V. N., Swithenbank, Jim. (2008) Characterisation of slow pyrolysis products from segregated wastes for energy production, J. Anal. Appl. Pyrolysis 81: 65–71. 33. Yang, Y. B., Phan, A. N., Ryu, C., Sharifi, V., Swithenbank, J. (2007) Mathematical modelling of slow pyrolysis of segregated solid wastes in a packed-bed pyrolyzer. Fuel 86: 169–180 34. Bhuiyan, M. N. A., Murahami, K., and Ota, M. (2008) On thermal stability and chemical kinetics of waste newspaper by thermogravimetric and pyrolysis analysis, Journal of environment and Engineering 3 (1): 1-12. 35. Volli, V., Singh, R. K. (2012) Production of bio-oil from de-oiled cakes by thermal Pyrolysis. Fuel 96: 579–585. 36. Putun, A. E., Ozcan, A., and putun, E. (1999) Pyrolysis of hazelnut shells in a fixed bed tubular reactor: yields and structural analysis of bio oil, Journal of analytical and applied pyrolysis. 52: 33-49. 37. Sensoz, S., Angin, D., and Yorgun, S. (2000) Influence of particle size on the pyrolysis of rapeseed (Brassica napus L.): Fuel properties of bio oil. Biomass and Bioenergy 19: 271-279.

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Water Sorption and Permeability of Alginate Edible Film S.R. Mostafa1,*, K.S. Nagy2, M.A. Sorour2 1

Professor of Reactor Design, Chemical Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering, Cairo University, Egypt 2 Food Engineering and Packaging Department, Food Technology Research Institute, ARC, Cairo, Egypt *Corresponding Author: Email- [email protected] ABSTRACT Alginate (C6H8O6)n is an indigestible biomaterial produced by brown seaweeds, it has a potential to form biopolymer film or coating component because of its unique colloidal properties. Water permeability of edible film made from Alginate with different concentrations (1, 1.5%) was investigated. Water vapor transmission rate, water vapor permeability and gas permeability was measured. The results observed that water vapor permeability was higher for Alginate edible (1.5%) than (1%), also for gas permeability Alginate (1.5%) has higher gas permeability than (1%). In order to investigate the water sorption behavior and isotherms of the film, the water sorption data were fitted to Peleg model. Keywords: Alginate, Edible film, Permeability of water vapor, Gas permeability, water sorption; International Society of Waste Management, Air and Water

1.0 Introduction Edible films and coatings, such as wax on various fruits, have been used for centuries to prevent loss of moisture and to create a shiny fruit surface for aesthetic purposes. Edible films provide replacement and/or fortification of natural layers to prevent moisture losses, while selectively allowing for controlled exchange of important gases, such as oxygen, carbon dioxide, and ethylene, which are involved in respiration processes. A film or coating can also provide surface sterility and prevent loss of other important components. An edible film is defined as a thin layer, which can be consumed, coated on a food or placed as barrier between the food and the surrounding environment. For the past 10 years, research on edible films and coatings in foods is driven by food engineers due to the high demand of consumers for longer shelf– life and better quality of fresh foods as well as of environmentally friendly packagings. (Debeaufort, et al., 1998; Tharanathan, 2003; Cha and Chinnan, 2004 and Siracusa, et al., 2008) Alginate is an indigestible biomaterial produced by brown seaweeds (Phaeophyceae, mainly Laminaria) therefore it may also be viewed as a source of dietary fiber. Alginate has a potential to form biopolymer film or coating component because of its unique colloidal properties, which include thickening, stabilizing, suspending, film forming, gel producing, and emulsion stabilizing (King, 1982) Water sorption isotherm equations are useful for predicting water sorption properties of hydrophilic films; they provide little insight into the interaction of water and film components. There are 513

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several mathematical models to describe water sorption isotherms of food systems materials, but no one gives accurate results throughout the whole range of water activities, or for all types of foods systems (AlMuhtaseb, et al., 2004). Oxygen permeability (O2P) of food packaging materials is of great importance for food preservation, since oxygen is the key factor that might originate oxidation, which initiates several deterioration reactions (Sothornvit and Pitak, 2007). Also the measurement of permeability of edible films to carbon dioxide provides important information for the development of edible films, especially for the design of modified atmosphere packaging (McMillin, 2008) The objective of this study was to investigate the feasibility of the use of Sodium Alginate for the formation of edible film. Determination of gas and water vapor permeability as well as water sorption for Alginate edible films. 2.0 Material and Methodology 2.1 Material Alginate was supplied by MEFAD Company, glycerol was from Acmatic company. 2.2 Methodology 2.2.1 Preparation of alginate edible film Two samples of Alginate edible film forming solution was prepared by dissolving Alginate in distilled water with stirring at 60°C using a thermostatic water bath and adding 1% glycerol as plasticizer in order to obtain (1 and 1.5%). The prepared solution was poured into a petri dish and placed into a laboratory oven at 40°C for 24 hours to dry the samples, after which the film was peeled off manually. Thickness of films was determined using a 0-25 mm manual micrometer with an accuracy of 0.01 mm. The reported values are the average of four readings taken randomly on each film sample. It was used in calculating the film water vapor permeability (WVP). 2.2.2 Moisture absorption Moisture absorption is an important indicator of the sensitivity of material to moisture. The edible film made from Alginate was cut into dimension of 30 mm x 30 mm and placed inside a desiccator containing silica gel (0% relative humidity) for 5 days at a constant temperature of 303K (Suppakul, 2006). Desiccator acts as a humidity controller for film storage in the water sorption analysis during film preparation. The weight of the film before it was placed inside the desiccator was measured and labeled as Wi. Then, the weight of the film after it was pre-dried inside dessicator for 5 days was measured and labeled as Wd. The initial moisture content was calculated using the following equation:

Mi =

Wi - Wd Wd

(1)

where, Mi is the initial moisture content (% dry basis), Wi is the initial weight of the sample (g), and Wd is the dry weight of the sample after pre-dried in desiccator (g). The 5-days pre-dried films were then placed inside separate desiccators with different saturated salt solution in triplicate samples for each salt solution. The temperature was kept at 303K. Saturated salt solutions used in this experiment were Sodium Chloride. The weight gained for each sample was determined using digital balance for the first 2 and 5 hours. After that, the weight of the film was measured periodically every 24 hours for 7 days.

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The moisture sorption data of the film was fitted to a mathematical model particularly Peleg model. Peleg model has been widely used to describe the sorption process. The following is the equation proposed by (Peleg, 1998): M (t)= M i +

t k1 + k 2 t

(2)

where, M(t) is the moisture after time t (s), Mi is the initial moisture (%), k1 is the Peleg rate constant, and k2 is the Peleg capacity constant. 2.2.3 Determination of Water vapor permeability (WVP) The water vapor transmission rate (WVTR) [g./(s.m2)] and water vapor permeability (WVP) through films were determined gravimetrically using the ASTM Method E96-95. A circular test cup was used to determine the WVP of the film. The film was first cut into circular shape that was larger than the inner diameter of the cup, the cup was filled with 50% distilled water and the film was sealed at the top using Paraffin oil, then the cups were placed in a desiccator containing calcium chloride with relative humidity RH (0%) and RH for water (100%). The weights of the cups were recorded every hour during 10 hours and to specimens of each film were tested. Linear regression was used to estimate the slope of this line in g/h. The water vapor transmission rate (WVTR) and water vapor permeability (WVP) were determined using the following equations:

WVTR 

m t A

(3)

L (4) RH Where, m is the moisture gain weight per time (g/s), A is the surface area of the film m2, L is t the film thickness (mm) and RH is the difference in relative humidity. WVP  WVTR

2.2.4 Measurement of gas Permeability Gas (O2 and CO2) permeability at 30°C was measured in a designed stainless steel cell using a gas testing instrument, model Witt Oxybaby headspace gas analyser (O2/CO2) following the method described by García et al. (2000). The gas permeability (P) was calculated according to the following equation: P 

Q. X A.t .p

(5)

Where, P is the permeability of gas, (m3/m.day.mmHg), Q is the quantity of gas diffused m3, X is the thickness of film, m, A area of the film, m2, t is the time, day and ∆p is the pressure difference across the film, mmHg. 3.0 Results and Discussion 3.1 Moisture absorption The edible film made from Alginate was first pre-dried for 5 days to remove initial moisture inside the film. After 5 days, it was found that the film loss an average amount of moisture content which was designated as the initial moisture content of the film, Mi. Figure (1) shows the water sorption data of Alginate films over a period of 7 days (168 hours), the results observed that that moisture content of the film increased rapidly for the first 5 hours which indicates early stage of the water sorption of the film. After around 24 hours and above, the moisture content of the edible film reached a plateau indicating that moisture content is equilibrated with the relative storage humidity. 515

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Figure 1: Water sorption data of Alginate edible film

The water sorption data of the film over a period of 7 days (168 hours) were then fitted using Peleg model (Equation 2). The Peleg parameters (Peleg, 1988), k1 and k2 are shown Table (1), As k1 is a constant related to mass transfer, the lower k1, the higher the initial water adsorption rate; k2 is a constant related to maximum water adsorption capacity and the lower the k2, the higher the adsorption capacity (Turhan, et al., 2002). Table 1: Peleg model parameters Sample

k1

k2

1% Alginate

104.48

8.557

1.5% Alignate

112.407

10.2

3.2 Water vapor permeability The ability of packaging materials to refrain or minimize moisture transfer between the food and the surrounding environment is a crucial property for effective food packaging. Water vapor permeability should therefore be as low as possible in order to optimize the food package environment and potentially increase the shelf life of the food product (Mali, et al., 2004 and Hosseini et al., 2013). Water vapor transmission rate (WVTR) is the rate of water vapor permeation through the film. WVTR was determined from the slope of the regression line of sample weight versus time graph whereby the slope was then divided by the area of the film being exposed to transmission (Equation 1). Figure (2) shows the relation between weight and time. The results showed that the weight of the cups decreased as time increased for all samples studied. Table 2 shows the slope of linear regression line of sample weight versus time graph and water vapor permeability of the edible film for different concentration of Alginate. The results showed that WVTR and WVP for Alginate film increased by increasing the concentration of Alginate.

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Figure 2: The relation between weight and time for Alginate edible film Table 2: Water vapor permeability of Alginate edible film WVP

Sample

Slope

Thickness, mm

Area, m2

WVTR

1% A 1.5% A

0.0228

0.13

0.0013

18.153

(g. mm/m2. mmHg) 0.057

0.0331

0.18

0.0013

26.354

0.114

3.3 Gas Permeability Gas permeability was measured using a stainless steel cell and Oxygen analyser instrument. The results showed that O2 and CO2 permeability for Alginate edible of concentration (1.5%) is less than that of concentration (1%) as shown in Table 3. Table 3: Gas permeability for edible films from Sodium Alginate Sample

O2 Permeability (m3.m/m2.day.mmHg)

CO2 Permeability (m3.m/m2.day.mmHg)

1% A

2.35076E-06

4.25861E-07

1.5% A

1.28653E-05

9.10378E-06

4.0 Conclusion Edible films made from Sodium Alginate with different concentrations (1 and 1.5%) were prepared. WVTR and WVP increased as concentration of Alginate increased. The moisture content of the film increased rapidly for the first 5 hours which indicates early stage of the water sorption of the film. After around 24 hours and above, the moisture content of the edible film reached a plateau indicating that moisture content is equilibrated with the relative storage humidity. Gas permeability was also determined by using a stainless steel permeation cell. O2 and CO2 permeability increased with increasing Alginate concentration. It is better to use high barrier to water vapor and oxygen to reduce weight loss of fruit or vegetables.

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References Al-Muhtaseb, A. H., McMinn, W. A. M., & Magee, T. R. A., 2004. Water sorption isotherms of starch powders. Part 2: Thermodynamic characteristics. Journal of Food Engineering, 62, 135–142. ASTM ,1996. Test methods for tensile properties of thin plastic sheeting, D882-91. Annual book of ASTM. Philadelphia, PA: American Society for Testing and Materials. Cha, D. S.; Chinnan, M. S., 2004. Crit. Rev. Food Sci., 44, 223–237. Debeaufort, F.; Quezada-Gallo, J. A.; Voilley, A., 1998. Crit. Rev. Food Sci., 38, 299–313. García, M.A., Martino, M.N., and Zaritzky, N.E., 2000. Lipid addition to improve barrier properties of edible starchbased films and coating, J. Food Sci. 65, 941–947. Hosseini, M. H., Razavi, S. H., & Mousavi, M. A., 2009. Antimicrobial, physical and mechanical properties of chitosan based films incorporated with thyme, clove and cinnamon essential oils. Journal of Food Processing and Preservation, 33(6), 727-743 King, A. H. and Glicksman M., 1982. In Food hydrocolloids. Ed.; CRC Press Inc., pp 115–88. Mali, S.; Grossmann, M.V.E.; Garcıa, M.; Martino, M.N.; Zaritzky, N.E. Barrier, 2004, Mechanical and optical properties of plasticized yam starch films. Carbohydr. Polym. 56, 129–135. McMillin, K.W., 2008. Where is MAP going? A review and future potential of modified atmosphere packaging for meat. Meat Science 80 (1), 43–65. Peleg M., 1998 An empirical model for the description of moisture sorption curves. J Food Sci 53, 1216-1219. Siracusa, V.; Rocculi, P.; Romani, S.; Dalla Rosa, M., 2008. Trends Food Sci. Tech., 19, 634-643. Sothornvit, R., Pitak, N., 2007. Oxygen permeability and mechanical properties of banana films. Food Research International 40 (3), 365–370. Tharanathan, R. N., 2003. Trends Food Sci. Tech., 14, 71-78. Turhan, M., Sayar, S., & Gunasekaran, S., 2002. Application of Peleg model to study water absorption in chickpea during soaking. Journal of Food Engineering, 53, 153–159.

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Improvement of Solid Waste Management Code of Practice Development through Effective Public Consultation S.T. El Sheltawy1,*, Nisreen Boghdady2, M.M.K. Fouad3 1

Professor, Cairo University, Cairo, Egypt Professor, National Center for Social and Criminological Research 3 Professor, Cairo University, Cairo, Egypt *Corresponding Author: Email- [email protected] 2

ABSTRACT As Society continues to demand for clean environment and municipal solid waste is produced and accumulated due to industrial development and human activities, severe ecological contamination will result unless a MSW code of practice is developed and applied. In this context many challenges will be encountered unless effective public participation without enforcement is realized. Stakeholders' responsibility will be defined and awareness program as well as alternative regimes were studied. Structured interview and public consultation were designed and analyzed. It was found that users must recognize the limitations and risks of adopting less representative management regimes and of applying uncontrolled MSWM system. Benefits of public participation in design, implementation and review of MSWM code of practice are summarized to meet specific objectives and to gain a better understanding of the MSW Hierarchy. Keywords: MSWM, public consultation, code of practice; International Society of Waste Management, Air and Water

1.0 Introduction Municipal Solid Waste Management MSWM has undergone rapid development in recent decades. In most cases, the development has resulted in waste management with optimum sustainability applying the four well known pillars: environmental, social, economic and culture elements. In Egypt, the development can be attributed to a large extent to new national policy instruments such as laws, regulations, code of practice, responsible ministries and authorities. From the perspective of local decision makers, the main problem in this context is the public responsibility which may be developed through public consultation and disclosure plan PCDP reported by the International Finance Corporation IFC (1998). The purpose of PCDP is to ensure that any activity affected people and other interested parties are provided with clear information about this activity and are given opportunities to provide feedback and make suggestions as to how implementation of this activity could reduce adverse impacts or otherwise be improved by minimizing social risk.

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1.1 Social Baseline History of Egypt dates back to 3000 BC. Egyptian modern history goes back to 1801 when Mohamed Ali Basha was declared as the first Wali of Egypt. Till 1952 revolution Egypt was under royal rule after which it turned to republican rule. Recently Egypt has undergone two revolutions, 25 th January 2011 followed by 30th June 2013 declaring Egypt as a democratic state confirming the role of citizens as a base of democratic verification. This historical background in addition to international requirements, have enforced social participation as the foundation on which all development must depend. Open houses public meetings have been centered on the democracy trends and are typically conducted confidentially to cope with stakeholder requirements (Richard, 2016). 1.2 Social Responsibility SR and Solid Waste Management System (MSWMS) Link The main underlying link between SR and MSWMS is the environmental issues which may be regulated with policy, regulations, laws and codes of practice. This link may be summarized through measuring of MSWM Code challenges and opportunities, benefits, enforcement and SR may be clarified waste wise by different producer's responsibility scenarios and Pay-As-You-Throw (PAYT) programs. According to stakeholder consultation guidelines (2014), public consultation should not be considered as procedural step or as a tool to validate the depth of the MSWM code but rather as an opportunity to collect external views –including critical ones- for code development, to measure expectations and identify alternatives. Any issue of concern identified in the consultation phase can help shape the proposal during the early code preparation phase when changes may still be easier to make. Public consultation cycle may be summarized in Figure 1.

Public Consultation Cycle Social Responsibility

Figure 1: MSWM public consultation cycle and social responsibility

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1.3 Initial Primary Data Collection The initial social survey is performed during draft development of the MSWM code of practice and was based on particular objectives; including:  Identifying different types of stakeholders and their various interests.  Initiating a dialogue with key stakeholders.  Identifying key social issues concerning MSWM code implementation.  Informing methodology development for the full social responsibility and participation in MSWM.  Understanding how the most vulnerable groups can benefit from the positive social impacts of a controlled MSWMS implementation.  Understand how negative social approach can be avoided or mitigated with development of a MSWM code for maximizing positive benefits through PCD. 2.0 Methodology The PCDP seeks to define a technically, socially and culturally appropriate approach to consultation and disclosure. Stakeholder consultation must be ongoing during planning and implementation of any MSWM activity. 2.1 Tools Used The tools used for public consultation and disclosure phase are:    

In-depth interview Structural interview Group discussion Public hearing

The national and regional authorities, community leaders and main concerned authorities were selected to form a consortium for an Egyptian MSWM code. More than 100 meetings were organized weekly from July 2012 till January 2016 after which the draft was ready to be disclosed and presented to the public. 2.2

Consultation Procedure

2.2.1 Preparation of Handouts The first step of consultation organization was the preparation of handout documents composed of: workshop program, presentation materials and attendance roll. 2.2.2 PCD Announcement The public consultation workshop was open to the public. A large announcement poster was placed in the front of the National Center for Housing, were the event was held, to announce the event to the public. In addition, the code Scientific Committee members as well as the supporting teams have mailed a soft copy of the code draft to all stakeholders, ministers and managers concerned with MSWM as well as service providers "Zabaleen", at the national, regional and local levels, one month before the workshop. One day before the consultation, reminders were made by phone. 2.2.3 PCD Structure and Consultation Process: Consultation process was performed according to the steps illustrated in figure 2. During the PCD, each participant has received written information documents as well as a note paper. The consultation was carried out through three sessions as shown in figure 2. The first part consisted 521

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of presentations related to the 11 Chapters of the MSWM Code of Practice with an estimated time of 40 minutes. The second part consisted of a socio-economic analysis conducted by the Social Consultant with an estimated time of 15 minutes. The third part consisted of interaction with the participants of the workshop by a question and answer session and the opportunity for opinion to be expressed. The duration of this session was estimated by 2 hours. After termination of the workshop, a feedback response must take place to answer for participant‘s opinion.

Figure 2: Public consultation (PC) process steps.

3.0 Results and Discussion Community input into the preparation of the MSWM code draft report is essential to its success. At each phase in the process, there will be an opportunity for input into the report, in order to help ensure that the code is reflective of the existing characteristics of the community while looking forward to the future of MSWM system. As previously mentioned, many tools were designed to accommodate the Egyptian Society. Speeches and meetings were organized with high rank and trustful stakeholders and leaders. The most effective tool was the public consultation workshop held at the Center for Housing Research on the 22 nd of March 2016 and scheduled according to item 2.2.3. 3.1 Stakeholders Attendance Any project must be initiated with stakeholders‘ seminars and consultation, a standard list of participants relevant to MSWM were selected (Janis, 2004). Table (1) illustrates a summary of attendance for the PC workshop (22nd March 2016) and fig (3) shows the composition of stakeholders attending to the PC workshop.

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Table 1: Classification of stake holders according to field of interest Stakeholder Group

Field of Interest

No. of Participants

% of Attendance

G1

Policy-makers and scientific committee

17

14

G2

Recruiting collectors

5

4

G3

Paying for the service

14

12

G4

Service providers

8

7

G5

Research centers and universities

19

16

G6

New cities environmental affairs

23

19

G7

Private sector and experts

5

4

G8

NGO

5

4

G9

Government department

12

10

G 10

Others

12

10

Total

120

100

Figure 3: Stakeholders attending the consultation

3.2 PCD Techniques As reported in EPA (1990), public involvement was conducted as two-way communication that involves both presentation of the 11 chapters of the MSWM code draft to the public and getting back from the public ideas, issues and decision. This process was realized through, disclosure, listening and collaborative techniques. Below is a brief description of techniques used in public involvement and their circumstances.

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3.2.1 Stakeholders Participation in The PC Workshop According to WELL (1999), the stakeholders are analyzed by taking into account those groups who may directly or indirectly be affected by the MSWM code both positively or negatively. The workshop have begun with an introductory speech from the committee chain followed by experts‘ presentation for the 11 code chapters. The event covered a lot of topics and input was requested on the draft guiding principles. A Number of questions are answered in situ during the workshop. The first question was related to the neglection of the hazardous waste followed by question related to the time necessary for code implementation, many suggestions were about Pollutant-Pay principle and limited concerns are about environmental aspects of the management steps and monitoring of the process. Participation rates decreased as the time proceed, so it was found to be important to ensure that the participation instrument be of a reasonable length. Debriefing was found to be helpful in the workshop and it was appropriate to ask participants to writ their suggestion and what they thought of the disclosure instrument on a distributed paper note and all responses and reply will be modified. The answers to specific questions were used to update later versions of MSWM code of practice. 3.2.2 PCD Participants' Reflections on MSWM Code The highest level of public involvement is to give the public a recorded role in making the code draft revision and share in decision making. Next to public consultation workshop, the technique used was collaborative technique through received reporting suggestions and comments from participants and responses of advisory groups about these comments. Fig (4) illustrates the number of participants collaborating in the work. Table (2) summarizes some of topics raised in written form during public participation and disclosure workshop and committee responses. Many advisory groups undertake the raised topics through steering committee of elected members. These groups have proposed and mailed responses to participants as illustrated in table (2).

Figure 4: Participants presenting written comments. 524

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Finally, a group composed of leaders of all the interested groups was set up to post the final version of the Egyptian MSWM code of practice for board‘s approval. Table 2: Topics raised during the PCD workshop

Key Topic

Stakeholder group that raised the topic G1 G5 G6

Specific aspects and Reflections  

G9

Insights Regarding the Code

Utilization Success

Outcome Success

 

G4

  

G9



G5

 

G7



G6



G1 G6

  

G8



G4



G2 G9

 

G6



G4 G7 G1 G6

   

Analytical Approach

 G7

 

Adding maps to baseline and actual dates as well as earthquakes history Adding workshop to intermediate states Wording replacements Minimum cleaning standards excluding washing Needs specific rates Why other waste are neglected Define legal responsibility Need of average generation rates Adding some definitions Adding notes of rainfall in landfill design Re-naming of MSWM code

Needs for rewarding specially for management responsibility Needs of checklist Landfill closure schedule Needs more amendments of law 4/1994 before implementation Taking into account social aspects and training requirement as well as awareness raising Performing annual social survey with predesigned questionnaire of check success Importance of inspection Adding more experts to the committee Increasing awareness upraising and monitoring success Revising cleaning rate Continuous public consultation Requirement of EIA before implementation Use of alternatives and selecting the best available option Analysis of service provider specification Use of service management instead of waste management Develop a new strategy

Committee response 

Done



Done

 

Done Done

                       

Difficult to apply According to government requirement Out of scope Varies with demographic status Done This is included in other codes This was named according to ministerial decree Done Responsibility of EEAA Other codes This will be given as recommendation Done

Recommended and done

Done This will be recommended for phase II Recommended Done Done Done EEAA responsibility Done Out of the scope See SWM department at EEAA This is the responsibility of EEAA

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3.2.3 Authors' Reflections on MSWM Code Implementation The authors' have concluded some key principles concerning social participation in MSWM Code implementation These principles are in conformity with IFC guidelines (1998) and suitably modifies to align with the cultural specifications of the selected activity and area according to EU principals (2014). These principles are:   

All stakeholders must be consulted in a two-way method. Consultations should be continuous processes. There must be specific and transparent mechanisms concerning the implementation of the MSWM code of practice to continuously improve the service.

4.0 Conclusion Remarks Public Consultation Disclosure Plan PCDP continues to be a high priority for communities in the 21st century. The consultation process for the MSWM code implementation had a positive perception by all stakeholder groups. The public expressed the wish that all MSWM activities be carried out in the same way of social consultation and study, with a transparent information dissemination with respect to the activity to be developed before beginning of any implementation step. The PCD workshop have proven particularly effective in resolving issues. The workshop was very interactive, the stakeholders showed special interest since their recommendations were instantaneously verified, specially concerning tolerance, cost and quality of disposal facilities as well as environmental issues. The topics addressed by the population are directly related to "pollutant-pay" issue. Collection rate, disposal sites and segregation approaches are the topics causing the most expectations within the population since they imply a solution for one of the main social problems. The PCD performed here is not going to be of academic quality, but is useful for policy making. However, any efforts to demonstrate validity of the code will justify public opinion with greater confidence showing the reasoning of respondents. References Bernstein, J., 2004. Social assessment and public participation in municipal solid waste management - toolkit, European Commission, 2014. Stakeholder Consultation Guidelines 2014 Public Consultation Document, European Commission, 2015. Your Voice in Europe. Available at: http://ec.europa.eu/yourvoice/index_en.htm [Accessed May 22, 2016]. European Commission Authentication Service (ECAS), EU Survey. Available at: https://myintracomm.ec.europa.eu/corp/digit/EN/serv_for_it_teams/it_infra_tools/EUSurvey/Pages/index.aspx [Accessed May 22, 2016]. Garton, B. & Carter, S., 2002. First Nations Consultation: Higher, Wider, Deeper and Sooner. Bull, Housser & Tupper. Gateshead Council, Questionnaire Design Guidance. Available at: https://www.gateshead.gov.uk/DocumentLibrary/council/consultation/Questionnaire-design-guidance-web.pdf [Accessed May 22, 2016]. International Finance Corporation (IFC), 1998. Doing Better Business Through Effective Public Consultation and Disclosure: Default Book Series, Available at: http://elibrary.worldbank.org/doi/abs/10.1596/0-8213-4342-4 [Accessed May 22, 2016]. OECD - Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, Background Document on Public Consultation. Available at: https://www.oecd.org/mena/governance/36785341.pdf [Accessed May 22, 2016]. Richard Vivian, 2016. Multiplex public consultation process ―likely‖ to include open houses. Available at: http://m.cambridgetimes.ca/news-story/6521777-multiplex-public-consultation-process-likely-to-include-openhouses [Accessed May 22, 2016]. World Bank, ERM for World Bank/SDC Strategic Planning Guide for MSWM. , pp.1–8. Available at: http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTUSWM/Resources/Overview.pdf [Accessed May 22, 2016]. World Bank, 2003. Social Analysis Sourcebook: Incorporating Social Dimensions into Bank-Supported Projects,

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Characterization of Municipal Solid Wastes from Lagos Metropolis, Nigeria O.M. Ojowuro1,*, B. Olowe2, A.S. Aremu3 1

Lagos State Waste Management Authority, Lagos State, Nigeria Konsadem Associates Ltd, Ibadan, Oyo State, Nigeria 3 Department of Water Resources and Environmental Engineering, University of Ilorin, Ilorin, Nigeria *Corresponding Author: Email- [email protected] 2

ABSTRACT This study examines the characteristics of solid waste from different parts of Lagos metropolis, south western Nigeria. Solid wastes from the four main disposal facilities in Lagos state were sampled and analyzed. Samples were taken from trucks mainly operated by Private Sector Participation contractors so as to stratify the wastes according to land use type, population density and income. A total of 286 samples, each weighing 90kg were sorted into ten material categories and weighed. The results of the study show slight disparity in all the solid wastes samples sorted by land use type, population density and income level. In all solid wastes from residential land use types contain mainly organics (33.06 - 46.25%), plastics (12.73 – 20.7%), paper (4.61 – 10.3%), and textiles (1.66 – 12.33%). On the other hand, solid wastes from commercial land use types are composed majorly of 29% plastics, 22% organics, and 14% each of paper and textiles. Source separation of these wastes is recommended and technologies for resource and energy recovery are required for sustainable solid waste management in Lagos State. Keywords: Municipal solid waste, components, Lagos State, Nigeria; International Society of Waste Management, Air and Water

1.0 Introduction Solid waste is a non- liquid, non-gaseous material which is no longer of use or unwanted by the owner. It consists of discards such as food wastes, plastics, paper, wood, glass, textiles, cans, and other miscellaneous unwanted items. Municipal solid waste (MSW) is an embodiment of all forms of solid waste dumped in municipal receptacles and the responsibility of collection and disposal falls on the government, city or local authorities, or an appointed organization/agency. MSW originates from households (apartments, estates, compounds, and multi storey buildings), commercial areas (markets, business complexes, hotels and motor parks), institutions (schools, jail houses, recreational centers, hospitals and government offices or establishments), Industries and municipal services such as street sweepings, litter pickup and drainage debris evacuation. Municipal solid wastes in developing countries is highly heterogeneous in terms of composition with 55–80% generated from households, 10–30% from commercial or market areas while the rest are from streets, industries and institutions [1]. There is an apparent unevenness in the generation rates and composition of solid wastes across the globe, even within a given neighborhood. Solid waste composition is influenced by several factors such as 527

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area (i.e. residential, commercial), geographical location, standard of living (income level), culture, energy source, and season/weather [2], [3]. Land use (area) and income level tend to prevail over other factors. Residential land use types generate wastes as result of household activities such as food preparation, unwrapping, sanitation, gardening and food/beverage consumption. Commercial waste is heterogeneous in itself and it is related to the kind of commercial activity such as trading in goods or products, small scale manufacturing and provision of professional services. Income plays significant role in solid waste composition as constituents of solid waste may even vary within the same country or city because of income disparity. The World Bank Atlas classification system classifies the economy of countries as low income, lower middle income, upper middle income and higher income based on Gross National Income per capita. According to the World Bank [4], MSW from low-income countries are mainly organic in nature consisting of food scraps, yard waste, wood, and process residues while MSW from high income countries consist mainly of paper, plastics, and other inorganic materials. This is also relevant within a classified country as wealthier individuals consume more packaged products resulting in a higher percentage of inorganic materials in the waste stream [5]. Information on the composition of solid wastes is important in management programs/plans and determining equipment needs [6]. In depth knowledge of MSW composition is a prerequisite for policy change in most instances i.e. moving from landfill-based to resource-based waste management systems [7]. An accurate knowledge of the quantity and composition of the waste input is equally essential to the success of a resource recovery project as quantity and quality of the input must be assured [8]. It is observed that higher volumes of waste and a changing composition have profound impact on solid waste management practices thereby necessitating policy changes in developing countries [5]. Also solid wastes composed of high inorganic materials could have a significant impact on human health and the environment. Hence the composition of solid waste at any particular time may influence several decisions in solid waste management. This aim of this study is therefore to determine the characteristics of solid waste from different parts of Lagos metropolis, south western Nigeria. 2.0 Methodology 2.1 Study Area The study area, Lagos is a mega city located in the south western part of Nigeria. Lagos is Nigeria‘s economic focal point with Gross Domestic Product of about $131 billion. It lies between latitude 6°34′60″N and longitude 3°19′59″E along the West African coast and covers a total area of 3,475.1 km2. It was the administrative capital of Nigeria for a long time before the capital was moved to Abuja in 1991. Lagos State is subdivided into twenty administrative Local Government Areas and its 2015 population is in excess of 23 million [9]. The city has also been distinguished as the nation‘s commercial nerve centre with 65% of the nation‘s commercial activities, over 2,000 industries and having two of the nation‘s largest seaports for import and export activities [10]. It is estimated that about 13,000 metric tonnes of solid waste is generated daily in Lagos State from various human activities [13]. The Lagos State Waste Management Agency (LAWMA) has been in existence since 1991 and the agency is responsible for solid waste storage, collection, disposal and management of landfills in Lagos State. In 2013, LAWMA was endorsed by the United Nations Centre for Regional Development (UNCRD) as West Africa‘s Sub-regional Secretariat of the International Partnership for Expanding Waste Management Services of Local Authorities (IPLA).The agency is also responsible for sanitation of major highways and street sweeping activities, monitoring of contractors‘ (Private Sector Participants) activities, and establishment of performance standards on waste management activities in Lagos State. The inclusion of private waste collectors under the Private Sector Participant (PSP) scheme has tremendously improved solid waste collection within the megacity. Therefore there is the need to characterize solid wastes coming from different parts of the city so as to obtain base line information for its efficient management.

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2.2 Method For the purpose of the study, a waste sector is identified by the particular generation characteristics that make it a unique portion of the total waste stream. Waste is typically separated into two major land use types: 1) Residential – waste collected mainly by both private haulers called Private Sector Participants (PSP) and LAWMA from residences across the state. These wastes are primarily collected by skip trucks, double and single dino trucks, trailer trucks, open back trucks and mammoth compactors. 2) Commercial and Institutional - waste generated by businesses, government/education institutions, markets and motor parks. These wastes are collected by a variety of vehicles including those described above. Solid wastes with similar characteristics were identified by similarities in population density and economic characteristics. The metropolis was divided into six subsectors based on these two criteria. The sampling areas and the corresponding Local Government Area (LGA) /Local Council Development Area (LCDA) are listed in Table 1. Table 1: Density-income and locations within the study area Category

LGA/LCDA

Specific Location

High Density, Low Income (HDLI)

Ajeromi, Ebute Metta

Ajegunle, Otto

Low Density, High Income (LDHI)

Ikoyi Obalende, Iru Victoria Island

Ikoyi, Lekki, VI

Medium Density, High Income (MDHI) Ikeja, Kosofe, Oshodi Isolo

Ikeja GRA, Ogudu GRA, Ajao Estate

Medium Density, Low Income (MDLI) Alimosho, Lagos Mainland

Alimosho, Ebute Metta

Low Density, Low Income

Imota, Isiu, Agbowa, Epe

Imota, Ikorodu North, Epe

The sampling plan was developed to comply with the industry standards for conducting waste characterization studies and the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) standard D5231 for sample size. All work was completed in accordance with the approved sampling plan. Field personnel were employed to assist in the selection of samples from trucks arriving at the dump sites. Selected vehicles were tipped at a designated location and samples were collected from a randomly selected portion of each tipped pile. A total of 286 samples were obtained from PSP collected solid wastes at the four existing solid waste disposal facilities in Lagos State. The samples consisted of approximately 90 kilogramme of waste and were then sorted into 10 material classes; Paper, beverage containers, plastics, glass, metals, organics, construction and demolition wastes, inorganics, and textiles. Materials within these ten basic classes were further separated into 87 individual material categories: 1) Paper – Newsprint, High Grade Office Paper, Magazines/Catalogs, Uncoated OCC/Kraft, Boxboard, Mixed Paper - Recyclable, Compostable Paper, Other Paper; 2) Beverage Containers – Milk And Juice Cartons/Boxes, Coated, Water Bottles; 3) Plastics – #1 Pet Bottles/Jars, #1 Other Pet Containers & Packaging, #2 HDPE Bottles/Jars – Clear, #2 HDPE Bottles/Jars – Color, #2 Other HDPE Containers & Packaging, #6 Expanded Polystyrene Packaging (EPS), #3-#7 Other – All, Other Rigid Plastic Products, Grocery & Merchandise Bags, Trash Bags, Commercial & Industrial Film, Other Film, Remainder/ Composite Plastic; 4) Glass – Recyclable Glass Bottles And Jars, Flat Glass, Other Glass; 5) Metals – Aluminium Beverage Containers, Other Aluminium, HVACs Ducting, Ferrous Containers (Tin Cans), Other Ferrous, Other Non-Ferrous, Other Metal; 6) Organics – Yard Waste (Compostable), Yard Waste (Woody), Food Scraps, Bottom Fines And Dirt, Diapers, Other Organic; 529

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7) Construction and Demolition (C&D) – Clean Dimensional Lumber, Clean Engineered Wood, Wood Pallets, Painted Wood, Treated Wood, Concrete, Reinforced Concrete, Asphalt Paving, Rock & Other Aggregates, Bricks, Clean Unpainted Gypsum Board, Painted Gypsum Board, Composition Shingles, Other Roofing, Plastic C&D Materials, Ceramics/Porcelain, Other C&D; 8) Inorganics – Televisions, Computer Monitors, Computer Equipment/Peripherals, Electronic Equipment, White Goods – Refrigerated, White Goods - Not Refrigerated, Lead-Acid Batteries, Other Household Batteries, Tires, Household Bulky Items, Fluorescent Lights/Ballasts; 9) Household Hazardous Waste (HHW) – Latex Paint, Oil Paint, Plant/Organism/Pest Control/Growth, Used Oil/Filters, Other Automotive Fluids, Mercury-Containing Items, Sharps & Infectious Waste, Ash, Sludge, & Other Industrial Processed Wastes, Sewage Solids, Other HHW; and 10) Textiles – Carpet, Carpet Padding, Clothing, Other Textiles. After the samples were sorted, each material category was weighed. Information and weight associated with each sample were recorded. Plate 1 shows weighing of a sample at one of the landfills.

Plate 1: Weighing of sorted organic fraction of the waste at a landfill

3.0 Results and Discussion Figures 1a to 1e show the top ten constituents of the separated wastes from residential land use types based on density and income. The constituents tend to follow the same trend; having the greatest proportion of organics followed by paper and textiles. Organics account for 33.06 - 46.25% of the waste stream, plastics 12.73 – 20.7%, paper 4.61 – 10.3%, and textiles 1.66 – 12.33%. As shown in the Figures, there is slight variation in the constituents with respect to population density and income level. However there is no general trend in this variation more so they are insignificant according to population density or income level.

Figure 1a: Composition of residential wastes from HDLI areas

Figure 1b: Composition of residential wastes from HDMI areas 530

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Figure 1c: Composition of residential wastes from MDHI areas

Figure 1d: Composition of residential wastes from MDLI areas

Figure 1e: Composition of residential wastes from LDHI areas

The percentage by weight of each of the ten material classes for commercial wastes arriving at the dump sites is shown in Figure 2. The wastes coming from commercial areas consists of plastics (29%), organics (22%), others (comprising mainly factory dust) (18%,), paper (14%) and textiles account (14%).

Figure 2: Composition of wastes from commercial areas

In comparison with residential wastes (Figure 1a to 1e), commercial wastes contain more of plastics than organics. Perhaps this may be attributable to the reduction in household wastes as a result of food preparation, gardening, sanitation and some other household activities. It may also be due to increased unpackaging activities, use of pet containers and bye products of small scale manufacturing process.

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4.0 Conclusion Solid wastes from different parts of Lagos metropolis, south western Nigeria consists of identical components as solid wastes from other parts of world. Samples taken from trucks mainly operated by Private Sector Participation contractors and stratified according to land use type, population density and income, show slight disparity in composition. Irrespective of the population density and income level, solid wastes from residential land use types are composed mainly of organics (33.06 - 46.25%), plastics (12.73 – 20.7%), paper (4.61 – 10.3%), and textiles (1.66 – 12.33%). On average, solid wastes from commercial land use types are composed mainly of 29% plastics, 22% organics, and 14% each of paper and textiles. The increase in plastics and reduction in organics may be attributable to decrease in household wastes and commercial activity based wastes resulting from small scale manufacturing and unwrapping of products. Source separation of these wastes is recommended and technologies for resource and energy recovery are required for sustainable solid waste management in Lagos State. References 1.

Miezah, K., Obiri-Danso, K., Kádár, Z., Fei-Baffoe, B. and Mensah, M.Y. (2015) Municipal Solid Waste Characterization and Quantification as a Measure towards Effective Waste Management in Ghana. Waste Management, 46:15–27. 2. Hoornweg, D. and Thomas, L. (1999) What a Waste: Solid Waste Management in Asia. The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development and The World Bank, Washington, D.C., USA. Accessed on the 3 rd of December, 2007. 3. Abur, B.T., Oguche, E.E., Duvuna, G.A. (2014) Characterisation of Municipal Solid Waste in the Federal Capital Abuja, Nigeria. Global Journal of Science Frontier Research: (H) Environment and Earth Science 14 (2):1–6. 4. Hoornweg, D. and Bhada-Tata, P. (2012) What a Waste : A Global Review of Solid Waste Management. Urban Development Series; Knowledge Papers No. 15. World Bank, Washington, DC, U.S.A. 5. Medina, M. (2010) Solid Wastes, Poverty and the Environment in Developing Country: Challenges and Opportunities. UNU-WIDER Working Paper No. 2010/23, United Nations University (UNU) and World Institute for Development Economics Research (WIDER), Helsinki, Finland. 6. Tchobanoglous, G., Thiesen, H., Vigil, S.A. (1993) Integrated Solid Waste Management: Engineering Principles and Management Issues. McGraw-Hill, Inc., Singapore. 7. Burnley, S.J. (2007) A Review of Municipal Solid Waste Composition in the United Kingdom. Waste Management, 27, 1274-1285. 8. UNEP-IETC and CalRecovery, Inc. (2005) Solid Waste Management, Volume I Part 1. United Nations Environmental Programme, Division of Technology, Industry and Economics, International Environmental Technology Centre, Japan. 9. Lagos Bureau of Statistics (2010). Digest of Statistics 2010. Lagos Bureau of Statistics, Ministry of Economic Planning and Budget, Ikeja, Lagos. Accessed from www.lagosbudget.org/pdffiles/209546_2010%20Digest%20of%20Statistics.pdf on 3/8/2016. 10. NigeriaGalleria (2015) Lagos State, Nigeria. Accessed from http://www.nigeriagalleria.com/Nigeria/ StatesNigeria/Lagos_State.html on 02/09/2016. 11. Vanguard (2015) Lagos Waste Generation Hits 13,000 metric tonnes daily– LAWMA boss. http://www.vanguardngr.com/2015/08/lagos-waste-generation-hits-13000metric-tonnes-daily-lawma-boss/. Accessed on 3/8/2016

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Waste to Energy: Developing Countries’ Perspective A.S. Aremu1,*, H.O. Ganiyu2 1

Department of Water Resources and Environmental Engineering, University of Ilorin, Ilorin, Nigeria Department of Civil Engineering, University of Ilorin, Ilorin, Nigeria *Corresponding Author: Email- [email protected] 2

ABSTRACT About 4.2 million tons of solid waste is generated daily from urban centres in developing countries, most of which are disposed in open dumps and uncontrolled landfills. These wastes are composed of renewable energy materials with energy value of about 9.87 x 109kWh/day. Capturing energy embedded in these wastes is one of the sustainable ways of reducing the quantity of wastes to be landfilled while producing electricity, heat and fuel to meet basic needs. Investment in Waste to Energy (WTE) sector has increased over the years in developed countries and its applicability to developing economies has been hampered by several constraints such as lack of records of waste quantity and composition, low calorific heating value, financial incapability, unsupportive local policies, and technological know-how and adaptability. For a start, there is need to conduct feasibility studies, upgrade the predominant open dumps in developing countries to sanitary landfills and later seek financial and technical assistance. Establishment of a vibrant WTE market in developing countries will have enormous social, economic and environmental benefits. Keywords: Solid Waste, Management, Energy and Developing Countries; International Society of Waste Management, Air and Water

Introduction Energy is vital for socio-economic development while several human activities result in the generation of materials which are no longer of use otherwise called solid wastes. Global energy demand is continuously increasing due to rapid population growth and urbanization (Goyal et al., 2008) and it is projected to keep rising especially in developing countries (Jacobi, 2011). Consequently, energy affordability and energy poverty are two major challenges facing developing countries. According to the UK Parliamentary Office of Science and Technology report of December 2002, about 1.6 billion people in developing countries are still without access to energy services, 80% of which live in rural areas of SubSaharan Africa and South Asia. Fossil fuels remain the principal form of energy powering global expansion by providing about 60% of the additional energy requirement and in future, may account for almost 80% of total energy supplies in 2035 (BP, 2016). In view of rising long-term energy demand, renewable energies and energy efficiency play vital roles particularly in fulfilling climate targets and commitments towards energy access and security (WEC, 2015). Managing the enormous amount of municipal solid waste generated has being a challenging task to municipal authorities in both developing and developed countries. Population increase, changing lifestyle, industrialization, economic development and a host of other variables are responsible for the world-wide 533

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increase solid waste generation. The urban population of the world is expected to increase from 3.6 billion in 2011 to about 4.6 billion in 2025 (UN, 2012) while world cities generate about 1.3 billion tonnes of solid waste per year and this quantity is expected to increase to 2.2 billion tonnes by 2025 (Hoornweg and Bhada-Tata, 2012). Over the years several methods which seek to effectively and efficiently manage these wastes have been proposed. Solid waste management activities involve technologies associated with the control of waste generation, handling, storage, collection, transfer, transportation, processing and transformation and final disposal (Tchobanoglous and Kreith, 2002). Throughout the world, there is growing emphasis on the integrated solid waste management hierarchy which places an order of preference for waste management actions according to what is desirable for human beings and the environment. The European Union‘s fivestep waste management hierarchy places prevention as the best option followed in decreasing order of priority by reuse, recycling, recovery, and disposal as the least preferred option (EU, 2010; EC, 2016). In the first instance, it is advisable to prevent or reduce the generation of wastes. Secondly, if waste is inevitable, it is desirable to reuse or recover materials from the waste stream. Chalmin and Gaillochet (2009) observed that only 25% of the total quantity of municipal solid waste produced yearly in the world is recycled or recovered. In developed countries, landfilling and thermal treatment are disposal methods of waste that cannot be used or recycled. Wastes that cannot be practically reused or recycled or those that escape the predatory claws of scavengers in developing countries end up in open dumps and uncontrolled landfills. As the global level of solid wastes and demand for energy continue to rise, Waste to Energy (WTE) technology plays a dominant role in solving these two challenges. WTE technologies consist of methods/processes to extract valuable energy contained in waste streams for the production of electricity, heat or transport fuel (WEC, 2013) and it is a vastly underutilized resource throughout the world (Lawrence and Adamson, 2012). Presently on a global scale, there are over 1200 WTE plants in operation across more than 40 countries (Kamuk and Haukohl, 2013). WTE as a thermal treatment option in many countries of the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) has replaced the traditional incineration of waste yielding energy in the form of electricity or heat (UNEP, 2011). Income Classification of Economies The classification of economies by the World Bank in July 2016 according to 2015 Gross National Income (GNI) per capita is presented in Table 1. From this classification, 31 countries are low-income countries, 52 are lower-middle income countries, 55 are upper middle income countries while 79 are highincome countries. This criterion (economic status) forms a key indicator of a country‘s development and may reflect similar solid waste generation rate, composition, and management technique of a group of countries in the same class. In this study, any country that falls within the Low, Lower Middle, or Upper Middle income group is termed a developing country. Hence there are a total of 5.861 billion people living in 138 developing countries and having GNI per capita less than $12,476. Table 1: Classification of Economies based on Income and Associated Population World Bank Classification No. of Countries GNI ($) Population (Billion)

Low Income

Lower Middle Income

Upper Middle Income

High Income

31

52

55

79

1,025 or less

1,026 – 4,035

4,036-12,475

Above 12,476

0.622

2.878

2.361

1.398

Adapted from http://siteresources.worldbank.org/DATASTATISTICS/Resources/CLASS.XLS

World Energy Situation The total energy consumption in the world between 1997 and 2015 is illustrated in Figure 1. Energy consumption has continuously grown over the years. It grew from 9530 Mtoe in 1997 to 13,778 Mtoe in 2015 representing 30.8% increase in demand. This increase in energy consumption may be as a 534

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result of the expanding world economy which is associated with higher levels of activity and living standards, and more energy will be required in the next twenty years to support world economy growth and prosperity (BP, 2016). In developing countries, demand for energy services is expected to increase considerably and primary energy demand presumed to triple and form up to two thirds of total global demand by 2050 (POST, 2002).

Figure 1: World energy consumption Adapted from Enerdata (2016)

Generation and Composition of Solid Wastes from Developing Countries Solid waste is generated primarily as a result of productive and consumptive activities from households, commercial establishments, institutions and industries. Several factors have been known to affect the output and characteristics of solid wastes in developing countries. Urban solid waste generation rates for developing countries are shown in Table 2. The per capita generation rate of solid waste is highest for Upper Middle Income countries, followed by Lower Middle Income countries while Low Income countries have the lowest per capita generation rate. Specifically the rate of generation of solid waste in Upper Middle Income countries is almost double the amount generated by low income countries. However, Lower Middle Income countries will have the highest total waste generation because the urban population is more than triple the Upper Middle Income countries and Low Income countries. In totality 4,275,760 tons of solid waste is expected daily from developing countries. Table 2: Waste Generation in Developing Countries Income Level Low Income

Urban Population

Waste generation rate (kg/capita/day)

Total (tons/day)

676,000,000

0.86

581,360

Lower Middle Income

2,080,000,000

1.3

2,704,000

Upper Middle Income

619,000,000

1.6

990,400

Source: Hoornweg and Bhada-Tata (2012)

Table 3 shows the composition of a typical solid waste from developing countries. It contains more organic materials, and less glass and metal. The organic materials have high moisture contain content (about 20 – 70%), hence these wastes are normally high in moisture content and may have low calorific heating value.

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Table 3: Waste Composition by Income Level in Developing Countries Composition Income Level Organic (%)

Paper (%)

Plastic (%)

Glass (%)

Metal (%)

Other (%)

Low Income

62

6

9

3

3

17

Lower Middle Income

55

10

13

4

3

15

Upper Middle Income

50

15

12

4

4

15

Source: Hoornweg and Bhada-Tata (2012)

Energy Content of Solid Wastes from Developing Countries Energy content of solid wastes from developing countries was calculated using established moisture content and calorific energy value of waste components contained in Tchobanoglous et al.(1993) and Kamuk and Haukohl (2013). The calculated energy content based on dry matter of solid wastes from the three income groups that make up developing countries is presented in Table 4. The total energy potential of these wastes is 3.55 x 1013 kJ/day. This energy content translates to approximately 9.87 x 109kWh energy per day (i.e 1kWh = 3600kJ). Table 4: Overall Energy content of urban solid waste from developing countries on dry matter basis Income Level

*Energy (KJ/kg)

*Total Energy (kJ x1012)

Low Income

11381.90

3.96

Lower Middle Income

13568.70

22.89

Upper Middle Income

13794.20

8.69

* excluding metals and glass

Constraints and Prospects of WTE Facilities in Developing Countries Lack of fundamental records/ Data Planning for a WTE plant requires knowledge of the expected quantity and composition of solid wastes, potential WTE sites, funding opportunities and a host of other parameters. The net effect of lack of these fundamental statistics are often a source of confusion and cast doubt in the minds of investors who may want to do business or provide services in the waste management sector (Miezah et al., 2015). Hence feasibility studies are necessary to assess waste characteristics, present solid waste management system, energy value, energy sales, existing laws and standards, potential stakeholders, WTE organization options/setup, ownership, needed expertise, and project economy, finance and implementation. Composition of wastes Lower calorific value and high moisture content of waste from developing areas may attract extra heating fuel and put the facility at risk. Also the composition of wastes is influenced by several factors which in the long run may affect its calorific value. Little variation in calorific value for a short period may be tolerable but wide variation will affect operation cost and performance of the WTE facility. However from the study wastes from developing countries have calorific value of approximately 11 – 13 MJ/kg which is greater than an annual minimum of 7 MJ/kg or seasonal minimum of 6 MJ/kg recommended by Kamuk and Haukohl (2013). Financial Constraints Developing countries are known to have limited foreign exchange resources and financial sustainability of solid waste management systems. Most developing countries are debt ridden. According to the World Bank (2016a), at the end of 2014 the total external debt of developing countries stood at 536

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$5,294 billion with 28.8%, 34.5% and 36.7% representing short term, private non-guaranteed, and public and publically guaranteed debt respectively. The combined stock of external debt of low and middle income countries was $5.4 trillion at the end of 2014, the net debt flows totaled $464 billion, and foreign direct investment (FDI) was $576 billion (World Bank, 2016b). Half of the top ten foreign direct investment recipients in the world (in 2014) are from developing countries and multinational enterprises continue to acquire foreign affiliates in the developing world (UNCTAD, 2015). FDI‘s significance to developing countries is in the area of transferring production technology, skills, innovative capacity, and organizational and managerial practices between locations, as well as of accessing international marketing networks in primary, manufacturing and services sector (Mallampally and Sauvant, 1999) WTE plants in the United States and Europe require a capital cost of 2.90 – 7.70 Million$/MW, operating cost of 90,000 -200,000 Million$/MW/year and the levelised cost of electricity is 80 – 210 Million$/MWh (WEC, 2013). Also the World Bank estimates the costs associated with WTE facilities in lower middle income and Upper middle income countries as $40 – $100 per ton and $60 – $150 per ton respectively (Hoornweg and Bhada-Tata, 2012). More so, a modern WTE incinerator may require costs to maintain pollution control equipment and additional costs on supplementary fuel to burn a typical highorganic and relatively wet waste from developing countries (UN-HABITAT, 2010). This amount is on the high side for developing countries when compared to budgetary allocations to the waste management sector which is an average of $29,620,553 (UN-HABITAT, 2010) representing 5.89% of municipal budget for some reference cities. Years back the sharpest increase in investment flows into clean energy was through venture capital and equity, and investment in public capital markets (Usher, 2007). Today the same investment flow or partially/ entirely donor funded assistance may be valid for WTE technologies. Education/training and WTE technology transfer Several qualified and skilled staff are required for all the sections in WTE facilities. These staff include on-site and off-site workers as direct or indirect staff during plant construction, and permanent staff for operation and maintenance of these facilities. Majority of WTE facilities run 24 hours in a day and 7 days in a week. The pool of employees differs from facility to facility, but the pool normally comprises operative staff, technical staff, administrative staff and contractors. However, WTE technology should match existing local socio-economic conditions in developing countries in order to be successful. In the early 1987, the WTE plant set up in India by technical assistance from a Danish firm failed due to mismatch of quality of incoming feed with plant design. The waste that was available for the plant could not sustain combustion due to the difference in its composition in relation to design parameters (Joseph, 2007). Staff in WTE facilities require general training such as gas treatment, maintenance/operation optimization, asset management, regulatory compliance, emission monitoring, job ethics and safety. Also some staff in waste handling, conversion and pollution control sections need advance training to acquire skills and knowledge to meet specific job requirements. Government Policies In reality, capital and operating costs of WTE facilities are more than other disposal methods. Several government initiatives such as tax credit, subsidies, emission restrictions, and renewable energy legislations/policies/targets are required to encourage domestic growth of WTE technology (Jacobi, 2011). Also infrastructure for waste collection and sale of energy is required for sustainability of WTE facilities. Prospects WTE offers three key benefits: reduction of waste volumes by at least 90%, recovery of metals and other materials, and the generation of renewable base load energy (Lawrence and Adamson, 2012). Proper investment in WTE technology has the potential to yield significant economic and environmental benefits in terms of revenues, employment, and pollution and greenhouse gas emissions reduction in many parts of developing countries. Revenues come from tipping fees, and sales of energy and recyclables. Though WTE

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is not yet financially competitive in a number of markets, the global market for thermal and biological WTE technologies may grow to about $29.2 - $80.6 billion by 2022 (Lawrence and Adamson, 2012). In the United States, the WTE industry employs about 5,350 people nationwide and every dollar of revenue generated by the industry puts a total of 1.77 dollars into the economy through intermediate purchases of goods and services, and payments to employees (Michaels, 2014). Developing countries are characterized by cheaper labour costs than the United States; hence there are opportunities more earnings from WTE plants. Also the WTE process is CO2 neutral because it saves fuel that would have been used in traditional plants and it is relatively cheap in comparison with biomass, wind and photovoltaic power; i.e the WTE process costs only EUR 7 to 12 to save one ton of CO2 (Stengler, 2007). Other advantages of WTE facilities are (Kamuk and Haukohl, 2013):     

Most efficient way of reducing waste volume and the demand for landfilling. Flexibility in location thereby reducing the need for transportation. Sustainable renewable energy source to substitute fossil fuels. Environmentally beneficial without greenhouse gas generation WTE facility bottom ash can serve as substitute for virgin aggregate

Conclusion Waste to Energy (WTE) technologies play a significant role in solving waste disposal and energy shortage challenges. In WTE technologies, wastes are combusted for the production of electricity, heat or transport fuel. These technologies provide tremendous socio-economic value and less negative environmental impacts on host communities. Over 4.2 million tons of solid wastes with combined energy content of approximately 9.87 x 109kWh are generated daily from developing countries. There is also the availability of cheap labour to meet some specific semi- skilled or unskilled job demands. However, composition variability, high moisture content and low calorific value of solid waste from developing countries affect its combustibility. WTE applicability to developing economies is hampered by lack of records on waste quantity and composition. Huge capital cost is also needed to start up and maintain a WTE facility. Local policies are equally unsupportive and technological know-how and its adaptability to local conditions is a prerequisite. Today the same investment flow or partially/ entirely donor funded assistance may be valid for WTE technologies. To invest in WTE technologies, developing countries need to upgrade the predominant open dumps to sanitary landfills, closely followed by collection optimization, and education/training before WTE technology transfer. References BP (2016) BP Energy Outlook. BP P.L.C. Accessed from http://www.bp.com/content/dam /bp/pdf/ energyeconomics/energy-outlook-2016/bp-energy-outlook-2016.pdf on 09/07/2016. Chalmin, P. and Gaillochet, C. (2009) From Waste to Resource, An Abstract of World Waste Survey. Accessed from http://www.veoliaenvironmentalservices.com/veolia/ressources/ files/ 1/927,753,Abstract_2009_GB-1.pdf on 12/5/2016 EC (2016). Waste Environment. European Commission. Accessed from http://ec.europa.eu/environment/waste/framework/ on 26/06/2016 Enerdata (2016) Global Energy Statistical Year book 2016. Accessed from https://yearbook.enerdata.net/xls/energyconsumption-data.xls on 01/07/2016 EU (2010) Being Wise with Waste: The EU‘s Approach to Waste Management. Accessed from http://ec.europa.eu/environment/waste/pdf/WASTE%20BROCHURE.pdf on 10/05/2016. Goyal, H.B., Seal, D., Saxena, R.C. (2008) Bio-Fuels from Thermochemical Conversion of Renewable Resources: A Review. Renewable Sustainable Energy Review, 12 (2):504–517. Hoornweg, D. and Bhada-Tata, P. (2012) What a Waste : A Global Review of Solid Waste Management. Urban Development Series; Knowledge Papers No. 15. World Bank, Washington, DC, U.S.A. http://siteresources.worldbank.org/DATASTATISTICS/Resources/CLASS.XLS Accessed on 05/07/2016 538

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Jacobi, J. (2011) Waste to Energy Technology. ScottMadden Management Consultants, Raleigh, North Carolina, U.S.A. Joseph, K. (2007) Lessons from Municipal Solid Waste Processing Initiatives in India, Paper Presented to the International Symposium MBT 2007, Waste Consult International. Accessed from https://www.researchgate.mnet/publication/242309986 _LESSONS _FROM_ MUNICIPAL_SOLID_WASTE_PROCESSING_INITIATIVES_IN_INDIA Kamuk, B. and Haukohl, J. (2013) ISWA Guidelines: Waste to Energy in Low and Middle Income Countries. The International Solid Waste Association (ISWA), Viennia, Austria. Lawrence and Adamson (2012) Renewable Power and Heat Generation from Municipal Solid Waste: Market Outlook, Technology Assessments, and Capacity and Revenue Forecasts.Waste-to-Energy Technology Markets. Pike Research LLC, CO, U.S.A. Mallampally, P. and Sauvant, K. P. (1999) Foreign Direct Investment in Developing Countries, Finance and Development, 36(1). Accessed from http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/fandd/ 1999/03/mallampa.htm on 12/05/2016. Michaels, T. (2014) The 2014 ERC Directory of Waste-to-Energy Facilities. Energy Recovery Council (ERC), U.S.A. Miezah, K., Obiri-Danso, K., Kádár, Z., Fei-Baffoe, B. and Mensah, M.Y. (2015). Municipal Solid Waste Characterization and Quantification as a Measure towards Effective Waste Management in Ghana. Waste Management, 46:15–27. POST (2002) Access to Energy in Developing Countries. Parliamentary Office of Science and Technology (POST), Number 191, December . Accessed from www.parliament.uk/documents on 20/06/2016. Stengler, E. (2007) Contribution from Ella Stengler, European Federation of Waste Incineration Plants. In Conference proceedings on Renewable Energy: Potential and Benefits for Developing Countries. Accessed from http://www.kas.de/wf/doc/kas_10993-1522-2-30.pdf?110504153814 on 14/5/2016. Tchobanoglous, G. and Kreith, F. (2002) Handbook of Solid Waste Management, 2 nd Edition. McGraw-Hill, Inc., New York, U.S.A. Tchobanoglous, G., Thiesen, H., Vigil, S.A. (1993) Integrated Solid Waste Management: Engineering Principles and Management Issues. McGraw-Hill, Inc., Singapore. UN (2012). World Urbanization Prospects: The 2011 Revision Highlights, Report ESA/P/WP/224, United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs/Population Division. Accessed from http://esa.un.org/unup/pdf/WUP2011_Highlights.pdf. on 20/05/2016. UNCTAD (2015) Reforming International Investment Governance, World Investment Report, United Nations, New York and Geneva. UNEP (2011) Towards a Green Economy: Pathways to Sustainable Development and Poverty Eradication, United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). Accessed from http://www.netfund.go.ke/wpcontent/uploads/2014/03/Waste-Investing-in-energy-and-resource-efficiency-1.pdf on 10/04/2016. UN-HABITAT (2010) Solid Waste Management in the World‘s Cities. Water and Sanitation in the World‘s Cities 2010.Earthscan Ltd., London, UK/Washington DC. U.S.A. Usher, E. (2007) Global Investment in the Renewable Energy Sector. In Conference proceedings on Renewable Energy: Potential and Benefits for Developing Countries. Accessed from http://www.kas.de/wf/doc/kas_109931522-2-30.pdf?110504153814 on 14/5/2016. WEC (2013) World Energy Resources: Waste to Energy. Accessed from https://www.worldenergy.org/wpcontent/.../WER_2013_7b_ Waste_to_Energy.pdf on 05/06/2016. WEC (2015) Energy Price Volatile: The New Normal. Accessed from https://www.worldenergy. org /wpcontent/.../WER_2013_7b_Waste_to_Energy.pdf on 05/06/2016. World Bank (2016a) Debt data. Accessed from http://datatopics.worldbank.org/debt/ on 02/7/2016. World Bank (2016b) International Debt Statistics 2016. International Bank for Reconstruction and

Development / The World Bank, Washington, U.S.A.

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Waste Management & Resource Utilisation www.iswmaw.com

ISWMAW

Activated Carbon Prepared from Waste Rubber Tire for Uptake of Fuchsin Acid Dye from Aqueous Solutions Hadeel A. Hosney1,*, Taha E. Farrag2, Radwa A. Elsalamony3, Mohamed Z. Abd-Elwahhab4, Joseph J. Farah5 1

Environmental program, Zewailcity for science and technology , Cairo, Egypt Chemical Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering, Post Said University, Port Said, Egypt 3 Process Development, Egypt Petroleum Research Institute, Cairo, Egypt 4 Chemical Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering, El-Minia University, El-Minia, Egypt 5 Chemical Engineering and Pilot Plant Department, National Research Center, El-Giza, Egypt *Corresponding Author: Email- [email protected] 2

ABSTRACT The production of activated carbons from solid wastes is one of the most environment-friendly solutions by transforming negative-valued wastes to valuable materials. Thus, the main objective of this research was to prepare activated carbon from waste rubber tires using two-step physiochemical activation method (carbonization and chemical activation). The carbonization process was carried out at 550°C for 2 hour with 15°C/min heating rate in a nitrogen medium. The char products were then proceed to the activation step using KOH or NaOH at various activation conditions. Equilibrium studies were carried out for adsorption of Fuchsin acid dye form aqueous solutions onto the prepared activated carbon in a batch adsorption system. The equilibrium data isotherm for adsorption process was analyzed by different models, Langmuir, Freundlich, Temkin, and Dubinin–Radushkevich models, in order to determine which model simulated the process and determine the adsorption capacity. It was found that, Langmuir model fit the experimental data well, thus suggesting a monolayer sorption of Fuchsin dye, so it will be used in design process and the maximum adsorption capacity was 312.5 mg/g. Keywords: Adsorption; Equilibrium Isotherm; Activated Carbon; Waste Tire.; International Society of Waste Management, Air and Water

1.0 Introduction Industries like textile, paper, printing, leather, food, cosmetics, etc., Carries a large number of dyes, which considered the greatest polluters through discharge from these industries [1, 2].India facing a challenge in the field of waste water treatment due to that more than 800 dye manufacturing units are situated in, which release large quantities of colored waste water every day [2, 3]. The large scale production of synthetic dyes can cause considerable environmental pollution, making it a serious public concern. Most of these dyes are reported to be carcinogenic and could be a production source of toxic amines if broken, therefore the presence of dyes make practical water use unhealthy or dangerous for human beings If this colored substances enter into their system [4,5,6]. Dyes can be of many different structural varieties like acid dyes, basic dyes, reactive dyes and azo dyes are arising from different manufacturing sources and users, which can be found in inland surface water. Through these 540

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dyes, acid dye is most commonly used in multiple industries although its complex aromatic structure [7]. Fuchsin acid dye is one of the most important mordant dyes, which act in simplest way as laboratory reagent, as a copper corrosion inhibitor in the preparation of organic–inorganic hybrid nano-composite and as an inhibitor of reverse transpose of immunodeficiency virus [8, 9, 10].Various conventional methods are applied for the removal of dyes from waste water, but adsorption is worth mentioning among all. The activated carbon is one of the versatile adsorbents because of its large surface area and highly porous structure, but its high cost limits its widespread use. To overcome this difficulty, the activated carbon can be produced from waste tire and could be used as a good adsorbent for acid dyes. So on; the waste tire is recycled to reduce pollution and producing activated carbon at the same time to be better alternative for the removal of an acidic dye from their aqueous solutions. 2.0 Materials and Methods 2.1 Preparation of Adsorbent The waste tire used in this study was obtained from Al-Garbia Governorate, Egypt, which is collected from agencies, specialized in tire shredding. The waste tire was screened and washed with deionized water to remove dirt and metallic impurities after which it was dried in the oven at about 105⁰C overnight; then carbonized at 550 ⁰C for 2 hrs. with heating rate 15⁰C/min. while activation take place at 800⁰C for 2 hrs. Using alkali activator (KOH) with impregnation ratio (4:1) (Activator: Carbon).This method produced activated carbon from waste tire (WTAC) with specific surface area 236 m2/g. 2.2 Preparation of Adsorbate Acid fuchsin dye of commercial purity was used without further purification. The dye stock solution of concentration of 1000 mg/L was prepared by dissolving desired quantity of dye in distilled water. The experimental solutions of different initial concentrations were obtained by diluting the dye stock solution. 2.3 Equilibrium Studies Preliminary experiments showed that such equilibrium was established within 60 min.; however, all equilibrium experiments were allowed to run for 120 min., to ensure uniformity. Adsorption isotherms were determined by the Bottle-Point Method [11]. A constant mass of prepared activated carbon (0.1 g) was added to 250 ml bottles containing 100 ml of dye solution. The bottles were sealed, and, together with appropriate blanks, mechanically shaked at a constant temperature and constant agitation shaker bath for a period of 120 min. After that time, the samples were centrifuged at2000 rpm for 20 min. to separate the adsorbent, and then the equilibrium concentrations (Ce) were determined using Spectrophotometer. The difference between the concentration of blank (Cο) and the concentration after equilibrium (Ce) was taken to be the amount of adsorbate adsorbed (qe). The equilibrium data corresponding to each bottle represents one point on an adsorption isotherm. The results were treated by the relation:

qe 

(C0  Ce ) (C  Ce ) *V  0 * 0.1 m 0.1

(2.1)

Blanks containing no carbon were always included and two replicates were analyzed at each concentration for every adsorption experiment. The results are the average of the two replicates mentioned above. The relation between the solid phase concentration (qe) and the liquid phase concentration (Ce) at equilibrium is an isotherm.

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3.0 Results and Discussion 3.1 The adsorption isotherm In order to investigate the equilibrium behavior, the experimental data were fitted to Freundlich, Langmuir and Temkin isotherms. Besides isotherm models; there model fitted at different dye concentrations (50-1000 mg/L) is shown in Figure (1), the adsorption of acid fuchsin increases with increase in initial concentration and maximum adsorption capacity is found to be 312.5 mg/g after 120 min. A characteristic L-shaped curve has been obtained according to Giles classification, which suggests a medium affinity of the dye molecules for the active sites of adsorbent surface, and also that there is no strong competition from the solvent for adsorption sites [12]. The Langmuir isotherm represents the mono-molecular adsorption of the adsorbate molecule on the adsorbent surface [13]. The Langmuir isotherm can be expressed as follows:

Ce / qe  (a L / K L )Ce  1 / K L

(3.1)

Where: Ce : equilibrium dye concentration, qe : equilibrium adsorption capacity, KL : Langmuir constant related to the energy of adsorption (L/mg),and qm : maximum amount of adsorption corresponding to complete monolayer coverage on the surface (mg/g). Similarly, the Freundlich isotherm can be used for non-ideal adsorption that involves heterogeneous surface energy systems [14] and is expressed by the following equation:

ln qe  ln K F  (1/ n) ln Ce

(3.2)

Where: KF: rough indicator of the adsorption capacity, and 1/n: adsorption intensity. The Temkin isotherm describes the heat of adsorption and interaction between adsorbent and adsorbate molecules [15], and it can be expressed as follows:

qe  qm ln KT q m ln Ce

(3.3)

Where: KT, qm: Temkin constants The experimental data fitted with different adsorption isotherms are shown in Figures (2, 3, and 4); the equilibrium behavior is well described by the Langmuir isotherm model. The values of parameters obtained for various adsorption isotherms are given in Table (1); a high value of R2 is obtained in case of Langmuir adsorption isotherm. The conformation of the experimental data into Langmuir isotherm model indicates the homogeneous nature of surface. The applicability of the isotherm equation to describe the adsorption process was judged by the Marquardt's percent standard deviation (MPSD) and the hybrid error function (HYBRID) beside the correlation coefficient (R2). It was found that the chosen adsorption isotherm models fitted the experimental data in the following order: Langmuir, Temkin, Dubinin-Radushkevich, and Freundlich isotherm.

542

Hadeel A. Hosney et al. / Waste Management & Resource Utilisation 2016 3 y = 0.0032x + 0.1888 R² = 0.9929

2.5

Ce/qe (g/l)

2 1.5 1 C0 = 50 : 1000 mg/l, Treated volume = 100 ml, Adsorbent mass = 0.1g

0.5 0 0

Figure 1: Adsorption isotherm for Fuchsin acid dye onto waste tire activated carbon (WTAC) at ambient temperature

200

400 Ce (mg/l)

600

800

Figure 2: Langmuir isotherm plot for adsorption of Fuchsin dye onto WTAC 350 300

C0 = 50 : 1000 mg/l, Treated volume = 100 ml, Adsorbent mass = 0.1g

250

qe

200 150

y = 64.455x - 107.44 R² = 0.9217

100 50 0

2

Figure 3 : Freundlich isotherm plot for adsorption of Fuchsin dye onto WTAC

3

4

5

6

7

ln (Ce)

Figure 4: Temkin isotherm plot for adsorption of Fuchsin dye onto WTAC

Table 1: Parameters of different isotherms for adsorption of Fuchsin dye onto WTAC

Isotherm model

Model Parameters

R2

MPSD

HYBRID

Langmuir

KL= 5.297, aL= 0.0169, qmax =312.5

0.993

23.63

364.6

Freundlich

KF = 20.142, n = 2.334

0.815

33.61

1435.6

Temkin

KT = 0.1888, qm = 64.46

0.922

26.83

544.5

Dubinin-Rad.

D = 6(10-5), qm = 232.06

0.864

34.11

1469.36

3.2 Simulated Results and Correlations Using the appropriate constants for the different isotherm models, it is possible to predict the theoretical isotherm curves using known values of Ce. Figure (5) provide a comparison of the experimental points with the theoretical models in order to establish graphically which model yields the ―best fit‖. It is clear from the results depicted in the figure that the Langmuir model fitted the experimental data significantly better than the other models.

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qe (mg/g)

250

200 150 Experimantal data Langmuir model Freundlich model Temkin model Dubinin-Rad. model

100 50 0 0

200

400 C e (mg/l)

600

800

Figure 5: Comparison of experimental data with theoretical isotherm models.

The good fit of the Langmuir model suggests that Fachsin dye adsorption is limited by monolayer coverage and the surface is relatively homogeneous in terms of functional groups and there is no significant interaction among the dye molecules so Langmuir model is recommended for design operations. 3.3 Single Stage Batch Adsorber Design A single stage adsorber for different solution volumes V from an initial concentration C 0 to C1 was designed based on best isotherm fir, as shown in Figure (6).The amount of adsorbent is M and the solute loading on the adsorbent changes from q0 to q1. At time t = 0, q0 = 0 and, as time proceeds, the mass balance equated the dye removal from the liquid to that picked up by the solid [16].

Figure 6: A single-stage batch adsorber

The mass balance equation for the sorption system can be written as:

V(C0  C1 )  M(q1  q0 )  Mq1 At equilibrium conditions,

(3.4)

C1  Ce and q1  qe 544

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Since the equilibrium studies confirm that the equilibrium data for Fuchsin dye -WTAC follows a Langmuir isotherm equation, it was used for batch adsorber design. The equation (4.9) can be rearranged as,

C0  Ce  M C0  Ce    K LCe /(1  aLCe ) V qe

(3.5)

Except for 100% removal conditions, equation (3.5) can be used to calculate the dose required for specified percentage removal of different dye initial concentrations, C0, Figure 7. The adsorption capacity qe for any initial dye concentration can be obtained from the operating line and the isotherm, Fig. (3.8) where -V/m is the slop of operating lines, qe and Ce can be found and thus mass of activated carbon per unit volume of dye solution can be evaluated to reach C e (Target effluent concentration). Figure (8) shows a series of operating lines with different slops (ratios of dye concentrations/masses of activated carbon) at 500mg/l initial dye concentration. The predicted q e and Ce values for different (V/m) ratios are presented in Table 2. 350 300

q e (mg/g)

250

200 150 100

50 0 0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

Ce (mg/l)

Figure 7: Design plot generated using Langmuir isotherm, The effluent volumes treated as a function of activated carbon mass for different initial dye concentrations with 75% removal

Figure 8: Equilibrium isotherm for adsorption of dye onto WTAC and operating lines with different liquor to solid ratios (V/M).

Table 2: Adsorption capacities corresponding to equilibrium aqueous phase's concentrations and percentage removal for

0.1

Equilibrium aqueous phase concentration (mg/l) 40

Equilibrium solid phase concentration (Adsorption Capacity) (mg/l) 46

0.25

52

112

89.6

0.5

80

210

84.0

0.75

156

258

68.8

1.0

235

265

53.0

1.5

318

273

36.4

V/M (l/g)

Removal efficiency (%) 92.0

Conclusion From the results and discussion of this work, it can be concluded that activated carbon from waste tire can be used on the removal of the fuchsin acid found in the waste water of many industries by the 545

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adsorption technique. Results were encouraging, the maximum adsorption capacity attuned 312.5 mg/g and the data fitted the Langmuir model at equilibrium. References Afaq, S. and K.S. Rana, 2009. Toxicological effects of leather dyes on total leukocyte count of fresh water teleost, Cirrhinus mrigala(Ham). Biol. Med., 2: 134-138. Anbia, M., S.A. Hariri and S.N. Ashrafizadeh, 2010. Adsorptive removal of anionic dyes by modified nanoporous silica SBA-3. Applied Surf. Sci., 256: 3228-3233. Attia, A.A., W.E. Rashwan and S.A. Khedr, 2006. Capacity of activated carbon in the removal of acid dyes subsequent to its thermal treatment. Dyes Pigments, 69: 128-136. Azargohar, R. and A.K. Dalai, 2005. Production of activated carbon from Luscar char: Experimental and modeling studies. Micropor. Mesopor. Mater., 85: 219-225. Baba, M., D. Schols, R. Pauwels, J. Balzarini and E. De Clercq, 1988. Fuchsin acid selectively inhibits human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) replication in vitro. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun., 155: 1404-1411. Bastidas, J.M., P. Pinilla, E. Cano, J.L. Polo and S. Miguel, 2003. Copper corrosion inhibition by triphenylmethane derivatives in sulphuric acid media. Corrosion Sci., 45: 427-449. El-Geundi, M.S.," Colour removal from textile effluents by adsorption techniques". Water Res. 25:271–273,(1991). Ergene, A., K. Ada, S. Tan and H. Katırcıoglu, 2009. Removal of remazol brilliant blue R dye from aqueous solutions by adsorption onto immobilized Scenedesmus quadricauda: Equilibrium and kinetic modeling studies. Desalination, 249: 1308-1314. Gilles, C.H.; Macewan, T.H.; Nakhwa, S.N. and Smith, D.,"A system of classification of solution adsorption isotherms, and its use in diagnosis of adsorption mechanisms and in measurement of specific surface area of solids". J. Chem. Soc. 4:3973–3993, (1960). Hussein, B.M.Z., A.H. Yahaya, M. Shamsul, H.M. Salleh, T. Yap and J. Kiu, 2004. Acid fuchsin-interleaved Mg-Allayered double hydroxide for the formation of an organic-inorganic hybrid nanocomposite. Mater. Lett., 58: 329332. Karaoğlu, M.H.; Doğan, M. and Alkan, M.,"Removal of cationic dyes by kaolinite". Microporous and Mesoporous Mater. 122:20–27,(2009). Oguz, E. and B. Keskinler, 2005. Determination of adsorption capacity and thermodynamic parameters of the PAC used for bomaplex red CR-L dye removal. Colloids Surfaces A Physicochem. Eng. Aspects, 268: 124-130. Ozturk, N. and D. Kavak, 2005. Adsorption of boron from aqueous solutions using fly ash: Batch and column studies. J. Hazard. Mater., 127: 81-88. Rajeswari, K., R. Subashkumar and K. Vijayaraman, 2011. Biodegradation of mixed textile dyes by bacterial strains isolated from dyewaste effluent. Res. J. Environ. Toxicol., 5: 97-107. Wanchanthuek, R. and A. Thapol, 2011. The kinetic study of methylene blue adsorption over MgO from PVA template preparation. J. Environ. Sci. Technol., 4: 552-559. Verma, Y., 2008. Toxicity evaluation of effluents from dye and dye intermediate producing industries using daphnia bioassay. Internet J. Toxicol., 4: 1559-3916.

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Development of Renewable Energies and Techniques for the Use of Natural Resources in an Efficient, Reliable and Sustainable Way Ed de Nijs1, Roy Smarajit2 1

CEO, HYDRA-EDSG, Belgium CEO, CWBS, UK *Corresponding Author: Email- ceo.cwbs @gmail.com 2

ABSTRACT The increasing demand on energy in the world, affected by climate change has made the use of alternative sources more important. The commitment to reduce CO 2 pollution agreed by the industrialized countries, created a necessary and urgent pressure on the worlds industry for the development of various new energy resources such as wind, bio-waste, water and even CO2. Some of them we see as waste products and some of them are natural resources. Plasma gasification technology is scientifically described and accepted and dates from the early fifties of the last century. The mostly big gasification (> 1 MW) installations are economically seen applicable in a few market areas such as: large scale waste processing of nuclear waste and MSW (Multiple Solid Waste). In this presentation we define new use areas and designed facilities on a small scale. Next to that the input of materials is based on a water basis as is the plasma creation. This includes the economic value of the high temperature plasma reactor syngas in general and specific for the hospital sector in Europe. On the basis of the research in general a positive economic effect is seen in comparison with (waste) incineration installations. Renewable energy resources and significant opportunities for energy efficiency exist over wide geographical areas, in contrast to other energy sources, which are concentrated in a limited number of countries. Rapid deployment of renewable energy and energy efficiency, and technological diversification of energy sources, would result in significant energy security and economic benefits. It would also reduce environmental pollution such as pollution caused by burning of fossil fuels and improve public health, reduce premature mortalities due to pollution and save associated health costs. Keywords: International Society of Waste Management, Air and Water

Ref. 1 However, both economic theory and experience point to significant market barriers and market failures that will limit the development of renewables unless special policy measures are enacted to encourage that development. Some of the barriers are detailed below.

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Commercialization barriers faced by new technologies competing with mature technologies to compete against mature fossil fuel and nuclear technologies renewables must overcome two major barriers to commercialization: undeveloped infrastructure and lack of economies of scale. Developing new renewable resources will require large initial investments to build infrastructure. These investments increase the cost of providing renewable electricity, especially during early years. Examples include Developers must find publicly acceptable sites with good resources and with access to transmission lines. Potential wind sites can require several years of monitoring to determine whether they are suitable. Permitting issues for conventional energy technologies are generally well understood, and the process and standards for review are well defined. In contrast, renewables often involve new types of issues and ecosystem impacts. And standards are still in the process of development. Price distortions from existing subsidies and unequal tax burdens between renewables and other energy sources Failure of the market to value the public benefits of renewables Market barriers such as inadequate information, lack of access to capital, between building owners and tenants, and high transaction costs for making small purchases Today in Europe, renewable energy technologies are viewed not only as tools for improving energy security and mitigating and adapting to climate change, but are also increasingly recognised as investments that can provide direct and indirect economic advantages by reducing dependence on imported fuels; improving local air quality and safety; advancing energy access and security; propelling economic development; and creating jobs. Declining costs have also played a significant role in the expansion of renewable energy deployment in recent years. Several renewable energy technologies are today costcompetitive with conventional generation technologies, even before the environment and other externalities are taken into consideration. Extraordinary growth in developing countries like India in renewable energy markets has also led to a significant rise in the number of manufacturers, the scale of manufacturing, an overall increase in number of jobs installing and servicing renewable energy technologies, as well as expansion into new markets. This is particularly true for the solar PV and wind power industries, despite experiencing industry consolidation, driven by decreasing costs. A handful of countries—particularly Germany, Denmark, the Spain, UK and USA—have led the way, developing innovative policies that have driven much of the change witnessed over the past decade. Today, Germany‘s commitment to the ―Energiewende‖—the transition to a sustainable economy based on renewable energy and energy efficiency—as well as Denmark‘s commitment to 100% renewable energy by 2050, are inspiring other countries around the globe to aim for a renewable energy future. The last decade (2004 – 2014) saw a steady increase in the global demand for renewable energy. While overall primary energy supply from renewables in 2004 was 57.7 EJ per year, by 2013 the total supply had grown to 76 EJ annually—an overall increase of 30%. By 2013, renewables supplied approximately 19% of the world‘s final energy consumption, a little less than half of which came from traditional biomass. Heat energy from modern renewable sources grew from an estimated less than 1% in 2004 to 10% of total final energy use in 2014; hydropower grew slower than the overall increase in power demand, with the result that its share dropped slightly to 3.8% in 2014. All other new renewables used for power generation gained ground and increased their primary energy share from 0.5 to 3.5% over the past decade. In 2013, liquid biofuels met around 2.3% of total transport fuel demand. Furthermore, the last decade saw an increase in initiatives to link electric transport systems with renewable energy, particularly at the city and regional levels.

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Ref. 2 Here renewable energy and sustainable development are described with practical cases with illustrative example is presented. EDSG Product and Innovation The inventions of EDSG consist of so called disruptive techniques and Hi-tech solutions which can be used for several of its applications. EDSG has incorporated these inventions in products which fit into the worldwide need for CO2 limitation and micro grid energy solutions. Each EDSG product has its own characteristics and its own market. Some products are multi-applicable and other products are not. Ref. 3

EDSG BV innovations and products are based on concrete questions from the market/ companies and are designed as practical solutions. Next, these solutions (lifetime warranty) will be further developed to broad(er) markets / customers. In the so developed products and services of EDSG, from the perspective of independent research a distinction can be made in:   

existing technologies transformed into small scale applications new additions to existing technologies that make new application completely new technologies and/or inventions.

EDSG is focusing on two product groups: - Waste to Energy o Energy out of All Waste through Gasification (Syngas Plasma Convertor) o Energy from Bio Mass (Syngas convertor) o Carbon Capturing and Recycling (CCR) - Renewable Energy o Wind energy (Vertical Axes Wind Turbines) o Water to energy. For this latest and new product group EDSG is convinced that the technology can change our view on the traditional energy market.

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Waste to Energy Bio Mass Convertor and All Waste Convertor a. Technical: EDSG provides two types of gasifiers: - Bio Mass Convertor - All Waste Convertor Plasma gasification technology is scientifically described and accepted and dates from the early fifties of the last century. The mostly big gasification (> 1 MWatt) installations are economically seen applicable in a few market areas such as: large scale waste processing, nuclear waste. EDSG has defined new use areas and designed facilities on a small scale. Next to that the input of materials is based on a water basis as is the plasma creation. A patent for this specific extra‘s is in consideration. An agreement is signed with Cofely/GDF Suez Paris to build this year the pilot all (hospital) waste gasification plant, also in cooperation with a hospital in Holland (Noord Brabant). A Chinese supplier of hospitals is also interested in this technology. Another project, a Bio Mass reactor, will be built for a housing project in Inner Mongolia as solution for the bio mass waste of a village (100 households) and energy supply (electricity and heath). The prototype of this installations will be built in Heerlen and tested at Laborelec, research and testing institute of GDF Suez and the TU Twente. Testing is for process optimizing and re-engineering, not for validating the process. This is already done in several independent reports (University of Leuven).

b. Economically: The pilot project on the All Waste Converter and the tests at Laborelec and TU Twente include the economic value of the high temperature plasma reactor syngas in general and specific for the hospital sector in Europe. On the basis of the Colombian research in general a positive economic effect is seen in comparison with (waste) incineration installations. 551

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For the agricultural sector, the installation is profitable due to the changing manure legislation. Market launch will take place in phases linked to (accelerated) depreciation potential of the often present traditional biomass installations. The small Bio Mass Converter is also the basis for the discussion with the afore mentioned international consortium for the construction of housing in Inner Mongolia. Subsequently, the remaining waste can be processed in a bio mass syngas gasification and residual energy (electric or thermal) are used again in the residential area. The combination of syngas + wind + thermal and/or solar collectors + innovative storage options avoid the need for investment in large-scale energy facilities in new residential areas (including in China).

Carbon Capturing & Recycling a. Technical: In consultation with our patent attorney, the CCR process is divided into four possible patents, the first of which has been worldwide filed. At the European publication in September 2012 the rating was 4A+. At the worldwide publication in March 2013 publication one of the A‘s has been dropped: the process description was already used in an earlier patent in the nineties last century. The patent scored an A rating in Europe on the following points:    

Innovative process steps. Innovative capability of the concept. Innovative on first application. Innovative capability in the field of industrial application.

Worldwide, the rating is AAA+ (concept, application and industrial application) The worldwide publication took place on 21th of March, 2013 (WO2013037938). The rating of the patent and recognition of all claims is an independent evidence of the knowledge value of the CCR process. One important aspect is the industrial applicability of the CCR-process.

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b. Economical: As comes forward in the communication of the Patent office at Berlin (2012) the value of this patent is estimated by them at about € 50 Mio. If wished for, the market valuation, on average 10-20 times the patent value, can be determined externally for this specific patent. Such valuation prior to an investment/loan will entail additional costs. A small scale pilot plant will represent an essential value in terms of sales and marketing. With worldwide 54.000 coal power plants as potential customers, an technical and economical profitable business case and the political pressure to reduce carbon pollution we expect much of this invention. Using the pilot plant the technology will become transparent and tangible and it is easy to inform interested parties and customers. Important is that the use of energy in carbon capturing and the recycling process is very low. Our algae process is totally different from the existing technologies. A small scale pilot plant will represent an essential value in terms of sales and marketing. With worldwide 54.000 coal power plants as potential customers, an technical and economical profitable business case and the political pressure to reduce carbon pollution we expect much of this invention. Using the pilot plant the technology will become transparent and tangible and it is easy to inform interested parties and customers. Important is that the use of energy in carbon capturing and the recycling process is very low. Our algae process is totally different from the existing technologies.

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CO + water + catalyst = methanol + oxygen 2

2 CO + 4 H O + Catalyst + recipy 2

2

Becomes 2 CH OH + 3 O 3

2

Renewable Energy

Vertical Axes Wind Turbines - VAWT a. Technical: HYDRA / EDSG provides the basic concept: ―wind turbine + generator + inverter‖. As an extra storage possibilities are available. All developed and tested by ourselves. The wind turbines are extensively tested in wind tunnels at a large company in Germany and then on large mainframes fully calculated. Testing of the final small series cover design aspects, marketing and price / quality related to numbers / market. The wind turbines are built as prototype and-or as small series. On one of the last developed models (S Mill with advertising) the first prototype is now tested on the Wind field of Green bridge/Powerlink of the University of Gent in Oostende. The latest model Wind Globe 2.0 is currently tested on the roof of our C Mill location, before transferring it to Greenbridge. Generators are also developed by EDSG itself. At this moment a new type of generator is developed and built and will be tested from May 2015 on. For this generator patent application is considered. The EDSG developed inverter can be used for solar collectors as well as wind turbines. With that a unique product is been developed in the market. Up to now, there are no specific wind inverters. The technology that is used thereby is known and scientifically recognized. The possibility of a patent application will be considered.

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b. Economically: The financial basis for the HYDRA / EDSG wind energy approach is a return on investment within 7 to 9 years for the total installation (wind turbine + generator + inverter) based on own use, excluded subsidies of a national or European government. The products focus is on market of individuals (1 – 2 kW installations) and SME businesses (Mg>Na and Fe>Mn>Zn>Cu and this concentrations of nutrients is suitable for the use of agriculture. Similarly it was observed in literature that quantity of nutrients increase in compost due to degradation of organic matter (Awasthi et al., 2014; Yadav et al., 2011). Table 3: Presence of macro (P, K, Na, Ca and Mg) and micro nutrients (Fe, Mn, Zn and Cu) at initial and final day into compost Parameter P (g.kg-1) K (g.kg-1) Na (g.kg-1) Ca (g.kg-1) Mg (g.kg-1) Fe (g.kg-1) Mn (mg kg-1) Zn (mg kg-1) Cu (mg kg-1)

Day

AP1

AP2

ANR1

ANR2

0

6.32±0.08

7.19±0.04

6.35±0.04

6.32±0.03

30

12.21±0.04

11.24±0.06

10.05±0.02

9.15±0.08

0

8.23±0.05

10.87±0.04

8.23±0.02

10.54±0.03

30

13.06±0.08

15.21±0.06

10.20±0.04

15.32±0.03

0

2.32±0.05

2.44±0.05

2.30±0.02

2.47±0.04

30

3.42±0.07

3.11±0.04

3.11±0.05

3.32±0.05

0

6.66±0.09

7.10±1.28

6.95±0.93

7.23±1.02

30

11.62±1.21

12.50±1.25

10.66±0.91

9.35±1.81

0

2.46±0.04

2.16±0.05

2.49±0.05

2.18±0.05

30

6.12±0.7

5.24±0.08

3.25±0.05

5.03±0.07

0

1.02±0.47

1.84±0.48

1.06±0.18

1.21±0.37

30

3.10±0.59

3.62±0.35

3.02±0.46

3.68±0.39

0

83.09±61

97.37±51.5

83.13±48.26

75.78±41.09

30

168.45±21

166.54±59

160.31±0.93

158.76±0.89

0

142.33±0.8

158.27±0.16

149.51±0.61

159.44±0.8

30

166.66±1.3

187.41±0.83

180.25±1.4

168.2±1.02

0

31.41±0.28

36.73±0.25

31.7±0.27

35.61±0.28

30

38.39±0.25

42.4±0.31

40.51±0.25

40.29±0.24

3.5 C/N Ratio C/N ratio is the very important parameter which influences the microbial activity. Proper ratio of carbon to nitrogen should be maintained for the active microbial degradation process. For the piles AP1 and AP2 the initial C/N ratios was recorded as 15 and 21 which was reduced to 14 and 14 at the end of composting periods. Figure 4 shows that the C:N ratio was decrease initially and after 30 days it was increased due to variation in nitrogen contents. 752

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Figure 4: Variation of C:N ratio during the composting periods

The optimum C/N ratio required for the active degradation of organic waste is 25:1(parades et al., 1996). The C/N ratios of the piles were reduced because of the reduction of total carbon content in the composting pile (Zhang et al., 2014; Yadav et al., 2010). In the anaerobic reactor ANR1 and ANR2 the initial C:N ratio was 17 and 21 which was reduced to 18 and 16 at the 92 days of composting periods During the composting periods the formation of leachate was observed into the anaerobic reactor which was responsible for increase or decrease of total nitrogen and responsible for variation of C:N ratio during the composting periods. Conclusions Agitated pile composting method and anaerobic composting methods were performed for the comparison of aerobic and anaerobic decomposition of flower waste. The agitated piles and the anaerobic reactors were fed with different proportion of flower waste, cow dung and bulking agent and all the physico-chemical parameters were monitored in the entire composting period of 92 days. The following conclusions were made from the detailed study.    

The increment of temperature was observed in all the agitated piles which indicate the active microbial activity in the system. There was no increment of temperature inside the anaerobic reactors because of the slow microbial activity. For the degradation of flower waste, the aerobic composting method is more fast and efficient method than the anaerobic decomposition method. The proper turning, control of moisture content, adjustment of pH and C/N ratio is essential for the active composting practice. The optimum mixes found from the study is 70 flower wastes: 15 cow dung: 15 dry leaves for the agitated pile composting. Lump formation was one of the major problems in both the anaerobic reactor and the agitated piles without bulking agents. The lump formation and algal growth was observed in the anaerobic reactors and last for entire composting period. The lump formation was not observed in the pile AP2.

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References Adhikari B K, Barrington S, Martinez J, King S, (2009) Effectiveness of three bulking agents for food waste composting. Waste Manage. 29:197–203. Awasthi M.K, Pandey A.K, Khan J, Bundela PS, Wong JW, Selvam A, (2014) Evaluation of thermophilic fungal consortium for organic municipal solid waste composting. Bioresource technology 168: 214-221. APHA, 2005. Standard methods for the examination of water and wastewater. 21st edition, American Public Health Association, Washington DC Bouallagui H, Lahdheb H, Ben R E, Rachdi B, Hamdi M, (2009) Improvement of fruit and vegetable waste anaerobic digestion performance and stability with co-substrates addition. Journal of Environmental Quality 90(5): 18441849 Huang GF, Wong JWC, We QT and Nagar BB, (2004) Effect of C/N on composting of pig manure with sawdust, Waste Management 24: 805–813. Jadhav AR, Chitanand MP and Shete HG, (2013) Flower Waste Degradation Using Microbial Consortium. Journal of Agriculture. 3(5): 1-4. Kalamdhad AS, Kazmi AA, (2009) Rotary drum composting of different organic waste mixtures. Waste Manag. Res 27: 129-137. Iqbal MK, Shafiq T, Ahmed K, (2010) Characterization of bulking agents and its effects on physical properties of compost, Bioresource Technology 101, 1913–1919. Mishra N, 2013, August 17: Temple Waste, A Concern. Times of India. Retrieved from http://www. timesofindia.indiatimes.com Rashad FM, Saleh WD, Moselhy MA, (2010) Bioconversion of rice straw and certain agro-industrial wastes to amendments for organic farming systems: 1. Composting, quality, stability and maturity indices. Bioresource technology 101: 5952-5960. Singh J, Kalamdhad A, (2012) Concentration and speciation of heavy metals during water hyacinth composting. Bioresource Technology 124: 169-179. Singh YK, Kalamdhad A, Ali M, Kazmi AA, (2009) Maturation of primary stabilized compost from rotary drum composter. Resources Conservation and Recycling 53: 386-392. Wang P, Changa CM, Watson ME, Dick WA, Chen Y, Hoitink HAJ, (2004) Maturity indices for composted dairy and pig manures. Soil Biology and Biochemistry 36: 767-776. Wong JW, Selvam A, Zhao Z, Yu S, Law AC, Chung PC, (2011) Influence of different mixing ratios on in-vessel cocomposting of sewage sludge with horse stable straw bedding waste: maturity and process evaluation. Waste Management & Research 29: 1164-1170. Yadav A, Garg V, (2011) Recycling of organic wastes by employing Eisenia fetida. Bioresource technology 102: 2874-2880. Yadav K., Tare V, Ahammed MM, (2010) Vermicomposting of source-separated human faeces for nutrient recycling. Waste management 30: 50-56. Zhang L, Sun X, (2014) Changes in physical, chemical, and microbiological properties during the two-stage cocomposting of green waste with spent mushroom compost and biochar. Bioresource technology 171: 274-284. Zhang L, Sun X, (2016) Influence of bulking agents on physical, chemical, and microbiological properties during the two-stage composting of green waste. Waste management 48: 115-126.

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Aerobic Composting of Household Biodegradable Waste - An Experimental Study V.S. Vairagade*, S.A. Vairagade Priyadarshini College of Engineering, Nagpur, Maharashtra, India *Corresponding Author: Email- [email protected] ABSTRACT Composting is one of the methods for better management of the solid waste which results in a profitable product. The main objective of the work was to carry out composting of the biodegradable waste generated at home. The work was a lab test conducted on the household waste generated daily which normally consists of the vegetables, fruits and food waste. Various parameters were tested on the compost produced on weekly basis. This includes pH, temperature, moisture content, carbon content, total phosphorus and germination index. The results obtained were compared with the parameters required for the ideal compost and the results were in the proximity of what required for ideal compost. The compost at near maturity shows an average temperature of 350C, pH close to neutral, moisture content of 69%, carbon content of 45%, total phosphorus of 1.1 % and germination index of 80%. Being the size of the reactor small, it can be installed at home. Keywords: Solid waste, Household waste, composting, solid waste management; International Society of Waste Management, Air and Water

1.0 Introduction Solid wastes are those materials, other than liquids or gases that are considered by their owner to no longer possess value and are discarded as useless or unwanted. Solid waste is very heterogeneous in nature and its composition varies with place and time. Based on the source, origin and type of waste, a comprehensive classification of solid waste is available and defined accordingly. Terminologies as domestic/residential waste, municipal waste, commercial waste, institutional waste, garbage, rubbish, ashes, bulky wastes, street sweeping, dead animals, construction and demolition wastes, industrial wastes, hazardous wastes and sewage wastes includes the solid waste. The quantity of waste produced is normally observed to vary between 0.2-0.6 kg/capita/day. Value upto 0.6 kg/capita/day are observed in metropolitan cities (CPHEEO, 2000). Migration and population upsurge, due to rapid industrialization in Indian cities, has led to the generation of thousands of tonnes of municipal solid waste (MSW) daily that are disposed in low-lying areas, without taking any precautions or operational controls. In many cities nearly half of solid waste generated remains unattended, giving rise to insanitary conditions especially in densely populated slums which in turn results in an increase in morbidity especially due to microbial and parasitic infections and infestations in all segments of population, with the urban slum dwellers and the waste handlers being the worst affected. When solid waste is disposed off on land in open dumps or in improperly designed landfills (e.g. in low lying areas), it causes the following impact on the environment such as ground water 755

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contamination by the leachate generated by the waste dump, surface water contamination by the run-off from the waste dump, bad odour, pests, rodents and wind-blown litter in and around the waste dump, generation of inflammable gas (e.g. methane) within the waste dump, bird menace above the waste dump which affects flight of aircraft, fires within the waste dump, erosion and stability problems relating to slopes of the waste dump, epidemics through stray animals, acidity to surrounding soil and release of green house gas. Therefore, Municipal Solid Waste Management (MSWM) has become one of the major environmental problems for all Indian cities that manage the activities associated with generation, storage, collection, transport, processing and disposal of solid wastes (CPHEEO, 2000) Effective solid management systems are needed to ensure better human health and safety. An economically and environmentally sustainable solid waste management system is effective if it follows an integrated approach i.e. it deals with all types of solid waste materials and all sources of solid waste. The hierarchy usually adopted is (a) waste minimisation/reduction at source, (b) recycling, (c) waste processing (with recovery of resources i.e. materials (products) and energy), (d) waste transformation (without recovery of resources) and (e) disposal on land (landfilling) (CPHEEO, 2000). Waste processing through biological or thermal treatment of waste is generally adopted. Biological treatment involves using microorganisms to decompose the biodegradable components of waste. Two types of processes are used as aerobic and anaerobic processes. In the aerobic process the utilisable product is compost. In the anaerobic process the utilisable product is methane gas. The organic content of Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) tends to decompose leading to various smell and odour problems. It also leads to pollution of the environment. To ensure a safe disposal of the MSW it is desirable to reduce its pollution potential and several processing methods are proposed for this purpose. Composting process is quite commonly used and results in production of a stable product - compost which depending upon its quality can be used as a low grade manure and soil conditioner. Composting is defined as the biological decomposition and stabilization of organic substrates under conditions which allow development of thermophilic temperature as a result of biologically produced heat, with a final product sufficiently stable for storage and application to land without adverse environmental effects. Another definition, agreed in Europe, refers composting to a controlled aerobic process carried out by successive microbial populations combining both mesophilic and thermophilic activities, leading to the production of carbon dioxide, water, minerals and stabilized organic matter. Generally, composting is applied to solid and semi-solid organic wastes, such as night soil, sludge, animal manures, agricultural residues, and municipal refuse. Composting of organic waste can be done using various techniques as mentioned in the literature such as vermin-composting, Banglore method of composting, Indore method of composting, Chinese rural composting – pit method, Aerated static pile composting, heap and windrow composting, box, bin and barrel composting, Takakura home-method and In vessel – force aeration compost bin method (NRAES, 1992, Iyengar et al. 2006, Anand et al., 2008, Kalamdhad et al., 2009, www.fao.org). Developing countries like India generate more food waste compared to developed countries. The putrefying nature of food waste makes it less viable for storage and transportation. It also hinders the recovery of recyclable materials. Limited land resource available for dumping of waste which is ever increasing with increase in population, has lead India to think over techniques of reducing waste at the source itself. Composting is one such and the most viable technique to serve the purpose. The use of small scale in-vessel composting systems at household level is a better way to dispose off the kitchen waste and turn it into compost on site in a relatively short time. It is envisaged that a fully developed and highly efficient in-vessel composting system will provide one of the practical solutions to deal with the tremendous amount of food waste generated and related problems faced by housing-societies, community halls, shopping centers, hotels & restaurants, institutions like universities, colleges and schools etc. The concept of in-vessel composting has a great scope in India because it is simple to use at the backyard; saves lot of space; easy to operate on all weather conditions and easy handling the waste. The whole process is clean and economical, when compared to conventional methods of composting like windrow composting, static pile composting etc. Presently, simple to highly sophisticated in-vessel composting systems are widely used in western countries (Anand et al., 2008).

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The following paper deals with the food waste (garbage) which includes the waste from preparation, cooking and serving of food. Also, market refuse and waste from handling, storage and sale of vegetables are included in this type of waste. The paper proposed designing and testing of actively aerated (forced aeration) compost reactor, production of compost from organic fraction of household waste, analysing the different parameters of the mulch at various stages, aassessing the final product from the reactor in terms of quality and time of maturation and checking the efficiency of the bio-reactor and recommending the changes to improve the same. 2.0 Materials and Methodology 2.1 Materials for composting: The materials required for composting include food waste, vegetable waste and fruit waste. The food waste was collected from the D-mess, V.J.T.I. hostel campus. The vegetable waste and fruit waste were collected from the Matunga market, Mumbai. The materials were shredded to a size of 2-5cm.The materials required for composting are proportioned in such a way so as to match up with house hold kitchen conditions. 2.2 Methodology 2.2.1 Composting Reactor A specially designed composting reactor was applied for food waste composting in this study. The reactor was a bin having 42cm at the top and 35.31cm at the bottom [Figure 1]. The height of the reactor was 47cm. A 6mm thick and 35.0cm diameter acrylic circular plate was placed at the bottom the reactor and a plate of 8mm thickness and 15cm diameter was placed above it at the centre. Acrylic cover of 5mm thickness was placed above the reactor. In the top cover of acrylic material 6 holes of 1.4cm diameter were made, through which aeration pipes were passed for providing aeration. The pipes from top were arranged in such a way that the bottom of alternate pipes were maintained at the level of 10cm and 20cm with respect to the bottom, for providing uniform aeration at different levels. Also a rectangular opening was kept in the cover. A central acrylic rod of 3.5cm diameter was placed with curved blades for efficient mixing process. A handle was provided for rotating the rod. A circular pattern of 4mm diameter holes was provided at the bottom around the central rod for collecting leachate sample from the reactor. A tray was provided to collect the leachate sample coming from the reactor. For providing forced aeration, nebulizer with an air flow rate of 8 litres/minute and an air compressor having the flow rate 2.4m3/hour were used. The reactor was loaded with 1.2 kg of the food waste 4 times a week. Fruit waste and vegetable waste (1.2 kg) were loaded into the reactor once every week. Pre and post loading mixing was done 2-3 times a day. Air was supplied from the 24hours a day, whereas the air compressor supplied air for 4 hours each day.

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Figure 1: Experimental setup for Composting Reactor

3.0 Observations and Results 3.1 Physical and chemical parameters of Compost Effects of loading on different parameter with respect to time were observed and are shown in table 1 (APHA, 1995, CPHEEO, 2000, Iyengar et al., 2006). Table 1: Tabular presentation of physical and chemical parameters Loading Period (days)

Parameters 7

14

21

28

Temperature ( C)

30.10

30

30

pH

4.30

4.70

Moisture content (%)

83.91

Carbon content (%)

54.23

o

Maturation Period (days) 63 70

35

42

49

56

29.23

31.13

31.7

32.8

33.25

33.5

35

4.80

5.30

5.32

5.25

5.10

5.41

4.35

5.17

85.53

85.57

81.52

78.43

75.46

74.40

76.77

72.86

69.63

54.40

39.70

45.35

44.61

47.61

46.69

44.76

42.91

43.98

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3.2 Maturation parameters reading Effects of loading on different maturation parameter with respect to time are shown in table 2. (Riis et al., 1995, Anjum et al., 2005, Spectrophotometer, 2004) Table 2: Tabular presentation of Maturation parameters reading Time after the loading started (Maturation period in days) Parameters 31

45

58

Total Phosphorus (%) 0

Germination Index (%)

58.82

60

65

69

0.735

0.730

1.070

96.55

3.3 Effect of Rise of Temperature Effect of rise of temperature on compost is shown in figure 2. The gradual rise of the temperature shows the growth in the microbial activity and the maturation of the compost. The study carried out shows that the optimum temperature for a composting process is in the range 30-50 oC.

Figure 2: Temperature effect on Compost

As the graph shows, during the initial composting period of about 21 days the temperature almost remained constant. However, due to collection of leachate in the reactor itself, the temperature considerably dipped during 21st - 28th day and continued to be less till the 35th day. Clinical arrangements for leachate removal were done and then again there was a rise in the temperature. This increased temperature results in increased rate of biological activity and hence results in faster stabilization of the material. 3.4 pH pH is one of the important physical parameters in the process of composting and also in the plant growth. The figure3 shows the pH variation during the loading and initial maturation period.

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Figure 3: pH effect on Compost

The variation in the pH is due to the heterogeneous nature of the food waste. The loading included rice, noodles, wheat bread and raw vegetables. Thus, due to variety of wastes loaded the pH varied. On the 60th day, the mixing and aeration were not done deliberately to observe the variation of pH in their absence. 3.5 Moisture Content Water is essential for all microbial activity and should be present in appropriate amounts throughout the composting cycle. Optimal moisture content in the starting material varies and essentially depends on the physical state and size of the particles and on the composting system used. The effect of moisture content on compost shown in figure 4 as below.

Figure 4: Effect of moisture content on compost

Due to increase in the temperature and proper aeration, the moisture content is gradually decreasing. The reduction in the moisture content shows proper aerobic composting process in progress. It is observed that the active composting period occurs when moisture ranges from 45 to 55%. The nature of the graph indicates that optimum moisture content required for the active composting will be achieved in the days to come.

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3.6 Carbon Content Carbon content of compost with respect to time shown in figure 5 as below:

Figure 5: Effect on carbon content in

The above graph trend is decreasing in nature. The loading waste material was rich in carbohydrates. Slowly, due to the degradation of the carbohydrates, the carbon content went on decreasing. 3.7 Germination Index (G. I.) Nature of Germination Index for compost is shown in figure 6 as below:

Figure 6: Variation in Germination Index

As the graph indicates, there has been a continuous increase in the germination index. Higher the germination index better is the compost. This indicates that the process of compost maturation is progressing in the right direction. Thus, at complete maturation, the compost so formed will be suitable to be used as manure.

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Figure 7: Germination Index Test Results

3.8 Total Phosphorous As Phosphorus produces vigorous seed and root system development, it is very important to have it available during early stages of plant development. Compost itself applied to a garden over time, makes it easier for plants to extract phosphorus from the soil. Homemade compost contains 0.5 - 4 per cent phosphorus & as the graph shows continuous increase in the phosphorous level from 0.7 to 1.1.

Figure 8: Variation of Total Phosphorous 762

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It can be concluded that the phosphorous content in the final compost after maturation period will be as per standard requirement and compost will be it as manure for the plants. 4.0 Discussion and Conclusion Actively aerated reactor should be looked as one of the options for processing household waste. In this reactor all sort of household waste which is organic in nature can be used efficiently for composting. The following points regarding the process can be inferred:        

Good quality compost can be prepared from the household organic waste. The reactor produces the compost more rapidly than the other conventional methods. Installing this reactor will reduce the load on the municipal waste processing authorities. Compost which is produced from the reactor can be used for gardening purpose. This compost can be used as substitution for chemical fertilizers. Processing of household waste at household level will reduce the load on municipal dumping grounds. This process of composting converts complex form of organic waste into the stable, simpler and inorganic form which has little pollution effect. Treating household waste in this reactor will reduce the health hazards caused due to pathogens which get formed due to unstable dumping of waste. Production of compost at household level from the household waste can be seen as the source of secondary income.

The current project work has shown that a good quality of compost can be prepared by using this reactor at household level also. Still there is scope of further study in this work which includes:      

Comparative study on rate of composting, quality of compost and cost of processing between the conventional methods of composting and present methodology. Cost estimation for implementing and processing this reactor at household level can be done. Work efficiency of this reactor at different environmental and temperature conditions can be studied. Further modification and improvement in the design and working of this reactor can be done in order to reduce the duration and to improve the quality of compost. Analysis of leachate can be included in the further study. This will help in getting a clear idea of the nature of the leachate. Spreading awareness among the people about such composting processes and approaching them to install such reactors will ultimately produce benefits for the society.

References Ajay S. Kalamdhad, Yatish K. Singh, Muntjeer Ali, Meena Khwairakpam and A. A. Kazmi. (2009) Rotary Drum Composting of Vegetable Waste and Tree Leaves, Bioresource Technology Volume: 100, 24, 6442-6450 Anand M, I.S. Bright Singh, Anushree N S, John. J. Vathikulam, In-Vessel Composting of Food Wastes, (Ed.) S.Jisha, B.Hari & T.K.Remesan, Proc. Nat. Sem. on Env. Biotech. Chall. and Oppor., Envirotech-2008, P.G. Dept. of Zoology, S.N.C. Natiika, pp1-28-38.(School of Environmental Studies, CUSAT, Kochi, E.mail: [email protected] Central Public Health and Environment Engineering Organization (CPHEEO), Government of India, 2000, Manual on Municipal Solid Waste Management, New Delhi, India. James I. Chang and Y.J. Chen (2010), Effects of bulking agents on food waste composting, Bioresource Technology 101 (2010) 5917–5924, published by Elsevier Ltd Mohammed Rihani , Dimitri Malamis, Bouchra Bihaoui , Samira Etahiri , Maria Loizidou and Omar Assobhei, (2010), In-vessel treatment of urban primary sludge by aerobic composting, Bioresource Technology 101 (2010) 5988–5995, Published by Elsevier Ltd. Natural Resource, Agriculture, and Engineering Service (NRAES). 1992. On-farm composting, edited by R. Rynk. Ithaca, USA, NRAES Cooperative Extension.

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Preben Riis, Ella Meiling and Jorgen Peetz (1995), Determination of Germination Percentage and Germination Index—Collaborative trial and Ruggedness Testing, Journal of the Institute of Brewing, May-June, 1995, Vol. 101, pp. 171-173 Spectrophotometer (2004), Procedure Manual (DR/2400), Hach Company Srinath R. Iyengar and Prashant P. Bhave, (2005), In-vessel composting of household wastes, Waste Management, Volume 26, Issue 10, 2006, Pages 1070-1080 Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater :19th Edition 1995, American Public Health Association (APHA), American Water Works Association, Water Environment Federation. Steven H. Atchley and J. B. Clark (1979), Variability of Temperature, pH, and Moisture in an Aerobic Composting Process, Applied and Environmental Microbiology, Dec. 1979, p. 1040-1044, Vol. 38, No. 6 Tehmina Anjum and Rukhsana Bajwa (2005), Importance of Germination Indices in Interpretation of Allelochemical Effects, International Journal of Agriculture & Biology, 1560–8530/2005/07–3–417–419 www.fao.org

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Waste Management & Resource Utilisation www.iswmaw.com

ISWMAW

Composting of Mixed Toxic Weeds Eichhornia Crassipe and Parthenium Hysterophorus Ganesh Chandra Dhal*, Nitesh Kumar Sinha, Devendra Mohan Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology (BHU), Varanasi, India *Corresponding Author: Email- [email protected] ABSTRACT Water-hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) and Congress grass (Partheniumhysterophorus) are two aggressive uncontrolled weeds of tropical and subtropical environments. These are having the high concentration of N, P, K, Zn and Fe that makes them suitable for composting. Composting would be the best alternative way to control and utilization of these weeds green biomass. Studies were carried out on the physico-chemical and biological transformations during agitated pile composting of the harvested biomass with rice husk, Sawdust and cattle manure in different combinations (Trial T1, T2, T3). The maximum temperature of 45 °C during the composting process was monitored in T1 (15 kg-WH, 15 kg-CG, 20 kg-RH, 10 kg- CM). Three different types of compost viz. Waterhyacinth and Parthenium each alone, as well as combined, were prepared. Enzymatic and Biochemical analysis of the compost in addition to seed germination was performed. C/N and C/P ratios, Phenols, organic carbon were found to decrease significantly while N, P, K, polyphenol oxidase increased significantly in combined compost. It can be concluded that combined composting of Water hyacinth and Parthenium not only reduces the allelopathic effect but also increases its nutrient quality and thus it could be promising for organic farming and bioremediation. Keywords: Eichhornia crassipes, Parthenium weed, Composting, Phytotoxicity, Solid waste management; International Society of Waste Management, Air and Water

1.0 Introduction Congress grass (Parthenium hysterophorus L.) is spreading very fast in grassland and pastures and has become an obnoxious weed to human all around the world. It is also observed on roadsides & wastelands. It shows two distinct phases in life: juvenile and adult. In juvenile stage plant, small leaves lack in flowering (figure 1.1(a)). Larger and lower leaves lies on the ground like a carpet, without allowing any vegetation underneath (Lakshmi and Srinivas, 2007).The adult stage is erect, much branched with deep tap root system that reaches up to 2 m in height (Figure 1.1(b)). It can tolerate drought condition also to a certain extend under favorable conditions. It has an annual to semi-perennial growth habit. It germinates in spring or early summer, produces flowers and seeds throughout its life and dies near late autumn (Adkins et al., 1996).It is a very prolific seed producer, producing up to 25,000 seeds/plant, leading to large seed bank in the soil (Javaid and Adrees, 2009). It is also reported that congress grass has the remarkable power of regeneration. Parthenium is an exotic weed comes under Asteraceae family; accidentally introduce in India in 1955 in Pune through the imported food grains (Dhawan and Dhawan, 1996). Present, it has occupied 765

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almost all parts of India and is attracting of all (Dhawan and Dhawan, 1996). It is ranked among the top ten of the world's notorious weed floras (Mishra et al., 2012) and has invaded nearly 30 countries where it destroyed the natural diversity and productivity of their agro-ecosystems (Everist, 1988; Shabbir andBajwa, 2007; Nigatu et al., 2010). In India, Parthenium was reported to cause 40% losses in yield of agricultural crops (Khosla and Sobti, 1981). Its rapid spread from non-crop areas to cultivated fields becomes the nightmare for farmers and researchers. This plant has been described as allergenic due to the presence of parthenin and other sesquiterpene lactones (Maishi et al., 1998). The reports about its human (Wiesner et al., 2007) and animal (Chippendale and Panetta, 1994) health related issues are also available.

Figure 1: (a) Parthenium hysterophorus L. and (b) Eichhornia crassipes

1.2 Water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) The water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) is a free floating aquatic weed originated in the 23.15% wetland area of the north east region of India, where it was kept under control by natural predators (Abbasi, 1998; Husain, 2003). Due to its fast growth and the robustness of its seeds, the water hyacinth has since then caused major problems in the whole area, e.g., a reduction of fish. Other effects of the fast growth are physical interference with fishing, obstruction of shipping routes and losses of water in irrigation systems due to higher evaporation and interference with hydroelectric schemes and increased sedimentation by trapping silt particles. It also restricts the possibilities of fishing from the shore with baskets or lines (Aweke, 1993) and can cause hygienic problems (Abdelhamid and Gabr, 1991). Water hyacinth also has advantages in many ways. It functions as a food source for aquatic bio-phages, water currents controls, purifies turbid water through sedimentation and sorption and reduces pollutants through absorption of minerals (Baruah, 1984). At an average annual productivity of 50 dry (ash-free) tons per hectare per year, water hyacinth is one of the most productive plants in the world (Abbasi and Nipaney, 1986; Abbasi and Ramasamy, 1999). This attribute helps the weed to cover water surfaces faster than most other plants. Such colonization of wetlands leads to rapid decline of the quantity and the quality of water contained in the wetlands, eventually causing the loss of the wetlands. Attempts to control the weed have caused high costs and labor requirements, leading to nothing but temporary removal of the water hyacinths. Since the most favorable conditions for the growth of the water hyacinth often are found in developing countries, very limited resources have been put into curbing them. Fighting the water hyacinth generates neither food nor income, and the weeds are therefore left to cover the lakes. Fast growth is a feature valued in crops grown by man. The water hyacinth would, therefore, have a great potential if seen as raw material for industries or if incorporated into agricultural practice (Gunnarsson and Petersen, 2007). 1.1 Effects on Human Beings and Animals The susceptible people exposed to parthenium often develop symptoms of general illness, allergy and asthma (Wiesner et al., 2007).The pollen grains, airborne dried plant parts, and roots of parthenium cause various allergies like contact dermatitis, hay fever, asthma, and bronchitis in human beings (Sharma et al, 2012).

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Parthenium weed is toxic to animals causing dermatitis with pronounced skin lesions on various animals including horses and cattle. If eaten, it is responsible for mouth ulcers with excessive salivation. A Significant amount (10–50%) of this weed in the diet can kill cattle (Narasimhan, et al., 1977). In addition, it causes anorexia, pruritus, alopecia, diarrhea, and eye irritation in dogs. It also causes acute illness, when bittermilk and tainted meat from buffaloes, cows, and goats, are fed on grass mixed with parthenium (Aneja A.R, 1991). The parthenium extract results in significant reduction of rat WBC count which signifies its immune system weakening ability (Yadav and Saha, 2010).

Figure 2: Dermatitis due to parthenium

2.0 Materials and Methodology 2.1 Raw material The materials were mainly composed of a mixture of weeds and straw, cow dung, saw dust and P. hysterophorus were collected from local area BHU campus and Fresh Eichhornia crassipes were collected from a natural wetland infested with water hyacinth. These weeds were chopped into small pieces (nearly 1cm to 3cm). 2.2 Agitated Composting The different waste combinations were formed into trapezoidal piles of length 2100 mm, base width 350 mm, top width 100 mm and height 250 mm, having the length to base width (L/W) ratio of 6 (Singh and Kalamdhad, 2015) as shown in Fig.3. Agitated piles contained approximately 100 Kg (AC1 and VC) and 60 Kg (AC2) of different waste combinations and were manually turned on 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18, 21 days. Composting period of total 21 days was decided for agitated pile composting. The samples from the piles were collected after mixing the whole pile thoroughly by hand; when the piles were made (0 days); piles were turned. Homogenized sample was collected from five different locations within the piles. The sample is oven dried, grinded, sieved from 300 microns IS sieve and stored in a tight box for further physico-chemical analysis (before evaluating moisture content).

Figure 3: (a) schematic design and (b) real pile Composting 767

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Table 1: Waste composition and characteristics of four mixtures Aerobic composting (AC1)

Vermicomposting (VC)

Aerobic composting (AC2)

Parthenium (P)

30 Kg

30 Kg

15 Kg

Water hyacinth (WH)

30 Kg

30 Kg

15 Kg

Cow dung (CD)

30 Kg

30 Kg

15 Kg

Saw dust (SD)

10 Kg

10 Kg

15 Kg

Proportions

3:3:3:1

3:3:3:1

1:1:1:1

Feedstock material

3.0 Results and Discussion 3.1 Initial Characteristics of Waste Materials Adaptation of different level of treatment/composting is accomplished, only after material characterization which further depends on nature of the wastes produced. This section deals with the initial characterization of parthenium, water hyacinth, cow dung saw dust. The physico chemical properties of Parthenium hysterophorus L. (P), water hyacinth (WH), saw dust (SD), cow dung (CD) is enlisted in table 1. 3.2 Moisture Content Results indicated higher moisture content in parthenium (74.48%) water hyacinth (89.14%) and cow dung (78.5%) compared to saw dust (39%). However, the composting process required 40-70% of initial moisture content for proper microbial growth for degradation. Due to higher moisture content in water hyacinth and cattle manure (Fig. 4.), some amount of saw dust also required to maintaining the optimize moisture content.

Figure 4: Moisture content, pH, EC and Ash contents of various waste materials 768

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4.1.2 pH Figure 4.2 indicated higher pH in saw dust (5.5) and cow dung (7.6) compared to parthenium (4.65) and water hyacinth (4.48). The pH of water hyacinth ranges normally in between 6-8, depends on the water quality; and generally, lower pH of was observed in the crop weed and wetland weed. 4.1.3 Electrical Conductivity (EC) Higher EC in parthenium (9.55) and water hyacinth (7.61 dS/m) were observed compared to cow dung (4.55 dS/m) and saw dust (0.42 dS/m) Results indicated higher ion concentration in parthenium compared to others (Fig. 4.3). 4.1.4 Ash Contents The non-volatile inorganic matter of a compound remains same after subjecting it to a high decomposition temperature (550oC). The experiment shows that ash content of has less in saw dust as compared to other (Figure 4). 4.1.5 Nutrients Figure 5 illustrates the concentration of the macronutrients such as total K, Na, Ca and Fe in all four feedstock for composting. These nutrients are used as mineral fertilizers in the compost. Higher nutrient concentration was observed in parthenium and water hyacinth compared to saw dust and cow dung expects the concentration of Iron (Fe). Hence, cattle manure is the best option for composting in combination with parthenium and water hyacinth.

Figure 5: Nutrients (Na, K, Ca, Fe) concentration of various waste materials 769

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Trace Elements Total concentrations of regulated trace elements (Pb, Cd, Mn, Zn and As) in the raw feedstock are shown in Fig.6 and 7. Many of these elements are actually needed by plants for normal growth, though in limited quantities. Certain trace elements are not biodegradable and become toxic at some concentration, therefore, measuring the concentration of these elements can provide fertilizer requirements of plants.

Figure 6: Trace elements (Zn, Mn, As, Cd) concentration of various waste materials

Figure 7: Lead concentration of various waste materials

4.2.1 Temperature Evaluation The temperature determines the rate at which many of the biological processes take place and plays a selective role on evolution and succession on the microbiological communities (Hassen, 2001). The variation in temperature of composting material with time is illustrated in Fig.8. VC reached 56oC (maximum in all 3 trials) and enters into thermophilic phase after 1 days indicating the establishment of microbial activities. Higher rise in temperature at the beginning of composting was attributed to the higher 770

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content of easily biodegradable carbon. Afterwards, cooling period was observed until the end of the composting process. In AC1, the initial temperature was 25.8oC which further increased up to 53oC. However, AC2 observed a maximum temperature of the only 43oC. This was due to the low amount of parthenium and water hyacinth as compared to cattle manure, which did not provide favorable conditions for growth and biological activity of microorganisms.

Figure 8: Temperature of compost mixtures

5.1 Conclusions      

The moisture contents of PH (74.48%) and WH (89.14%) were quite high and therefore the addition of saw dust (39%) was found to be appropriate. The optimum range of initial moisture content for compost is 40-70%, which was just exceeded in case of VC, AC1. Higher concentration of ions, i.e., nutrients and trace elements were observed in PH, WH, and CD, which resulted in higher values of the related values of electrical conductivity. Higher temperature in VC (56oC) was observed as compared to AC1 (53oC) and AC2 (43oC). For the best results, the temperature should be maintained between 50oC and 55oC for the first few days (Tchobanoglous et al., 1977), which could be achieved in VC and AC1. Percentage decrease in moisture content was observed to be higher in AC1 (36.82%) than in other cases. The final moisture content was found to be about 42% (optimum is 50-60%). Lower initial values of pH (VC-5.96, AC1-5.99, and AC2-6.17) were observed in all trials due to higher amounts of PH and WH and this increased to VC-7.12, AC1-7.14, and AC2-7.2. The Optimum range of pH is 6-8 and it should not be greater than 8 to minimize the loss of ammonia. Relatively lower values of final EC, TOC and C/N ratio (less than 20) suggested an agricultural value of the compost as the soil conditioner (in VC) and it may be inferred to be the best method for control of PH and WH.

References Abdelhamid, A.M., Gabr, A.A., (1991), ―Evaluation of water hyacinth as feed for ruminants‖ Archives of Animal Nutrition (Archiv fuer Tiererna¨hrung) 41, 745-756. Aweke, G., (1993), ―The water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes), In: Ethiopia.Bulletin des se´ances. Acade´mie royale des Sciences d‘outre-mer‖ Brussels 39 (3), 399-404. Bernal, M.P., Alburquerque, J.A., Moral, R., (2009), ―Composting of animal manures and chemical criteria for compost maturity assessment‖ A review. Bioresour.Technol. 100, 5444-5453. Chippendale, J.F., Panetta, F.D., (1994),‖The cost of parthenium weed to the Queensland cattle industry‖, Plant Protection Quart. 9, 73-76. Dhal, G.C., Singh, W.R., Khwairakpam, M., Kalamdhad, A.S., 2012. Composting of water hyacinth using saw dust/rice straw as a bulking agent. International Journal of Environmental Sciences, 2(3), 1223-1238 Dhal, G.C., Singh, W.R., Kalamdhad, A.S., 2011. Agitated pile composting of water hyacinth. Proc. 2011 International Conference on Environmental Science and Development, 7-9 January, Mumbai, India (IEEE Catalog Number: CFP1115M-PRT, ISBN: 978-1-4244-9235-0) Dhawan, S.R. and Dhawan, P, (1996), ―Regeneration in parthenium hysterophorus L.‖, World Weeds, 244-249. 771

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Gajalakshmi, S., Ramasamy, E.V., Abbasi, S.A., (2001b) ―Assessment of sustainable vermiconversion of water hyacinth at different reactor efficiencies employing Eudriluseugeniae, Kinberg‖, Bioresource Technology 80, 131-135. Geeta, G.S., Jagadeesh, K.S., Reddy, T.K.R., (2013), ―Nickel as an accelerator of biogas production in water hyacinth (Eichornia crassipes Solms.)‖, 1990, Biomass 21,157-161. Goswami, T., Saikia, C. N., (1994), ―Water hyacinth- a potential source of raw material for greaseproof paper‖, Bioresource Technology 50, 235-238. Gupta, R., Mutiyar, P.K., Rawat, N.K., Saini, M.S., Garg, V.K., (2005), ―Development of a water hyacinth based vermireactor using an epigeic earthworm Eisenia foetida‖, BioresourceTechnology 98, 2605-2610.

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Waste Management & Resource Utilisation www.iswmaw.com

ISWMAW

An Integrated Approach for Utilizing Tannery Solid Waste in Multiple Applications Pawan Kumar Bharti*, R.S. Haldar, A.K. Tyagi R&D Division, Shriram Institute for Industrial Research, Delhi, India *Corresponding Author: Email- [email protected] ABSTRACT Due to industrialization, quantity of solid waste generated from industrial operations is increasing day by day causing pollution to the environment. Leather processing industries are not exception to this. Tanneries generate considerable amount of solid wastes comprising a portion of hazardous materials which is a threat to modern society. The industrial tanning of leather produces considerable amounts of solid wastes and liquid effluents and raises many concerns regarding the environmental effects and escalating landfill costs. These disposal problems are increasingly becoming a hindrance to this industrial activity, suggesting the need for alternative methods of residue disposal and their effective utilization. In the present study, an integrated strategy is framed up for turning tannery wastes into several valuable resources. Energy is produced from tannery waste in the form of biogas and compost from degradable fraction of the waste. Activated carbon is manufactured from solid tannery waste for use as adsorption media. Besides these, a soilless media for growing plants as well as hollow blocks for pavements are developed from the tannery waste. Keywords: Tannery waste, waste utilization, compost, biogas, activated carbon, soilless media for plants; International Society of Waste Management, Air and Water.

1.0 Introduction The leather tanning industry is one of the oldest and fastest growing industries in South and South East Asia. There are more than 3000 tanneries located in India with a total processing capacity of 700,000 tons of hides and skins per year. Tannery clusters in India are mainly located in four states, namely, Tamil Nadu, West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh and Punjab. The global tanning industry generates 4 million tonnes of solid waste per year. As the economic and environmental costs of tannery waste disposal and the cost associated with the use of fossil fuels to generate energy from these wastes continue to be spiral and the search for viable alternative waste solutions becomes increasingly critical. The present proposal deals with the disposal of solid waste generated from leather processing industries including the discarded reverse osmosis (RO) rejects by means of utilizing its various valuable constituents. Our approach is an integrated system of disposal of tannery wastes comprising utilization of various valuable ingredients of the disposables generating certain value added products. Our efforts are multidimensional as we are interested to utilize maximum possible quantity of the waste to generate multiple products to be utilized in various sectors including power, agriculture, horticulture, construction, and water purification. We have proposed here to work on the 774

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disposition of common tannery wastes including RO rejects along with utilization of its valuable ingredients to the tune of a pilot plant operation. Once the operation is stabilized by means of optimization of operating parameters in order to maximum utilization of valuable constituent materials of the tannery disposables, the same methodology can be scaled up to the commercial capacity. Various research works have been carried out in different countries on various aspects of waste utilization of tannery waste. Hughes (1988) described the disposal of leather tanning wastes by land treatment in a review. Imai and Okamura (1991) made some studies on incineration of chrome leather waste. Alves et al. (1991) emphasized on utilization of leather waste especially animal feedstuff from chrome shavings. Taylor et al. (1991) find out the efficiency of enzymic solubility of chrome shaving as influence by choice of alkalinity-inducing agent. Heidemann (1991) explained the disposal and recycling techniques of chrome tanned materials. Veeger (1993) pointed out some ecological procedure to solve the tannery waste problems. Simeonova and Dalev (1996) emphasized on the utilization of a leather industry waste in different ways. Brown et al. (1996) find out the production and potential uses of co-product from solid tannery waste. Taylor et al. (1997) made a study on extraction of value added byproducts from the treatment of chromium containing collagenous leather industry waste. Cabeza et al. (1998) explained the processing of leather waste and carried out pilot scale studies on chrome shavings-isolation of potentially valuable protein products and chromium. Bajza and Vrček (2001) worked on thermal and enzymatic recovering of proteins from untanned leather waste. Kowaslki and Walawska (2001) described the utilization of tannery wastes for the production of sodium chromate. Mu et al. (2003) presented a strategy towards zero discharge of chromium-containing leather waste through improved alkali hydrolysis. Li et al. (2006) highlighted the phosphate removal from aqueous solutions using raw and activated red mud and fly ash. Luiz et al. (2006) used solid waste from leather industry as adsorbent of organic dyes in aqueous-medium. Yilmaz et al. (2007) emphasized on conversion of leather wastes to useful products. Ozgunay et al. (2007) worked on characterization of leather industry wastes. Oliveira et al. (2007) utilized the solid waste from leather industry as adsorbent of organic dyes in aqueous-medium. Oliveira et al. (2008) performed the preparation of activated carbon from leather waste, which was a new material containing small particle of chromium oxide. Tahiri and de la Guardia (2009) made a review on treatment and valorization of leather industry solid wastes. Wang et al. (2009) explained a novel way of transformation of tannery waste to environmentally friendly formaldehyde scavenger. Gil et al. (2009) explained the valorization of solid wastes from the leather industry and emphasized on preparation of activated carbon by thermochemical processes. This study has been conducted to establish conditions for the pyrolysis of leather wastes (LW) in order to recover gas and condensable fractions. The pyrolized sample was later activated by means of alkaline hydroxides in order to develop its porous structure. The activated carbons prepared are microporous with specific surface area values up to 2700 m2/g. Mohamed and Kassem (2010) pointed out the utilization of waste leather shavings as filler in paper making. Famielec and Krystyna (2011) explained the nature and conditions of waste materials from leather industry and highlighted the associated threat to the environment. Jing et al. (2011) explained ecological methods of utilization of leather tannery waste with circular economy model. Paul et al. (2013) indicated towards zero solid waste and focused on utilizing tannery waste as a protein source for poultry feed. Hasnat et al. (2013) made a study for the assessment of environmental impact for tannery industries in Bangladesh. Many Indian researchers are also engaged in the utilization of leather tannery waste in different applications. Reddy et al. (1977) proposed conceptual modeling of non-point source pollution from land areas receiving animal wastes with special reference to nitrogen transformations. Nair et al. (1985) highlighted the bacterial accumulation of chromium in tannery waste. Prasad et al. (1987) presented a critical review on prospects for chromium management in tanneries. Ramasami and Prasad (1991) highlighted the environmental aspects of leather processing. Warrier et al. (1995) explained the safe utilisation of chrome containing sludges in brick making. Ramasami (1996) pointed out the greening of chrome tanning in Indian leather industry. Sekaran et al. (1998) emphasized on characterization and utilisation of buffing dust generated by the leather industry. Dasgupta (1998) focused on minimising the environmental impact of chrome tanning with special reference to the thrublu process. Chakraborty and Sarkar (1998) explained the enzyme hydrolysis of solid 775

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tannery wastes and stated solid state enzyme production. Rao et al. (1999) focused on some strategies towards mitigation of pollution from tanneries in a review. Chakraborty et al. (1999) find out the effect of detanning agents on the utilisation of tannery wastes. Muralidharan et al. (2001) explained a new approach for chrome management which was based on two stage tanning. Suresh et al. (2001) focused on an improved product-process for cleaner chrome tanning in leather processing. Rao et al. (2002) highlighted the green route for the utilization of chrome shavings (chromium-containing solid waste) in tanning industry. Sandeep et al. (2003) studied on the performance of waste activated carbon as a low-cost adsorbent for the removal of anionic surfactant from aquatic environment. Rao et al. (2004) performed some tanning studies with basic chromium sulfate prepared using chrome shavings as a reductant. It was a model for ‗wealth from waste‘ approach to the tanning industry. Saha et al. (2005) gave the status of waste leather in India and proposed an integrated business with value creation opportunities. Fathima et al. (2005) studied on adsorption of chromium (VI) by iron complexed protein waste, in which solid waste removes toxic liquid waste. Kanagraj et al. 2006) explained the solid waste generation in the leather industry and its utilization for cleaner environment. Vasudevan and Ravindran (2007) invented a biotechnological process for the treatment of fleshing from tannery industries for methane generation. Fathima et al. (2009) emphasized on utilization of organically stabilized proteinous solid waste for the treatment of coloured waste-water. Saravanan et al. (2010) explained a cleaner leather manufacturing process using enzymes. Fathima et al. (2011) used stabilized protein waste as a source for removal of color from wastewaters. Nishad et al. (2012) gave a new holistic paradigm for tannery solid waste to treat toxic liquid wastes. This work presents an overview of the solid wastes emanating from tanneries and the various disposal methods practiced with special emphasis on the utilization of these wastes to treat toxic liquid pollutants. Puri et al. (2013) emphasized on the utilization of recycled wastes as ingredients in concrete mix. Pati and Chaudhary (2013) made some studies on the generation of biogas from collagen hydrolysate obtained from chrome shavings by alkaline hydrolysis and gave a greener disposal method. In this work, proteinous matter recovered from chrome shaving through chemical process was feed to the anaerobic digester to generate biogas. Two different modes of alkaline chromed shaving dust hydrolysis i.e. using lime and KOH followed by neutralization with HCl and H3PO4 subsequently. The Full scale investigations conducted to evaluate the performance of anaerobic digestion of collagen hydrolysate. Recently, few research groups have worked on various aspects of solid waste management, handling and utilization and suggest various value added products from solid waste. Bharti (2007); Sharma et al., (2011); Bharti (2012); Bharti and Gajananda (2013); Bharti and Haldar (2014); Bharti (2015); Bharti et al., (2015a); Bharti et al., (2015b) have also carried out various studies and filed some patents. 2.0 Objective The objective of the present study is to frame up strategies for turning tannery wastes into worthy resources like production of biogas, compost, activated carbon, hollow bricks and soilless growing media in horticulture and to develop a technology for 100 % utilization of tannery solid waste. 3.0 Methodology However, many standard methodologies are recommended for the solid waste management and handling studies, but we are following our self developed and patented methodology. The strategy of our work includes the specific work elements as described in the standard protocol given by Bharti and Haldar (2014). The tannery solid waste was segregated and utilized as per their characteristics. Whether this is degradable and able to produce biogas, it is to be utilizing in that purpose. Otherwise, most inert and less degradable portion is to be utilized accordingly. 3.1 Procedure The entire process of utilizing tannery solid waste is given in the following points: 1) Tannery waste including shaving, trimming and buffing from various sources was mixed and homogenized in order to results a uniform solid waste. 776

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2) The homogenized waste on storage was evolved a mixture of energy rich gases, e.g. methane, ammonia and hydrogen sulfide, which can be collected and used as fuel like biogas. 3) The mixed waste was pyrolysed at a temperature of 800 ºC in an inert and closed atmosphere. As a result of pyrolysis of mixed solid waste, flue gases (CO2 and CO) are liberated living a carbonaceous residue (char) behind. Energy of flue gases can be recovered and utilized 4) The carbonaceous Char as generated above is to be impregnated with certain activating agents like ZnCl2, H3PO4, KOH, NaOH, etc. followed by heating at 750ºC to yield activated carbon, a valuable agent for water purification. 5) A portion of the homogenized tannery waste mixed with RO reject was utilized to make following important products after removal of chromium salts:   

Compost; mixing with biodegradable domestic wastes to use as fertilizer in agriculture Hollow bricks; mixing with concrete to use in construction Soil less media for plants; treating with tropical peat to use in horticulture

3.2 Process Flow chart Schematic representation of the method/design is as follow:

RO Reject

Leather Tannery Solid Waste Fleshing

+ Shaving/Buffing dust

50-60%

Fleshin g

35-40%

Shavin g

Adding cow dung & Leaf litter

LB

Flue Gas

5-7 %

Shaving

Trimmi ng G

LB

Heat Treatment Compost

Energy

Buffin g

Activated Carbon

Hair s

FB

Pyrolysi s

Chemical Treatment

+ Hairs 2-5%

Segregation

Char

BioGas

+ Trimming

Non-degradable waste

Adding Tropical peat

Mortar

Treatme nt

Compact packets

Soil less media for Plants

Hollow Bricks

LB

Chromed portion of shaving waste along with some trimming waste can be utilized to make leather boards

FB

A significant portion of buffing waste can be utilized as fuel for boilers

G

A significant portion of trimming waste can be utilized to make Glue

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4.0 Utilization of waste Tannery waste is dangerous to environment and is not being utilized in effective way in the country. It is a matter of great importance to utilize this tannery in some useful applications. Tannery waste as raw material for the proposed work is available in many states of India in plenty. It can be achieved at very low cost and can be utilized for the welfare of environment also. The outcomes of proposed study will give benefits to human society as well as will conserve the environment. Raw material used for the production of biogas, compost, development of activated carbon, preparation of soilless media for plants will be waste materials originating from leather tanneries, which is available in plenty. Therefore the developed products are cheaper. As the developed products are ecofriendly, its end use will reduce the environmental burden because it will get degraded after utilization. As this integrated utilization scheme is not adopted in the country and development of an integrated process for multiple uses of tannery solid waste is an original concept and patented by Bharti and Haldar, (2014). The similar model has been proposed by Jing et al, (2011) on the Ecological utilization of leather tannery waste with circular economy model. 5.0 Outcomes The following process/techniques/product can be developed from this strategy: 1) Multiple useful products (More than five) from tannery solid waste as given below: a) Compost (manure) for agriculture use, which is prepared using fleshing and shaving (degradable portion of tannery solid waste), when mixed with cow dung and leaf litter in appropriate ratio. b) Energy in the form of biogas, which is evolved from the decomposition of biodegradable portion of tannery solid waste. c) Activated charcoal is achieved through pyrolysis process and chemical treatment by an activating agent and followed by heat treatment at high temperature. Trimming portion of tannery solid waste is to be pyrolysed at a temperature of 800-850ºC in an inert and closed atmosphere. As a result of pyrolysis of mixed solid waste, flue gases (CO2 and CO) are liberated living a carbonaceous residue (char) behind. Energy of flue gases can be recovered and utilized. The carbonaceous Char as generated above will be impregnated with certain activating agents like ZnCl 2, H3PO4, KOH, NaOH, etc. followed by heating at 750ºC to yield activated carbon, a valuable adsorbing agent for water purification. d) Soilless media for plants is prepared from buffing dust and adding tropical peat into it. e) Hollow bricks/blocks are prepared by adding most inert/useless portion of tannery solid waste inside the concrete blocks. f) Beside these, Chromed portion of shaving waste along with some trimming waste can be utilized to make leather boards. A significant portion of buffing waste can be utilized as fuel for boilers and a significant portion of trimming waste can be utilized to make Glue. 2) Process for 100% utilization of tannery solid waste in making various useful products. 3) No dumping and land-filling is required for tannery waste, as the complete waste is utilized for making valuable products. Hence, this will help to conserve the environment and minimizing pollution. 4) A process in which bio-degradable as well as non-degradable portions are completely utilized and nothing is remnant. 5) An eco-friendly process of waste management, where waste can be converted into worthy resources and no solid waste remains at dumping sites. 6.0 Conclusion In the recent developmental era, generation of solid waste is a big problem. Proper disposal of this waste is extremely required to protect the environmental components. The recycling of waste materials can also combat against pollution. It is necessary to find out the latest techniques to maximize the recycling and utilization of waste materials in various useful applications. Hence, it will be the best solution to utilize waste in multidisciplinary manner to develop some useful products from it like biogas, compost, activated carbon and soilless media for plants. 778

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Industries working in the field of waste management can utilize the results of the proposed work. Biogas producing and compost making industries can also get benefitted with the outcome of the study. The developed technology for integrated utilization of tannery waste & production of biogas, compost, activated carbon & soilless media for plants will be scaled-up before commercialization. Initially the process for production of biogas and compost and development of activated carbon & soil less media for plants can be executed at laboratory scale. During the scale-up studies the design parameter for technology will be taken care. References Alves D, Reis, M and Beleza, V (1991) Utilization of leather waste: animal feedstuff from chrome shavings, part I. J. Am. Leather. Chem. As. 75: 15-19. Bajza, Ţ and Vrček, V (2001) Thermal and enzymatic recovering of proteins from untanned leather waste. Waste Manage. 21: 79-84. Bharti, PK (2007) Why are Indian standards not so strict?, Current Science, 93(9): 1202. Bharti, PK (2012) Solid Waste and River Ecology, Lambert Academic Publishing GmbH & Co. KG, Saarbrucken, Germany, pp: 65 (ISBN: 978-3-659-12852-3). Bharti, PK (2015) Solid Waste Management at Indian Research Stations over East Antarctica, In: Waste Disposal and Management (Eds.- Bharti, P. K.; Tabassum, B. and Bajaj, P.), Discovery Publishing House, Delhi, pp: 1-17 (ISBN: 978-93-5056-729-6). Bharti, PK and Gajananda, Kh (2013) Environmental Health and Problems, Discovery Publishing House, Delhi, pp: 210 (ISBN: 93-5056-263-4). Bharti, PK and Haldar, RS (2014) A process to utilize 100% tannery solid waste, No.-3851/DEL/2014. Bharti, PK, Sharma, B, Pal, N, Singh, RK and Niyogi, UK (2015) Environmental monitoring at Maitri Station, East Antarctica, In: Environment and Chemistry (Eds.- Kumar, S. and Vandana), Campus Books International, Delhi, pp: 1-17 (ISBN: 978-81-8030-432-3). Bharti, PK, Tabassum, B and Bajaj, P (2015) Waste Disposal and Management, Discovery Publishing House, Delhi, pp: 202 (ISBN: 978-93-5056-729-6). Brown, EM, Taylor, MM and Marmer, WN (1996) Production and potential uses of co-product from solid tannery waste. J. Am.. Leather. Chem. As., 91: 270-276. Cabeza, LF, Taylor, MM, Dimaio, GL, Brown, EM, Marmer, WN, Carrió, R, Celma, PJ and Cot, J (1998) Processing of leather waste: pilot scale studies on chrome shavings-isolation of potentially valuable protein products and chromium. Waste Manage., 18: 211-218. Chakraborty S, Bhoumik H, Mondal C and Biswas K. (1999) Effect of detanning agents on the utilisation of tannery wastes. In: Science and technology for leather into the next millennium. Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company, New Delhi, pp: 484-88. Chakraborty, R and Sarkar, SK (1998) Enzyme hydrolysis of solid tannery wastes: solid state enzyme production. J. Soc. Leather Technol. Chem. 82: 56. Dasgupta, S (1998) Minimising the environmental impact of chrome tanning: the thrublu process. J Soc Leather Technol Chem; 82: 15-21. Famielec, S and Krystyna, WC (2011) Waste from leather industry: Threat to the environment, Biblioteka Cyfrowa Politechniki Krakowskiej, 108(8): 43-48. Fathima, NN, Aravindhan, R, Rao, JR and Nair, BU (2009) Utilization of organically stabilized proteinous solid waste for the treatment of coloured waste-water. J. Chem. Technol. Biotech., 84: 1338. Fathima, NN, Aravindhan, R, Rao, JR and Nair, BU (2011) Stabilized protein waste as a source for removal of color from wastewaters. J. Appl. Polym. Sci., 120: 1397. Fathima, NN, Aravindhan, R, Rao, JR, and Nair, BU (2005) Solid waste removes toxic liquid waste: Adsorption of chromium (VI) by iron complexed protein waste. Environ. Sci. Technol. 39: 2804. Gil, RR, Girón, RP, Ruiz, B., Lozano, M.S., Martín, M.J. and Fuente, E. (2009) Valorization of solid wastes from the leather industry: Preparation of Activated Carbon by thermo-chemical processes. 1st Spanish National Conference on Advances in Materials Recycling and Eco-Energy, Madrid, 12-13 November 2009 S01-7. Hasnat, A, Rahman, I. and Pasha, M (2013) Assessment of Environmental Impact for Tannery Industries in Bangladesh, Int. J. of Environmental Science and Development, 4(2): 217-220. Heidemann, E (1991) Disposal and recycling of chrome tanned materials. J Am Leather Chem Assoc.; 86: 331-33. Hughes, JC (1988) The disposal of leather tanning wastes by land treatment: A review. Soil Use Manag., 4: 107-111. Imai, T and Okamura, H (1991) Studies on incineration of chrome leather waste. The Journal of the American Leather Chemists Association. 86: 281-294. Jing H, Zuobing X, Zhou, R, Deng, W, Wang, M and Ma, S. (2011) Ecological utilization of leather tannery waste with circular economy model, Journal of Cleaner Production, 19 (2–3): 221–228. 779

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Kanagraj, J, Velappen, KC, Chandra Babu, NK and Sadulla, S (2006) Solid waste generation in the leather industry and its utilization for cleaner environment – A review, Journal of Scientific and Industrial Research, 65: 541-548. Kowaslki, Z and Walawska, B (2001) Utilization of tannery wastes for the production of sodium chromate. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 40: 826-832. Li, YZ, Liu, CJ, Luan, ZK, Peng, XJ, Zhu, CL, Chen, ZY, Zhang, ZG, Fan, JH and Jia, ZP (2006) Phosphate removal from aqueous solutions using raw and activated red mud and fly ash. J. Hazardous Mater. 137: 374-383. Luiz, CA, Oliveira, M. Goncalves, Diana QL Oliveira, Mario C Guerreiro, Luiz RG Guilherme and Dallago, RM (2006) Solid waste from leather industry as adsorbent of organic dyes in aqueous-medium, J. Hazardous Mater. doi:10.1016/j.jhazmat.2006.06.111. Mohamed, OA and Kassem, NF (2010) Utilization of waste leather shavings as filler in paper making. J. Appl. Polym. Sci., 118: 1713–1719. doi: 10.1002/app.32315. Mu, CD, Lin, W, Zhang, MR and Zhu, QS (2003) Towards zero discharge of chromium-containing leather waste through improved alkali hydrolysis. Waste Manage., 23: 835-843. Muralidharan C, Sundar VJ, Rao VSS and Ramasami T. (2001) Two stage tanning- a new approach for chrome management. J Am Leather Chem Assoc; 96: 61-66. Nair S, Ramasami T and Krishnamoorthy VS. (1985) Bacterial accumulation of chromium. Leather Sci.; 32: 88-90. Nishad, F, Rao R and Nair, BU (2012) Tannery solid waste to treat toxic liquid wastes: A new holistic paradigm, Environmental Engineering Science, 29(6): 363-372. Oliveira, LCA, Goncalves, M, Oliveira, DQL, Guerreiro, MC, Guilherme, LRG, and Dallago, RM (2007) Solid waste from leather industry as adsorbent of organic dyes in aqueous-medium. J. Hazard. Mater. 141: 344. Oliveira, LCA, Guerreiro, MC, Goncalves, M, Oliveira, DQL, and Costa, LCM (2008) Preparation of activated carbon from leather waste: A new material containing small particle of chromium oxide. Mater. Lett., 62: 3710. Ozgunay, H; Colak, S, Mutlu, MM and Akyuz, F. (2007) Characterization of Leather Industry Wastes. Polish J. of Environ. Stud., 16(6): 867-873. Pati, A. and Chaudhary, R (2013) Studies on the generation of biogas from collagen hydrolysate obtained from chrome shavings by alkaline hydrolysis: A greener disposal method, Research Journal of Recent Sciences (ISSN 2277-2502), 2: 234-240. Paul, H, Antunes, APM. Covington, AD, Evans, P and Phillips, PS (2013) Towards zero solid waste: utilizing tannery waste as a protein source for poultry feed. Paper presented to: 28th International Conference on Solid Waste Technology and Management, Philadelphia, PA, USA, 10-13 March 2013. Philadelphia USA: The Journal of Solid Waste Technology and Management. ISSN: 1091-8043. Prasad BGS, Chandrasekaran B, Rao JR, Chandrababu NK, Kanthimathi M and Ramasami T. (1987) Prospects for chromium management in tanneries: a critical review. Leather Sci; 34:132-48. Puri, N, Kumar, B, Tyagi, H (2013) Utilization of recycled wastes as ingredients in concrete mix. International Journal of Innovative Technology and Exploring Engineering, 2 (2): 74-78. Ramasami T and Prasad BGS (1991) Environmental aspects of leather processing. Proc. LEXPO XV, Calcutta, India. Ramasami, T (1996) Greening of chrome tanning in Indian leather industry. ILIFO J Cleaner Tanning; 1(2): 12-14. Rao JR, Sreeram KJ, Nair BU, Ramasami T (1999) Some strategies towards mitigation of pollution from tanneries: a review. In: Advances in industrial wastewater treatment (Goel PK, editor). Technoscience Publications, Jaipur, India, pp: 135-52. Rao JR, Thanikaivelan P, Sreeram KJ and Nair BU (2002) Green route for the utilization of chrome shavings (chromium-containing solid waste) in tanning industry. Environ. Sci. Technol.; 36:1372-76. Rao, JR, Thanikaivelan, P, Sreeram, KJ and Nair, BU (2004) Tanning studies with basic chromium sulfate prepared using chrome shavings as a reductant: A call for ‗wealth from waste‘ approach to the tanning industry. J. Am. Leather Chem. Assoc. 99: 170. Reddy, KR, Khaleel, R, Overcash, MR and Westerman, PW (1977) Conceptual modeling of non-point source pollution from land areas receiving animal wastes. I. Nitrogen transformations. Am. Soc. Agric. Eng., 77: 4046. Saha, N, Mukhopadhya, S, Siddique, I. and Saha, P (2005) Waste leather in India – An integrated business with value creation opportunities, 7th World Congress on Recovery, Recycling and Re-integration (R‘05) in Beijing, China. Sandeep, G, Anjali, P, Pranab, K G (2003) Performance of waste activated carbon as a low-cost adsorbent for the removal of anionic surfactant from aquatic environment. Journal of Environmental Science and Health - Part A. Toxic/Hazardous Substance and Environ. Engineering, 38(2): 381-397. Saravanan, P, Ramanaiah, B, Glowthaman, MK, Kamini, Babu, C, Amudeswari, A, Mandal, AB.and Ramasami, T (2010) Cleaner Leather Manufacturing process using enzymes, Leather Age, pp: 67-70. Sekaran, G, Shanmugasundaram, KA and Mariappan, M (1998) Characterization and utilisation of buffing dust generated by the leather industry. J. Hazard. Mater. 63: 53. Sharma, B; Bharti, PK; Pal, N; Singh, RK; Niyogi, UK and Khandal, RK (2011) Waste management practices at Indian research station ‗Maitri‘, East Antarctica, In: ‗Proceedings of Brainstorming session on Polar sciences‘ published by Indian Meteorological Department, MoES, Govt. of India, pp: 67-76. Simeonova, LS and Dalev, PG (1996) Utilization of a leather industry waste. Waste Management, 16:765-769. Suresh V, Kanthimathi M, Thanikaivelan P, Rao JR and Nair BU (2001) An improved product-process for cleaner chrome tanning in leather processing. J Cleaner Prodn.; 9: 483-91. 780

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Tahiri, S., and de la Guardia, M. (2009) Treatment and valorization of leather industry solid wastes: a review. J. Am. Leather Chem. Assoc. 104: 52. Taylor, MM, Diefendorf, EJ and Marmer, WN (1991) Efficiency of Enzymic solubility of chrome shaving as influence by choice of alkalinity-inducing agent. J. Am. Leather. Chem. As., 86: 199-208. Taylor, MM; Diefendorf, EJ; Thompson, CJ; Brown, EM; Warmer, WN and Cabeza, LF (1997) Extraction of value added byproducts from the treatment of chromium containing collagenous leather industry waste. Journal of the Society of Leather Technologies & Chemists, 81(1): 5-13. Vasudevan, N and Ravindran, AD (2007) Biotechnological process for the treatment of fleshing from tannery industries for methane generation. Curr. Sci., 93: 1492. Veeger, L (1993) Ecological procedure to solve the tannery waste problems. JALCA. 88 (9): 326. Wang, XC. Ren, LF and Qiang, TT (2009) Novel way of transformation of tannery waste to environmentally friendly formaldehyde scavenger. Environ. Prog. Sustain. Energy, 28: 285. Warrier, KGK, Nair, KM, Vries, AH, van der Zwan, J, Prasad, BGS, Nair, BU, Venba, R, Mahadevan, TSK and Ramasami, T (1995) Safe utilisation of chrome containing sludges in brick making. Friedrichshafen: XXIII IULTCS Congress. Yilmaz, O, Kantarli, IC, Yuksel, M, Saglam, M and Yanik, J (2007) Conversion of leather wastes to useful products. Res. Conserv. Recycl. 49: 436.

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Management of Solid Wastes in Steel Industry towards Reuse and Recycling Sushovan Sarkar1,*, Debabrata Mazumder2 1,*

Assistant Professor (Selection Grade), Civil Engineering Department, Heritage Institute of Technology, Anandapur, Kolkata, India 2 Professor, Civil Engineering Department, Indian Institute of Engineering Science and Technology, Shibpur, Howrah, India * Corresponding Author: Email- [email protected] ABSTRACT Solid waste management in steel industry is aimed to extract the maximum practical benefits from waste products and to generate the minimum amount of waste to comply with Environmental legislation and regulations and the economics of disposal in the present scenerio. To achieve this goal and for maintaining a sustainable development in steel industry, ―4Rs‖ i.e. reduce, reuse, recycle and restoring the materials are being considered as strategies of solid waste management. Proper reuse and recycling the entire solid waste generated in steel manufacturing process can meet the demand of a potential resource for fulfilling growing shortages of energy and materials, In view of its uncertainty, volatility and speculation due to world competitive standards, rising input costs, scarcity of raw materials and solid waste generated like in other sectors., solid waste management has gained importance in steel industry. The requirement of a sustainable development by meeting the needs of our present generation without compromising the ability of future generations is really a challenge to the steel Industry today. A new process, a better social awareness and more restrictive legislation have generated new ideas and new technologies for better re-using of all of them in manufacture of conventional products as well as for conversion of same into completely new products. Keywords: Reuse; recycle; solid waste; sustainable development; steel industry; zero waste; International Society of Waste Management, Air and Wate

Introduction Natural resources used by industrial units generate byproducts during processing is termed as a waste so long as no use for this product is found. In fact there is no unique system which is perpetually perfect to prevent generation of a waste, but it can be treated as a process of continuous improvement to reduce the waste generation to a bare minimum level. Efforts have been put to find out a use for the byproducts of the process, so that they can be used as a resource for some other products. Steel is manufactured from iron ore mostly using blast furnace (BF) and basic oxygen furnace (BOF) and using electric arc furnace (EAF) in case of manufactured from scrap materials. In BF molten steel is produced in presence of coke and in BOF it is produced in presence of oxygen [2]. By smelting and refining process through carbon reduction in BF molten iron is produced and decarburization of molten iron yields molten steel. After controlling the targeted composition and temperature, molten steel is 782

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processed into continuous casting machine to produce slabs, billets etc. Finally the castings are rolled to the sludge, fly ash, acid sludge, refractory wastes etc [2]. Dumping solid waste in open space and excavated land not only creates environmental pollution in the form of dusts and leachate but also create huge required dimensions in the rolling mill to get finished steel product [6]. Sources of solid wastes for steel industries may thus be identified as coke oven by product plant, sinter plant, refractory materials plant, blast furnace, basic oxygen furnace, steel melting shop and rolling mill. The main solid wastes in steel industry are classified as coke and coal dust, BF slag, SMS slag, mill scale, scrap, oil financial liability due to scarcity of land. The scope of reuse of these solid wastes is thus found .essential to sort out this crisis. The production of solid wastes per ton of production of steel is around 1.2 ton in India compared to around 0.55 ton of that practicing in abroad due to inferior quality of raw materials used and an absence of proper solid waste management practices. Out of total solid wastes generated in the steel plant in our country around 63% are dumped which needs to be recycled or reused to target a zero solid waste as being done in many developed countries. Solid wastes generated as a byproduct during different industrial, mining, agricultural and domestic activities pose a major environmental and ecological problem besides the huge requirement of land for storage and disposal of the waste. However, there is a tremendous scope of development of industries for production of construction materials, considering those wastes as a primary inputs in production of finished products. The lack of awareness and confidence in acceptability of the alternative and newly developed products is still remained among the users of the products. Solid wastes from steel industry can generate environment friendly, energy efficient and cost effective alternative products which satisfy the market needs in rural and urban area. The economy of the country depends on how well the waste can be controlled and how it can be transformed into an asset. Efforts have been made in present paper to throw up a new idea for the benefit of steel industries which is at present facing stiff competition globally. The objective of this paper is to deliberate the problems associated with the generation of solid wastes in steel industries and ultimately to come up with suitable recommendations for ensuring sustainable development of the same. Process of Steel Manufacturing Steel is manufactured from the molten iron through the blast furnace into the basic oxygen furnace in presence of oxygen. Oxygen through molten pig iron reduces carbon content of the alloy and changes it into steel. Alternatively steel can also be made in an electric arc furnace (EAF) from steel scraps. Scraps along with fluxes (e.g. limestone and/or dolomite) are heated to a liquid state by means of an electric current. During the melting process the fluxes combine with non-metallic scrap components and steel incompatible elements to form the liquid slag. Slag floats on top of the molten bath of steel due to its lower density. The liquid slag is ultimately converted into crystalline slag by process of air cooling. Crude steel is refined prior to casting and the various operations are normally carried out in ladles. To ensure the production of high quality steel after casting, certain alloying agents are added, dissolved gases in the steel are lowered and impurities are removed in the process of refining. Suitable billets, beam blanks, and nearnet shape profiles are produced through the continuous casting operation. Finally structural sections are produced from these semi-finished steel in the rolling mill. Table 1: Chemical Composition of Steel Slags from different Furnaces

8 - 20

Electric Arc Furnace (for Carbon Steel) (%) 9 - 20

Electric Arc Furnace (for Alloy / Stainless) (%) 24 - 32

Al2O3

1-6

2-9

3 – 7.5

5 - 35

FeO

10 - 35

15 - 30

1-6

0.1 - 15

CaO

30 - 55

35 - 60

39 - 45

30 - 60

MgO

5 - 15

5 - 15

8 – 15

1 – 10

MnO

2-8

3-8

0.4 – 2

0-5

Components

Basic Oxygen Furnace (%)

SiO2

Ladle (%) 2 - 35

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0.4 - 2

Electric Arc Furnace (for Carbon Steel) (%) Not Available

Electric Arc Furnace (for Alloy / Stainless) (%) Not Available

Not Available

S

0.05 – 0.15

0.08 – 0.2

0.1 – 0.3

0.1 - 1

P

0.2 - 2

0.01 – 0.25

0.01 – 0.07

0.1 – 0.4

Cr

0.1 – 0.5

0.1 - 1

0.1 - 20

0 – 0.5

Components

Basic Oxygen Furnace (%)

TiO2

Ladle (%)

A typical flow-sheet of materials in Steel manufacturing is shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1: Flow Sheet to Materials of Steel Manufacturing Process

From the table 1, it is observed that the steel slag from BOF for the production of carbon steels is very similar to that from EAF. However, the slag from EAF for the production of alloy or stainless steels is quite different. It has a lower FeO content and a very high content of Cr, which leads to classifying the slag as a hazardous waste [15]. It is also evident that the Ladle furnace slag yields maximum amount of Alumina (Al2O3) compared to others, which can be reused commercially. Types of Solid Wastes Generation The solid wastes generated in steel industry are of two types, i.e., ferruginous wastes and nonferruginous wastes. The ferruginous wastes, i.e. the iron bearing wastes are generated from steel making viz., mill scale, flue dust, sludges from Gas cleaning plants of Blast Furnaces and Steel Melting Shops, Blast furnace slag and SMS slag. The non-ferruginous wastes are lime fines, broken refractory bricks, 784

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broken fire clay bricks, acetylene plant sludge etc. A list of solid wastes along with their source of generation is depicted in Table 2. The chemical composition of various categories of solid wastes is also presented in Table 3. Table 2: List of Solid Wastes along with their source of Generation Sub Processes (Source of Solid Waste Generation)

Solid Wastes

Coke oven and product plant

Coke and coal dust, tar sludge, sulphur muck, acid sludge, refectory and waste.

Lime Plant

Line fines

Sinter Plant

Sludge

RMP

ESP dust, lime fines

BF

Slag flue dust, sludge, refectory wastes

SMS

LD Slag, GCP sludge, refectory wastes

Rolling Mill

Mill scale, scrap, oil sludge

Table 3: List of Solid Wastes along with their chemical composition Soild Wastes

Chemical Composition

BF Slag

Fe = 46-52%, CaO = 22-30%, MgO = 4-10%, MnO = 2-6%, SiO2 = 26-31%

SMS Slag

FeO = 18-21%, SiO2 = 16-18%, CaO = 47-53%

SMS Sludge

C = 2.13%, Fe = 51.8%, MgO = 2.0, S = 0.21%, SiO 2 = 2.1, CaO = 12.8, LOI = 6.7%

Mill Scale

Mixture of iron oxides

Used Refactory / Fire Clay Bricks

Basically CaO, Al2O3 and traces of Fe2O3 and MgO

Blast furnace flue dust and electric earth furnace dust are mixture of oxides and coke fines. It also contains silicon, calcium, magnesium and some undesirable elements like zinc, lead and alkali metals. Rolling Mill sludge is mainly contaminated with oils and inorganic particles. Dry slag exhibits stable performance, small density, high strength and high temperature endurance, making it suitable as concrete aggregate. Reuse Potential of Solid Waste Blast furnace slags, the major solid waste in steel industry (around 70% of total solid wastes in steel industry) are used for the manufacture of cement, road base, railroad ballast, light weight concrete block, glass and artificial rock, high performance concrete admixtures. Slag from BOF having high fluxing capacity is charged into the B.F for easy melting and better utilization of calcium values. Filling in the low lying area may be done with the slag generated from EAF at SMP. Segregated refractories generated at source in manufacturing process of steel can be used as one of the constituents in manufacture of new bricks/mortars. [7], [10]-[12],[19]. For the production of new steel products requiring much less energy compared to the production of iron or steel products from iron ore, recycling of iron and steel scrap plays an important role and finds as a vital raw material for production of the same [8]. Flue dust from BF and EAF after duly extracting zinc and other metals can be used as a source of lime and phosphorous in fertilizers. The scrap generated from rolling mills may either be recycled or may be sold in the market. For the utilization of BF Slag, the installation of captive cement plants may be a decision criteria in case of high capacity Steel Plants. Equal amount of flux in Sinter Plant may be replaced with SMS slag of particle size up to 5 mm .LD slag having 5 - 10 mm and 10 - 40 mm particle size may be used as repairing materials in roads. Conventional stone ballast in railway track. can also be replaced by LD slag with 20 - 65 mm particle sizes. Pavement 785

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construction can be done using the rejected refractory bricks. Fly ash is one of the major constituents in cement manufacturing plant. In building constructions now-a-days fly ash bricks are found much more economical than the traditional clay burnt bricks. [8], [9]. Latest Technologies in Solid Waste Management Now-a-days, for the production of slag cement, partial replacement of clinker by EAF slag is being practiced in the industry [1],[5]. Small round balls, used as a blasting material as well as cement admixtures are basically derived from molten slags. Slags generated from both EAF and SMP can be used for manufacturing of vitrified tiles [3]. .Lime is manufactured by ladle slags. There is a multipurpose usage of the dry slag products in construction industries, like concrete roads, floors and blocks, cement admixtures, new fossil cotton products etc. In the application of composite admixture, dry-mix mortar etc steel slag finds its good progress in construction. The steel slag can also be applied in the field due to its high allowable bearing pressure and low cost. It is proved that steel slag as floor materials gives resistance higher than that of ordinary aggregate concrete. Apart from the recycling of steel slag into the blast furnace, a major portion of the same is used in road construction (e.g. asphaltic or unbound layer) due to its very high stability, superior skid and high wear resistance [1]. Application of fly-ash in construction projects are growing day to day like backfilling, in earth work, road engineering, concrete or mortar projects, bricks and insulating materials. Due to excellent flow ability and low hydration heat the grinded ash and compound ash have become the essential components of the pumped concrete. The converter slag containing substantial amount of lime and iron after properly crushing and screening finds its application to sinter plant, and thereby replacing limestone. The balance lump fraction is charged into blast furnace as a replacement of limestone. In modern construction ground granulated BF slag (GGBFS) and air cooled BF slag are used as aggregates for construction and thereby enhancing the BF slag utilization. Oxi-cup [14], based on self-reducing agglomerates containing iron oxide fines and carbon in the form of brick is found a process of aiming zero waste. These bricks are made up ESP dust, skulls/ rubble, iron ore fines, coal fines, processed slags, mill scale sludge, mill scale, flue dust ESP. dust, sponge iron fines, bag filter dust which are charged into a shaft type furnace called Oxi-cup for smelting to deliver sustainable hot metal to EAF/BOF shop. towards a Sustainable and Best Management Practices Due to inferior quality of raw materials like high ash in coal, high alumina and silica in iron ore etc, slag generation rates at Indian Steel Plants are comparatively higher than that of the developed countries. Proper blending of different indigenous and imported coals and increased use of washed low alumina Iron Ore in Sinter Plant and in Blast Furnaces are essential to reduce coke ash percentage thereby reducing the metallurgical slags from the process units [4]. Alternatively, Coal Dust Injection (CDI) and Coal Tar Injection (CTI) system can also reduce BF slag. Furnace operating parameters need to be optimized and improved for reducing the coke rate ensuring 100% screened iron ore and sinter. Slag waste in BF can be reduced by introducing High top pressure and oxygen enrichment in BF. Ore beneficiation plant also finds its relevance in its installation for reducing the impurities in raw materials. Installation of in-house slag granulation facilities is required to solve the problem of spillages on roads during transportation and Slag solidification [13], [16]-[18]. Granulated BF slag is sold to cement industry which produces Portland slag cement (PSC). Generation of solid wastes can also be reduced by optimizing charging practices, reducing furnace heat time, and optimizing operating cycles through the operation of EAF. By controlling proper atmosphere and soaking time in the reheat and annealing furnace, formation of scales can be avoided. By proper control of limes, silicon and sulphur excess slag volume and iron losses in the blast furnace, BOF and EAF can be avoided. To recover steel metals from variety of materials like steel slag, ladle slag, pit slag, and used refractory material slag processors need to be developed in the vicinity of those materials. For full utilization of the granulated slag in cement plant., cast house slag granulation plant may be installed in all furnaces ensuring 100% granulation. Magnesia-Carbon spent refractories can be used as slag conditioner in electric arc furnace steel making as well as liner material for the eroded portion of BOF. 786

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In many countries, most steel slag can be used up as asphalt concrete aggregates. However, in Indian scenario, the best use of steel slag should be considered for use as a cementing component from technical, economical, and environmental point of view. Conclusion With growing shortages of energy and materials, waste is now treated as a potential resource complying with Environmental legislation and regulations and the economics of disposal. Government should encourage everyone; Steel Industry ,ready-mix concrete companies, builders, contractors, engineers, and architects, etc, to use waste by products producing better cement, concrete and other building materials as well as saving energy and reducing the CO2 emissions in the environment. In Indian steel industry most economic management practices for minimizing the generation of solid wastes and maximizing the recycle of collected wastes can be opted in the following ways: 

Identification of sources, quantities and types of solid wastes generated from different subprocesses of steel manufacturing process including hazardous wastes.  To find out the reasons of generation of solid wastes.  An advanced technology for minimizing wastage of natural resources with economical feasibility options to be evaluated.  Should strive to make improvements in yield losses.  To treat the waste as raw material of related industry on the base of avoiding secondary pollution.  To build up series of integrated utilization programs, from the industry system technologies and products systems.  To develop technology focused competitive products based on deep processing of wastes and byproducts. Conservation of potential resources and fully reused of wastes can lead to a zero waste management. which is really a challenge to the steel industry today. References 01. Chaurand Perrine , Rose Jerome , Briois Val´erie , Olivi Luca , Hazemannd Jean-Louis, Proux Olivier , Domas J´er´emie and Bottero Jean-Yves(2006), ―Environmental impacts of steel slag reused in road construction: A crystallographic and molecular (XANES) approach ―, Journal of Hazardous Materials, pp.1-6. 02. Chkravarty T.K. and Panigrahi S.K. (1996),‖ Strategies for solid waste management in SAIL steel plants‖, Proceedings: NS-EWM, pp. 52-62. 03.Das.S.K , Kumar Sanay and Ramachandrarao P,(2000),‖ Exploitation of iron ore tailing for the development of ceramic tiles‖, Waste management, 20, pp. 725-729. 04.Frosch Robert A. and Gallopoulos Nicholas E(1989),‖Strategies for Manufacturing‖, Scientific American, 261, pp.144-152. 05. Geiseler J, (1996),‖ Use of steel works slag in Europe‖, Waste management, Vol 16, pp 59-63. 06.International Seminar on Waste Management in Iron and Steel Industry jointly organized by SAIL and IIPE, 9-10 May‘2008, pp 1-192. 07. Kumar Sanjay, Kumar Rakesh and Bandopadhyay Amitava(2006), ―Innovative methodologies for the utilisation of wastes from metallurgical and allied industries‖, Conservation and recycling,48, pp. 301-314. 08. Makkonen Hannu Tapani, Heino Jyrki, Laitila Leena, Hiltunen Aimo , Poylio Esko and Harkki Jouko(2002),‖ Optimisation of steel plant recycling in Finland: dusts, scales and sludge‖, Conservation and recycling, 35, pp.7784. 09. Metin E, Erozturk A and Neyim C(2003)‖ Solid waste management practices and review of recovery and recycling operations in Turkey , Waste management, 23, pp.425-432.. 10. Pappu Asokan, Saxena Mohini and Asolekar Shyam R(2007), ―Solid wastes generation in India and their recycling potential in building material, Building and Environment‖,42, pp.2311-2320. 11.Papayianni I and Anastasiou E, ―Utilization of electric arc furnace steel slags in concrete products‖ , pp.1-18 12.Perrinea Chaurand, Jeromea Rose, Jean-Yvesa Bottero and Jérémieb Domas, ―Environmental impact of BOF steel slag reused in road construction: a crystallographic approach‖, pp.1-80. 13. Pires Ana , Martinho Graça and Chang Ni-Bin(2011), ―Solid waste management in European countries: A review of systems analysis techniques , Journal of Environment management,92, pp.1033-1050. 787

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14. Ramakrishna Konduru R. and Viraraghavan ,(1997),‖Use of slag for dye removal‖, Waste Management, Vol. 17, pp. 483-488. 15. Shi Caijun, (2004), ―Steel Slag—Its Production, Processing, Characteristics, and Cementitious Properties‖, Journal of materials in civil engineering,ASCE,16, pp.230-236. 16.Trend in Solid Waste Management: Issues, Challenges and Opportunities, International Consultative Meeting on Expanding Waste Management Services in Developing Countries, 18‐19 March 2010 Tokyo, Japan, pp. 1-22. 17.Viswanathan P.V and Gangdharan T.K,(1996),― Environmental and waste management in iron and steel industry, Proceedings: NS-EWM, pp. 199-207. 18.Waste management in China: Issues and Recommendations(2005)Urban development working papers, East Asia Infrastructure department World Bank, Working paper no.9, pp. 1-156. 19.Xuequan Wu, Hong Zhu, Xinkai Hou and Husen Li(1999),‖ Study on steel slag and fly ash composite Portland cement‖, Cement and concrete research, 29, pp. 1103-1106.

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Studies on Paper and Pulp Industry Waste for Leather Making: An Insight in Converting Waste to Wealth P. Balasubramanian, M. Vedhanayagam, G.C. Jayakumar, K.J. Sreeram, J. Raghava Rao*, B.U. Nair Chemical Laboratory, CSIR-Central Leather Research Institute, Adyar, Chennai, India *Corresponding Author: Email- [email protected] ABSTRACT The present work describes the preparation of leather dye using paper and pulp industry wastes. In this work, black liquor was modified to pH 7 by using sulfuric acid and was used as a retanning agent for leather processing. The characteristic features of modified products were thoroughly investigated by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), Zeta sizer and Energy dispersive spectrometer (EDS). The purity of the modified black liquor is ascertained through UV-visible spectroscopy. The modified black liquor treated leather shows good softness, filling, and high strength, with uniform dyeing. This process divulges to increase the accessibility to value-added products using black liquor as a starting material. This study paves a way in providing some basic understanding on the degradation of paper and pulp industry waste and its chemical constituents like phenolic hydroxyl groups involved in leather dyeing cum retanning effect. Additionally, this research works emphasis on the reduction of conventional synthetic chemicals used in leather manufacture by utilizing the waste product leads to reduce the environmental pollution loads. Keywords: Black liquor, Acidification, Lignin, Retanning agent, Leather; International Society of Waste Management, Air and Water

1.0 Introduction Reuse and recycle of various industrial waste leads to decrease in environmental pollution [1, 2]. The paper and pulp industry waste contains larger amount of highly toxic and intensely colored effluents, these wastes are called as black liquors [3, 4]. These waste liquors contribute high pollution load to the environment owing to high level of chemical oxygen demand (COD) [5]. Black liquor is a major waste from paper and pulp which is used as a raw material for many applications like preparation of carbon filter, concrete, dispersants and antioxidant. Black liquor mainly composed of lignin (60%) and other derivatives along with inorganic salts (40%). This waste has the potential to be used as a raw material for manufacturing and energy production in a sustainable environment [6]. One of the major impediments to use these feed stocks is the presence of lignin [7]. Lignin is one of the most abundant natural polymer and present in the higher plants [8]. Black liquors are highly concentrated in organic materials with lignin being the main component of the total dry mass. Lignin has a highly branched three-dimensional phenolic structure including three main phenyl propane units such as p-coumaril, coniferyl and sinapyl alcohol [9, 10, 11]. Leather industries has been using phenolic compounds which are structurally related to the natural plant polyphenol tannins for synthetic tanning agent preparation, because they contain phenolic hydroxyl 789

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groups and has the ability to react with collagen to produce leather [12]. These commercial phenolic derivatives are expensive and hence there is a scope to develop tanning agents based on phenolic compounds from alternate source. Oxidation of phenolic derivatives results in very dark colored products [13]. Hence, phenolic lignin degradation products have potential to be used in synthesis of colored products for dyeing and in syntan production after condensation for retanning of leather [14, 15]. In fact, these degraded lignin compounds were polymerized with formaldehyde and used for leather tanning process as reported by Suparno et al [15]. To the best of our knowledge, there is no report on understanding the mechanism of dyeing and retanning effect of black liquor in leather manufacture. In this work, black liquor was modified using sulfuric acid and the same was used as a retanning cum dyeing agent for leather processing. This study enables to explore the basic science involved in the acidification of black liquor and better utilization of paper and pulp industry waste (black liquor) for value addition in leather making as leather auxiliary with multiple properties. 2.0 Materials and Methods 2.1 Materials Black Liquors were procured from a commercial paper and pulp industry in Erode, Tamil Nadu. Sulfuric acid (98%), sodium acetate and sodium chloride were purchased from Hi Media Laboratories Pvt. Ltd. Potassium dichromate and silver sulphate from Sigma-Aldrich. Deionized water was used for the analytical experiments. Commercial grade chemicals were used for leather processing. 2.2 Percentage organic content of modified black liquor The black liquor was analyzed for total dissolved solids, % organics, % inorganics and pH using standard methods [16]. The pH of black liquor was adjusted with sulfuric acid to 7 with continuous stirring. The black liquor solution at 7 pH was filtered using normal filter paper and collected the filtrate for further studies. 2.3 Methodology

Figure 1: Modification of black liquor 790

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3.0 Characterization techniques 3.1 Modification of black liquor The black liquor was modified by adjusting the pH 7 using of sulfuric acid. The modified black liquor was filtered and analyzed for soluble organics by standard methods [16]. The filtrate at pH 7.0 was kept stirring using magnetic stirrer for 3h at ambient temperature. 10 mL of the modified black liquor was transferred to crucible and kept in the hot air oven at 110°C for 12h. The percentage soluble organics in the modified black liquor was calculated by using weight loss method after heating the total solids at 1100°C in muffle furnace. 3.2 Characterisation of black liquor using UV- visible spectroscopy The black liquor as well as modified black liquor was subjected to UV-visible spectroscopy. The absorbance of the solution was recorded in the wavelength range of 240 to 370 nm using a Lambda 35 UV/VIS spectrophotometer (Perkin- Elmer, UK). 3.3 Characterisation of black liquor using FT-IR Spectroscopy FT-IR spectrum was obtained using an ABB MB 3000 spectrometer at room temperature. All spectra were taken at 4 cm-1 resolution, averaged over 31 scans in the range of 500 to 4000 cm-1. Dried black liquor and dried modified black liquor were mixed with potassium bromide in the ratio of 2:100 (IR grade KBr was used as scanning matrix) to make nearly transparent and homogeneous pellets and then taken for FT-IR measurement. The final spectra‘s were recorded after subtracting the background spectra of KBr. 3.4 Zeta potential evaluation Zeta potential of the black liquor as well as modified black liquors were determined by using dynamic light scattering (Zetasizer nano, Malvern instruments U.K) at 25°C. Initially, the modified black liquor of 7 pH was dissolved in Milli-Q water and then sonicated for 10 min before the analysis. All the experiments were performed in triplicate and average was taken. 3.5 Energy dispersive X-ray (EDS) analysis Modified black liquor was oven dried at 90C for 1 h. The samples were rinsed with methanol and sputter-coated with gold to avoid possible contamination. Scanning electron microscope (SEM) characterisation of the modified black liquor was performed using Quanta 200 FEI micrograph analyser. The substance on the cell wall of modified black liquor was analyzed through EDAX. EDAX provides the elemental composition of the surface of the sample. 3.6 Application of modified black liquor in leather making 3.6.1 Retanning process The pH of the chrome tanned leathers were adjusted to 4.8 -5.0 using 200% water, 1% neutralizing syntan, 0.5% sodium formate and 0.5% sodium bicarbonate and subsequently washed and the float was drained. Retanning process was carried out on the neutralized leather with 10% each of the prepared modified black liquor added to 50% water, and 8% fatliquor (oil emulsion) and preservative 0.1% for 2 h [17]. Finally the pH was adjusted to 4.0 with acetic acid for fixing the chemicals to the leather matrix. The retanned leathers were washed with water and left to dry in fresh air by hanging at room temperature [18].

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3.6.2 Determination of color difference of final leather The conventional (control) and experimental crust leather obtained using modified black liquor were subjected to reflectance measurements using a premier color scan SS5100A instrument. Color measurement (L, a*, b*, h and c*) have been recorded, where L represents lightness, a* represents the red and green axis and b* represents the yellow and blue axis, h represents hue, c* represents chromaticity [19]. 3.6.3 Physical testing of leather samples The samples for physical testing were obtained as per IULTCS methods [20].The samples were conditioned at 26°C and 65% Relative Humidity for 48 h. Physical properties such as tensile strength, % elongation, tear strength, and grain crack strength were investigated as per standard procedures [21, 22, 23] for all the leathers made in this study. Each value reported is an average of four (2 along and 2 across the backbone) measurements. The young‘s modulus was also calculated. 4.0 Results and discussion 4.1 Modification of black liquor for retanning cum dyeing The black liquor comprises of 60% total solids of which 60% is organics and 40% inorganics. The pH of the black liquor is 13.0. Although reports exist [24] on the extraction of organic components from black liquor using different solvents and further condensation with formaldehyde, the yield of the extracted organics is low and the presence of formaldehyde is a cause for concern. In order to take advantage of the presence of higher soluble organics, it has been planned to use the black liquor directly for leather processing as a retanning agent, as the degraded lignin present contains phenolic derivatives similar to vegetable tanning molecules. However, the higher pH of the black liquor is determintal to its use as a retanning agent due to practical difficulty in employing it for post tanning process. Hence, it has been attempted to modify the black liquor by acidification with sulfuric acid to pH 7, which falls in the operational pH of the leather auxiliaries. The change in the pH of the black liquor results in the variation in the composition of the soluble organics. The percentage soluble organics in the modified black liquor at pH 7 is 66%, which indicates the organics extraction as the pH of the black liquor shifts to acidic range. Finally the pH 7 has better strength to compare standards. This trend is in accordance with the earlier observations of higher insoluble lignins at lower pH [25]. 4.2 UV- visible spectroscopy Modified black liquor has the ability to absorb in the UV-visible region due to its chromophoric groups. The purity of precipitated degraded lignin was verified from UV-visible spectrum of the sample at 210-350 nm [26]. Degraded lignins absorb UV light with high molar extinction coefficients because of the several methoxylated phenyl propane units [27. The absorption peaks observed around in the range of 269280 nm. This result clearly reveals that black liquors are degraded and most of modified black liquor product contains unconjugated phenolic hydroxyl groups and the aromatic moiety of the lignin molecule [28]. 4.3 FT-IR spectroscopy The FT-IR spectrum of dried black liquor and dried modified black liquor at pH 7 is shown in Fig. 1. The black liquor exhibits seven main asymmetric absorption bands, which are typical for high molecular weight compounds with irregular structure. The broad peak at 3422 cm-1corresponds to stretching frequency of –OH groups. Peaks observed at 2939 cm-1 and 2845 cm-1 are predominantly arising from – CH2 symmetric and asymmetric stretching frequency of methyl or methylene groups of side chains. The broad peak observed at 1588 cm-1 corresponds to the –C=C- stretching frequency of aromatic rings. Peaks observed at 1445 cm-1 and 1125 cm-1 are due to -C-C- aromatic rings and syringyl stretching frequency, 792

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respectively. The peak observed at 835 cm-1 is due to -C-H deformation. On the other hand, the modified black liquor exhibits similar peaks along with some new peaks. The narrow peak observed at 1615 cm-1 is attributed to the –C=C- stretching frequency of aromatic rings, whereas the pure black liquor shows broad peak for C=C- stretching. In addition, one sharp and intense new peak at 1511 cm-1corresponding to stretching frequency of aromatic –C=C groups was observed. The narrowness of peaks along with appearance of a new peak clearly indicates that the black liquor was effectively modified. The peak at 1445 cm-1 is split into two peaks positioned at 1453 cm-1 and 1424 cm-1attributable to stretching frequency of aromatic ring –C-C- stretching [29]. The bands at 1212 cm-1 and 614 cm-1 present in the spectrum of modified black liquor is due to -C-S stretching. The above results clearly confirm the modification of black liquor.

Figure 2: FT-IR spectra of black liquor and modified black liquor at pH 7

4.4 Zeta potential evaluation The zeta potential of black liquor is -58 mV, which decreases on acidification to -39 mV indicating degradation of black liquor. The black liquor at pH 13.0 has a large number of carboxylate anion leading to higher negative charge on the surface. The modified black liquor exhibits lower zeta potential when compared to the black liquor due to lower number of negatively charged ion present in the solution. The result suggests that both the samples have a higher stability in colloidal form. 4.5 Energy dispersive X-ray (EDS) analysis EDAX micrographs of the waste black liquor after modification at pH 7 are shown (Table 1) that modified black liquor has 49.21% content of carbon, 25.745 content of oxygen,13.20% content of sodium,08.91% content of sulfur, that may help to improve the inner lubrications of the leather, 00.88% content of chlorine and 02.06% content of potassium respectively.

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Table 1: Elemental measurements of modified black liquor at pH 7 Elements

Wt%

C

34.60

0

33.35

Na

20.24

S

08.98

Cl

00.86

K

01.97

4.6 Application of modified black liquor for leather manufacture 4.6.1 Color measurements The modified black liquor at pH 7 was applied as a retanning cum dyeing agent for leather processing in post tanning operation. The L, a, b values of these leathers along with those of conventionally treated leathers (Control leather) are presented in Table 2. It is observed that the control leather has L value of 81 indicating lightness in shade as compared to modified black liquor treated leathers. The color changes from brown hue of leather at pH 7 with a value of 68 degree to lighter brownish grey as compared to control of lighter shade at 138 degree. The lightness in color with decrease in pH for the modified black liquor indicates the removal of darker lignin components from the black liquor. The quality of the leather is good in terms of grain smoothness, fullness and feels for the modified black liquor at pH 7 indicating the optimum pH for the modification of black liquor for leather application. Although leather prepared with the modified black liquor with lower pH exhibits lighter shades, the usage for post tanning needs slight modification in the application. It is important to assess the final quality of the leather when a new chemical formulation is employed for leather processing. In order to look at the performance of the modified black liquor, the physical strength properties of the final leathers made from modified black liquor as well as conventional process were measured. The tensile, tear and grain crack strength were measured for the control and modified black liquor retanned leather both along and across backbone line in identical areas. The corresponding mean values of each experiment were averaged and the values are given in Table 3. Table 2: Color measurements of modified black liquor Sl. No.

Name

L

a*

b*

c*

H

1

Control white crust

81.46

-2.28

2.07

3.08

137.73

2

pH=7

52.97

5.10

12.74

13.72

68.17

It is observed that the results from physical strength of retanned leathers are comparable in terms of tear and grain crack strength with that of control leather except that of tensile strength. The decrease in tensile strength for modified black liquor with decrease in pH may be due to acidity of the system. Table 3 shows the Young‘s modulus of control and modified black liquor retanned leather. The Young‘s modulus of the modified black liquor retanned leather increased linearly when compared to the control leather. Particularly, for modified black liquor at pH 7, the Young‘s modulus of retanned leather exhibit higher values due to better distribution and optimum filling of the leather. In addition to this, the load at grain crack values are gradually increased, at the same time the distention at grain crack values are decreased compared to the control leather. This result clearly demonstrates that the retanned leather has higher load capacity and softness than control leather. The modified black liquor at pH 7 showed improved mechanical properties compared to the conventional control leather.

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Table 3: Physical strength characteristics of the leathers obtained from modified black liquor at various pH

pH of extract

Tensile strength (N/mm2)

Tear strength (N)

Young‘s Modulus (MPA)

Lastometer Load at grain crack (kg)

Distention at grain crack (mm)

Control

29.00±0.20

26.00±0.12

33.72±0.30

21

8.00

pH 7

30.58±0.13

72.53±0.15

47.90±0.24

37

8.28

4.6.2 Bio resource Utilization for Value Addition in Leather Making The black liquor has been directly applied for leather making with addition of minimum chemicals. The waste effluent from leather making contains very low COD values (2400 mg/kg) for 10% solution. These results suggested that the modified black liquor from black liquor can be used effectively for leather making application. 5.0 Conclusions The present work involves modification of the black liquor through acidification to pH 7 for removing the degraded lignin of higher molecular weight. The modified black liquor was characterized through different spectral techniques and used for leather processing as a retanning cum dyeing agent. The modified black liquor was stable and when used for leather processing it resulted in producing leather of brown shades. The quality of the final leather made from modified black liquor is comparable with that of control leather and exhibited better physical properties. The leathers made from modified black liquor are fuller in substance with softness and flat grain. The main advantages of the work lies in 1) Cost effective process of using by-product as value added product, 2) better utilization of industrial waste, 3) the product act as better replacement for additives like dye enhancer, filler in an efficient way. This work provides an ample opportunity

to effectively utilize the black liquor from paper and pulp industry to prepare a value added product for application in leather processing. 6.0 Acknowledgement The authors acknowledge the financial support from CSIR, New Delhi under the XII Five Year Plan project (ERIPP). References 1. 2.

3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

9.

Suparno, O., Covington, A, D., Evans, C. S. (2003).Biomimetic degradation of kraft lignin. Proceedings of 8th Indonesian students‘ scientific meeting. Delft, 9-10 Oct., 35-40 Tijani, I. D. R., Parveen Jamal Zahangir Alam, Md., Elwathig, S., Mirghani, Md. (2013) Biodegradation potential and ligninolytic enzyme activity of two locally isolated Panus tigrinus strains on selected agro-industrial wastes. J.Environ.manag. 118, 115-121 Sumathi, S., Hung, Y. T. (2006) Treatment of pulp and paper mill waste In: Waste treatment in the process industries. Taylor and Francis, 453-497 Zarkovic, D. B., Rajakovic-Ognjanovic, V. N., Rajakovic, L. V. (2011) Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 55, 1139– 1145 Monte, M. C., Fuente, E., Blanco, A., Negro, C. (2009) Waste management from pulp and paper production in the European Union. Waste Mange. 29(1), 293-308 Wu, J., Xiao, Y. Z., Yu, H. Q. (2005) Degradation of lignin in pulp mill waste waters by white- rot fungi on biofilm. Biores. Technol. 96(12), 1357-1363 Lora, J. H., Glasses, W. G. J. (2002) Recent industrial application of lignin: A sustainable alternative to nonrenewable materials. J.Polym.Environ.10, 39-48 Matsushita, Y., Jo, E-K., Inakoshi, R., Yagami, S., Takamoto, N., Fukushima, K., Lee, S-C. (2013)Hydrothermal reaction of sulfuric acid lignin generated as a by-product during bioethanol production using lignocellulosic materials to convert bioactive agents Industrial Crops and Products. 42, 181– 188 Dinwoodie, J. M., Desh, H. E. (1996). Timber: Structure, properties, conversion and use. London: Macmillan press Ltd. ISBN 0-333-60905-0 795

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10. Carmen, G. B., Dominique, B., Richard, J.A., Gosselink, Jan, E. G., Van, D. (2004) Characterisation of structuredependent functional properties of lignin with infrared spectroscopy. Ind. Crops. Prod. 20,205–218 11. Zhang. J., Chen, Y., Sewell, P., Brook, M. A. (2015) Green Chem 17, 1811-1819 12. Thanikaivelan, P., Rao, J. R., Nair, B. U., Ramasami, T. (2004) Progress and recent trends in biotechnological methods for leather processing. Trends Biotecnol. 22(4), 181-188 13. Covington, A. D. (2009)Tanning chemistry: The science of leather. Chapter 16, 389-391 14. Suparno, O., Covington, A. D., Evans, C. S. (2005) Kraft lignin degradation products for tanning and dyeing of leather. J. Chem. Technol. Biotechnol. 80(1), 44-49 15. Suparno, O., Covington, A. D., Phillips, P. S., Evans, C. S. (2005) Resour. Conserv. Recycl 45,114–127 16. Clesceri, L. S., Greenberg, A., Trussell, R. R. (1989) Standard method for the examination of water and wastewater. Seventeenth edi. American Public Health Association. Washington DC, USA 17. Jayakumar G. C., Vedhanayagam, Sreeram, K. J, Balasubramanian, P., Aravindhan, R., Raghava Rao, J., Unni Nair, B. (2015) Indian Patent CSIR Ref. No. 0129NF 18. Kanth, S. V., Venba, R., Jayakumar, G. C., Chandrababu, N. K. (2009) Kinetics of leather dyeing pre-treated with enzymes: Role of acid protease. Biores. Technol. 100(8), 2430-2435 19. Jayakumar, G. C., Santana bala, L., Kanth, S. V,, Chandrasekaran, B., Rao, J. R., Nair, B. U. (2011) JALCA. 105, 50-58 20. IUP, 2. (2000) Sampling. J. Soc. Leather. Technol. Chem. 84, 303 21. IUP, 6. (2000) Measurement of tensile and percentage elongation. J. Soc. Leather. Technol. Chem. 84, 317 22. IUP, 8. (2000) Measurement of Tear load- Double edge tears. J. Soc. Leather. Technol.Chem. 84, 327-329 23. UNIDO. (1996) Acceptable quality levels in leather. United Nations Publications, ISBN 13, 9789211063011. 24. Covington, A. D. (1997) Modern tanning chemistry. Chem.Soc.Rev. 26, 111-126 25. Yang, W. B., Mu, H. Z., Huang, Y. C. (2003) Treatment of black liquor from the paper making industry by acidification and reuse. J. Environ. Sci. 15(5): 697-700 26. Mohamed Ibrahim, M. N., Chuah, S. B., Rosli, W. D. W. (2004) Characterisation of lignin precipitated from the soda black liquor of oil palm empty fruit bunch fibers by various mineral acids. AJSTD. 21(1):57-67 27. Tonucci, L., Coccia, F., Bressan, M., D‘Alessandro, N. (2012) Mild photocatalysed and catalyzed green oxidation of lignin: a useful pathway to low-molecular-weight derivatives. Waste and Biomass Valorization, 3, 165–174 28. Shende, A., Jaswal, R., Harder-Heinz, D., Menan, A., Shende, R. (2012). Intergrated photocatalytic and microbial degradation of kraft lignin. Cleantech, 120–123 29. Sun, R. C., Sun, X. F., Fowler, P., Tomkinson, J. (2002) Structural and physico-chemical characterisation of lignins solubilised during alkaline peroxide treatment of barley straw. Eur. Polym. J. 38(7), 1399-1407

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Waste Management & Resource Utilisation www.iswmaw.com

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Tannery Solid Waste: A New Raw Material for Rubber Sole Manufacture P. Yuvaraj, J. Raghava Rao, N. Nishad Fathima* Chemical laboratory, CSIR-Central Leather Research Institute, Adyar, Chennai, India *Corresponding Author: Email- [email protected] ABSTRACT Limed fleshing is generated as waste during the leather processing. Disposal of fleshing waste is a major environmental concern for tanners across the world. In this study, fleshing waste has been converted into activated carbon after pre-treatment. The activated carbon developed from fleshing waste has been used as filler for rubber sole manufacture. Rubber industry uses carbon black as filler material for tyre tread and rubber sole manufacturing process and carbon black is carcinogenic to humans. The activated carbon prepared from fleshing waste has been characterized for its various properties including pore size and its potential for manufacture of rubber soles has been explored in this study. The presence of CaO in the activated carbon from limed fleshing can act as cross linking agent with rubber and improve the vulcanization of rubber. The Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET) and Langmuir surface area of activated carbon was determined and a gradual increase in the both BET and Langmuir surface area when the temperature of the experiment increased from 400 to 800 °C was observed. The physical properties of the rubber were examined and compared with carbon black blended styrenebutadiene rubber (SBR). Hence, a viable and sustainable solution for solid waste emanating from tanneries is presented Keywords: solid waste; fleshing; rubber sole; activated carbon; International Society of Waste Management, Air and Water

1.0 Introduction The leather industry has significant role in the global economy, which is transform the putrefiable hide/skin into chemically and physically stable material. The process of making raw hide/skin into leather involves many steps, during the process large amount of solid and liquid waste are generated. These waste byproducts contain variable amounts of protein and are currently land filled due to their low economic value. Treatment of solid leather waste is challenging issue for the tanners, from the Leather industry processes 6.8 million tons of wet salted hides and skins worldwide in a year. It generates about 75-80% of solid wastes during processing. This solid waste consists of mainly fleshing 50-60 %; chrome shaving, chrome split and buffing dust 35-40 % skin trimming 5-7 %; and hair 2-5 %. This waste are generated in different levels, 80 % of waste generated in beam house, 19 % of waste generated in tanning and 1 % is coming out from finishing operations1-3. Fleshing is major solid waste generated from tanneries, this portentous waste converted into useful products, it can be used as source for production of glue and gelatin preparation. Biodiesel can be prepared from leather industry fleshing wastes 4. Fleshing waste used as adsorbent for removal of chrome (VI) by cross-linked with iron5. Fleshing hydrolysate was prepared from limed fleshings by an alkali digestion method6. However glue/gelatin preparation from fleshing involves 797

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high initial investment, maintenance cost and energy intensive, even tons of fleshing waste is dumped. Hence the new method can able to treat huge amount of fleshing waste into useful product. On the other hand In the rubber industry various type of reinforcing fillers are used to improve the physical strength of vulcanized rubber. Carbon black (CB) is the one of the main reinforcing filler, which is widely used in rubber industries7. Carbon black as a filler gives required durability and strength to rubber products for longer lifetime and greatly improved performance. Carbon black dispenses and absorbs stress applied to a rubber component and increases its tensile strength, tear strength and abrasion resistance8. Carbon black also finds usage in black dyes, pigment and coatings, and also in plastics. Now a day, the use of carbon black in rubber industry is restricted due to their environmental impact. Carbon black is classified as Group 2B carcinogenic agent, the agent possibly carcinogenic to humans beings9. In this study the tannery solid waste namely limed fleshing has been taken as source for the preparation of activated carbon. Lime (Ca(OH)2) present in the fleshing was decompose into Calcium Oxide (CaO) and water. The physical properties of the rubber were examined and compare with carbon black blended NBR. 2.0 Experimental Section 2.1. Preparation of Activated Carbon About 25 kg of cow fleshing waste was collected from tannery and washed thoroughly with plain water for several times to remove the loosely adhering debris such as hair, dung, etc. Then the washed fleshing was taken in the tanning drum to reduce the pH of fleshing around 7 to 7.5. Then the fleshing was degreased with 1% degreasing agent for 1 hour to remove excess fat present in the fleshing. Then fleshing was washed well with water and cut into small pieces. Dehydration was fleshing was performed with acetone-water mixture (30, 50, 70 and 100%). The dehydrated fleshing was dried under vacuum of 600 mm/Hg at 62 ºC for 1 hour. Then the vacuum dried fleshing were ground into fine powder with mesh size of 3 mm. The weight of 100.03 g of pre-processed fleshing waste powder was tightly packed with Quartz crucible and kept at the centre of the horizontal furnace. The quartz tube was closed tightly with silicone rubber septum and purged with 100 mL/min of N2 for 10 min to ensure that inert conditions in the tube. The furnace was heated at a rate of 5 ºC/min to the final temperature of 800 ºC with continues flow of N2 25 mL/min for the retention time of 2 hours. The obtained char was ball milled for 2 hours in both direction and washed with hot water for several time and dried in hot air oven at 110 ºC for 2 hours to get calcium oxide embedded activated carbon that is The fleshing waste activated carbon (FWAC). This activated carbon was characterized by XRD and BET surface analysis. 2.2. Rubber sole preparation. The rubber sole was prepared by blending of NBR with other ingredient which is listed in Table 1. The uniform blending of rubber with filler (Carbon black or activated carbon) was performed in roller mill and the curing of rubber was done at 160 °C temperature and a 150 psi pressure for 15 min. Physical testing of rubber samples measured by Shoe and Allied Trade Research Association (SATRA) method. Table 1: Rubber formulation for conventional and experimental Ingredient

Control phr*

Experiment phr*

NBR

100

100

ZnO

3

3

Activated carbon

-

35

Carbon black

35

-

Steric acid

0.2

0.2

MBTS

1.25

1.25 798

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Ingredient

Control phr*

Experiment phr*

DPG

0.7

0.7

TMTD

0.8

0.8

TDQ

0.8

0.8

Sulphur

1.3

1.3

*parts per hundred

3.0 Results and Discussion 3.1. Characterization of Activated Carbon. The characterization of prepared activated carbon was analysed by X-ray Diffraction (XRD), Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) and BET surface area analysis. XRD-analysis of commercial and limed fleshing waste activated carbon is shown in Fig. 1. The experimental results show that the amorphous nature of the commercial activated carbon and crystalline nature of fleshing activated carbon. The crystalline nature of FWAC is due to the presence of calcium oxide in the carbon 10. The lime (Ca(OH)2) present in the fleshings contributes to the CaO in the activated carbon. On pyrolysis at 800 °C Ca(OH)2 decompose in to water and CaO11.

Figure 1: XRD spectra of commercial activated carbon and fleshing waste activated carbon

Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) image of prepared activated carbon shows presence of white particle along with carbon confirming the presence of CaO in the activated carbon (Fig. 2). CaO present in the activated carbon acts as a cross linking agent with rubber and improves the vulcanization properties of rubber12. This CaO involves in the ionic bond with NBR13. The Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET) and Langmuir surface area of activated carbon was determined and given in table 2. There is gradual increase in both BET and Langmuir surface are when the temperature of the pyrolysis increase from 400 to 800 °C. Table 2: BET and Langmuir surface area of activated carbon prepared at different temperature.

Sample

BET surface area (m2/g)

Langmuir surface area (m2/g)

1.

PAC-400

4.3768

6.8603

2.

PAC-500

14.0817

21.1643

3.

PAC-600

34.2382

50.5088

4.

PAC-800

51.1371

78.6429

Sl. No.

799

P. Yuvaraj et al. / Waste Management & Resource Utilisation 2016

Figure 2: SEM image of CaO embedded activated carbon

3.2. Sole preparation Rubber samples prepared with different filler are shown in Fig. 3. The sample with activated carbon prepared at 500 °C shows non-uniform surface (Fig.3a). This is due to the presence of volatile organic matter in the activated carbon, which is an escape during the process of curing. The carbon prepared at 800 °C blended with NBR gives good vulcanized rubber samples(Fig. 3b) like conventional filler carbon black blended rubber(Fig 3c). This may be due to the complete carbonization 550-850 °C.10 The formation of cross linker, CaO is formed above 512 °C. The physical testing value of rubber samples are given in Table 3. The physical test results reviles that the physical strength of CaO embedded activated carbon as filler for rubber compounding is matches with the carbon black blended rubber sample. The physical properties fall within the recommended value, except the abrasion resistance. This may be due to the particle size of prepared activated carbon, which is little higher than that of conventional carbon black. The particle size of prepared activated carbon is less than 1µm, but the conventional carbon black is in the range of 20 to 300 nm14.

(a)

(b)

(c)

Figure 3: (a). NBR with activated carbon prepared at 500 °C, (b) NBR with activated carbon prepared at 800 °C (c) NBR with carbon black Table 3: Physical properties of the rubber sole made from FWAC and carbon black Experiment

Control

Hardness Shore, A

68-72

69-76

Recommendation For vulcanized Rubber 60-88

Density, g/cc

1.19

1.18

Max 1.25

Tensile strength, N/mm2

9.0

9.5

Min 8

Properties

Test Method SATRA TM 206: 1999 TM 68:1992 TM 137: 1995 800

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Properties

379

Recommendation For vulcanized Rubber Min 300

Test Method SATRA TM 137: 1995

23.0

26.8

Min 8

TM 228: 1999

2.4

2.5

Max 30

TM 64: 1996

0.007

0.0007

0.0013

TM 60: 1992

173

136

Max 150

TM 174: 1994

Experiment

Control

Elongation at break, %

398

Tear strength, N/mm Compression set, % Flexing resistance, mm/kc Abrasion resistance, volume loss, %

4.0 Conclusion In this work, an attempt was made to derive eco-friendly fillers of quality as good as that of the conventional carbon black. Also their applicability in sole fabrication and sole performance characteristics were studied subsequently to highlight the commercial importance of the synthesized product. Limed fleshing chosen for synthesizing the eco-friendly carbon based filler, leads to reduction in the pollution load, since they are one among the major solid wastes generated from the leather industry. Structural characterization of the developed product reveals the crystalline nature of the carbon which is due to the presence of CaO (from lime). The presence of CaO contributes to the novelty of the obtained product since it acts as crosslinking agent thus improving the vulcanization property of rubber. SEM studies also confirmed the existence of CaO along with carbon. BET and Langmuir surface area analysis correlated the effect of pyrolysis temperature to the surface area of the product, thus contributing to the optimization of experimental conditions. It was found that the product obtained at a pyrolysis temperature of 800°C has surface area similar to that of the commercial product available in market. The study of physical properties of the sole with CaO-AC as filler reveals that the product has characteristics matching to that of the commercial sole available. However, the abrasion resistance property needs to be improved which can be achieved by further optimizing the experimental conditions. Thus the solid waste problem generated from tanneries has been internalised by converting them into rubber soles for shoe manufacture.

Acknowledgments The authors thank CSIR 12th Five-year plan project—Zero Emission Research Initiatives in Solid wastes (ZERIS- CSC0103) for financial support. The authors wish to express their thankfulness to Mr. A. Shanmugasundaram and Mr. Sathasiva Shastri for their help in production of carbon, Mr. Kannan Babu for his help in sole preparation. Reference 1. 2.

3. 4. 5.

6. 7.

Langmaier, F.; Mokrejs, P.; Karnas, R.; Mladek, M.; Kolomazna¬k, K., Modification of chrome tanned leather waste hydrolysate with epichlorhydrin. Journal-Society of Leather Technologists and Chemists 2006, 90, (1), 29. Cabeza, L. F.; Taylor, M. M.; DiMaio, G. L.; Brown, E. M.; Marmer, W. N.; Carrió, R.; Celma, P. J.; Cot, J., Processing of leather waste: pilot scale studies on chrome shavings. Isolation of potentially valuable protein products and chromium. Waste Management 1998, 18, (3), 211-218. Veeger, L., Ecological Procedure to Solve the Tannery Waste Problems. Journal of American leather chemist association. 1993, 88 (9), 326. Getahun, E.; Gabiyye, N., Experimental investigation and characterization of biodiesel production from leather industry fleshing wastes. International Journal of Renewable and Sustainable Energ 2013, 2, (3), 120-129. Fathima, N. N.; Aravindhan, R.; Rao, J. R.; Nair, B. U., Solid Waste Removes Toxic Liquid Waste: Adsorption of Chromium(VI) by Iron Complexed Protein Waste. Environmental Science & Technology 2005, 39, (8), 28042810. Simeonova, L. S.; Dalev, P. G., Utilization of a leather industry waste. Waste Management 1996, 16, (8), 765769. Medalia, A. I., Effect of Carbon Black on Dynamic Properties of Rubber Vulcanizates. Rubber Chemistry and Technology 1978, 51, (3), 437-523. 801

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8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14.

Rattanasom, N.; Saowapark, T.; Deeprasertkul, C., Reinforcement of natural rubber with silica/carbon black hybrid filler. Polymer Testing 2007, 26, (3), 369-377. Baan, R.; Straif, K.; Grosse, Y.; Secretan, B.; El Ghissassi, F.; Cogliano, V., Carcinogenicity of carbon black, titanium dioxide, and talc. The Lancet Oncology 7, (4), 295-296. Wei, T.; Wang, M.; Wei, W.; Sun, Y.; Zhong, B., Synthesis of dimethyl carbonate by transesterification over CaO/carbon composites, Green Chemistry, 5 (2003) 343-346. Lu, H.; Reddy, E.P.; Smirniotis, P.G., Calcium Oxide Based Sorbents for Capture of Carbon Dioxide at High Temperatures, Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research, 45 (2006) 3944-3949. Smith, W.R.; Thornhill, F.S.; Bray, R.I., Surface Area and Properties of Carbon Black, Industrial & Engineering Chemistry, 33 (1941) 1303-1307. Ibarra, L.; Alzorriz, M., Ionic elastomers based on carboxylated nitrile rubber and calcium oxide, Journal of Applied Polymer Science, 87 (2003) 805-813. Hong, C.; Kim, H.; Ryu, C.; Nah, C.; Huh, Y.; Kaang, S., Effects of particle size and structure of carbon blacks on the abrasion of filled elastomer compounds, J Mater Sci, 42 (2007) 8391-8399.

Abbreviations FWAC MBTS DPQTMTDTDQ-

- Fleshing waste activated carbon - 2,2‘-Dibenzothiazyl Disulfide 3,3‘,5,5‘-tetramethyldiphenoquinone Tetramethylthiuram Disulfide 2,2,4-trimethyl-1,2-dihydroquinoline

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Granulated Blast Furnace Slag – A Boon for Foundry Industry I. Narasimha Murthy, J. Babu Rao* Department of Metallurgical Engineering, Andhra University, Visakhapatnam, India *Corresponding Author: Email- [email protected] ABSTRACT In the present investigation efforts have been made to use Granulated Blast furnace (GBF) slag as mould material for either full or partial replacement of existing silica sand in foundry industry both ferrous and non ferrous foundry industry. For this an exothermic self hardening process named as Nishiyama process (or) Fe-Si process was used. Process parameters considered for this were % of Sodium silicate, % of Fe-Si powder and mould setting time. A series of sand tests were carried out on sand and slag. Two types of commonly used automobile parts of toothed gear wheel and connecting rod was selected as patterns. Two types of moulds were made with sand and slag individually with optimum process parameters. A356 (Al-Si) alloy and grey cast iron castings were performed on these newly developed slag moulds. Results reveal that the mould permeability, compression and shear strength of GBF slag is a suitable candidate for either partial or full replacement of molding sand. During casting neither fusing, no dripping nor collapse of the mould walls was observed; this is true for both ferrous and non ferrous castings. Castings with good surface finish, no surface defects and porosity were made by slag moulds. Keywords: Silica sand; Blast Furnace Slag; Mould properties; Ferrous and nonferrous castings; International Society of Waste Management, Air and Water

1.0 Introduction Silica sand is an essential raw material for the production of cast components in foundry industries. The growing demand of sand results in non-availability of good quality sand and deposits of natural sand are being exhausted which create an extreme menace to the environment. To safeguard the environment, efforts are being made for using industrial waste in foundry applications for conserving natural resources and reduce the cost of the raw materials [1-3]. Blast furnace (BF) slag is an industrial solid waste generate from the iron and steel industries. More than 10 million tons of blast furnace slag is produced in India annually as a byproduct of Iron and Steel Industry. It has been observed that the produced BF slag which in huge quantities is dumped in the dump yard and only half of the quantity is used for production of cement and for laying roads [4]. In view of the large quantity of slag availability, having similar physical and chemical properties with silica sand the BF slag can be used as a moulding material in foundry industry [5]. Hence, present investigations are focused to evaluate the suitability of BF slag as an alternative mold material in both ferrous and non-ferrous foundries. Exothermic self hardening process named as Nishiyama process (or) Fe-Si process was used for the same. This process comprises the mixing of sodium silicate and ferrosilicon powder with mould ingredients. The mould is hardened and bonded with the reaction product obtained by exothermic reaction between sodium silicate and ferro silicon powder. This reaction takes place all the parts of the mould simultaneously which lead to uniform hardening throughout the mould, and this is achieved without a gassing operation [6, 7]. The process parameters considered for this investigation were % of Sodium silicate, % Fe-Si powder and mould hardening time. 803

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2.0 Materials and Methods In the present investigation, two types of materials, namely high silica sand and Granulated Blast Furnace (GBF) slag was chosen. Silica sand is the principle molding sand used in foundry industries. It was procured from Chirala, Andhra Pradesh, India and Blast furnace slag in granulated form, sodium silicate and Ferro Silicon alloy procured from Visakhapatnam Steel Plant, Visakhapatnam, India. Ferro silicon is further converted from lumps to powder form to 35 micron size and added as a binder material for mold making. Preheating of the Silica Sand and granulated blast furnace slag (GBF) particulates were carried out in a muffle furnace at 3000 C for 3 hours to get rid of the any moisture presence in them. Later on these materials were investigated for their chemical and physical properties. Figure 1 show the sand and slag particles used for this study. The physical, chemical and thermal properties of silica sand and GBF slag were analyzed and same was presented in earlier publication [8]. The summary of the some of the properties was given in table 1 & 2.

Figure 1: Materials used for investigation: (a) Silica sand (b) GBF Slag Table 1: Chemical composition of Silica Sand and GBF Slag, wt % Material

SiO2

CaO

FeO

Al2O3

MgO

MnO

Cr2O3

TiO2

CaS

Silica Sand

96.62

0.57

1.02

1.54

0.57

-

-

-

-

GBF Slag

34.23

34.34

0.37

18.92

9.67

0.34

-

0.72

1.46

Table 2: Physical properties of the Chirala Silica Sand and Granulated Blast furnace slag Physical Properties Sl. No

Material

1

Sand

2

GBF Slag

Grain Fineness Number (GFN)

PH

Density (gm/cc)

35.19

7.95

2.61

11.40

1.52

24.40 (As received condition) 35.65 (After processing)

2.1 Standard Specimen preparation Standard cylindrical test samples of Sand and GBF slag were prepared as per the AFS standards by using sand rammer. The various process parameters considered for this investigation were: % of Sodium silicate, % of Fe-Si powder, and mould setting time. In general, for silica sand moulds of Fe-Si process, the percentage of sodium silicate and Fe-Si powder will be used in the range of 2-6% and 0.5 to 2% respectively [9]; hence in the present investigation the similar range was chosen to evaluate and optimize the mould properties of slag and silica sand. The mixing of the mould materials was done using a laboratory size Muller (mixer) (model: Ridsdale and Co. Ltd. with serial No.845). For each batch, one kilogram of these two mould ingredients 804

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namely silica sand and slag particles were taken individually; and separate studies were also carried out for various combinations of these two mixes. Predetermined quantities of sodium silicate and Fe-Si powder were added to the mould ingredients; mixing was done for five minutes. Standard test specimen of 50 mm X 50 mm size was made by using sand rammer. Multiple samples were prepared for thorough investigations of various mould properties. The prepared samples were allowed for self hardening in ambient atmosphere at room temperature for the duration of 24 hrs. Every two hours the mould properties were analyzed and same was reported. Figure 2 show the standard samples of GBF Slag and Silica Sand respectively.

(a)

(b)

Figure 2: Shows the standard samples of: (a) 100% Silica Sand (b) 100% GBF Slag and

2.2 Mould properties evaluation The specimens after self hardening at different time intervals up to 24 hrs were tested to evaluate various mould properties like permeability, hardness, compression and shear strength. Standard testing procedure was followed for all the tests. An average of three samples reading was considered to report the respective properties. Optimum mould properties were evaluated with various combinations of sodium silicate and Fe-Si additions in slag and sand moulds. 2.3 Melting and Casting practice Melting and casting practice of both ferrous and non ferrous castings was performed on these newly made GBF slag moulds to assess both physical and thermal stability of slag and sand moulds. For this study two types of moulds were selected, namely; Type 1: 100% Silica sand; and Type 2: 100% GBF slag. The optimum mould properties were obtained by addition of 10% sodium silicate along with 2% FeSi for GBF slag and 6% sodium silicate with 1.5% Fe-Si for sand moulds. These prepared moulds were made ready for casting of both ferrous and non ferrous materials. A 356 (Al-Si) alloy and gray cast iron has been chosen in non ferrous and ferrous castings respectively. Two types of patterns namely toothed gear wheel and connecting rod were chosen and aimed to cast the same. Cope and drag as well as split pattern was used for preparing the mould with mould cavity. Ingots of 500 grams in weight of each material was taken in a graphite crucible and melted separately in a high temperature melting furnace at 750 and 1400 OC for Al-Si alloy (A356) and gray cast iron respectively. The molten metal was allowed to fill in the mould cavities via sprue, runner and in gates; care was taken to ensure continuous and smooth flow of the liquid metal while filling in the mould cavities. Riser was placed in the mould to ensure complete mould cavity filling. After cooling the castings were withdrawn from mould boxes and same was undergone for further quality inspection. 3.0 Results and Discussion 3.1 Particles bonding studies through SEM Figure 3 (a & b) shows the SEM images of grain surfaces and a bonding bridge developed by sodium silicate with Fe-Si Powder as binder for Sand and GBF slag moulds respectively. In Fe-Si process, silica sand is hardened and bonded with the reaction product obtained by exothermic reaction between sodium silicate and ferro-silicon powder; it will led to improvement of wettability of grain 805

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particles (adhesion) and strengthening of binder bridges (cohesion), which allowed to harden the grains interface. This figure also shows the binding bridges between the particles of sand and GBF Slag in respective moulds. During curing process, sodium silicate glass coating was observed around the particles and forms bridges at the contact between the particles with foaming action around it, which can be clearly visible from the obtained SEM images of the moulds under investigation, figure 3 (a & b). In this process sodium silicate and Fe-Si powder are mixed in a weight ratio of 2.25:1. The presence of these two in the mould foaming action takes place and the temperature rises simultaneously, reaching a boiling condition at about 90oC. During the chemical action, steam and hydrogen are liberated. The reactions taking place are [10, 11]: Na2OnSiO2 + H2O ------ SiO2 + 2NaOH ------

(1)

2NaOH+Si + H2O

(2)

-------

Na2O.mSiO2 + 2H2 -------------

It observed that the equilibrium of reaction (1) is disturbed by the presence of silicon, leading to reaction (2) with the result that the mixture is hardens. This reaction continues as long as silicon and water are present. If silicon is added more almost all the water are present is dispelled by decomposition and evaporation. At room temperature this reaction takes place slowly but once temperature is increased, the reaction accelerates and finally the products of reaction form a hard spongy mass.

(a)

(b)

Figure 3: SEM images of grain surfaces and a bonding bridge developed by sodium silicate with 2% Fe-Si: (a) 100% Sand (b) 100% GBF slag

3.2 Evaluation of Sand and GBF Slag mould properties Figures 4-7 shows the mould properties of silica sand and GBF slag respectively with various combinations of sodium silicate and Fe-Si additions at 24 hrs mould setting time. For sand moulds as per the existing Fe-Si practice, the sodium silicate was varied from 2-6% with various combinations of Fe-Si (0.5-2.0% with interval of 0.5%). To obtain the more or less similar of sand mould properties in GBF slag different combinations of sodium silicate and Fe-Si were examined. However, it was finally concluded to achieve same properties with the Sodium silicate and Fe-Si additions in the range of 8-12% and 0.5-2.0% (with intervals of 0.5%) respectively. These figures illustrate the clear and very well distinguished mould properties of hardness, compression, shear strength and permeability values for all the materials under investigation. In case of sand, enhanced mould properties like mould hardness, compression and shear strengths were obtained for lower Fe-Si content (up to 1.0%); these mould properties were further enhanced with higher sodium silicate additions. For above 1.0% Fe-Si interestingly decreased mould properties were noticed; this observation was true for all the sodium silicate additions, as shown in figures 4 (a), 5 (a) and 6 (a). This might be due to with increase of Fe-Si powder the mould curing reaction continues and almost all the water present in the mould is dispelled by decomposition and evaporation; hence mould becomes wet and leads to decrease in mould properties [12, 13].

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Interestingly, slag moulds also show rising mould properties with increasing Fe-Si content. This increase was further high for higher sodium silicate additions up to10%; later it was dropped for 12% sodium silicate, as shown in figures 4 (b), 5 (b) and 6 (b). This might be due to higher sodium silicate with more Fe-Si addition lead to wetting of the mould hence lower mould properties. One more interesting observation was GBF slag moulds show slow pick up of the mould properties as compared to sand moulds. As anticipated lower permeability values were obtained with increase in Fe-Si addition up to 2% for both the moulds under investigation; this decreasing trend was further suffered with higher sodium silicate additions (figure 7 (a& b)); this might be due to the more closure of the pores for higher binder additions. However, slag moulds shows more or less similar permeability values with silica sand moulds.

(a)

(b)

Figure 4: Comparative mould hardness properties of: (a) 100% Sand (b) 100%GBF Slag

(a)

(b)

Figure 5: Comparative mould Compression Strength of: (a) 100% Sand (b) 100%GBF Slag

(a)

(b)

Figure 6: Comparative mould Shear Strength of: (a) 100% Sand (b) 100%GBF Slag 807

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(a)

(b)

Figure 7: Comparative mould Permeability of: (a) 100% Sand (b) 100%GBF Slag

Further studies have been carried out to assess the stability of slag mould properties with bench life; and same was observed for every two hours time intervals up to 24 hrs. The obtaned results were shown in table 3. Interestingly all the mould properties shows significant increasing trend over a period of mould bench life; later these were stabilized and same values were retained even after 24 hrs duration. Incase of permeability, for prolonged times both sand and slag moulds shows slightly decrseasing trend; however this value was well below the accepted range for both ferrous and non ferrous castings. In conclusion, even after prolonged duration (24 hrs) slag moulds retain more or less similar mould properties with sand. Table 3: Shows the mould properties of 100% silica sand with the addition of 6% sodium silicate & 1.5% Fe-Si powder; and 100% GBF Slag moulds with the addition of 10% sodium silicate & 2% Fe-Si powder at various mould setting times.

Sl.

1.

2.

Mould Materials

Sand

GBF Slag

Mould setting time, hrs. Property 1

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

18

20

24

Hardness

90

96

98

98

98

98

98

98

98

98

98

98

Dry Compression strength (psi)

92

96

96

96

96

96

96

96

96

96

96

96

Dry shear strength (psi)

55

75

75

75

75

75

75

75

75

75

75

75

Permeability number

650

650

650

650

650

650

650

450

450

450

450

450

Hardness

90

90

96

96

96

96

96

98

98

98

98

98

Dry Compression strength (psi)

16

30

44

54

58

60

75

80

85

90

90

90

Dry shear strength (psi)

10

29

43

55

65

70

70

70

70

70

75

75

Permeability number

480

480

470

470

350

350

350

350

350

350

350

350

3.3 Melting and Casting Practice of A356 Aluminum alloy and Grey Cast Iron Figures 8-11 shows the various stages in mould preparation, casting procedure and cast products of A356 alloy and gray cast iron respectively of sand and GBF slag as mould materials. From these figures it was evident that the prepared sand and slag moulds have optimum mould hardness with mould cavities of 808

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accurate size and shape. The standard metal casting practice was adopted by placing the runner and riser in the moulds. The molten metal was allowed in the preheated mould cavities via sprue, runner and gating system. Consistent and uninterrupted molten metal was filled in the mould cavities. The finished casting components of sand and slag have evident that very less amount of mould ingredients were stick to the casting surfaces. All these castings show good surface finish with no surface defects; these also reveal good dimensional accuracy. Further castings made with slag moulds with and without sand mixing shows cleaned surface finish on par with the sand castings. It has been observed that no mould walls collapse, neither dripping nor fusing of mould ingredients was occurred both in slag or sand moulds; this was evident for all the alloys under investigation. It was noticed that mould collapsibility of 100% slag mould was as good as of either sand or mixed mould. Further after machining, no porosity or any other surface defects were noticed on all these castings. Finally a smooth surface, defects free and good dimensional accuracy castings were able to produce by these three moulds under investigation.

Figure 8: Melting & Casting of A 356 aluminium alloy castings by 100% Sand mould– Fe-Si process: (a) Mould with cavities (b) Molten metal pouring into mould cavity (c) Cast products of Gear wheel and Connecting rods

Figure 9: Melting & Casting of A 356 aluminium alloy castings by 100% GBF Slag mould – Fe-Si process: (a) Mould with cavities (b) Molten metal pouring into mould cavity (c) Cast products of Gear wheel and Connecting rods

Figure 10: Melting & Casting of Grey Cast iron castings by 100% Sand mould – Fe-Si process: (a) Mould with cavities (b) Molten metal pouring into mould cavity (c) Cast products of Gear wheel and Connecting rods

809

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Figure 11: Melting & Casting of Grey Cast iron castings by 100% GBF Slag mould – Fe-Si process: (a) Mould with cavities (b) Molten metal pouring into mould cavity (c) Cast products of Gear wheel and Connecting rods

4.0 Conclusions The obtained GBF slag moulding properties are on par with the silica sand. Optimum mould properties were retained even after prolonger mould setting time (24 hrs). SEM micrographs evident that a uniform binder coat was existed on both sand and GBF slag particles. The prepared sand and slag moulds have optimum mould hardness with mould cavities of accurate size and shape. Both ferrous and non ferrous castings were performed successfully. All these castings show good surface finish with no surface defects; these also reveal good dimensional accuracy. Concluding, GBF slag can be used as an alternative for moulding sand in both ferrous (cast irons) and non ferrous castings. 5.0 Acknowledgements The authors thank the DST –Fly Ash Unit - New Delhi, India for their financial support and Department of Metallurgical Engineering, Andhra University College of Engineering, Visakhapatnam, India for providing necessary support in conducting the experiments and Special thanks to RINL, Visakhapatnam Steel Plant, Visakhapatnam, India for supply of GBF slag for this study. References 1. 2.

3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

9. 10. 11. 12. 13.

Al-Jabri, K.S., Hisada, M., Al-Oraimi, S.K., Al-Saidy, A.H., 2009. Copper slag as sand replacement for high performance concrete. Journal of Cement and Concrete Research. 31; 483– 488. Manoj Kumar Dash , Sanjaya Kumar Patro, Ashoke Kumar Rath, 2016. Sustainable use of industrial-waste as partial replacement of fine aggregate for preparation of concrete, International Journal of Sustainable Built Environment, In press. Kothai, P.S., Malathy, R., 2014. Utilization of steel slag in concrete as a partial replacement material for fine aggregates. Int. J. Innovative Res. Sci. Eng. Technol. 3(4); 1585–1592. Svyazhin A.G., Shakhapazov E. Kh., Romanovich D.A., 1998. Recycling of Slags in Ferrous Metallurgy, Metallurgist, 42; 129-132. Reginald Bashforth, G, 1973, The manufacture of Iron and Steel; Iron Production –B.I. Publications, New Delhi, India; 1, 122, -130. ASM Handbook- Casting, March 1998, vol - 15, ASM International. Takio Nishiyama, Ichikawa-shi, Chiba-ken, et al. Nov 23, 1965, Fabrication of Exothermic, Self-Hardening Mold, USA Patent Office, file no. 3,218,683. Narasimha Murthy. I, Babu Rao, J, 2016, Investigations on Physical and Chemical Properties of High Silica Sand, Fe-Cr Slag and Blast Furnace Slag for Foundry Applications, International Journal of Procedia Environmental Sciences , 35, 583 – 596. Xiao Bo, Xu Zhengda, Wang Xiuping, et al. 1995. A new method for the investigation of binding properties of silicate-sand. Journal of Hubei Polytechnic University, 10; 6-9. ASM Handbook- Casting, 1998. Volume - 15, ASM International. Takio Nishiyama, Ichikawa-shi, Chiba-ken, et al. 1965. Fabrication of Exothermic, Self-Hardening Mold, USA Patent Office, file no. 3, 218, 683, Nov.23 LaFay V., 2015. Application of no-bake sodium silicate binder systems, International journal of metal casting, AFS Transactions 6 (3); 19-26. Polasek B, Garai I, Vessley L., 1981. Dry reclamation of self setting Sodium silicate bonded sands hardened with Esterol at the foundry of MZ Hrence, Sleverenstvi, 29; 76-79. 810

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Investigation on Moulding Properties of Blast Furnace Slag and Silica Sand I. Narasimha Murthy, J Babu Rao* Department of Metallurgical Engineering, Andhra University, Visakhapatnam, India *Corresponding Author: Email- [email protected] ABSTRACT Investigations were carried out on suitability of Granulated blast furnace (GBF) slag an industrial waste as mould material for replacement of existing silica sand in foundry industry. Owing to the superiority, Sodium Silicate-CO2 process was adopted for evaluating the same; percentage of sodium silicate and CO2 gassing time was considered as process parameters. A series of sand tests were performed on silica sand, slag individually and combinations of these two. Three types of moulds were made with slag, silica sand individually and combination of these two with optimum percentage of sodium silicate and CO2 gassing. A356 alloy and grey cast iron castings were performed on these sand and slag moulds. Results reveal that the slag mould properties were on par with the silica sand. During casting slag moulds did not suffer any burning or fusing tendency; this is true for both ferrous and non-ferrous castings. Good surface finish castings with no surface defects were made by sand and slag moulds. Keywords: Silica sand; GBF slag; CO2 process; Mould properties; Ferrous & non-ferrous castings; International Society of Waste Management, Air and Water

1.0 Introduction Silica sand is traditionally used in the foundry applications as a moulding material. Due to the depletion of natural materials, there is a need to find suitable alternative material, which will replace the conventional materials. The large scale industrialization has resulted accumulation of huge amount of industrial wastes, endangering the environment in terms of land, air and water pollution. In order to use the industrial waste in huge quantities efforts are being made to use the same as a substitute of natural resources. Various efforts have been made to use industrial solid wastes like fly ash, red mud, blast furnace slag etc. in civil and construction works. Blast furnace (BF) slag is an industrial solid waste generate from the iron and steel industries. More than 10 million tons of blast furnace slag is produced in India annually as a byproduct of Iron and Steel Industry. Granulated blast furnace (GBF) slag is obtained by quenching molten iron slag (a byproduct of iron making) from a blast furnace in water or steam, to produce a glassy and granular product. This slag is composed of silicates and alumino-silicates of lime and other bases. It has been observed that the produced GBF slag which in huge quantities is dumped in the dump yard and then later used for laying roads mostly in the plant itself, but this practical purpose is only limited in its consumption of slag. In view of the large quantity of slag availability, having similar physical and chemical properties with silica sand and non-availability of literature on GBF slag usage in foundry industry; present investigations are focused to evaluate the suitability of GBF slag as an alternative mould material in both ferrous and non-ferrous 811

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foundries. The development of Sodium Silicate- CO2 process of mould making about thirty years ago marked the advent of an epoch-making era in foundry practice [1, 2]. Owing to the superiority, Sodium Silicate- CO2 process was adopted for evaluating the suitability of GBF slag as mould material for either full or partial replacement of existing silica sand. Percentage of Sodium silicate and CO2 gassing time was considered as process parameters for this investigation. 2.0 Materials and Methods In the present investigation two types of materials namely high Silica sand and Granulated Blast Furnace (GBF) slag has been chosen. Silica sand was procured from Chirala, Andhra Pradesh, India. Blast furnace slag in granulated form procured from Visakhapatnam Steel Plant, Visakhapatnam, India. Preheating of the Silica Sand and granulated blast furnace slag (GBF) particulates were carried out in a muffle furnace at 3000 C for 3 hours to get rid of the any moisture presence in them. Later on these materials were investigated for their chemical and physical properties [3]. 2.1 Standard Specimen preparation Standard samples of Sand, GBF slag and combination of these two were prepared as per the AFS standards by using sand rammer. The process parameters considered for this investigation were %of Sodium silicate, CO2 gassing time, and mould setting time. In general, for silica sand moulds the percentage of sodium silicate will be used in the range of 5-8% [4]; hence in the present investigation the similar range was chosen to evaluate and optimize the mould properties of Slag and silica sand individually; and with a combination of these two. The average grain fineness number (GFN) of Chirala sand and GBF slag which was used in the present study was 35.19 and 35.65 respectively. The mixing of the mould materials was done using a laboratory size Muller (mixer) (model: Ridsdale and Co. Ltd.). For each batch, one kilogram of these two mould ingredients namely silica sand and slag particles were taken individually; studies were also carried out for various combinations of these two mixes. Sodium silicate content was varied from 6 to 10%; mixing was done for five minutes. Standard test specimen of 50 mm X 50 mm size was made by using sand rammer. Multiple samples were prepared for thorough investigations of various mould properties. CO2 gas was allowed to pass on these samples in a closed container to attain the hard mould properties. The CO2 gas allowing time was varied from 5 to 20 seconds; care was to taken to ensure uniform pressure and flow rate of CO2 gassing throughout the process. Figure 1 show the standard samples of Slag, Silica Sand and mixture of these two respectively.

Figure 1: Shows the standard samples of: (a) 100% Silica Sand (b) 100% GBF Slag and (c) 50% GBF slag

+50% Silica sand 812

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2.2 Evaluation of mould properties The specimens after passing the CO2 gas were tested to evaluate various mould properties like permeability, hardness, compression and shear strengths. AFS Standard testing procedure was followed for all the tests. An average of three samples reading was considered to report the respective properties. For every two hours of time interval up to 24 hrs the values were reported. 2.3 Melting and Casting practice Melting and casting practice of both A356 alloy and grey cast iron castings was performed on these GBF slag moulds (with and without sand mixing); to evaluate both physical and thermal stability of slag and sand moulds. For this study three types of moulds of Silica sand, GBF slag individually and equal mixtures of GBF slag and Sand were selected. The optimum mould properties were obtained by addition of 10% sodium silicate along with a CO2 gassing of 15-20 seconds duration. This work is first of its kind; hence, only regular shaped cylindrical castings (18 X 180 mm diameter and length respectively) are aimed to cast. Cope and drag as well as split pattern was used for preparing the mould with mould cavity. Ingots of 500 grams in weight of each material was taken in a graphite crucible and melted separately in a high temperature melting furnace at 750 and 1400 OC for Al-Si alloy (A356) and gray cast iron respectively. The molten metal was allowed to fill in the mould cavities via sprue, runner and in gates; care was taken to ensure continuous and smooth flow of the liquid metal while filling in the mould cavities. Riser was placed in the mould to ensure complete mould cavity filling. After cooling the castings were withdrawn from mould boxes and same was undergone for further quality inspection. 2

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

3.1 Evaluation of Sand and GBF Slag mould properties Figure 2 (a-c) shows the SEM images of grain surfaces and a bonding bridge developed by sodium silicate with CO2 gassing for 100% Sand, 100% GBF slag and combinations of 50% sand + 50% GBF slag respectively. During mould making the individual either sand or slag grains covered with a thin coating of sodium silicate; these are made to tie with each other in the process. In all the three moulds, a silica gel coat existed continuously along the grain surfaces as well as in between the grains; which hold the particles firmly and lead to improved mould properties. The familiar strength, measured as a gross property, is the manifestation of a large number of bonds within the mould mass. In the simple picture of a bond between two grains, the strength is a function of the adhesion of bond medium to the surface of the grains and the cohesion of the materials forming the bond. Lack of strength can result when any one is low or both are low. Adhesion is dependent on the interfacial phenomenon between bond medium and grain structure whereas cohesion is governed by structural strength of medium [5, 6]. The principle of working of the CO2 process is based on the fact that if CO2 gas is passed through a sand mix containing sodium silicate as the binder, immediate hardening the mould materials (either sand or slag) takes place as result of the chemical action between sodium silicate and CO2. The chemical reactions taking place are of complex nature, though the main reaction can be represented in simplified form as [7]: Na2O X mSiO2 X xH2O + CO2  Na2CO3 + mSiO2 X xH2O ------- (1) The SiO2 obtained from the reaction contains a certain number of water molecules and is represented as SiO2.xH2O, which is called silica gel. This silica gel is responsible for giving the necessary strength to the mould. It is essential to pass CO2 per predetermined length of time. The reaction proceeds rapidly in the early stages of gasification and the mould properties reach a maximum value when a certain critical amount of gas is passed. If gassing is continued further, the strength of the bond gets impaired [8, 9].

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(a)

(b)

(c)

Figure 2: SEM images of grain surfaces and a bonding bridge developed by sodium silicate with CO2 gassing: (a) 100% Sand (b) 100% GBF slag (c) 50% sand + 50% GBF slag

Tables 1& 2 shows the mould properties of silica sand and GBF slag respectively with variation of CO 2 gassing time at various sodium silicate additions. While increasing the CO2 gassing time, enhanced mould properties were revealed for all the 6-10% sodium silicate additions; this trend was continued up to 15 and 20 sec durations for sand and slag samples respectively. Interestingly, slag moulds show superior mould properties than silica sand; this might be due to the angular shape of the slag particles, which provides more surface area for binder lead to better interlocking between the particles and with the binder. In case of silica sand this phenomenon slightly lower due to the spherical nature of silica grains. Sand moulds show optimum mould properties at 8% sodium silicate with 15 sec CO2 gassing; and for slag the same was obtained at 10% sodium silicate with 20 sec CO2 gassing. As expected permeability values in both the samples were lowered for longer CO2 gassing and higher sodium silicate additions; this might be due to the more closure of the pores for longer CO2 gassing and higher binder additions. However, slag moulds shows higher permeability values than sand moulds for all the 6-10% Sodium silicate additions. Table 1: Various Mould properties of 100% Sand in CO2 Process

78

Compression strength (psi) 37

Shear Strength (psi) 41

10

83

50

53

348

15

89

51

54

332

4.

20

86

51

49

320

5.

5

92

43

48

348

10

96

54

61

330

15

98

59

63

325

8.

20

96

54

59

310

9.

5

84

28

16

200

10

82

39

29

145

15

85

43

43

102

20

78

38

42

100

Sl. No

% of Sodium Silicate

1. 2. 3.

6. 7.

10. 11. 12.

6

8

10

CO2 gas passing (Seconds) 5

Hardness

Permeability Number 348

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Table 2: Various Mould properties of 100% GBF Slag in CO2 Process

25

Compression strength (psi) 7

Shear Strength (psi) 5

10

36

12

10

420

15

60

21

14

420

20

71

29

19

400

5.

5

60

32

26

410

6.

10

76

43

28

400

15

78

59

32

380

8.

20

78

59

41

320

9.

5

70

48

28

420

10

79

59

41

375

15

90

63

53

280

20

90

79

59

240

% of Sodium Silicate

S. No 1. 2.

6

3. 4.

8

7.

10. 11.

10

12.

CO2 gas passing (Seconds) 5

Hardness

Permeability Number 450

Further studies have been carried out to assess the bench life stability of slag moulds; and same was observed by evaluating the mould properties for every two hours time intervals up to 24 hrs. The same was shown in table 3. All the mould properties shows significant increasing trend over a period of mould bench life; later these were stabilized and same values were retained even after 24 hrs duration. Slighlty decreased permeability values was observed for both the moulds; however this value of slag mould was higher than sand mould permeability. Concluding, enhanced mould properties of slag was retained; and this even better than sand properties. Table 4 shows the mould properties with various combination of sand and salg mixtures after 24 hrs duartion. Improved strengh properties with optmum permeability was obtained for higher slag content. Inparticular optmum properties were observed for 5060% slag onwarads. In case of permeability, 20% slag onwards significant improved values were noticed and same value was continued even for more amount of slag presence. The reasons for above might be due to the combination of two kinds of mould ingredients with different particles morphology of spherical and angular for sand and slag respectively; these could have better interlocking between one another and also with the binders lead to enhanced mould properties [10]. Table 3: Shows the mould properties of 100% silica sand and 100% GBF Slag moulds with the addition of 10% sodium silicate and 20 seconds CO2 gassing at various mould setting times. Sl.

1.

2.

Mould Materials

Sand

GBF Slag

Property Hardness Compression strength (psi) Shear strength (psi) Permeability number Hardness Compression strength (psi) Shear strength (psi) Permeability number

1 90

2 96

4 98

6 98

Mould setting time, hrs 8 10 12 14 98 98 98 98

45

48

50

52

58

59

59

59

59

59

59

59

26

35

40

47

50

57

60

63

63

63

63

63

420

375

350

350

350

320

320

320

320

320

320

320

96

96

98

98

98

98

98

98

98

98

98

98

36

60

64

74

77

91

91

91

91

91

91

91

46

49

63

77

77

77

78

78

80

80

80

81

480

480

480

440

430

410

410

410

410

410

410

410

16 98

18 98

20 98

24 98

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Table 4: Shows the mould properties for various combinations of silica sand and GBF Slag with addition of 10% sodium silicate and 20 seconds CO2 gassing at 24 hrs mould setting time Mould properties Sl. No.

Mould materials

Hardness number 96

Dry Compression strength (psi) 59

Dry shear strength (psi) 63

Permeability number 320

1

100% Sand

2

90% Sand +10% GBF slag

96

83

65

358

3

80% Sand +20% GBF slag

96

86

69

420

4

70% Sand +30% GBF slag

96

87

71

420

5

60% Sand +40% GBF slag

96

94

76

420

6

50% Sand +50% GBF slag

96

98

77

420

7

40% Sand +60% GBF slag

98

99

80

420

8

30% Sand +70% GBF slag

98

100

81

420

9

20% Sand +80% GBF slag

99

100

81

410

10

10% Sand +90% GBF slag

99

100

81

410

11

100% GBF slag

99

100

81

410

3.2 Ferrous and non-ferrous castings practices Figures 3 & 4 shows casting procedure and cast products of A356 alloy and grey cast iron respectively of sand, GBF slag and mixture of sand & slag as mould materials. The molten metal was filled in the preheated mould cavities with a sufficient superheat and fluidity via sprue, runner and in-gates placed in the mould. Riser was placed in the mould to ensure complete molten metal filling in the mould cavity. Consistent and uninterrupted molten metal was allowed to fill the mould cavities. The cylindrical finger castings after cooling were examined and revealed that very less amount of mould ingredients were stick to the casting surfaces; further slag castings shows cleaned surface finish on par with sand castings. All the castings show good surface finish with no surface defects; it also reveals good dimensional accuracy. The thermal and physical stability of slag and sand moulds was observed during in molten metal filling as well as while solidification of the castings. It reveals that during casting slag moulds did not suffer any burning or fusing tendency; this is true for both ferrous and non-ferrous castings. Castings with good dimensional accuracy and without any surface defects were made by sand and slag moulds, the same shown in figure 3(d) and 4(d) for A356 alloy and grey cast iron respectively. This figure also shows the before and after machined cylindrical castings with no porosity or other surface defects presence in any of the either sand or slag mould castings.

Figure 3: Casting of A356 Aluminium alloy melt at different moulds: (a) 100% Sand (b) 100% GBF Slag (c) Mixture of Sand and GBF slag (d) Cast products before and after machining 816

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. Figure 4: Casting of Grey Cast Iron melt at different moulds: (a) 100% Sand (b) 100% GBF Slag (c) Mixture of Sand and GBF slag (d) Cast products before and after machining

Conclusions 1) Standard cylindrical samples with Silica Sand, GBF Slag and mixture of GBF slag & Silica sand were made successfully. 2) Mould morphology studies reveal a continuous gel coat existence on sand, slag and combinations of sand-slag particles. 3) Enhanced mould properties were observed for GBF slag than silica sand. GBF slag moulds retain optimum properties even after exposed to prolonged weathering conditions. 4) Laboratory castings were performed successfully on these newly made slag moulds. 5) Both ferrous and non ferrous castings were performed successfully; during casting, no burning, neither dripping nor collapse of the moulds was occurred. 6) Cast products with good surface finish, no surface defects were produced by all the moulds under investigation. Acknowledgements Authors thank the DST –Fly Ash unit, New Delhi, India for their financial support (Grant Ref No: FAU/DST/600(52)/2012-13). Special thanks to M/s. Visakhapatnam Steel Plant, Visakhapatnam, India for supply of GBF Slag this study. References Ahmed S., Ramrattan S.N., 1990. Comparison of Handling Properties Using CO 2 Activated Binder Systems, AFS Transactions, 98: 577-586. Fan Zitian, Huang Naiyu, Dong Xuanpu, 2004. In house reuse and reclamation of used foundry sands with sodium silicate binder. International Journal of Cast Metals Research, 17: 51-56. Jain P.L., Principles of Foundry Technology 2013. Tata Mc Grawhil, New Delhi; 132-135. Jamgekar R.S.., Gaikwad M.U.., 2013. Seasonal Effect on CO 2 cores and its remedial measures, The International Journal of Engineering and Science, 2: 16-19. Narasimha Murthy I., Babu Rao J, 2016. Investigations on physical and chemical properties of high silica sand, ferrochrome and Blast furnace slag for foundry applications, Procedia Environmental Sciences- Elsevier, In press. nd Richard Heine, Carl Loper, Philip Rosenthal., 2001. Principles of Metal Casting, Tata McGraw Hill India), 2

edition. Stachowicz M.., Granat K., Nowak D.., Haimann K.., 2010. Effect of hardening methods of moulding sands with water glass on structure of bonding bridges, Archives of Foundry Engineering, 10: 123-128. 817

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Venkata Ramana M., 2014. Modeling of the properties of sand mould made of reclaimed sand, Int. Journal of Engineering Research and Applications, 4: 245-248. Venkata Ramana M., Modeling of CO2 moulding process, 2014. Global Journal of Advanced Engineering Technologies, special issue (CTCNSF -2014); 190-194. Xiao Bo, Xu Zhengda, Wang Xiuping, et al., 1995. A new method for the investigation of binding properties of silicate-sand. Journal of Hubei Polytechnic University, 10: 6-9.

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Integrity of Cement Solidification of Residual Metal Hydroxide Waste D.S. Koo1,*, H.H. Sung2, S.S. Kim3, G.N. Kim4, J.W. Choi5 1

Principal Researcher, Korea Atomic Energy Research Institute, Daejeon, Republic of Korea Researcher, Korea Atomic Energy Research Institute, Daejeon, Republic of Korea 3 Principal Researcher, Korea Atomic Energy Research Institute, Daejeon, Republic of Korea 4 Project Manager, Korea Atomic Energy Research Institute, Daejeon, Republic of Korea 5 Manager of Research Department, Korea Atomic Energy Research Institute, Daejeon, Republic of Korea *Corresponding Author: Email- [email protected] 2

ABSTRACT To perform the permanent disposal of residual metal hydroxide waste from electrokinetic decontamination, it is necessary to secure the technology for solidification of it. The integrity tests on the fabricated solidification should also meet criteria of KORAD (Korea Radioactive Waste Agency). We carried out the solidification of residual metal hydroxide waste using the cement solidification. The integrity tests such as the compressive strength, immersion, and leach tests on the fabricated cement solidifications were performed. It was also confirmed that the requirements of the criteria of KORAD on these cement solidifications were met. Keywords: Cement solidification, Radioactive waste, Residual metal hydroxide, Compressive strength, Integrity; International Society of Waste Management, Air and Water

1.0 Introduction A lot of uranium contaminated soil and concrete waste is generated from the dismantlement of uranium conversion facilities [1]. There are several disposal methods for radioactive waste such as regulation exemption, decontamination, and long-term storage [2]. It is necessary for us to achieve the permanent disposal of radioactive waste. The methods for solidifying radioactive waste include cement solidification, asphalt solidification, and polymer solidification [3]. Cement solidification has several advantages such as well-known materials and technologies, various applications, and reasonable cost. On the contrary, it has certain disadvantages such as a large volume expansion of solidification for radioactive waste. Because cement solidification has excellent structural strength and a shielding effect, it is widely used for the permanent disposal of radioactive waste [3]. Cement solidification operates as a barrier against the leach of nuclides during radioactive waste disposal. To evaluate the criteria of KORAD, integrity tests on the solidification of radioactive waste need to be performed [4]. In this study, to inspect the criteria of KORAD, we carried out the cement solidification of residual metal hydroxide from radioactive waste. An integrity inspection such as the compressive strength, immersion, and leach tests on cement solidification was performed. We also analyzed the experimental results according to the criteria of KORAD. The calculation of the leachability index on the primary and secondary cement solidification for the leach detection of nuclides is carried out. The integrity of the primary and secondary cement solidification is also evaluated. 819

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2.0 Experiment 2.1 Cement Solidification For the disposal of residual metal hydroxide in radioactive waste, we applied a cement solidification method [5, 6, 7, 8]. The cement solidification was carried out according to the ratio of residual metal hydroxide from radioactive waste to cement. To mix the cement, water, and residual metal hydroxide powders, we used a mortar mixer according to the manual procedure. The equipment used for measuring the compressive strength of the cement solidification was also applied. The ratio of residual metal hydroxide from radioactive waste to cement for primary cement solidification was 2.0. At first, the powders were made from residual metal hydroxide waste using a bowl and rod. Second, cement and water were mixed using a mortar mixer, and the powders were added into the mortar mixer and then mixed uniformly. Third, the homogeneously mixed material was put into four polyethylene molds and then entirely covered with vinyl. Fourth, after 4 weeks of cement solidification, a visual inspection on the cement solidifications was performed and cut into a 50 mm diameter and 100 mm height using a micro cutter. The volume expansion of the primary cement solidification was about 150% in comparison with the volume of residual metal hydroxide from radioactive waste. Table 1 shows the conditions of the cement solidification. The ratio of residual metal hydroxide from radioactive waste to cement for the secondary cement solidification was 1.5. The secondary cement solidification was made using an aluminum mold. Good solidification, such as primary cement solidification, was achieved. The volume expansion of secondary cement solidification was about 165% in comparison with the volume of residual metal hydroxide from radioactive waste. The ratio of residual metal hydroxide from radioactive waste to cement for the third cement solidification was 2.5. The third cement solidification was also made using an aluminum mold. After one week of cement solidification, a visual inspection on the cement solidification was performed, and all the cement solidifications were then fractured. It was determined that the ratio of residual metal hydroxide from radioactive waste to cement for cement solidification should be under 2.0. Table 1: Conditions of cement solidification

Specimen No.

Specimen (g)

Water (g)

Cement (g)

Total (g)

C-3 (1solidification) C-4 (2solidification) C-5 (3solidification)

1.5 (175.18) 2.0 (193.60) 2.5 (206.63)

1.2 (140.15) 1.65 (159.72) 2.2 (181.83)

1 (116.79)

432.12

1(96.80)

450.12

1(82.65)

471.11

2.2 Integrity tests on the cement solidification The integrity tests on cement solidification consisted of compressive strength, immersion, and leach tests. The compressive strength of the cement solidification was measured using compressive strength equipment (HCT-DC50) (Figure 1). An immersion test was performed using the electric conductivity measurements and pH measurement of immersion water from the immersion exchange time (1, 3, 7, 14, 37 and 90 days). After an immersion test of 90 days, the compressive strength of the cement solidification was determined. The process of the leach test is as follows. At first, the initial concentration of uranium on cement solidification was measured. The cement solidification is immersed in demineralized water for 90 days. Samplings of the demineralized water from the cumulative immersion time (2h, 7h, 1day, 2days, 3days, 4days, 5days, 19days, 47days, and 90days) were made, and a chemical analysis of these samplings was carried out. Finally, the leachability index was calculated with the initial concentration of uranium, uranium concentration owing to the cumulative immersion time, the effective diffusivity, the volume of the specimen, the geometric surface area of the specimen, and the leach time.

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D.S. Koo et al. / Waste Management & Resource Utilisation 2016

(1) (2) (3) L: leachability index D: effective diffusivity (㎠/s) T: leach time representing the ‗mean time‘ of the leach intervals (s) an: radioactivity during exchange time of immersion water (Bq or Ci), Ao: initial radiation rate of the specimen (Bq or Ci) S: geometric surface area of the specimen (㎠) V: volume of the specimen (㎠) △t: exchange time of immersion water (s)

Figure 1: Process for measuring compressive strength.

3.0 Results and discussion 3.1 Conductivity of cement solidification Figure 2 shows the measurement of conductivity of immersed cement solidification. As the number of sampling days of immersed cement solidification increased, the conductivity of the primary and secondary cement solidification showed a similarly increasing trend. The conductivity of the primary and secondary cement solidification was bigger than the initial conductivity without the immersed primary and secondary cement solidification. This was due to various metal ions from cement solidification. Thus, metal ions from immersed secondary cement solidification were bigger than those from immersed primary 821

D.S. Koo et al. / Waste Management & Resource Utilisation 2016

cement solidification. During the immersion of cement solidification, it was realized that various metal ions were released from the cement solidification. The conductivity of the secondary cement solidification showed a rapidly increasing trend in comparison with that of the primary cement solidification. On the contrary, the conductivity of the primary cement solidification (the ratio of residual metal hydroxide from radioactive waste to cement is 2.0) showed a gradually increasing trend. This was due to the sufficient cement of secondary cement solidification in comparison with the cement quantity of the primary cement solidification. Thus, various metal ions from immersed secondary cement solidification were bigger than those from the immersed primary cement solidification. During the immersion of cement solidification, it was realized that the ions of various metal hydroxide were released from the cement solidification.

Conductivity, mS/cm

20 15 Initial_Con.

10

C-4_Con. C-3_Con.

5 0 0

20

40 60 Sampling Day

80

100

Figure 2: Conductivity of primary and secondary solidification.

3.2 pH of cement solidification Figure 3 shows the measurement of pH of immersed cement solidification. As the number of sampling days of immersed cement solidification increases, the pH of the primary and secondary cement solidification shows an increasing trend. The pH of immersed secondary cement solidification was bigger than that of immersed primary cement solidification. This was due to the sufficient cement used for the secondary cement solidification in comparison with the cement amount of the primary cement solidification. It was realized that the amount of calcium hydroxide from immersed secondary cement solidification was bigger than that from immersed primary cement solidification. During the immersion of cement solidification, it was realized that calcium hydroxide was released from the cement solidification. The secondary cement solidification (the ratio of residual metal hydroxide from radioactive wastes to cement is 1.5) rapidly approached 12 (pH) and then gradually maintained equilibrium.

Figure 3: pH of primary and secondary solidification. 822

D.S. Koo et al. / Waste Management & Resource Utilisation 2016

3.3 Compressive strength of cement solidification Table 2 shows the compressive strength of the primary and secondary cement solidification on the compressive strength criterion. The criteria of compressive strength is 34 (kgf/㎠) [1]. The compressive strength of the primary cement solidification was measured to be about 132 (kgf/㎠). The compressive strength of the secondary cement solidification was also measured to be about 166 (kgf/㎠). The compressive strength of the primary and secondary cement solidification was about 4- to 5-times bigger than the compressive strength criterion. The compressive strength of the primary cement solidification with an immersion period of 90 days was measured to be about 115 (kgf/㎠). The compressive strength of the secondary cement solidification with an immersion time of 90 days was also measured to be about (97 kgf/㎠). The compressive strength of the primary and secondary cement solidification with immersion was about 3-times bigger than the compressive strength criterion. The compressive strength of the primary cement solidification with an immersion period of 90 days was 87% of the compressive strength of the primary cement solidification without immersion. The compressive strength of the secondary cement solidification with an immersion time of 90 days was 58% of the compressive strength of the secondary cement solidification without immersion. It was confirmed that the fabricated primary and secondary cement solidification should meet the requirements of the criteria of KORAD. Table 2: Compressive strength of primary and secondary cement solidification Sampling No.

Compressive strength (kgf/㎠)

Standard compressive strength (kgf/㎠)

C-4-2(1 solidification)

131.55

34

C-4-2(1 solidification) (Immersion)

115.1

34

C-3-2(2 solidification)

165.51

34

C-3-2(2 solidification) (Immersion)

96.63

34

3.4 Leach test of cement solidification The initial concentrations of uranium in the primary and secondary cement solidification are 2,904 and 2,729 μg/g, respectively. The uranium concentration of all the samplings of the demineralized water owing to the immersion cumulative time (2h, 7h, 1day, 2days, 3days, 4days, 5days, 19days, 47days, and 90days) on the primary and secondary cement solidification were under 0.05 μg/ml. By calculating formulae (1), (2), and (3) with Microsoft Excel, the leachability index on the primary and secondary cement solidification is 14.14 and 14.13, respectively [9]. Table 3 shows the cumulative leached index of cement solidified waste. These values were bigger than criterion 6 of KORAD [10]. Fig. 4 shows the cumulative leach index of primary and secondary solidification. As the exchange time of the leach water increases, the cumulative leach index of the primary and secondary solidification shows an increasing trend. Table 3: Cumulative leached index of cement solidified waste Element C-4-1 (1solidification) C-3-1 (2solidification)

1 day

5 day

Leach day 19 day

13.546

13.629

13.784

13.978

14.137

13.492

13.575

13.794

13.981

14.134

47 day

90 day

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D.S. Koo et al. / Waste Management & Resource Utilisation 2016

14.2

Cumulative Leaching Index

14.1

14 13.9

C-4-1 13.8

C-3-1 13.7 13.6 13.5

Figure 4: Cumulative leach index of primary and secondary solidification.

13.4 3.0 Conclusions

0

20

40

60

80

100

Timehydroxide (day) from radioactive waste. An We carried out the cement solidification of residual metal integrity inspection such as the compressive strength, immersion, and leach tests on cement solidification was performed. The conductivity of the immersed secondary cement solidification showed a rapidly increasing trend in comparison with that of the immersed primary cement solidification. It was realized that ions of various metal hydroxide from radioactive waste were released from the cement solidification. The pH of the immersed secondary cement solidification was bigger than that of the immersed primary cement solidification. It was shown that the amount of calcium hydroxide from immersed secondary cement solidification was bigger than that from immersed primary cement solidification. The leachability index on the primary and secondary cement solidification is 14.14 and 14.13, respectively. These values are bigger than criterion 6 of KORAD. The compressive strength of the primary and secondary cement solidification was about 4- to 5-times bigger than the compressive strength criterion. The compressive strength of the primary and secondary cement solidification with immersion was about 3-times bigger than the compressive strength criterion. It was confirmed that the fabricated primary and secondary cement solidification should meet the requirements of the KORAD criteria. Acknowledgements This work is supported by the Ministry of Science, ICT and Future Planning of the Republic of Korea (grant number: 521230-16). References 1. Lee, Y. J., Lee, K.W., Min, B.Y., Hwang, D. S., Moon, J. K., (2015) The characterization of cement waste form for final disposal of decommissioning concrete wastes. Ann. Nucl. Energy 77: 294-299. 2. Nam, Y. S., Lee, C. M., Yook, D. S., Lee, S. C., Lee, Y. H., Ahn, M. H., Park, J.,W., Lee, K. J., 2007. A Study on the Environmental Effect Assessment for the Disposal of the Regulatory Cleared Soil and Concrete Waste. Report. KAERI/CM-1029/2007. Daejeon. 3. Jeong, G. H., Jung, K. J., Baik, S. T., Chung, U. S., Lee, K.W., Park, S. K., Lee, D. G., Kim, H. R., 2001. Solidification of Slurry Waste with Ordinary Portland Cement. Report. KAERI/RR-2194/2001. Daejeon. 4. NRC, 1991. Waste Form Technical Position, Revision 1, A-1~A-8. 824

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5. Junfeng, L. and Jianlong, W. (2006) Advances in Cement Solidification Technology for Waste Radioactive Ion Exchange Resins: A Review, J. of Hazard. Mater B135: 443-448. 6. McConnel Jr., J. W., 1991. Portland Cement: A Solidification Agent for Low-Level Radioactive Waste, INEL. National Low-Level Waste Management Program. 7. Spence, R. D. and Stine, E. F., 1996. Solidification/Stabilization Treatability Study of a Mixed-Waste Sludge. Oak Ridge National Laboratory, CONF-960212-56. 8. Wilk, C. M. (2007) Principles and use of solidification/stabilization treatment for organic hazardous constituents in soil, sediment, and waste. WM‘07 Conference: 1-10. 9. Kim, K. H., Lee, J. W., Ryue, Y. G., 1998. Evaluation on the Long-Term Durability and Leachability of Cemented Waste Form. Report. KAERI/TR-1118/1998. Daejeon. 10. Agamuthu, P. and Chitra, S. (2009) Solidification/Stabilization Disposal of Medical Waste Incinerator Fly Ash Using Cement, Malaysian J. Sci. 28(3): 241-255.

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Production of Construction Bricks Using Iron Ore Tailings and Clay K. Behera1, B.P. Bose2, M.K. Mondal3,* 1

M.Tech, Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur, Kharagpur, India Ph.D. student, Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur, Kharagpur, India 3 Assistant Professor, Rajendra Mishra School of Engineering Entrepreneurship, IIT Kharagpur, India *Corresponding Author: Email- [email protected] 2

ABSTRACT Mixing iron ore tailings with clay for manufacturing bricks was investigated with the objective of converting the hazardous solid waste into useful products. Blocks were prepared using different compositions of iron ore tailings and clay in 70.6 mm cubic moulds. They were sundried and then placed in furnace at 1100C for 24 h to remove water. The dry blocks were fired at temperatures ranging from 9000C to 10500C for 3h. Characterisation of tailings, clay, and sintered blocks were done. Mechanical properties such as compressive strength, water absorption rates, loss on ignition, and bulk density were measured. The maximum compressive strength of 25.40 MPa was recorded for tailing and clay ratio of 40:60 sintered at 9500C. This compares very well with the best quality bricks in India. The results also indicate that the percentage of tailings in the blocks influence their mechanical properties. The water absorption rates of the sample blocks are low compared to clay and fly ash bricks and the same vary with process parameters. The low porosity may deter the formation of efflorescence. The process, with standardized parameters, may be commercially adapted and large quantities of iron ore tailings may be put to use in making bricks. Thus, the process technology delineated in this paper can potentially convert the huge amount of environmentally harmful useless waste into wealth. Iron ore tailing may emerge as a sustainable supplement to clay, use of which in brick making is increasingly being restricted. The work also paves the way for new strand of research. Keywords: Iron ore tailings, Waste management, Recycling waste, Bricks, Clay, Waste to wealth, Sustainable construction materials; International Society of Waste Management, Air and Water

1.0 Introduction The world produced an estimated 3.32 billion tonnes of iron ore during 2015 (1U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries, January 2016). The fact that generation of tailing is about 10– 15% of ore (Das et al. 2012) indicates that more than 0.3 billion tonnes of tailings are generated annually leading to increasing amount of waste. Tailings are known for leaching toxic substances—particularly heavy metals—leading to acid mine drainage in water bodies resulting contamination of water, soil, and vegetation, affecting human health and forest degradation (Wong and Tam 1970, Smith and Sai 2000, Liu et al. 2005). Payne et al. (1998) provide evidence that iron-ore effluents are actually toxic with deleterious effect on the fresh water aquatic life. Besides being a concern for water, air and soil pollution, the tailings occupy huge land area. It is, therefore, imperative to find application of iron ore tailing for productive use. On the other hand, the use of clay for making bricks leading to irreversible depletion of the limited fertile top soil. Many nations such as India and China are increasingly restricting use of clay for making bricks. 1

http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/mcs/2016/mcs2016.pdf, accessed 15 July 2016

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Finding alternative sources of raw materials is essential for sustainability of supply of construction materials and engineers are increasingly striving to use wastes as a sustainable supplement for conventional building materials (Lingling 2005, Yang et al. 2014, Yongliang 2011). Appreciating the enormity of the environmental problem associated with iron ore, many researchers have been advocating various processes to utilize this waste material in construction industry for quantitative reduction as also to supplement the scarce traditional resources. Notable among the alternatives are to use iron ore tailing to manufacture bricks, ceramic tiles (Das et al. 2012), as fine aggregate in mortar, and coarse aggregate in concrete (Huang et al. 2013, Zhao et al. 2014), and to produce geopolymer bricks (Kuranchie et al. 2016). Giri et al. (2011) and Sakthivel et al. (2010) synthesized magnetite powder out of iron and silica that is recovered from iron ore tailings, whereas Li et al. (2010) demonstrated possibility of preparing cementitious materials out of the similar residue. Besides the fact that tailing and clay predominantly contains oxides of iron and silica respectively, both contain common constituents, though in different proportions, such as silica, iron, alumina, calcium, manganese, sulphur, phosphorous and a few heavy metals of different percentages. Thus, an argument is gaining currency that iron ore tailing can be a suitable substitute of clay for making bricks (Chen et al. 2011). However, tailings lacks pozzolanic characteristic and require a binding agent or may be vitrified through incineration . A strand of literature reports encouraging results from studies that combine different materials with tailings. As an instance, Yang et al. (2014) produce bricks using tailings and fly ash of different proportions. They fire them at temperature ranging from 900 to 10000C and report comparable mechanical properties that of clay bricks in China. Even though water absorption rates for such bricks are more than the benchmark and the physical properties tend to deteriorate with increasing content of fly ash, the overall performance promises largescale use of tailings in producing bricks. Ceramic tiles made of iron ore tailings mixed with clay and feldspar fired at 11500C possess high cold crushing strength (Das et al. 2012). Furthermore, mortars produced by replacing natural aggregate with tailings showed improved mechanical properties compared with conventional materials (Fontes et al. 2016). Velasco et al. (2014) provide interesting commentary of the major researches that explore various applications of tailings and the outcomes thereof. Primary objectives in these researches are to determine feasibility of using tailings— at least partially—in construction materials, optimize process parameters for largescale consumption of this waste, and create social and economic values (Zhang 2006). Few studies, if any, have been carried out to explore feasibility of producing brick using mixture of iron ore tailing and clay. The present study starts with characterization of tailings from Indian mine and clay used in conventional brick, produces blocks of tailing and clay in different compositions and sinter at different temperatures. Some of the possible applications of tailings being proffered in literature are shown schematically in Figure 1.

Figure 1: Schematic explaining possible use of tailings 827

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Even though the elemental constituents of tailings from different mines and in different countries vary significantly, reports on the physical properties of bricks made by different authors across geographies are quite similar in that they meet the international standards (Velasco et al. 2014). In this light, the chances of error in generalizing the findings in any particular study are limited. 2.0 Materials and Methods 2.1 Preparation of Materials The iron ore tailings used in the study were sourced from tailing dam (Fig. 2b) of beneficiation plant at Barbil iron ore mine of Odisha state, India. Processed clay was procured from a local established fired clay brick manufacturing company, particularly to take advantage of the traditional knowledge of the kiln workers in selecting and preparing good quality clay for making brick. The clay and tailings were pulverized and sieved helping to prepare consistent mix. The elemental compositions of the tailings and clay obtained in SEM tests are presented in the Table 1 and the morphologies are presented in Fig. 3a and 3b respectively. The dry tailings were sieved and the size distribution noted (Fig. 2a). We used the portion of the tailings with particle size of 0.6 mm and less. 2.2 Preparation of Samples Compositions of tailings and clay were prepared by mixing 20%, 40%, 60% and 80% dry tailing with remaining amount of dry clay respectively using blender. Water was added to ensure workability and to prepare homogenous mixture. Blocks were prepared in 70.6 mm3 moulds compacting by tamping rod as specified in IS code IS: 516 – 1959 and they were allowed to dry for 24 hours under ambient conditions (Fig. 4d) before being stripped out of the moulds (Fig. 4e). Control samples were prepared using only clay. The blocks were then placed into furnace at 1100C for 24 hours for removing moisture and their weight recorded. They were then placed into furnace, temperature in which were raised gradually from room temperature (300C) in steps of 2000C with gap of two hours allowing the block to soak the heat uniformly and crack formation due to sudden rise of temperature may be avoided (Fig. 9). The interior of the furnace contained air at the beginning and no air was supplied during firing, neither the firing was done in Nitrogen atmosphere practiced by others such as Yang et al. (2014). Based on literature (Chen et al. 2011, Yang 2014) it was presumed that the possible temperature for firing of bricks to obtain the best mechanical properties lie between 9000C and 11000C. Therefore, the blocks were kept in the furnace for three hours at 900, 950, 1000, and 10500C. The blocks were allowed to cool within the furnace naturally through convection.

Figure 2: (a) Grain size distribution of tailings

(b) Screenshot of the Barbil tailing dam

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Various tests were conducted on the cooled samples. The mineralogical composition of clay, tailings, and fired blocks were determined using the XRD and SEM test. The above sample preparation process was repeated three times to gain stability in data. Images of materials and sample blocks as also the furnace and the machine for measuring CS are presented in Fig. 4a through 4i. A flowchart depicting stepby-step process is presented in Figure 6. Table 1: Elemental Analysis of tailing and clay using SEM Iron ore tailing

Clay

Atomic % 20.33

Compound

wt %

Symbol

C

Weight % 11.62

Atomic % 10.39

Compound

wt %

C

Weight % 6.46

CO2

42.59

CO2

23.67

Na

0.13

0.12

Na2O

0.18

Na

0.11

0.09

Na2O

0.15

Mg

0.05

0.04

MgO

0.08

Mg

0.62

0.49

MgO

1.02

Al

2.82

2.20

Al2O3

5.33

Al

6.83

4.89

Al2O3

12.90

Si

2.92

2.19

SiO2

6.25

Si

23.70

16.30

SiO2

50.70

K

0.12

0.06

K2O

0.14

K

2.07

1.02

K2O

2.49

Ca

0.12

0.06

CaO

0.17

Ca

0.0

0.00

CaO

0.0

Ti

0.0

0.0

TiO2

0.0

Ti

0.64

0.26

TiO2

1.06

Fe

35.18

13.24

FeO

45.26

Fe

6.21

2.15

FeO

7.99

O

47.03

61.76

O

53.36

64.41

Symbol

One of the important observations in the SEM results is that the major compounds present in the tailings are also present in clay, though in different proportions, making the former a good candidate to replace the later in making bricks. Determining the exact compositions of iron in different forms such as hematite, magnetite, goethite, siderite or limonite are not within the scope of this study and the results of elemental compositions contain only the bulk of iron content. Notably, the iron content in the tailing in oxide form is at about 45%. Some authors such as Zhao et al. (2014) used tailing containing less than 10% iron.

Figure 3: (a) Morphology of clay

(b) Morphology of tailing

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Figure 4: a. Pulverized clay; b. Pulverized tailing; c. Mix of tailing and clay; d. Moulds with mix poured in; e. Stripped blocks; f. Furnace used for firing; g. Sample blocks fired at 1000 0C; h. Blocks fired at 9000C; i. Measuring CS

0

Figure 5: (a) Morphology of brick fired at 1000 C

0

(b) Morphology of brick fired at 1100 C

2.2 Characterization 2.3 Characterization of Fired Brick Samples The Table 2 shows the elemental compositions of the fired blocks as determined using SEM tests and the Fig. 5a and 5b contain the morphologies. Notably, the tailing sample used in the study contains high carbon and on firing, the carbon content is substantially reduced, leading to higher percentage of iron in the fired blocks. We test the mechanical properties of the fired samples such as compressive strength, 830

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water absorption, loss on ignition, sintering shrinkage and bulk density to compare them with the regular clay bricks and to understand the suitability of these blocks in civil construction work. Table 2: Elemental compositions of blocks fired at 950 0C using SEM test Clay: Tailing::40:60 Symbol

Weight %

Atomic %

Clay: Tailing::20:80

Compound

wt %

Symbol

Weight %

Atomic %

Compound

wt %

C

0.48

1.04

CO2

1.78

C

3.23

7.22

CO2

11.84

Na

0.0

0.0

Na2O

0.0

Na

0.34

0.40

Na2O

0.46

Mg

0.22

0.24

MgO

0.37

Mg

0.08

0.09

MgO

0.13

Al

7.74

7.40

Al2O3

14.63

Al

6.25

6.22

Al2O3

11.80

Si

14.68

13.47

SiO2

31.40

Si

3.92

3.75

SiO2

8.38

K

1.37

0.91

K2O

1.66

K

0.13

0.09

K2O

0.16

Ca

0.55

0.36

CaO

0.78

Ca

0.0

0.0

CaO

0.0

Ti

0.0

0.0

TiO2

0.0

Ti

0.83

0.47

TiO2

1.39

Fe

38.39

17.72

FeO

49.39

Fe

51.19

24.62

FeO

65.85

O

36.55

58.88

O

34.04

57.15

Procured iron Ore Tailings from Sambalpur, Orissa, India

Drying, pulverize, size analysis, sieving

Characterize raw samples in Scan Electron Microscope

Procured clay from local brick kiln

Hand-grind, screen to remove larger lumps and other unwanted materials

Characterize raw samples in Scan Electron Microscope

Mix measured quantities of the two & add water for workability

Prepare blocks of 76.5mm cube

Allow 24 hours time for initial round of drying

Drying in oven at 110C for 24 hours to remove moisture Fire in electric oven. Temperature is raised gradually to avoid crack. Characterize the sample and test physical properties Figure 6: Schematic representation of the process flow for making clay-tailing

Weight loss on ignition is the loss of the blocks during the sintering process and is determined by recording weights before and after firing. Water absorption rates were determined following IS:3495-Part 2-1992. The specimens were dried in a ventilated oven at 1100C for 24 hours to ensure that all moisture is removed. They were then cooled at room temperature and their weights were recorded (W1). The dried blocks were then immersed completely in clean water at ambient temperature (roughly 30 0C) for 24 hours. 831

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After removing from water, the samples were wiped with damp cloth to remove free water on the surface. The blocks were then quickly weighed (W2). The rates of water absorption (WA) were determined by the

(W 2  W 1) 100 and are presented in Table 6. Volumes (V) of the blocks are measured to W1 W1 estimate the bulk density (BD) as BD  (Table 3). The W1 and the weight of the blocks after firing V (W 3  W 1) 100 (W3) are used to measure loss on ignition (LI) as LI  and are presented in Figure 7 W3 formula WA 

and Table 4. The CS (Figure 8) of the fired blocks were determined using a computer controlled automatic machine (Figure 4 i) following IS:516-1959. The machine with ultrasound thickness measurement facility estimates the compressive strength automatically. The data indicate that higher concentration of tailing in block increases loss on ignition. Table 3: Bulk density of sample blocks after firing at 950 0C Firing temperature

Tailing percentage

Bulk Density (gm/cm3)

950

0

1.65

950

20

1.75

950

40

1.82

950

60

1.84

950

80

1.87

Table 4: Data on weight loss of blocks on ignition at different firing Percentage loss on ignition 0

Clay %

Firing Temp. 1100 C

Firing Temp. 9750C

Firing Temp. 9500C

100

6.59

4.56

4.39

80

6.80

6.49

4.91

60

8.31

8.00

6.31

40

7.18

7.33

7.33

20

7.35

6.63

7.35

Figure 7: Graphical representation of weight loss of blocks on ignition at different firing temperatures

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3.0 Results and Discussion 3.1 Results The plots of compressive strengths (CS) versus tailing percentages (TP) in the mix used in making the blocks presented in Fig. 8 indicate that the CS consistently increases with increase in TP peaking at about 40% after which it declines (data provided in Table 6). Notably, the bricks containing 40% tailing fired at 9500C is quite superior to premium quality clay bricks in India in terms of CS. Notably, blocks with tailing content as high as 80% is found to perform well and meet requirements for applications in civil constructions where low grade clay bricks are used. Bricks of iron ore tailings and clay made in this study without applying any forming pressure demonstrate slightly better compressive strengths compared to those made using combinations of tailing, clay, and fly ash applying forming pressure of 20–25 MPa as reported by Chen et al. (2011). It is critically important to note that cracks (Figure 9) in the blocks, though significantly reduced through slowing the heating process, could not be totally prevented. The final blocks, test results of which are reported here, have considerable cracks on all the surfaces. We are of the opinion that the CS will further improve if the cracks can be fully avoided.

Figure 8: Compressive strengths of blocks of tailings and clay at different temperatures Table 5: Compressive strength of blocks of different compositions and fired at different temperatures Compressive strengths in MPa of blocks sintered at

Mix (Tailing : Clay)

9000C

9500C

10000C

00:100

13.25

15.04

15.67

20:80

16.37

23.20

16.55

40:60

19.00

25.40

20.30

60:40

15.40

14.58

14.64

80:20

11.50

11.95

9.80

Table 6: Data on water absorption of blocks after firing at different temperatures

Clay Percentage

Tailing Percentage

100

Water absorption rates % at firing temperature 9500C

9750C

10000C

0

10.899

10.27

8.27

80

20

12.495

10.15

7.15

60

40

14.196

11.54

8.13

40

60

16.632

13.69

9.64

20

80

16.905

14.87

10.47

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Block with 100% clay

Block: Clay:Tailing::20: 80

Block: Clay:Tailing::40: 60

Block: Clay:Tailing::60: 40

Block: Clay:Tailing::80: 20

Cracks Figure 9: Demonstration of the cracks formed on the blocks fired at 975 oC

Water absorption (WA) of the block increases with increase in tailing percentage in the mix and reduces with increasing firing temperature for particular composition (Table 6), perhaps due to increasing vitrification that begins at temperature above 8000C. However, the WA rate is lower than that of the standard clay bricks. 3.2 Some Major Issues Requiring Mention The blocks developed substantial cracks on firing giving an impression that the surface contracted more than the core during either firing or cooling. Several batches of samples were fired by raising the temperature in steps in order to observe the cracking behaviour with respect to firing cycles. It finally revealed that if the temperature rose very slowly and continuously the cracks would be substantially reduced. The process of cooling could be controlled only to the extent possible by keeping the furnace door shut for a long time after firing. Once the desired firing temperature is reached, the blocks are sintered at this temperature for 3 h. Another significant observation is that when blocks were fired at temperature above 10000C, a ‗black core‘ was formed at the centre of the block. The phenomena has been reported earlier as black glassy spots formed due to incomplete oxidation of ferrous compounds that combine with silica and basic oxides (Bell 2004). Such black or grey core is frequently observed in fired clay bricks and floor tiles and believed to be caused by reduced magnetite Fe3O4 in the centre of the brick body, though ‗no large scale iron gradient from Fe3O4 magnetite core to the Fe2O3 hematite outer region was detectable‘ (Gredmaier 2011, p. 4485). Barba et al. (1990) attribute this phenomenon to the thermal decomposition of the organic material and to oxidation-reduction reactions of the inorganic components. The explanation in this regard appears inconclusive and further study seems to be necessary to explain it. From experimental data it appears that the CS of the blocks fired at 10000C is substantially less than that of the blocks of same composition fired at 9500C (Fig. 8, Table 6). The lowering of CS is due to either the black core formation at the centre of the blocks or larger cracks resulting on firing at higher temperature. The furnace could accommodate only four blocks at a time. Therefore, some variation may be plausible across samples of different batches. 4.0 Conclusion This study provides evidence that iron ore tailings can be used to make bricks by mixing it with traditional clay used in making fired clay-bricks. The percentage of tailing can be as high as 80% in the mix with the remainder being clay, though the best performance is obtained for a composition with 40% tailing and 60% clay. The compressive strengths of the blocks of different compositions prepared in the present study meet that of the standard fired clay bricks and are superior at some specific conditions. One of the significant desirable properties of the tailing-clay bricks is that the water absorption rate is fairly less compared to traditional clay bricks and fly ash bricks. Therefore, the tailing-clay bricks will find application in areas where water absorption is undesirable. Use of tailings with clay for producing bricks can lead to consumption of large quantities of the waste materials and manage it in an environmental friendly way. On the other hand, it can reduce consumption of top-soil for making bricks, and improve construction materials availability. The low 834

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porosity as demonstrated by low water absorption rate may also be a deterrent to formation of efflorescence. 5.0 Further Work Though crack could be reduced considerably by slowing the process of temperature rise in the furnace, it could not be completely eliminated. Further research is necessary in this regard. Addition of other additives such as silica fume, fly ash, cement, lime may be explored. Besides, the reasons for formation of the ‗black core‘ and its implication on long-term mechanical properties of bricks needs further study. References Barba A., A. Moreno, F. Negre and A. Basco (1990) Oxidation of Black Cores in Firing, Tile and Brick Int., Vol. 6, pp. 17-23. Bell F. G. (2004) Engineering Geology and Construction, Spon Press, Taylor & Francis Group, London and New York. Chen Y., Y. Zhang, T. Chen, Y. Zhao and S. Bao (2011) Preparation of Eco-Friendly Construction Bricks from Hematite Tailings, Constr. Build. Mater., Vol. 25, pp. 2107–11. Das S. K., J. Ghosh, A. K. Mandal, N. Singh and S. Gupta (2012) Iron Ore Tailing: A Waste Material used in Ceramic Tile Compositions as Alternative Source of Raw Materials, Trans. Ind. Ceram. Soc., Vol. 71, No. 1, pp. 21–24. Fontes W. C., J. Castro, S. N. Da Silva, R. A. F. Peixoto (2016) Mortars for Laying and Coating Produced With Iron Ore Tailings from Tailing Dams, Construction and Building Materials, Vol. 112, No. 1, pp. 988–995. Giri S. K., N. N. Das and G. C. Pradhan, (2011) Magnetite Power and Kaolinite Derived from Waste Iron Ore Tailings for Environmental Applications, Powder Technology, Vol. 214, 513-515. Gredmaier L., C. J. Banks and R. B. Pearce (2011) Calcium and Sulphur Distribution in Fired Clay Brick in the Presence of a Black Reduction Core Using Micro X-ray Fluorescence Mapping, Construction and Building Materials, Vol. 25, No. 12, pp. 4477–4486. Huang X., R. Ranade, W. N. Victor C. Li (2013) Development of Green Engineered Cementitious Composites Using Iron Ore Tailings as Aggregates, Construction and Building Materials, Vol. 44, pp. 757–764. Kuranchie F. A., S. K. Shukla and D. Habibi (2016) Utilisation of Iron Ore Mine Tailings for the Production of Geopolymer Bricks, International Journal of Mining, Reclamation and Environment, Vol. 30, No. 2, pp. 92-114. Li C., H. Sun, J. Bai and L. Li (2010) Innovative Methodology for Comprehensive Utilization of Iron Ore Tailings: Part 1, The Recovery of Iron from Iron Ore Tailings Using Magnetic Separation after Magnetizing Roasting, Journal of Hazardous Materials, Vol. 174, No. 1, pp. 71-77. Lingling X, Wei G, Tao W, Nanru Y. (2005) Study on Fired Bricks with Replacing Clay by Fly Ash in High Volume Ratio, Constr Build Mater, Vol. 9, pp. 243–247. Liu H., A. Probs and B. Liao (2005) Metal Contamination of Soils and Crops Affected by the Chenzhou Lead/Zinc Mine Spill (Hunan, China), Science of The Total Environment, Vol. 339, Nos. 1–3, pp. 153–166 Payne J. F., D. C. Malins, S. Gunselman, A. Rahimtula, P. A. Yeats (1998) DNA Oxidative Damage and Vitamin A Reduction in Fish from a Large Lake System in Labrador, Newfoundland, contaminated with iron-ore mine tailings, Marine Environmental Research, Vol. 46, Nos. 1–5, pp. 289-294. Sakthivel R., N. Vasumathi, D. Sahu and B. K. Mishra (2010) Synthesis of Magnetite Powder from Iron Ore Tailings, Powder Technology, Vol. 201, pp. 187–190. Smith P. D. and V. Sai (2000) Minerals and Mine Drainage, Minerals and Mine Drainage, Water Environment Research, Vol. 72, No. 5, Velasco P. M., M. P. Morales Ortíz, M.A. Mendívil Giró, L. Muñoz Velasco (2014) Fired Clay Bricks Manufactured by Adding Wastes as Sustainable Construction Material – A review, Construction and Building Materials, Volume 63, 30 July 2014, Pages 97–107. Wong M. H. and F. Y. Tam (1970) Soil and Vegetation Contamination by Iron-Ore Tailings, Environmental Pollution, Vol. 14, No. 4, pp. 241-254. Yang C., C. Cui, J. Qin and X. Cui (2014) Characteristics of the Fired Bricks with Low-Silicon Iron Tailings, Construction and Building Materials, Vol. 70, pp. 36–42. Zhang S., X. Xue, X. Liu, P. Duan, H. Yang, T. Jiang, D. Wang and R. Liu (2006) Current Situation and Comprehensive Utilization of Iron Ore Tailing Resources, journal of Mining Sciences Vol. 42, No. 4, pp. 403408. Zhao S., J. Fan and W. Sun (2014) Utilization of Iron Ore Tailings as Fine Aggregate in Ultra-High Performance Concrete, Construction and Building Materials, Vol. 50, pp. 540–548.

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Bioremediation of Uranium Mine Tailings Waste Paltu Kumar Dhal1, 2,* Pinaki Sar2 1Department of Life Science and Biotechnology, Jadavpur University, Kolkata, India 2Department of Biotechnology, Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur, India *Corresponding Author: Email- [email protected] ABSTRACT Microbial based bioremediation has been emerged as a potential alternative to mine waste management as well as removal of mines toxic contaminants from our environment efficiently. In order to formulate the bioremediation strategies effectively, it is essential to understand the inhabitant microbial community structure of mine sites and their metabolic role in related to those sites. Before deciphering their bioremediation capabilities in a real field, their efficiency in a controlled laboratory based microcosm system has to be characterised well. Present study aimed to investigate the microbial diversity of uranium mine tailings sediment from the Jaduguda uranium mine, India by both culture independent and cultured dependent approaches. Culture-independent analyses revealed predominance of phyla Proteobacteria and/or Acidobacteria followed by Actinobacteria, Cyanobacteria, Chloroflexi. Among the culturable bacterial populations bacterial genera Bacillus and Staphylococcus followed by Cronobacter, Acinetobacter, Pseudomonas, Burkholderia Iodobacter and Flavobacterium (Wautersiella sp.) were observed. Most of those strains showed higher resistance to Uranium and other metals. Considering both U and heavy metal resistance and accumulation capacities one strain (Strain Id 9-16) was considered for further analysis. Survival and U-removal by the test bacterium as investigated using contaminated mine water-based microcosm, showed high U removal capacity while maintaining its survival up to the studied period of 30 days. The study indicated that indigenous bacteria from metal and radionuclide contaminated mine sites posses intrinsic potential to survival and removes the toxic metals including uranium; and therefore showed the promise for intrinsic bioremediation potential. Keywords: Uranium, Tailings, Bacteria, Bioremediation, Jaduguda; International Society of Waste Management, Air and Water

1.0 Introduction Increasing demand for carbon free energy leads to rise in the role of nuclear technology in our energy resource list (Dhal and Sar, 2014; Choudhary and Sar, 2015). Uranium and other heavy metals originating from uranium mining, leakage from radioactive storage sites and during phosphate enrichment cause serious environmental contamination (Merroun and Selenska-Pobell, 2008). Along with its radioactivity, toxicity of uranium to living components poses a tremendous threat to diversity, structure and function of affected ecosystems (Choudhary et al., 2016). Conventional remediation procedures of these metal effluents are ineffective, costly, complicated and sometimes have sludge disposal problems as well and therefore, microorganism based bioremediation has emerged as potentially the most effective viable and cleanup technology (Kratochvil and Volesky, 1998; Lovley, 2003; Beazley et al., 2007; Desai et 836

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al., 2010). Several studies on uranium contaminated sites observed that these sites are dominated with viable and metabolically active microorganisms catalyzing various modes of metal–microbe interactions to sustain within these environments. These interactions include binding of uranyl/metal species to membrane and cell wall anionic ligands, intracellular accumulation and redox transformations, all leading towards altered mobility and toxicity of uranium and other metals (Suzuki and Banfield, 1999; Suzuki and Banfield, 2004; Merroun and Selenska-Pobell, 2008; Choudhary et al., 2011b; Yi and Lian, 2012). Owing their abundance and diversity in natural environment, it is of immense importance to identify and characterize such microbial strains with respect to their interactions with uranium and other heavy metals (Choudhary and Sar, 2009, Choudhary et al., 2011b). A detail characterization and understanding of underlying mechanisms will help us to appraise the potential of microorganism for the development of in situ uranium bioremediation strategies (Nedelkova et al., 2007; Martinez et al., 2006; Holmes et al., 2009; Choudhary et al., 2011b). Several studies in last decade including sites geochemistry, chemical nature of toxic metals, localization of metals and radionuclides within microbial cell and assessment of the performance of selected microorganisms using real effluent, have been done to optimize microbial role in remediation of metals and radionuclides (Choudhary et al., 2011). In spite of considerable investigation on microbial diversity studies within various uranium and other radionuclides contaminated sites by cultureindependent method and elucidation of metal/radionuclides-bacterial interaction for their environmental and other biotechnological applications (Nedelkova et al., 2007; Martinez et al., 2006; Holmes et al., 2009) studies on uranium resistance and accumulation by inhabitant bacterial groups remain poorly deciphered. Additionally little efforts has been made on basic research of microbial based bioremediation from India. Adopting the better strategies for bioremediation of highly Uranium contaminated sites; potential role of inhabitant bacterial groups should be thoroughly investigated. Therefore, the aim of the present work was to investigate the microbial diversity of uranium mine tailings sediment from the Jaduguda uranium mine, India by both culture independent and cultured dependent approaches. Attempt has been made to characterise the uranium and other heavy metal resistant bacterial strains from U-mine sites and to characterize them in terms of their uranium and other metal resistance and accumulation properties. Uranium resistance and sequestration characteristics of a metal resistant and accumulating strain 9–16 isolated from uranium mine tailings was done in details. Performance of this strain in tolerating and sequestering uranium in mine water sample was also evaluated using microcosm based studies. 2.0 Material and methods 2.1 Sampling sites and sample collection Uranium mines at Jaduguda, Bhatin, and Narwapahar are located in the center of Singhbhum Thrust Belt (STB) of Jharkhand State. During April, 2007 to August, 2009, samples were collected from Jaduguda mine tailings ponds TP-1 and TP-3 periodically. All samples were collected aseptically and stored immediately in ice. Samples collected from TP-1 and TP-3 was designed as TP-1 and TP-3, respectively. For culturable part samples were collected from different 4 highly contaminated sites. 2.2 Enumeration of culturable bacterial population Different microbiological cultivation methods were used for enumeration of culturable bacterial populations. Agar plates were prepared with the following media: R2A, PTYG and MGY (Fredrickson et al., 2004). Following inoculation, plates were incubated at 30˚C in dark. Plates were examined over a period of two week and numbers of colonies were counted. 2.3 Extraction of community metagenomes, Genomic DNA and amplification of 16S rRNA genes Total bacterial community DNA and amplification of about 1.5 kb of the 16S rRNA genes were targeted from all these samples were as reported (Dhal et al., 2014)

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2.4 16S rRNA clone library construction and Amplified Ribosomal DNA Restriction Analysis (ARDRA) PCR products were purified using gel-purification kit (Qiagen), cloned into pGEM-T easy vector (Promega) and transformed into E. coli JM109 following manufacturer‘s instructions and ARDRA were performed as reported by Dhal et al., 2014. 2.5 Phylogenetic analysis 16S rRNA gene About first 600–700 nucleotides of cloned 16S rDNA gene of all bacterial isolates were sequences. Single representative clone from each dominant OTU were sequenced. Sequence analysis was done using both the Ribosomal Database Project II (RDP-II) and BLAST program of NCBI database and phylogenetic trees were constructed using the neighbor-joining with Jukes-Cantor distances in MEGA4.

2.6 Heavy metal resistance of the isolates Heavy metal (Cu2+, Cr6+, Cd2+ and Ni2+) resistance of the isolates were tested along with multiple metal resistant bacterium Cupriavidus metallidurans (DSMZ 2839) or metal sensitive bacterium E. coli JM109 (Choudhury et al., 2011. Maximum tolerable concentration (MTC) of these metals after which no colony growth occurred was determined by agar dilution method (Luli et al., 1983). 2.7 Uranium resistance and accumulation test Uranium resistance and accumulation capability of the isolates was tested by monitoring cell viability with or without uranium following a modified protocol adapted from Suzuki and Banfield (2004) and Choudhary and Sar, 2011, respectively. For these experiments, along with the test strains, E. coli and D. radiodurans were used as two reference bacteria. 2.8 Uranium removal by most efficient strain in mine water microcosm Ability of the strain 9-16 to survive and remove uranium from U-mine water (collected from uranium mine site at Jaduguda) was investigated using laboratory microcosm system. During this microcosm experiment, two more bacterial strains, 12-21c and J007 both isolated from the same mine effluent (either during this study or previously in this laboratory) was considered along with the test bacterium. 3.0 Result and Discussion 3.1 Analysis of 16S rRNA gene clone libraries and affiliation of major ribotypes Nearly all dominant and few minor ribotypes of eubacterial and archaebacterial members from all the three libraries were identified by sequencing first 500 to 700 bases of representative 16S rRNA gene clone(s). Relative frequency of detected phylogenetic groups and their affiliations were presented in Figure 1. From TP-1 and TP-3 libraries 23, and 32 ribotypes covering up to 80% of respective communities were identified. Taxonomic identities of these ribotypes were obtained by similarity search in NCBI as well as RDP databases followed by phylogenic analysis. Sequence analysis revealed that dominant bacterial groups within the three samples were distributed mostly within the phylum Proteobacteria covering more than 50% of individual community. Members of the phylum Acidobacteria although were detected in all three samples, they represented major groups in JOT245 and J1-5 covering 14%–37% of the total communities. Members of the phylum Bacteroidetes were detected among the samples but with relatively less abundance. In addition to these three major groups (Proteobacteria, Acidobacteria and Bacteroidetes), presences of other groups representing relatively less abundant populations were detected among the samples.

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a

b

Figure 1: Distribution of different bacterial groups within (a) fresh tailings TP-1 (b) vegetative TP-3

3.2 Heavy metal sensitivity of bacterial isolates Heavy metal (Cu2+, Co2+, Cr6+, Cd2+ and Ni2+) sensitivity of isolated bacterial strains was ascertained by allowing their growth in minimal medium supplemented with respective heavy metal at graded concentrations (0.1 mM to 7 mM). Tables 1 present metal sensitivity data in terms of percent of surviving bacteria out of the total number of exposed strains from each sample in increasing metal doses. Among the five metals tested, resistances to chromium were found to be more prevalent within the strains isolated from all samples. Table 1: Heavy metal resistance among the 42 bacterial isolates from the Uranium contaminated samples [Cumulative % of strains resistant to the following metal ion concentration (mM)] Sample id

4-3 (8 strains)

4-5 (11 strains)

Conc (mM)

Cd

Co

Cr

Cu

Ni

Conc (mM)

Cd

Co

Cr

Cu

Ni

01

100

62

100

100

75

01

100

46

85

77

92

0.1

37

62

100

100

75

0.1

46

46

85

77

77

0.25

25

62

62

0

62

0.25

38

46

46

46

77

0.50

0

0

62

0

0

0.50

31

0

38

0

8

1.00

0

0

62

0

0

1.00

31

0

38

0

8

1.50

0

0

37

0

0

1.50

0

0

38

0

8

2.00

0

0

25

0

0

2.00

0

0

38

0

0

3.00

0

0

25

0

0

3.00

0

0

23

0

0

3.50

0

0

25

0

0

3.50

0

0

23

0

0

5.00

0

0

25

0

0

5.00

0

0

8

0

0

7.00

0

0

0

0

0

7.00

0

0

0

0

0

Conc (mM)

Cd

Co

Cr

Cu

Ni

Conc (mM)

Cd

Co

Cr

Cu

Ni

01

100

54

91

100

100

01

100

27

100

100

100

0.1

73

54

91

100

91

0.1

27

27

100

100

100

0.25

36

54

91

36

91

0.25

27

27

100

82

100

0.50

18.

27

45

9

36

0.50

0

0

82

0

27

1.00

18

27

27

0

27

1.00

0

0

73

0

27

1.50

18

27

18

0

27

1.50

0

0

64

0

27

2.00

9

27

18

0

27

2.00

0

0

54

0

18

3.00

9

27

18

0

27

3.00

0

0

45

0

18.

3.50

9

27

18

0

27

3.50

0

0

45

0

18

Sample id

4-4 (13 strains)

4-6 (10 strains)

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Sample id

Conc (mM)

Cd

Co

Cr

Cu

Ni

Conc (mM)

Cd

Co

Cr

Cu

Ni

5.00

9

27

18

0

27

5.00

0

0

45

0

18

7.00

9

0

0

0

0

7.00

0

0

0

0

0

Sample id

Among the contaminated samples bacterial isolates obtained from tailings sediment showed superior resistance to multiple metals including Cd, Cr, Cu and Ni. In the former sample eight strains out of 12 could tolerate up to 7 mM of Cd, while three strains were resistant up to 3 mM. In the mine water sediment 40% of the strains could withstand up to 5 mM Cd while 73% isolates withstand Cr concentration of 3.5 mM. Bacterial strains isolated from other tailings sample 4-8 and 4-9, also showed considerable high resistance to Cr, Ni or Co. These strain isolated from different locations of U-mines also showed simultaneous resistance to several metals at higher concentration. Table 1 indicates details of isolated strains that showed multi metal resistance phenotype. Ability of withstand toxic heavy metal is considered to be one of the most important cellular properties essential for survival of microbes within uranium and other toxic heavy metal rich environments. As evident from the present study a large proportion of bacteria were found to be resistant to one or multiple metals. Particularly the evidence of Cr6+ resistance phenotype among the isolates was notable. Since, the test bacterial strains were isolated from two distinct categories of samples either highly contaminated with U ore and / waste or outside the mine territory and devoid of anthropogenic contamination by U mine waste; we anticipated a difference in metal resistance properties within the isolates. It was noted that except Cr6+, resistance to other four metals (Co2+, Cd2+, Cu2+ and Ni2+) were generally more prevalent in bacterial strains isolated from contaminated sites. The fact that contamination with U -mine waste had some effect on evolving metal resistant phenotype as was further evident by the ability of bacterial strains (from such sites) to withstand multiple metals considerably. Therefore, apart from presence of higher level of metal contamination within the contaminated samples, their geochemical composition might play important role in evolving such resistance phenotype. In spite of the influence of site specific geochemistry, several studies (Chaudri et al., 1992; Carrasco et al., 2009) have indicated that bacteria isolated from metal-contaminated soils are often more resistant to metals than those collected from uncontaminated environments as their resistance properties are likely to play important roles in the growth, metal tolerance and accumulation capacity exhibited essentially for surviving in contaminated environments. 3.3 Uranium and other heavy metal resistance All the sixteen multi metal bacterial strains were tested for their resistance and accumulation capability of U. Within these bacterial strains 8-16, 12-20, 4-12, 12-21c, 10-18, 6-8b, 4-9, 8-3 and 12-21b showed very high survival in low pH saline even up to 12 h of incubation. Under the similar condition but with uranium (100 mg UL-1) four isolates viz., 9-16, 12-7, 8-2 and 6-8b showed insignificant changes (P < 0.05) in cell counts till 1 h of incubation indicating their ability to tolerate uranium within acidic and nutrient free State. On the other hand, under the similar condition viability of six strains viz., 12-20, 1221c, 10-18, 11-4, 8-3 and 12-21b were moderately affected by uranium with one order of magnitude lowering in CFU counts following 1 h exposure. While strains 4-9 and 4-12 or 12-1 or 8-16 showed 2-4 orders of magnitude lowering in CFU counts. Among the other isolates 5-2a and 8-4 showed high sensitivity towards uranium under the similar condition. Reference strains D. radiodurans and E. coli JM109 showed 1 and 3 order of magnitude lowering in their respective cell counts upon U-exposure for 1 h Uranium sensitivity study till further period (12 h) of exposure showed that while many of the test isolates succumbed to the U-toxicity with huge loss of viable cell counts, two strains 8-16 and 12-7 could survive to some extent yielding the CFU counts of 102 and 103, respectively. Uranium accumulation capacity of the test bacterial isolates was studied by exposing individual strain in U containing solution (100 mg U L-1 0.1 N NaCl, pH 4.0). Timed samples were withdrawn and analyzed for metal accumulation by the bacteria. Figure 2 represents U accumulation by all the test bacteria at three time points (within 5 minutes contact with U, after 1h- and after 12 h- of contact with U). As evident from the figure, most of the strains were able to accumulate substantial amount of U within first five minutes of contact and only in few cases further accumulation with extended incubation with U was observed. The data revealed that immediately after coming in contact with U, Bacillus sp. 8-4 was able to accumulate highest amount of U (112 mg of U g-1 of dry wt.) followed by 9-16 (90 mg of U g-1 of dry wt.), 12-7 (84 mg of U g-1 of dry wt.) and 12-21c (77 mg of U g-1 of dry wt.). Among the other strains 11-4, 8-2, 8-3, 4-9, 6-8b, 5-2a 840

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accumulated 50 mg U or higher g-1 dry wt. Remaining 6 strains, showed relatively much reduced U accumulation (15-43 mg U g-1 dry wt.). Incubation up to 1 h, in general, did not improve metal loading accept 12-21c, that showed nearly 1.9 fold increase in metal loading followed by marginal changes in some other strains (11-4, 5-2a, 8-2, 8-3, 8-16 and 4-12). Incubation up to 12 h did not help much in accumulation higher amount of U, except 6 strains (11-4, 8-3, 4-9, 12-20, 8-16, and 10-18). Maximum increase U loading in this period was observing in 10-18 (2.1 fold) followed by 4-9 (1.5 fold), 8-16 (1.4 fold) and 8-3 (1.3 fold). Overall result indicated that irrespective of their taxonomic affiliation, test bacterial strains accumulate U immediately upon contact with the metal, however, gram position high GC content Bacillus spp. were more efficient in terms of U accumulation. Based on uranium resistance and uptake capacities, 9-16, isolated from Jaduguda uranium tailings was selected for further investigation (Table 2) Table 2: Uranium resistance potential of multimetal bacterial isolates from the Uranium contaminated samples Strain Id

pH-4+U

1H (pH-4+U)

07

3.50×10

12H (pH-4+U)

07

2.4×107

9-16

3.40×10

8-16

4.75×1008

4.50×1008

1×104

12-1

3.54×1008

2.51×1008

5×105

12-7

2.70×1007

2.50×1007

1.2×107

8-2

7.50×1007

7.43×1007

2.93×108

12-20

7.50×1008

7.50×1008

4×108

4-12

4.26×1008

3.24×1008

1.25×106

12-21b

5.90×1007

5.18×1007

3.75×106

12-21c

4.83×1007

4.10×1007

7×106

10-18

5.70×1007

5.40×1007

8×106

11-4

3.55×1007

3.08×1007

5.75×106

5-2a

6.80×1007

4.78×107

0

6-8b

6.75×10

08

8

8-4

2.00×1008

4-9

1.53×10

10

8-3

1.70×1009

3.25×10

1.52×108

2×108

50

1.93×10

9

2.48×108

1.18×109

1×108

160

mg of U/ g of dry wt.

140

5 mints. 1 hrs. 12 hrs.

120 100 80 60 40 20

8-3

4-9

8-4

5-2a

6-8b

11-4

10-18

12-21c

4-12

12-21b

8-2

12-20

12-7

12-1

8-16

9-16

0

Strain Figure 2: Uranium accumulation by tested bacterial strains. 841

Paltu Kumar Dhal et al. / Waste Management & Resource Utilisation 2016

3.4 Microcosm studies Uranium resistance and its removal by the bacterium 9-16 was finally tested using uranium mine discharge effluent based on laboratory microcosm system. Heavy metal composition of the effluent (including actinides and lanthanides metal) was estimated by ICP-MS. In order to test the microbial toxicity of U mine effluent, an E.coli JM109 strain was used. During this preliminary study, it was noted that E.coli JM109 cells are unable to survive within the mine water effluent and complete loss of viability occurre by 7 days incubation (data not shown), thereby conforming the toxicity of the effluent. Bacterial strains 9-16were found to be able to survive very well in the contaminated mine water up to 15 days although at 30 days slight decline in viable cell counts was noticed (Table 3). Bactria 9-16 showed nearly one order of magnitude reduction in viability in 15 days, which, however, remain stable afterwards. Table 3: Survival test of the strain 9-16 Time

9-16

0 hrs

0.00

9-16+U 0.00

0.2 hrs

1.63×10

08

1.63×1008

1 days

2.12×1008

1.95×1008

15 days

1.40×1008

9.50×1007

30 days

9.40×1007

5.70×1007

Along with the survival, ability to remove U and other metals by Staphylococcus sp. 9-16 from the effluent was studied in the microcosm. It was observed that nearly 100% of soluble uranium was removed within one day of incubation in both the microcosms (containing only effluent and effluent with additional U). Apart from U, the bacterium was able to remove substantial amount of Ni2+, Cu2+ and Zn2+ from the effluent. The removal of Cu2+ in microcosm containing only effluent was very rapid reaching its 100% by 1 day (Figure 3)

Figure 3: Uranium and other metal removal by Bacteria 9-16 from mine water microcosm

4.0 Acknowledgement The authors gratefully acknowledge the financial support from Board of Research in Nuclear Sciences, Department of Atomic Energy, Government of India. Kind support during the field work from Uranium Corporation India Ltd., Jaduguda, is thankfully acknowledged. Authors also acknowledge IIT Kharagpur allowing the works to be done successfully.

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Reference Beazley, M.J., Martinez, R.J., Sobecky, P.A., Webb, S.M., Taillefert, M., (2007). Uranium biomineralization as a result of bacterial phosphatase activity: insights from bacterial isolates from a contaminated subsurface. Environ. Sci. Technol. 41, 5701–5707. Carrasco, L., Caravaca, F., Azcon, R., Roldan, A., (2009). Soil acidity determines the effectiveness of an organic amendment and a native bacterium for increasing soil stabilization in semiarid mine tailings. Chemosphere 74, 239–244. Chaudri, A.M., McGrath, S.P., Giller, K.E., (1992). Metal tolerance of isolates of Rhizobium leguminosarum biovar Trifolii from soil contaminated by past applications of sewage-sludge. Soil Biol. Biochem. 24, 83–88. Choudhary S, Sar P (2011) Uranium biomineralization by a metal resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa strain isolated from contaminated mine waste. J. Hazard. Mater. 186:336–343. Choudhary S, Sar P (2015) Interaction of uranium (VI) with bacteria: potential applications in bioremediation of U contaminated oxic environments. Rev. Environ. Sci. Biotechnol. 14:347–355. Choudhary, S., Sar, P., (2009). Characterization of a metal resistant Pseudomonas sp. isolated from uranium mine for its potential in heavy metal (Ni2+, Co2+, Cu2+, and Cd2+) sequestration. Bioresour. Technol. 100, 2482–2492. Choudhary, S., Sar, P., (2011). Identification and characterization of uranium accumulation potential of a uranium mine isolated Pseudomonas strain. W. J. Microbiol. Biotechnol. (DOI 10.1007/s11274-010-0637-7). Desai, C., Pathak, H., Madamwar, D., (2010). Advances in molecular and ―-omics‖ technologies to gauge microbial communities and bioremediation at xenobiotic/anthropogen contaminated sites, Bioresour. Technol. 101, 1558– 1569. Dhal P K, Sar Pinaki (2014) Microbial communities in uranium mine tailings and mine water sediment from Jaduguda U mine, India: A culture independent analysis. Environmental Science and Health. 49:694–709. Fredrickson, J.K., Zachara, J.M., Balkwill, D.L., Kennedy, D., Li, S.M., Kostandarithes, H.M., Daly, M.J., Romine, M.F., Brockman, F.J., (2004). Geomicrobiology of high-level nuclear waste-contaminated vadose sediments at the hanford site, Washington state. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 70, 4230–41. Kratochvil, D., Volesky, B., (1998). Advances in the biosorption of heavy metals. Trends in Biotechnology, 16, 291– 300. Lovley, D.R., (2003). Cleaning up with genomics: applying molecular biology to bioremediation. Nat. Rev. Microbiol. 1, 35–44. Luli, G.W., Talnagi, J.W., Strohl, W.R., Pfister, R.M., (1983). Hexavalent chromium reisistant bacteria isolated from river sediments. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 46, 846–854. Martinez, R.J., Wang, Y., Raimondo, M.A., Coombs, J.M., Barkay, T., Sobecky, P.A., (2006). Horizontal gene transfer of PIB-type ATPases among bacteria isolated from radionuclide-and metal-contaminated subsurface soils. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 72, 3111–3118. Merroun, M.L., Selenska-Pobell, S., (2001). Interactions of three eco-types of Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans with U(VI). Biometals 14, 171–179. Merroun, M.L., Selenska-Pobell, S., (2008). Bacterial interactions with uranium: an environmental perspective. J. Contam. Hydrol. 102, 285–295. Nedelkova, M., Merroun, M.L., Rossberg, A., Hennig, C., Selenska-Pobell, S., (2007). Microbacterium isolates from the vicinity of a radioactive waste depository and their interactions with uranium. FEMS Microbiol. Ecol. 59, 694–705. Suzuki SY, Banfield JF (2004) Resistance to, and Accumulation of, Uranium by Bacteria from a UraniumContaminated. Geomicrobiol. J. 21:113–121. Suzuki, S.Y., Banfield, J.F., (1999). Geomicrobiology of uranium. In: Burns PC, Finch R (Eds.), Uranium: Mineralogy, Geochemistry and the Environment. Mineralogical Society of America, Washington, DC, U.S.A. Vol. 38, pp. 393–432. Yi, Z., Lian, B., (2012). Adsorption of U(VI) by Bacillus mucilaginosus. J. Radioanal. Nucl. Chem. 293, 321–329.

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Environmental Sound Management of Asbestos Containing Wastes Generated from Industries in India R. Singh1, M. Sontakke2, J.M Vivek1, B. Rao1, S.R. Asolekar1,* 1

Centre for Environmental Science & Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, Powai, Mumbai, India 2 Institute of Chemical Technology, Mumbai, India *Corresponding Author: Email- [email protected] ABSTRACT Usage of ―Asbestos‖ finds historical significance for the manufacture of around 3000 products, the reasons attributed are properties such as high tensile strength, resistant to heat, acids and alkalies and most importantly its usage as an insulating material. But, due to its unambiguous links with diseases like ‗Mesothelioma‘ and ‗Lung-fibrosis‘ many of the developed countries have already instituted asbestos bans. However, other countries including Burma, China, India, Indonesia, Iran, Malaysia, Nepal, Pakistan, Philippines, Thailand and Vietnam, continue to produce and use asbestos and related materials. In developing countries like India occupational exposure of asbestos can be encountered in the form of asbestos mining, asbestos cement industries, asbestos processing unit and during renovation and demolition of old asbestos cemented roof or other structures as well as modern electrical and mechanical appliances. There are a large number of asbestos products manufacturing and utilizing industries in India, both in large and medium scale sectors. But a huge significant amount of small scale and unorganised sectors are located around the major rural and urban centres in India. The present study articulates the current trend of asbestos production and consumption in India and generation of Asbestos Wastes (AW) and Asbestos Containing Wastes (ACW) in various industries in India. As asbestos is known for its fire resistant and lightweight properties, it is widely used in chemical plant machinery, infrastructural framework of industrial plants and manufacture of fire and chemical resistant protective clothing for chemical plant workers. Therefore, it is imperative to estimate various Asbestos Containing Materials (ACM) and generation of AW and ACW in industries for adopting the precautionary measures while handling such materials. To address asbestos problem, effective government policies and regulations are imperatively associated with technical interventions. Self-regulation by the concerned industries, including the adoption of cleaner production and management strategies during planning, design and operations, will significantly help to ensure proper asbestos wastes management and minimization of exposure to the workforce. The strategies for preventive environmental management of AW and ACW have been discussed in this work. Keywords: Asbestos, ACW (Asbestos Containing Wastes), AW (Asbestos Wastes), ARD (Asbestos Related Diseases, PPE (Personal Protective Equipments), TSDF (Treatment, Storage and Disposal Facility); International Society of Waste Management, Air and Water

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1.0 Introduction Asbestos refers to a group of six silicate minerals that are thin, long and flexible, that can be woven and spun into fabrics with high resistance to heat, chemicals and are non-biodegradable (Thompson et.al., 2002; Ross et.al., 2008; Foresti et.al, 2009). Asbestos is basically a poly-silicate fiber, formed due to the Si-O-Si bond formation. It consists of six minerals, namely crysotile, amosite, crocidolite, anthophyllite, tremolite and actinolite (Bernstein and Hoskins, 2006). All the minerals, except chrysotile, come under the category of Amphibole. Chrysotile is classified as serpentine asbestos, which is a hydrated magnesium silicate with stoichiometric chemical formula as Mg3Si2O5(OH)4. It forms a sheet like structure of silicate crystals. Chrysotile fibre is very thin with a diameter of approximately, 25 nm. The fibre length ranges from fraction of millimeters to a few centimeters (Virta, 2002). Most of the industrial asbestos used nowadays is chrysotile (WHO, 2006; UCGS, 2006; Kanarek, 2011). Amphiboles are widely found in earth‘s crust. They form polymeric structure, but are linear and longer and not sheet like as that of serpentine. Asbestos has high tensile strength, good heat resistant capacity, chemically inert and are inflammable, non-biodegradable. The tensile strength of chrysotile is about 1.1-4.4 GPa (Virta, 2002). Due to polymeric sheet like structure of chrysotile, it has high friability. However, the negative effects of asbestos were recognized in 1899, thereafter it is considered as a carcinogenic material (Gidarakos, 2008). Its prolonged exposure can cause ―Asbestosis‖, ―Mesothalioma‖ and ―Lung Fibrosis‖ (Ying et.al., 2015; Pagliette et.al., 2016). They have small diameter, which helps it to get into the respiratory tract despite the presence of ciliated airways. Also it has long length; due to which it cannot be enclosed by macrophages, thereby producing incomplete phagocytosis. The asbestos fiber is also characterized by biological persistence, which helps in its long term persistence in the lungs (Donaldson et.al., 2013). The biological persistence of chrysotile is comparatively less than that of amphiboles. Chrysotile can leach out, while amphiboles remain for a longer time in the lungs (Ansari et.al., 2007). However each type of asbestos is carcinogenic. Many of the developed countries have already instituted asbestos bans due to its unambiguous links with deleterious diseases but other countries, including Burma, China, India, Indonesia, Iran, Malaysia, Nepal, Pakistan, Philippines, Thailand and Vietnam, continue to produce and use asbestos and related materials and products (Li et al., 2014). India is not only mining chrysotile but also a major portion of quantity consumed is being imported from other nations. The latency period (length of the time between exposure and the onset of diseases) in India is estimated to be 20-37 yr (Ramanathan and Subramanian, 2001), this might be a reason behind vague records of mesothelioma and lung fibrosis cases in India as the major chunk of labours works on contract basis due to which it becomes difficult to monitor their health after they leave their workplace. As many workers start at an early age in the asbestos industries, Asbestos Related Diseases (ARDs) occur at relatively younger age in India as compared to other countries in the world. Moreover, due to more involvement of Indian women workers, they become more vulnerable to ARDs (Dave and Beckett, 2005). Industrial application of asbestos has created a huge demand for environmental sound management of AW and ACW in order to minimize the adverse environmental and health impacts. 2.0 Production and Consumption of Asbestos in India In India, there is rapid increase in the consumption of asbestos from the period 1930 to 2013. Though in the last few years, there is not a definite pattern seen in the consumption rate. The consumption is fluctuating in the range of 3,00,000 to 4,70,000 MT/annum (Indian Bureau of Mines, 2015). Besides huge number of industries which are manufacturing and processing the asbestos products, there are a large number of unorganized sectors for asbestos processing. Rajasthan in India is attributed of supplying more than 90% of total production of asbestos in the country, of which around 60% is processed there in unorganized sectors including milling and manufacturing of asbestos-based products (Ansari et.al., 2007). Maximum numbers of unorganized small scale industries are engaged in the milling of asbestos-bearing rocks and the manufacture of asbestos- based products in Beawer and Deogarh districts of Rajasthan.

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As developing world is phasing out use of asbestos, India is trying to come forward as the primary producer and user of asbestos after China. In India, more than 25 asbestos producing mines is in active operation with a production rate of approximately 3,000 tonnes/month along with >70 percent of the quantity imported from Canada (Ramanathan and Subramanian, 2001). Asbestos imports is around 3,00,000 metric tons/annum as per US geological survey report, out of which small asbestos industries contribute almost 5 to 10 percent of the total country usage. Production and usage of asbestos occur in the states of Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Karnataka, Manipur, Rajasthan and Tamil Nadu. Among them, Rajasthan state alone produces about 90% of the asbestos.

Figure 1: Production v/s Apparent Consumption of Asbestos in India (USGS, 1994-2014)

There are over 3000 commercial products containing different concentration of asbestos depending upon the ultimate usage. Asbestos products generally used in developing countries include construction products such as roofing and siding shingles, asbestos cement pipes, materials used in stoves, vinyl carpets and floor tiles. There are also other products used in soundproofing (lecture theatres), thermal insulation (e.g. hot water and steam pipe) and fireproofing (e.g. in bank vaults), adhesives, filers, brake shoe and clutch linings, floor tiles, and several textile products (Harris and Kahwa, 2003). Owing to growing public awareness about the hazards of asbestos, consumption of asbestos dropped by 36% from 2010 to 2011 in India but this is hardly enough to save us from the unacknowledged imminent public health crisis. As per Indian bureau of mines, the apparent demand of asbestos was estimated to be 393, 000 tonnes in 2011-12 and is expected to touch 6,05,000 tonnes by 2016-17 with 9% growth rate as per the report of the working group for 12th Plan (Indian Bureau of Mines, 2015) 3.0 Use of Asbestos in Industries Chrysotile asbestos accounts for approximately 95% of all asbestos manufactured and used in a broad range of industrial applications, due to its peculiar properties such as ability to be easily woven, melded and added to other inorganic and polymeric compounds to form composite materials (Thompson et.al., 2002; Foresti et.al, 2009). The huge quantum of asbestos consumption and thereby production of various asbestos containing goods produces a considerable amount of wastes residues which is termed as asbestos containing wastes (ACW). Asbestos wastes from industries is generated from either from industries which requires mined asbestos for manufacture of asbestos products such as building materials, protective clothing, textiles or other insulation material or in the form of end of life insulation material (ACM) from other type of industries (such as textile industries, dye industries and other chemical industries). In chemical industries asbestos is widely used in following installations: 846

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  

As an insulation material for boilers, gaskets, pipes In protective clothing for the workers In building material

A huge quantum of asbestos is released from industries where mined asbestos is used for manufacture of various ACM. The production and processing in an asbestos industry is organized in the following manner. First, asbestos ore is mined and then milled to achieve a homogeneous, graded input, which is shipped to primary industries. These primary industries then process and modify the raw asbestos fibre to produce an intermediate or finished product. Secondary industries may then be required to complete the final processing of the product into a finished good. This finished good or product is then sold to consumer industries which then apply, install, erect, or consume the product without further modification. All of these operations have the potential for releasing asbestos fibres to the atmosphere as well as contributes enormously in generation of AW and ACW. Figure 2 below illustrates movement within the asbestos industry.

Mine tailings

Waste residues

Waste residues

Waste residues

End-of-life products

Figure 2: Use of asbestos products in primary secondary, and consumer industries Being an excellent insulating material, it is widely used in chemical plant machinery, where insulation is required, such as pipes, pumps, valves, furnaces, boilers, ovens and driers, radiator stop-leak products, bunsen burner pads, gaskets, mixers and grinders. It is extensively used in infrastructural framework of chemical plants particularly in the form of cement corrugated sheets, cement block primer sand elastomers, adhesives and molded flexible parts. Also, a major use is in the manufacture of fire and chemical resistant protective clothing for chemical plant workers, such as gloves, aprons, overalls and facemasks. So, it is used as majorly in pipes, furnaces, boilers, heat exchangers, ovens, driers and extruders. 4.0 Potential health Impacts Due to Chrysotile Asbestos In India, asbestos is regulated under the Factories Act (1948), in which asbestosis is listed as a notifiable disease in the schedule 3 of the Act. Asbestos is also regulated under Air and Water Act and listed in schedule 1 of Hazardous and Other Wastes (Management and Transboundary Movement) Rules, 2016 under the agies of Environment Protection Act (1986). In addition, Indian Standards Institution (ISI) has brought out a number of national standards and specification relating to asbestos mining, manufacturing and handling. India has very relaxed standards for asbestos emission in the environment, compared with most European countries and the USA. There are a number of studies which concluded that industrial hygiene conditions of unorganized sectors dealing with asbestos processing are very poor (CPCB, 2008). Ansari et.al., (2007) studies claim that the fibre concentration at work places in Beawer and Deogarh districts of Rajasthan are manifold higher than Indian as well as international standards. The mine workers were found not using any personal protective gears and the milling units were devoid of engineering control devices for the control and mitigation of pollution.

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In a similar study done on health hazard at ship dismantling yards, there was an elevated trend of asbestos exposure with cancer incidences, oesophagus cancer, and trachea, bronchus, and lung cancer among ship-breaking workers was observed (Wu et.al., 2015). Detection of cases of mesothelioma and accurate measurement of their number requires systematic surveillance systems at the national level, and a frequently absence is observed. The latent period between exposure to asbestos and the development of mesothelioma can be as long as 40 years or more, and such systems therefore need to be of long standing (WHO, 2014). Many countries have already taken action at a national level to prohibit the use of all forms of asbestos to limit exposure and so control, prevent and ultimately eliminate asbestos-related diseases. As per the WHO reports, at least 107,000 people die globally due to ARDs (Asbestos Related Diseases). However, there are other countries that, for a range of reasons, have yet to act in the same manner. India is one among them. Though there is lack of health epidemiological studies done in India, still the hazardous impact of asbestos should not be overlooked. Very little has been done to protect workers who are potentially exposed to asbestos and nothing has been done to compensate those who are suffering. There is no central mesothelioma (asbestos cancer) registry and no data collection on occupational diseases in India. 5.0 Asbestos Wastes Management in Industries There are typically two ways in which asbestos could be a matter of concern for the industries. First if the industrial unit is engaged in manufacture of asbestos containing products and second if there is installation of ACM in the industrial unit. In both the cases the operator has to ensure proper handling and disposal of the waste asbestos. The Asbestos Convention, 1986 adopted by International Labour Organisation (ILO) aims to control the use of asbestos. Article 10 of the Convention elucidates the need of a systemic approach aimed at replacing the asbestos materials and ACMs if required keeping workers health at high priority. Article 11 of the Convention states sternly prohibits the use of crocidolite and products containing this fibre. The end-of-life asbestos containing materials needs to be managed and disposed off in accordance with Hazardous and Other Wastes (Management and Transboundary Movement) Rules, 2016, as per the Indian legal framework. 5.1 Strategies For AW Management at Industry level There is enough literature available that validate the ill effects of air borne AW in the form of asbestos fibres. In order to avoid the deleterious health impacts to the workforce potentially exposed to fibres, there is a stern need to use PPEs or application of some in-situ technology to reduce the friability of the asbestos or combination of both of these. At indoor workplaces where dust-related work is done, the secondary emanation of accumulated dust could have an adverse impact on the working environment. Particularly because asbestos dust induces extremely serious health impairment, it is crucial to contain the secondary emanation. In order to suppress the secondary emanation of asbestos dust, it is important to clean up. It is desirable to load a high efficiency particulate air (HEPA) filter behind the dust-removing equipment.

Figure 3: Labelling of Asbestos containing material found in ship recycling industries. Before dismantling the ship proper identification and labelling of asbestos containing areas is done and disposal activity is further done by the licensed asbestos contractors. 848

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In case of management of end-of-life ACM which is called asbestos containing wastes (ACW), sometimes it is recommendable to treat the wastes before its final disposal. There are various methods for converting hazardous AW and ACW into non-hazardous material, which can be further utilized or recycled for various purposes. There are different methods for removing asbestos containing materials such as asbestos coatings and/or plastering materials from the structural and building materials upon which such asbestos-containing materials have been placed. The simplest method is wet stripping of the ACW (Lim et.al., 2011). Wetting is an effective method to restrain the dispersal of dust containing asbestos fibers. The method includes the watering with the help of a shower, spray or sprinkler, the atomizer method that uses fine water droplets sprayed into the air to capture airborne dust for sedimentation and the moisturization method to restrain the dispersal of dust by pre-moisturizing raw materials that are the sources of dust. Out of other different methods proposed and studied by different authors for altering hazardous nature of chrysotile asbestos; the major ones were treating the ACM with acids (Turci et.al., 2008; Valouma et.al., 2016) and thermal treatment (Gualtieri et.al., 2008; Gualtieri et.al., 2012; Granat et.al., 2015). The method includes wetting the asbestos fibres with an aqueous solution containing about 1 to 10% by weight acid solution (Brown and Paul, 2006). The acid solution hydrolyzes the brucite layer (magnesium oxide) contained in the crystal structure of chrysotile asbestos, thus destroying this crystal structure and the fibrous nature of the asbestos. The method may be used on ACM already in place to remove the asbestos fibres contained therein. The method may be used in-situ by spraying chrysotile-containing insulation material installed in ships (ship dismantling activity) and other machinery structures in industries. Upto 90% conversion of asbestos can be achieved depending on the type of acid used. When 90% or more of chrysotile asbestos is converted, the remaining unconverted asbestos is not sufficient to impart a fibrous nature to the product. AW and ACW produced is ultimately bagged and transported to the hazardous wastes TSDF for final disposal in secured landfills. The schematic representation of ACW management is given in figure. 4. 5.2 PPE for asbestos handling and collection ACMs may pose serious health risk if they are damaged or disturbed in a way that releases microscopic fibres into the surroundings. Safe handling and disposal of end-of-life ACMs in industrial premises therefore necessitate a series of sequential steps to ensure the minimization of potential exposure to the workforce. Workers engaged in AW handling should be provided with required personal protective gears, ancillary machinery, appropriate training and information for safe handling and disposal of AW and ACW (Lim et.al., 2011). Workers are required to wear a half-face filter respirator fitted with a class P1 or P2 filter cartridge, or a class P1 or P2 disposable respirator appropriate for asbestos (WHO, 2011). Disposable coveralls, safety shoes or boots, disposable hat and disposable gloves should be worn. After completion of work each day, the used coveralls should be sprayed with a light mist of water, removed and then sealed in asbestos waste bags for disposal. Workers are required to wear respirator while removing and disposing coveralls. All workers should be provided with onsite washing facilities, and should wash before eating, drinking or smoking, and before returning home.

Figure 3: PPEs used by the allocated trained and licensed asbestos removers and sealed ACM before dismantling

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Asbestos Waste Management

Step1: Identifying and designating The friable asbestos containing material/wastes in industry premises should be properly identified & labelled

Step 2: Wetting with suitable liquid carrier  

Wetting of ACM to reduce the release of asbestos fiber during cutting The use of high pressure water jets/guns should not be used in order to avoid the spread of fibers in the surrounding. Abrasive cutting should not be used on ACM as they may generate large amounts of dust containing microscopic asbestos fibers.



Step 3: Collection and transportation



Engine room cleaning and cutting 

AW should be collected and transported separately from other wastes to avoid any mixing. Storage and Transport of AW should be done in a sealed container such as a covered, locked skip or, if more appropriate, within sealed wrapping. It must be clearly marked with the asbestos warning label to show that it contains asbestos. Long term storage of AW should be avoided to minimize the risk of re-dispersal. AW should be transported as per the regulations concerning the transport of hazardous wastes.

 

Step 4: Intermediate treatment (stabilization)  

Stabilization of AW and ACW should be done prior to their final disposal in secured landfills. This process alters its structure and renders it harmless. Stabilization is also useful for further recycling of waste asbestos material in construction industries or other purpose. Stabilization may be done by thermal treatment, acid cracking and encapsulation.

Use of treated AW in construction industry

Is the stabilized AW suitable for further recycling?

No

Step 5: Recycling of AW and ACW

Yes

AW and ACW after its intermediate treatment can be recycled in construction industry or be directed to a dedicated disposal facility.

Fibre reinforced composites Transportation of wastes to CHW-TSDF

Waste residue

Step 6: Final disposal (Land filling) 



Landfill facility for waste asbestos should be constructed as per the guidelines of regulatory authorities with proper liner systems. Handling of wastes should be done under skilled supervision. All measures should be taken ino account in order to avoid dispersal of fibers in surrounding environment

Figure 4: Steps involved in ACW Management

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6.0 Disposal of AW and ACWs The process of dismantling and scarping off ACM from industries generate friable AWs which when airborne causes carcinogenic impacts. Hence for workers a decontamination area is very much essential to handle this class of work. The enclosure is kept at negative pressure to handle the friable asbestos components. After proper dismantling of industrial components in a separate enclosure, three possible options for the final disposal of AWs and ACWs can be adopted, these include:   

Recycling and reuse of waste asbestos Disposal in a secure/engineered landfill Disposal by high temperature transformation.

6.1 Recycling and Reuse of Asbestos Recycling waste asbestos has become one of the emerging fields of research especially for developing nations, where it is still in massive application. Recycling asbestos waste as a secondary raw material (SRM) for use in the place of cement in concrete is the innovation behind the green concrete concept. Thermal transformation product of cement asbestos can be used as a secondary raw material of great importance, which is chemically comparable to a Magnesium-rich clinker (Gualtieri et.al., 2012). The pozzolanic property of treated asbestos containing wastes (roof sheets) was studied and it was found suitable to be used as construction material (Colangelo et.al., 2011). Study done on asbestos tailings, claimed that asbestos tailing has no heavy metals and toxic pollution, so it can be used as aggregate material (Xiaoming and Linrong, 2011). The asbestos cement conversion product can be recycled for the production of clay bricks, glass, glass- ceramics, ceramic frits, ceramic pigments and plastic materials. 6.2 Disposal in a secure landfill Land disposal of properly packed AW is practiced all over world (World Bank, 2009; Jantzen and Pickett, 2000; Luther, 2006). ACM can be disposed-off in landfill sites provided that these facilities take all the measures to avoid the dispersal of fibers during handling and should have installed the infrastructural requirements such as liner systems and leachate collection system. Asbestos contaminated waste should never be disposed off by burning. The occupier (waste generator) should send the wastes to the dedicated hazardous wastes TSDF (Treatment, Storage Disposal Facility) authorized by the pollution control authorities. Bagged asbestos wastes are disposed of in specially identified cells alongside other kinds of wastes. Large items such as asbestos sheets and boards should be wrapped and sealed in polyethylene bags. Precautionary measures should be taken to prevent any scratch/dent to the polythene by pointed edges of the wastes contents. A record must be kept of the location of this waste, including the exact geographical coordinates. 6.3 Disposal by high temperature transformation Asbestos can be converted into non-hazardous silicate phases by heating at high temperatures altering the crystal structure and the formation of new phases without the hazardous properties (Kusiorowski et.al., 2012). Considering the risk of asbestos emission from landfill sites, some researchers developed thermal transformation of needle-shape crystalline of asbestos into harmless form usually under 1200 to 1500°C (Kodera et.al., 2013). Microwave inertization treated ACW can be recycled in porous single-fired wall tiles, porcelain stoneware tiles, and ceramic bricks (Leonelli et.al., 2006). The study by Colangelo et.al. (2011), claims that the high energy milling product of asbestos cement are asbestos free and can be gainfully recycled in the manufacturing of building materials. Inertization via chemicalphysical transformation (mechano-chemical, hydrothermal, re-crystallization, vitrification, etc.) and recycling of the transformation product as secondary raw material, assuring a lower environmental impact and a reduction in the consumption of the primary raw materials. These processes are appropriate for small-scale disposal of waste asbestos.

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7.0 Summary and discussion The management of fibrous hazardous wastes such as asbestos is very challenging in the present era of industrialization. India consumes around 4-5 MT of asbestos per annum for its industrial requirements. A considerable amount of chrysotile is mined in various parts of the country and a major portion of quantity consumed is being imported from other nations. Due to the lack of appropriate identification technology, most AW and ACW has been dumped together with construction debris or household wastes resulting in a public health hazard, one of the serious long-term environmental and human health concern for the asbestos consuming countries. Eventually workers engaged in ship breaking yards, construction labourers, electricians, vehicle mechanics and other workers in the industries that are potentially exposed to asbestos, inhale hundreds and thousands of fibres, which eventually cause "Asbestosis" and "Mesothelioma". Industry must take precautionary measures in order to avoid the potential exposure to the workforce due to asbestos, whether in the form of raw material or contained within products. If the utilization of asbestos substitute materials is not possible for the industries, effective waste minimisation techniques and environmental sound handling of AW should be implemented to reduce the environmental and health impacts. Disposal must be done only at a site authorized by pollution control boards to accept waste asbestos. An attempt is required to be made for assessment of various technologies available for the pretreatment and recycling of asbestos containing wastes and strategies for minimization of exposure to the workforce, who is potentially exposed to asbestos fibres due to their occupation. Various techniques such as solidification, stabilization, chemical fixation, thermal treatment, encapsulation etc. can serve for the purpose of immobilizing various kinds of contaminants in hazardous wastes into physically and chemically stable form which could have a better environmental acceptance. Affordability, acceptability and sustainability should be the approach road of effective AWs and ACWs management. References Ansari F.A., Ahmad I., Ashquin M., Yunus M., Rahman Q., 2007. Monitoring and identification of airborne asbestos in unorganized sectors, India, Chemosphere 68,716–723. Bernstein, D.M. and Hoskins, J.A., 2006. The health effects of chrysotile: current perspective based upon recent data. Regulatory toxicology and Pharmacology, 45(3), pp.252-264. Brown, P., Brown Paul W., 2004. In-situ treatment of asbestos-containing material. U.S. Patent Application 10/989,805. Colangelo, F., Cioffi, R., Lavorgna, M., Verdolotti, L., De Stefano, L., 2011. Treatment and recycling of asbestoscement containing waste. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 195, 391–397. Dave, S., Beckett, W.S., 2005. Occupational asbestos exposure and predictable asbestos-related diseases in India, American Journal of Industrial Medicine, 48,137-143. Donaldson, K., Poland, C.A., Murphy, F.A., MacFarlane, M., Chernova, T. and Schinwald, A., 2013. Pulmonary toxicity of carbon nanotubes and asbestos—similarities and differences. Advanced drug delivery reviews,65(15), pp.2078-2086. Foresti, E., Fornero, E., Lesci, I.G., Rinaudo, C., Zuccheri, T., Roveri, N., 2009. Asbestos health hazard: a spectroscopic study of synthetic geoinspired Fe-doped chrysotile, Journal of Hazardous Materials, 167, 1070– 1079. Gidarakos, E., Anastasiadou, K., Koumantakis, E. and Nikolaos, S., 2008. Investigative studies for the use of an inactive asbestos mine as a disposal site for asbestos wastes. Journal of hazardous materials, 153(3), pp.955-965. Granat, K., Nowak, D., Pigiel, M., Florczak, W. and Opyd, B., 2015. Application of microwave radiation in innovative process of neutralising asbestos-containing wastes. Archives of Civil and Mechanical Engineering,15(1), pp.188-194. Gualtieri, A.F., Cavenati, C., Zanatto, I., Meloni, M., Elmi, G. and Gualtieri, M.L., 2008. The transformation sequence of cement–asbestos slates up to 1200 C and safe recycling of the reaction product in stoneware tile mixtures. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 152(2), pp.563-570. Gualtieri, F., Veratti, L., Tucci A., Esposito, L., 2012. Recycling of the product of thermal inertization of cementasbestos in geopolymers, Construction and Building Materials, 31, 47–51. Harris, L.V., and Kahwa, I.A., 2003. Asbestos: Old foe in 21st century developing countries,Science of the Total Environment,307, 1-9. Hazardous and Other Wastes (Management and Transboundary) Rules-2016, Central Pollution Control Board, Available at: http://www.cpcb.nic.in/Hazardous_waste.php 852

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A new approach to the decontamination of asbestos-polluted waters by treatment with oxalic acid under power ultrasound. Ultrasonicssonochemistry, 15(4), pp.420-427. USGS, 2001. Some Facts about Asbestos (USGS Fact Sheet FS-012–01), 4 pp Valouma, A., Verganelaki, A., Maravelaki-Kalaitzaki, P. and Gidarakos, E., 2016. Chrysotile asbestos detoxification with a combined treatment of oxalic acid and silicates producing amorphous silica and biomaterial. Journal of hazardous materials, 305, pp.164-170. Virta, R. L., 1996. Asbestos, U.S. Geological Survey Minerals Yearbook 1995, 1, 1-7. Virta, R. L., 1997. Asbestos, U.S. Geological Survey Minerals Yearbook 1996, 1, 1-5. Virta, R. L., 1998. Asbestos, U.S. Geological Survey Minerals Yearbook 1997, 1, 8.1-8.5. Virta, R. L., 1999. Asbestos, U.S. Geological Survey Minerals Yearbook 1998, 1, 8.1-8.5. Virta, R. L., 2000. Asbestos, U.S. Geological Survey Minerals Yearbook 1999, 1, 8.1-8.6. Virta, R. L., 2002. 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Asbestos, U.S. Geological Survey Minerals Yearbook 2009, 1, 8.1-8.7. Virta, R. L., 2011. Asbestos, U.S. Geological Survey Minerals Yearbook 2010, 1, 8.1-8.5. Virta, R. L., 2012. Asbestos, U.S. Geological Survey Minerals Yearbook 2011, 1, 8.1-8.6. Virta, R. L., 2013. Asbestos, U.S. Geological Survey Minerals Yearbook 2012, 1, 8.1-8.7. Virta, R. L., 2014. Asbestos, U.S. Geological Survey Minerals Yearbook 2013, 1, 8.1-8.7. Virta, R. L., Flanagan D. M., 2015. Asbestos, U.S. Geological Survey Minerals Yearbook 2014, 1, 8.1-8.8. Virta, R.L., 1995. Asbestos, U.S. Geological Survey Minerals Yearbook 1994, 1, 1-68.1-8.5. 853

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Virta, R.L., 2002. Asbestos: geology, mineralogy, mining, and uses. Open-File Report 02-149. US Department of the Interior. US Geological Survey. Available from: http://pubs. usgs. gov/of/2002/of02-149/index. html. Virta, R.L., 2006. Worldwide asbestos supply and consumption trends from 1900 through 2003. Reston, VA: US Geological Survey. WHO, 2004. Neira M., Chrysotile Asbestos, World Health Organization World Bank Group, 2009. Good Practice Note: Asbestos: Occupational and Community Health Issues World Health Organization, 2006. Elimination of asbestos-related diseases. Wu W-T, Lin Y-J, Li C-Y, Tsai P-J, Yang C. Y, Liou S-H, 2015. Cancer attributable to asbestos exposure in shipbreaking workers: A matched-cohort study, PLOS ONE, 10, 7. Xiaoming, L.I.U., Linrong, X.U., 2011. Asbestos tailings as aggregates for asphalt mixture, Journal of Wuhan University of Technology-Mater. Sci. Ed., 335-338. Ying, C., Maeda, M., Nishimura, Y., Kumagai-Takei, N., Hayashi, H., Matsuzaki, H., Lee, S., Yoshitome, K., Yamamoto, S., Hatayama, T. and Otsuki, T., 2015. Enhancement of regulatory T cell-like suppressive function in MT-2 by long-term and low-dose exposure to asbestos. Toxicology, 338, pp.86-94.

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Analysis of Erosion Properties of Polymer Composite filled with Granite Dust for Hydraulic Turbine Blade Material J. Joy Mathavan1,*,Sugandha Shrestha1, Rehan Kaifi1, Amar Patnaik2 1

Student, Malaviya National Institute of Technology, Jaipur, India Assistant professor, Malaviya National Institute of Technology, Jaipur, India *Corresponding Author: Email- [email protected] 2

ABSTRACT The main objective of this research work is to introduce a new material for hydraulic turbine blade for efficient usage of hydraulic energy. Instead of the usual alloys used for hydraulic turbine blades, composite material has been tested in this paper. Polyamide needle fibre (Aramid fibre) has been used here, due to its high resistivity to erosion by water and it is cheap among other fibres while poly ester resin was used as the matrix. The samples were prepared by hand layup process. As a new trend and considering waste matter utilization, granite dust was added to the above composite as a filler material, because it is considered as an industrial waste. It belongs to the igneous rock family and is found to have good mechanical properties. In different percentages, granite dust was added to the composite to test the improvement in the erosion resistance and other mechanical properties. The velocity of jet, the feed rate of erodent (silica sand), the size of erodent, and the angle of impingement were changed and the tests were done in Taguchi standard L25 table with 5 variables and 5 factors. The results are analysed and plotted in graphs. Hardness number was calculated in Rockwell hardness tester. Theoretical and Experimental densities were also calculated. Keywords: Poly amide needle fibre, Slurry jet erosion, Granite dust; International Society of Waste Management, Air and Water

1.0 Introduction Sediment erosion in hydraulic turbine has been a major challenge in development of hydraulic power projects. The hard abrasive material present in the river or waterfall water cause rapid erosion of turbine components and affect the performance of turbines, which in turn decreases the efficiency, reliability and operating life of turbine blades. M.Pandhy and P.Senapati, stated in their studies that silt erosion in hydro turbines cannot be avoided totally, but excellent materials and surface coating can be used to raise the life of the runner. So they worked and found that, NiCrFeSiB alloys are resistant to abrasive wear [4]. From this, it can be noticed that there is a need of a new material to develop turbine blades to resist erosion in high sediment conditions. The first step towards such development would be to investigate different material options in laboratory which needs a standard methodology to carry out sediment erosion test in controlled environment. Erosive wear of the turbine blade is a complex phenomenon that depends on (i) erodent particles, their size, shape, hardness and concentration (ii) substrates, chemistry, elastic properties, surface hardness and surface morphology and (iii) operating conditions, velocity and impingement angle. 13Cr-4Ni steels are generally used for hydro turbines and water pumps. These are used because of their excellent 855

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mechanical properties. However, these materials are considerably less resistant to erosive wear and get damaged due to excessive silt content of the water. B.Rajkarnikar et.al numerically obtained erosion pattern for Francis turbine components. Their information may serve as an input for turbine design method to recognize the regions where distinct surface treatment is needed in order to enhance the durability of the components which are exposed to sediment erosion.[1] Composites are made from two or more constituent materials which have significantly dissimilar physical/chemical properties which when combined produce a material having properties altered from its individual components where the individual components remain separate as well as distinct within the finished structure. Composite material structure possesses two components: the fiber and the matrix. The fibers which generally possess a high modulus of elasticity and ultimate strength are the part of the composite material which contributes to the strength. Examples of commonly used fibers are Carbon, Glass and Aramid fibers. The matrix in a composite is to bind the fibers together as well as protect the fibers from damage by the transfer of stresses to the fibres. Examples of common structural resin systems are vinyl ester, poly ester and epoxy. This paper includes our findings of a composite material of poly amide fiber and epoxy resin with various percentage addition of granite dust. Granite dust has been mixed in different percentages to test the improvement in required properties. The density of the granite is between 2.65 to 2.75 g/cm3 (but for granite dust/powder it decreases to 1.65 g/cm3) and its compressive strength is greater than 200MPa. The reason behind the selection of granite dust to be added is, it contains SiO2 (Silica) - 72.04% and Al2O3 (Alumina) - 14.42%. So it is expected that the erosion resistance and hardness values will satisfy the requirements. 2.0 Methodology There are a lot of methods for fabrication of composite materials. Some of the methods developed which meet specific manufacturing or design challenges are Injection moulding, Hand layup process etc. Selection of a method for a particular part depends on the materials used, the design of the part and application of that particular model or end-use of it. Composite fabrication processes involve some form of moulding which shapes the resin and its reinforcement. A mould tool is required to give the unformed resin/fibre combination its shape prior to and during cure. 2.1 Specimen Preparation The most popular type of open moulding process is hand layup process. The hand layup is done manually and is a slow and labour consuming method. In this process poly amide fiber gets added layer by layer and polyester resin mixed with granite dust used as the matrix to adjoin and strengthen the composite. Different percentage of granite dust mixed to form the composite is given in table. Table 1: Percentage addition of individual materials to form the composite Serial Number 1 2 3 4 5

Sample Sample 1 Sample 2 Sample 3 Sample 4 Sample 5

Poly amide Fiber (%) 10 10 10 10 10

Poly ester Resin (%) 90 85 80 75 70

Granite Dust (%) 0 5 10 15 20

2.2 Slurry Jet Erosion Test Slurry Jet Erosion Tester facilitates identification of best material under given operating conditions. Rate of wear determined experimentally can be used to predict service life and life cycle cost. Test variables are: Velocity of water jet (8m/s, 16m/s, 24m/s, 32m/s and 40m/s), Angle of impingement (300, 450, 600, 750 and 900), Erodent size (150 microns, 200 microns, 250 microns, 300 microns and 355 microns), and Erodent feed rate (160 g/min, 195 g/min, 230 g/min, 265 g/min and 300 g/min). The slurry jet erosion tester required the test material to be of the exact size of the die of the tester (25mm * 25mm) and silica sand of less than 400 microns to act because an abrasive sand particles or impurities larger than 856

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400 microns would get stuck in the nozzle of slurry jet erosion tester through which the jet water with erodent impinges on the test material. Average reading of five tests of each having a test duration of 10 minutes have been taken to finalize the erosion loss. The weight before and after the tests were measured with a balance of least count 100 microgram. The obtained results are analysed and compared by Taguchi L25 table (5 factors and 5 variables) and the optimum results have been identified. 2.3 Rockwell Hardness Test The Rockwell hardness test method, as defined in ASTM E-18, is the most commonly used hardness test method. Unlike Brinell hardness test, it can also be performed to the specimens which don‘t have a reflective surface. The Rockwell test is generally very easier to perform, and more accurate than other types of hardness testing methods. In Rockwell hardness tester, variety of indenters may be used. In this study conical hard steel with a round tip for composite materials with indenter size 1/16‖ was used. The load applied is 100kgf according to machine standards. Average of 5 readings for each sample have been taken to conclude the hardness of the sample. 2.4 Tensile Test Tensile test has been done through Dynamic Mechanical Analysis. The graphs drawn for modulus vs temperature and tan delta vs temperature are compared for different percentage addition of granite dust. For this purpose, sample has been cut in a size of 2*3*12mm. The highest temperature assigned as 1200 Celsius and increment per minute fixed at 30C per minute. 3.0 Results and Discussion 3.1 Results of Taguchi analysis Figure 3.1 shows the graph obtained by Taguchi analysis after obtaining the average of 5 set of experiments for each. It can be noticed that the velocity of the water jet plays a vital role than all the other factors. With increment in velocity of water jet, the erosion rate also increasing. It can be observed that 750angle emerged as the best angle with least erosion and it is followed by 900 angle. 10% addition of granite dust gives minimum erosion. 200micron size erodent particles give less amount of erosion and minimum feed rate of 160g/min causes least erosion.

Figure 1: Graphical Representation of Results of Taguchi Table

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3.2 Density Comparison of the samples The theoretical density of composite materials in terms of weight fraction can easily be obtained by using the following formula. ρct = 1/[(wf/ρf) + (wm/ρm) + (wg/ρg)]

(1)

This formula has already been used by Agarwal and Broutman[6] in their work. Where, w and ρ represent the weight fraction and density respectively. The suffix f, m, g and ct stand for the fiber, matrix, granite and the composite materials respectively. Table 2: Density Comparison of the samples Sample

Percentage addition of granite dust

Experimental Density (kg/m3)

Theoretical Density (Kg/m3)

Volume fraction of voids (%)

Sample 1

0

1108

1286

13.8

Sample 2

5

1223

1302

6.0

Sample 3

10

1248

1307

4.5

Sample 4

15

1275

1320

3.4

Sample 5

20

1321

1332

0.8

The composites under this investigation consists of three components namely matrix, fiber and particulate filler. The actual density (ρcm) of the composite can be determined experimentally by simple water immersion technique. The volume fraction of voids (Vv) in the composites is calculated using the following equation: Vv = (ρct-ρcm)/ρct

(2)

3.3 Rockwell Hardness B Test Results Table 3: Rockwell Hardness B Test Results Sample Sample 1 Sample 2 Sample 3 Sample 4 Sample 5

Percentage addition of granite 0 5 10 15 20

RHB value 108.5 110.5 115.6 117.4 119.6

3.4 Variation of Modulus with Temperature Loss modulus means being proportional to the energy dissipated during one loading cycle. For example, it can be said that, energy lost as heat, and is a degree of vibration energy that has been converted during vibration. It cannot be recovered. Figure 3.2 represents the variation of storage modulus with temperature. We can see that there are 3 significant regions in this graph. A high modulus zone from 200 – 500 C, a transition region where a significant reduction in the storage modulus values with rise of temperature (500 – 800 C) and an elastic region where a severe deterioration in the modulus with temperature (800 – 1200C). It can also be noticed from the graph that 10% and 15% granite dust added samples have a high modulus of 900 Mpa and pure polyamide fiber-resin combination have minimum of 500 MPa. All the samples show above 800 MPa for which the granite dust has been added.

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Figure 2: Variation of Modulus with Temperature

3.5 Variation of Damping factor (Tan delta) with Temperature Figure 3.3 displays the variation of damping factor (tan delta) with temperature.The loss factor tan delta considered as the ratio of loss modulus to storage modulus. It is the amount of the energy lost, which can be recovered, and characterises internal friction or mechanical damping in a viscoelastic system. The loss factor tan delta is a dimensionless number. A high tan delta value suggests that the material has a high, nonelastic strain component, whereas a low value shows that the material is more elastic.

Figure 3: Variation of damping factor (tan delta) with Temperature

3.5 Discussion It can be observed that the overall erosion rate decreases with reduction in particle size, reduction in velocity and reduction in feed rate, whereas when using optimum angle of impingement and optimum filler material addition. It has been observed a slight deviation between the experimental and theoretical densities. It may be concluded due to the absorption of water particles by the sample when we immersed the material for experimental density calculation. If we consider the DMA analysis, significant reduction in storage modulus occurs in the range of 500- 800C and a total decline beyond 800C. Almost the same pattern of results obtained in the study of thermo-mechanical characters for fibers by Amar Patnaik and SachinTejyan [7]. 859

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4.0 Conclusion The velocity of water jet has great impact in the erosion. With the increase of velocity from 8m/s to 40m/s the rate of erosion also increases. Erosion rate is minimum when the velocity was 8m/s and maximum when it was 40m/s. In the same way the highest erosion occurred when the feed rate was maximum and lowest erosion occurred when the feed rate was minimum; even though it is not showing a linear pattern. The size of erodent doesn‘t show a significant effect on erosion rate. But it showed that the minimum erosion occurred when the erodent size was 200 microns. While considering the angles of impingement it showed highest erosion in the angles of 45 and 60 degree and showed lowest erosion in the angle of 750. When considering the percentage addition of granite dust, lowest erosion observed on 10% addition of granite dust and highest erosion observed on 15% addition of it. So we can assume that 10% addition would be optimum. Both hardness and density (theoretical and experimental) values are increasing with increment in addition of granite dust. If we pay attention on storage modulus, 10% and 15% granite dust added poly amide fiber samples have a high storage modulus of 900MPa and pure polyamide fiber-resin added sample have minimum of 500 Mpa. 5.0 Future Scope This paper has provided various conclusions and has brought into light various aspects we can take into considerations about the material selection for hydraulic turbine blade. A waste product (granite dust) has been utilized as a constituent of our composite which is a prevalent by product of stone cutting industries which are prevalent in Rajasthan. The analysis shows that, 10% addition of granite dust to be optimum and a range of optimum results have been given. But in future, through further testing and analysis, an even more optimum addition percentage for granite dust can be obtained. Furthermore, in the future more advanced fibers may come for the purpose of turbine blades. References AbbasiS,Abbasi T (2011) Small hydro and the environmental implications of its extensive utilization. Renewable and sustainable energyreviews 15, issue-4, 2134–2143 Padhy MK, Saini RP (2008) A review on silt erosion in hydro turbines. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews (12): 1974–1987. Agarwal BD and Broutman LJ. (1990) Analysis and performance of fiber composites. NewYork: John Wiley and Sons. Amar Patnaik and Sachin Tejyan(2014) Mechanical and visco-elastic analysis of viscose fiber based needlepunchednonwoven fabric mat reinforced polymer composites: Part I. Journal of industrial textiles Vol 43(3): 440–457 Hariharasudhan S, Balaji AP, Sathishkumar KS, Yuvaraj K(2016) Mechanical Behavior and Dynamic Mechanical Analysis Study on Nanoclay FilledCarbon-Epoxy Composites.International Journal of Innovative Research in Science, Engineering and Technology Volume 5, Special Issue 7, AprilISSN (Online): 2319-8753 ISSN(Print): 2347 – 6710 Padhy M,SenapatiP (2015) Turbine blade materials used for the power plants exposed to high silt erosion – a review ichpsd-2015. PriyabrataAdhikary, Pankaj Kr Roy, AsisMazumdar (2013) Selection of Hydro-Turbine Blade Material: Application of Fuzzy Logic (MCDA).International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA) ISSN: 22489622 Vol. 3, Issue 1, January -February, pp.426-430 Puertas I, Luis Pérez CJ, Salcedo D, León J, Fuertes JP, Luri R (2013)Design and mechanical property analysis of AA1050 turbine bladesmanufactured by equal channel angular extrusion and isothermalforging.Materials and Design (52): 774–784 Rajkarnikar B,Neopane HP, Thapa BS, (2013) Development of rotating disc apparatus for test of sediment-induced erosion in Francis runner blades. Wear (306): 119–125 Thapa BS, Panthee A, Thapa B (2012) Computational methods in research of hydraulic turbines operating in challenging environments. International Journal of Advanced Renewable Energy Research 1 (2): 95–98.

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Behaviour of Fly Ash-Lime-Gypsum mixed with Tire Granulates Neetika Narang1, S.P. Guleria2,* 1

M. Tech Student, SIRDA Institution of Engineering and Technology, Sundernagar, Mandi, H.P., India. Professor, Jawahar Lal Govt. Engineering College Sundernagar, Mandi, H.P, India *Corresponding Author: Email- [email protected] 2

ABSTRACT The objective of present study is to carry out the strength behaviour of reference mix containing fly ash + 8% lime +1.5 % gypsum mix mixed with 10% , 20% and 40% tire granulates. The curing period was varied from 14 days to 28 days and specimens were cured with the help of three different methods. The tests were also conducted to study the mineralogical and microscopic studies and cracking pattern of the reference mix with and without 10% tire granulates. The results of the study revealed had revelled that unconfined compressive strength and compressive axial strain of reference mix with and without tire granulates increases with the increase in curing period and with the change in the curing method. The formation of ettringite peaks and quartz attributes an increase in the axial stress of the specimens. Study further revealed that multiple cracking pattern in the specimens of reference mix mixed with tire granulates attributes an increase in the axial strain of the specimens. Keywords: Unconfined compressive strength, XRD, SEM, cracking pattern, curing period and curing method; International Society of Waste Management, Air and Water

1.0 Introduction There is drastic increase in the waste production in the developing countries like India. The best solution to this problem is to utilise the waste materials for construction purposes in civil engineering. It will minimize the heavy burden on the nation‘s landfills. Rao and Dutta (2006) reported 112 million discarded tires in India per year. On the other hand, the production of fly ash in India will be 175 million tons by 2012 (Kaniraj and Gayathri 2003). So far, India has registered only 13% use of fly ash compared with more than 40% use by developed countries, such as Japan, United States, and United Kingdom (Das and Yudhbir 2005). The large quantity of fly ash in India is still dumped in fly-ash ponds. The pollution effect caused by the occasional failure of these ash ponds in rivers has been found even up to 100 km (Das and Yudhbir 2005). The objective of the study is to examine the effect of curing period, curing method and variation of tire granulates on the unconfined compressive strength of a reference mix containing fly ash, lime, and gypsum mixed with 10%, 20% and 40% tire granulates. A series of laboratory unconfined compressive strength (UCS) tests, X-ray diffraction and scanning electron micrograph tests were carried out by three different curing method and with the variation of curing period from 14 to 28 days. The results obtained from these tests are presented and discussed in this paper. Christ et al. (2010) investigated the potential use of granulated rubber as backfill material for buried pipelines in cold regions. Many researchers have undertaken various studies for Tire rubber such as used for sub grade and embankment fills (Whetten et al. 1997; Humphrey et al. 1998; Humphrey 2008; Nelson 2009); backfill for retaining walls and bridge abutments (Reid and Soupir 1998; Tweedie et al. 1998a, b); sub grade insulation for highways (Humphrey and Eaton 1995; Lawrence et al. 1999); lateral edge drains for highways (Lawrence 861

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et al. 1999); vibration damping below rail lines (Wolfe et al. 2004); daily cover and drainage for landfills (Jesionek et al. 1998; Park et al. 2003); and drain fields for septic systems (Lassiter 2009; Zicari 2009). Millions of used tires are stockpiled every year (Rubber Manufacturers Association (2006). One popular process is the shredding of tires into compressible tire-derived aggregate (TDA), which finds use in cap closures, leachate drainage layers, landfill liners, low-density backfill for retaining structures, dampers, enhanced substrate for sports fields, rubberized concrete and pavements, and filtration systems (Edil and Bosscher 1994; Moo-Young et al. 2003; Huang et al. 2004; Meiarashi 2004; Ramirez et al. 2004; Zornberg et al. 2004; Edil et al. 2004; Aisien et al. 2006; Pamukcu and Akbulut 2006; Rubber Manufacturers Association 2006; Valdes and Liang 2006). Evidence suggests that the use of TDA to remove contaminants from water is promising (e.g., Rangarajan et al. 1999; Carvalho et al 2010). However, the material swells during sorption due to the physical changes imposed by time-dependent diffusive transport mechanisms and partitioning specific to the wetting fluid (Aminabhavi and Phayde 1995; Kim et al. 1995; Kershaw et al. 1997; Kim et al. 1997; Edil et al. 2004; Ahmad et al. 2005; Graham et al. 2006; Lovely et al. 2006). Many researchers have undertaken various studies for the strength of tire rubber alone or mixed with sand/clayey soil (Humphrey and Sandford 1993, Edil and Bosscher 1994, Foose et al. 1996, Wu et al. 1997, Lee et al. 1999, Ghazavi and Sakhi 2005, Rao and Dutta 2006, Cetin et al. 2006, Dutta and Rao 2009). There are numerous case histories on the use of fly ash either alone or mixed with soil, lime, gypsum, or in combination. Fly ash has been typically used for soil stabilization (Chu et al. 1955), as embankment material (Raymon 1961, Jha et al. 2009), structural fill (DiGioia and Nuzzo1972), replacement for cement (Xu and Sarkar 1994), coastal land reclamation (Kim and Chun 1994), roads and embankments (Kumar 2003), stabilization of coal pillars (Fawconnier and Korsten 1982), and subsidence control (Petulanas 1988). 2.0 Materials used and Experimental Procedure 2.1 Fly ash The fly ash used in the study was procured from Ropar Thermal Power Plant, Punjab, India. The fly ash use in the study was of class F type. The fly ash was selected due to its availability in abundance quantity as compared to the class C type. The fly ash is classified as Class F, i.e., low-lime fly ash according to ASTM C 618-89 (ASTM 1992) classification. The XRD and SEM of fly ash have been shown in the Fig. 1 and 2, respectively.

Figure1: XRD of fly ash

Figure 2: SEM of fly ash (10KV; 16000 x magnification; 5µm)

2.2 Lime and gypsum The locally commercially available lime and gypsum were used in the study. Further, X-ray diffraction of lime has been shown in Fig. 3. The X-ray diffraction shows the prominent peaks of calcium hydroxide along with a few quartz and calcite peaks. The X–ray diffraction of gypsum is shown in Fig. 4. The X-ray diffraction of gypsum shows prominent calcium sulphate peaks along with a few quartz and hannebachite peaks. The SEM images of lime and gypsum have been shown in Fig. 5 and 6, respectively. 862

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Figure 3: XRD of Lime

Figure 4: XRD of Gypsum

Figure 5: SEM of lime (10KV; 300x magnification; 300µm)

Figure 6: SEM of gypsum (10KV; 4000x magnification; 20µm)

2.3 Tire granulates The shredding of tire was done with the help of tire remoulding machine shown in the Fig. 7. The tire granulates having particle sizes ranging from 0.425-300 mm were obtained from the machine. Fig 8 shows the tire granulates used for the current study.

Figure 7: Tire remoulding machine

Figure 8: Photograph of tire granulates 863

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2.4 Sample preparation and experimental procedure The fly ash was ground lightly by hand with a pestle to separate the individual particles. The metallic mould having size 38 mm inner diameter and 76 mm long, with additional detachable collars at both ends were used to prepare cylindrical specimens. A reference mix having fly ash: lime: gypsum in the proportion of 1:8%:1.5% was selected for study. Guleria and Dutta (2011) have take reference mix having flyash: lime mix having proportion of 1:8%. The flyash used in the study was class F, since in the present study the similar flyash and commercial lime has been used, hence same proportion was adopted for the present study. The gypsum proportion adopted in the study was 1.5%. The quantity of gypsum was restricted to 1.5%, as a higher percentage may have deleterious effects (Rollings et al. 1999). Ghosh and Subbarao (2001) have also reported that the addition of 1% gypsum and 10% lime to fly ash enhanced the unconfined compressive strength by 36.7 times. In the reference mix, tire granulates in the proportion of 10%, 20% and 40% of dry weight of fly ash was added in the mix. Further, in order to keep the total volume of the cylindrical specimen as constant, fly ash equivalent to the weight of tire granulates was removed and replaced with tire granulates corresponding to 10%,20% and 40% of dry weight of fly ash. The specimens were cured from 14 to 28 days with the use of three curing methods. The detail of the variables used in the study has been described in the Table 1. Table 1: Variables and Range Tested Variables

Range

Granulates content (%)

10, 20, and 40

Curing period (days) Curing method

10 and 28 M1: The specimen was placed open in the laboratory at room temperature for self curing. M2: The specimen was put in burlap for curing. The burlap was kept wet by sprinkling water regularly. M3: The specimen was placed in a container filled with water with an inflow and outflow.

To ensure uniform compaction, the specimens were compressed statically to the same volume from both ends till the specimen just reached the dimensions of the mould by using the hand compaction effort. The specimens were allowed to dry for 1 day at room temperature. Thereafter, the specimens were cured for the 14 to 28 days by using three curing methods as explained in table 1. The Unconfined compression strength (UCS) tests were conducted in accordance with IS 4332, Part 5 (BIS 1970). The strain rate was kept at 0.048mm/min in all experiments. Proving rings of 2KN and 5kN capacity were used to test the specimens. The specimens that failed after performing unconfined compressive strength were preserved in airtight polythene covers for X-ray diffraction (XRD) and scanning electron micrograph (SEM) tests. The scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and X- ray diffraction (XRD) studies were conducted with the help of Quanta FEG 450 and X‘Pert PRO make equipments. 3.0 Results 3.1 Unconfined Compressive Strength Unconfined compressive strength (UCS) tests were conducted in accordance with IS 4332: Part 5: (1970) (Re – affirmed on 03/2001). Table 2 shows the axial stress, axial stress of reference mix and with 10%, 20%, 40% tire granulates, cured for 14 and 28 days with the use of three different curing methods. Table 2 and Fig.9 reveals that axial stress increases with the increase in the curing period. For example, a value of axial stress of reference mix mixed with 10% tire granulates with the use of M1 curing method at 14 days of curing was 379.59 kPa, which increased to a value of 425.82 kPa, with the increase in curing to 28 days. A similar increase in axial stress has been observed in the reference mix and reference mix mixed with 20% and 40% tire granulates in the reference mix. The study was in agreement with Guleria and Dutta (2012), where similar increase in axial stress has been reported with the increase in the curing period. Further, Das and Yudhbir (2005) have also reported similar increase in axial stress with the increase in the curing period in the Panki and Parichha fly ash modified with lime and gypsum. A close examination of Table 2 and Fig.10 reveals that axial stress of reference mix and with 10%, 20%, 40% tire granulates 864

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increases with the change in the curing method. For example, a value of axial stress of 379.59 kPa of reference mix mixed with 10% tire granulates at 14 days of curing with use of M1 curing method increased to 395.09 kPa, with the change in curing method from M1 to M2. The value of axial stress of same specimen further increased to 421.56 kPa with the change in curing method from M1 to M3. As shown in Table 2 and fig.10, a similar increase in axial stress has been observed with the use of reference mix and with 20%, 40% tire granulates in reference mix and with the use of different curing periods. The study was agreement with Guleria and Dutta (2012), where similar increase in axial stress has been reported with the change in the curing method from M1 to M3 for the flyash lime gypsum mix mixed with tire chips. Table 2 Unconfined compressive strength of reference mix mixed with 10, 20 and 40 % tire granulates at 14 and 28 days of curing with curing methods M1, M2, M3 M1 Tire granulates

Curing period

0

14 28

Axial strain (%) 1.3 2

10

14 28

20 40

M2

365.28 401.095

Axial strain (%) 1.5 2

1.5 2.2

379.59 425.82

14 28

1.7 2.8

14 28

2.5 2.9

M3

386.77 458.69

Axial strain (%) 2 2.2

1.9 2.5

395.09 466.97

2.2 2.8

421.56 584.1

299.64 317.41

2.5 2.9

307.77 359.362

2.4 3.1

331.486 453.551

106.13 232.53

2.8 3

201.026 253.41

2.65 3.5

190.844 399.158

Axial stress(KPa)

Axial stress(KPa)

Axial stress(KPa) 416.01 559.96

(b)

(a)

(c) Figure 9: Variation of axial stress with increase in tire granulates form 10% to 40% and with use of (a) curing method M1 (b) curing method M2 (c) curing method M3 865

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Figure 10: Variation of UCS of reference mix with tire granulates (%) by M1, M2 and M3 method respectively

The continuous supply of moisture activates the pozzolanic reaction, which leads to the increase in higher value of axial stress, with the use of M3 curing method. Further examination of Table 2 and Fig.10 reveals that axial stress of reference mix decreases with the increase in the tire granulates. For example, a value of axial stress of 379.59 kPa of reference mix mixed with 10% tire granulates at 14 days of curing with use of M1 curing method decreased to a value of 299.64 kPa, with the increase in tire granulates form 20% to 40%. A similar decrease as revealed from Table 2 and Fig10 has been observed with the reference mix and other use of other curing methods and curing periods. A close examination of Table 2 reveals that axial strain increases with the increase in the curing period. For example, a value of 1.5% axial strain of reference mix mixed with 10% tire granulates with the M1 curing method at 14 days of curing increased to a value of 2.2%, with the increase in curing period to 28 days. A similar increase in axial strain has been observed in the reference mix and reference mix mixed with 20% and 40% tire granulates in the reference mix. A close examination of Table 2 further reveals that axial strain increases with the change in the curing method. For example, a value of 1.5 % axial strain of reference mix mixed with 10% tire granulates at 14 days of curing with M1 curing method increased to 1.9 kPa with the change in curing method from M1 to M2. The value of axial strain further increased to 2.2% with the change in curing method from M1 to M3. As revealed from Table 2 similar trend of increase has been observed with the use of reference mix and with 20%, 40% tire granulates at different curing periods. 3.2 XRD Analysis As reported earlier, the maximum increase in axial stress of reference mix mixed with 10% tire granulates has been observed at 28 days of curing; thus, study of XRD has been confined to 28 days of curing period. Fig. 12(a) shows the XRD of reference mix mixed with 10% tire granulates cured with (a) M1 curing method (b) M2 curing method (c) M3 curing method, respectively.

(a)

(b) 866

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(c) Figure12: XRD of reference mix mixed with 10% tire granulates cured with (a) M1 curing method (b) M2 curing method (c) M3 curing method, respectively

Figure 12(a) reveals formation of magnetite, mullite, portlantide, calcium silicate hydrate, quartz and ettringite peaks in the reference mix mixed with 10% tire granulates and cured with M1 curing method. Fig.12 (b) reveals the similar formation of magnetite, mullite, portlantide, calcium silicate hydrate, quartz and ettringite peaks, when curing method was changed to M2. However, there was increase in the peaks in the ettringite and quartz, as revealed by the Fig. 12(b). Further examination of Fig.12(c) reveals that there was further increase in the peaks of ettringite and quartz, when curing method was changed from M1 to M3. The increase in the ettringite and quartz peaks as observed with the use of curing method M1 and M2, has attributed an increase in the axial stress, as evident from the earlier observation. Guleria and Dutta (2012), Ghosh and Subbarao (2001), Croft (1964), Marinkovie and Pulek (2007), have also concluded in their studies that formation of ettringite and quartz attributes increase in the unconfined compressive strength. 3.3 SEM Analysis As reported earlier, the maximum increase in axial stress of reference mix has been observed with inclusion of 10% tire granulates at 28 days of curing; keeping in view, study of SEM have been confined to 28 days of curing period. The SEM images for reference mix mixed with 10% tire granulates and cured at 28 days have been shown in Figs. 13(a), (b) and (c).

(b)

(a)

(c) 867

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Figure13 (a) SEM of reference mix with 10% tire granulates at 28 days curing with M1 curing method (10.00KV; 12000x magnification; 5µm); (b) SEM of reference mix with 10% tire granulates at 28 days curing with M2curing method (10.00KV; 10000x (magnification; 10µm) ;(c) SEM of reference mix with 10% tire granulates at 28 days curing with M3 method (10.00KV; 32000x magnification; 200nm)

An examination of Figs. 13(a) reveals that there is no bonding between the fly ash particles, there is little formation of ettringite needles. Further, with the use M2 curing method, as revealed from Fig.13 (b), more formation of ettringite needles were observed. A close examination of Fig. 13(c) reveals that that there is formation of cluster of ettringite needles along with the improved bonding in flyash particles. The formation of ettringite needles fills the void space within the mix and makes the specimen denser. The denser specimen resulted due to the filling of voids by ettringite needles have attributed an increase in axial stress. The study was in agreement with earlier observations as reported by Yang et al. (2008), Marinkovic and Pulek (2007), Das and Yudhbir (2005), and Shi (1996) for a fly ash–lime–gypsum mixture. Thus, it is concluded that use of M3 curing method, results the formation of ettringite needles and make the specimen denser, it further attributes an increase in higher value of axial stress. 3.4 Cracking Pattern The specimen of reference mix was observed to fail by development of multiple cracking. The multiple cracking was observed especially at the corners at the specimens. This multiple cracking will help the specimens to bear the axial load even after the failure. Multiple cracking as observed has attributed an increase in the axial stain in the specimens of reference mix mixed with tire granulates. Contrary to this, in the specimens of reference mix, no such multiple cracking have been observed and specimens were observed to fail by a single crack. Thus, it can be the concluded that addition of tire granulates in reference mix effects the cracking pattern of reference mix and help the specimens to bear the axial load even after the failure. It attributes an increase in the axial strain for the specimens of reference mix mixed with tire granulate. 4.0 Discussion The results presented in the previous sections reveal that the axial stress and axial strain changes with the variation of tire granulate, curing period and curing methods. Further, higher values of these parameters were observed; when specimens were cured in water filled container (M3) followed by burlap (M2) and self curing method (M1) respectively. The results have further revealed that axial stress and axial strain increase with the increase in the curing period and change in curing method. Beside this, with the addition of tire granulates in the reference mix, there was increase in the axial strain. The increase in the axial strain has been attributed due to the formation of multiple cracking in the reference mix mixed with tire granulates. The formation of ettringite in the specimens cured with the help of M3 curing method has attributed an increase in the axial stress. Authors are of the view that the use of the tire granulates mix mixed with flyash, lime, gypsum can be used as land fill and backfill materials. The use of same in this manner will be in the environmentally friendly manner. 5.0 Conclusion The reference mix containing fly ash + 8% lime + 1.5% gypsum was mixed with 10% ,20% and 40% tire granulates. The specimens were cured for 14 to 28 days by three curing methods (by self curing method, burlap method, and water-filled container method). On the basis of results of the experimental investigation, mineralogical studies, and discussions, the following conclusions can be drawn; 1. The axial stress of the reference mix with tire granulates increases with curing period. The increase in unconfined compressive strength was highest, when specimens were cured for 28 days in comparison to 14 days of curing. 2. The axial stress of reference mix with tire granulates increases with curing methods and the increase was more significant with the use of M3 curing method i.e. water filled container method. 3. The axial stress decreased with the increase in tire granulates content (10–40%) in the reference mix. 868

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4. The formation of ettringite peaks and quartz in the specimens has attributed to the increase in axial stress of the specimens. 5. The multiple cracking pattern as observed in the specimens of reference mix mixed with tire granulates had attributed an increase in the axial strain of the specimens. This study examined the effect of tire granulates, curing period, and curing methods on the axial stress and axial strain of the reference mix containing fly ash + 8% lime + 1.5% gypsum. The authors are of view that use of the waste materials such as flyash and tire granulates will be useful for the improvement of ground surfaces and for lining the ponds. It is further recommended that tests like leachate analysis, tensile strength and durability have to conduct on the material for ensuring its use in the constructional areas. References Ahmad, A. L., Bhatia, S., Ibrahim, N., and Sumathi, S. (2005). ―Adsorption of residual oil from palm oil mill effluent using rubber powder.‖ Braz. J. Chem. Eng., 22(3), 371–379. Aisien, F. A., Hymore, F. K., and Ebewele, R. O. (2006). ―Comparative absorption of crude oil from fresh and marine water using recycled rubber.‖ J. Environ. Eng., 132(9), 1078–1081. Aminabhavi, T. M., and Phayde, H. T. S. (1995). ―Molecular transport characteristics of Santoprene thermoplastic rubber in the presence of aliphatic alkanes over the temperature interval of 25 to 70°C.‖ Polymer, 36(5), 1023 1033. ASTM C 618 Coal Fly Ash & Raw or Calcined Natural Pozzolan for Use as Mineral Admixture in Concrete. Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) (1970). ―Methods of test for stabilized soils: Part 5. Determination of unconfined compressive strength of stabilized soils (reaffirmed on March 2001).‖ IS 4332, New Delhi, India. Carvalho, D., Mendes, A., Magalhaes, F. D., and Nunes, O. C. (2010). ―Treatment of waters containing the thiocarbamate herbicide molinate through an adsorption/bio-regeneration system using a low-cost adsorbent.‖ Water Air Soil Pollut., 207(1–4), 289–298. Cetin, H., Mustafa, F., and Osman, G. (2006). ―Geotechnical properties of tire-Cohesive clayey soil mixtures as a fill material.‖ Eng. Geol., 88(1–2), 110–120. Chu, T. Y., Davidson, D. T., Goecker, W. L., and Moh, Z. C. (1955). ―Soil stabilization with lime fly ash mixtures: Preliminary studies with silty and clayey soils.‖ Highw. Res. Board, Bull., 108, 102–112. Croft, J. B. (1964). ―The pozzolanic reactivities of some new south wales fly ashes and their application to soil stabilization.‖ Aust. Road Res. Board, 2(2), 1144–1168. Das, S. K., and Yudhbir (2005). ―Geotechnical characterization of some Indian fly ash.‖ J. Mater. Civ. Eng., 17(5), 544–552. DiGioia, A. M., and Nuzzo, W. L. (1972). ―Fly ash as structural fills.‖ J. Power Div., 98(1), 77–92. Dutta, R. K., and Rao, G. V. (2009). ―Regression models for predicting the behaviour of sand mixed with tire chips.‖ Int. J. Geotech. Eng., 3(1), 51–63. Edil, T. B., and Bosscher, P. J. (1994). ―Engineering properties of tire chips and soil mixtures.‖ Geotech. Test. J., 17(4), 453–464. Edil, T. B., Park, J. K., and Kim, J. Y. (2004). ―Effectiveness of scrap tire chips as sorptive drainage material.‖ J. Environ. Eng., 130(7), 824–831. Fawconnier, C. J., and Korsten, R. W. O. (1982). ―Ash fill in pillar design.‖ SAIMM Monogr. Ser., 4, 277–361. Foose, J., Benson, H., and Bosscher, J. (1996). ―Sand reinforced shredded waste tires.‖ Geotech. Eng., 122(9), 760– 767. Ghazavi, M., and Sakhi, M. A. (2005). ―Influence of optimized tire shreds on shear strength parameters of sand.‖ Int. J. Geomech., 5(1), 58–65. Ghosh, A., and Subbarao, C. (2001). ―Microstructural development in fly ash modified with lime and gypsum.‖ J. Mater. Civ. Eng., 13(1), 65–70. Graham, J., Striebich, R., Myers, K., Minus, D., and Harrison, W. (2006). ―Swelling of nitrile rubber by selected aromatics blended in a synthetic jet fuel.‖ Energy Fuels, 20(2), 759–765. Guleria, S. P., and Dutta, R. K. (2011). ―Unconfined Compressive Strength of Fly Ash–Lime–Gypsum Composite Mixed with Treated Tire Chips‖. Journal of Materials, 23(8), 1255–1263. Guleria, S.P., and Dutta, R.K. (2012). ―Behaviour of fly ash-lime-gypsum composite mixed with treated tire chips‖ Geomechanics and Engineering, 4(3) 151-171. Huang, B., Guoqiang, L., Pang, S., and Eggers, J. (2004). ―Investigation into waste tire rubber-filled concrete.‖ J. Mater. Civ. Eng., 16(3), 187–194. Humphrey, D. N. (2008). ―Tire derived aggregate as lightweight fill for embankments and retaining walls.‖ Scrap tire derived geomaterials-Opportunities and challenges, H. Hazarika and K. Yasuhara, eds., Taylor & Francis Group, London. 869

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Humphrey, D. N., and Eaton, R. A. (1995). ―Field performance of tire chips as subgrade insulation for rural roads.‖ Proc., 6th Int. Conf. on Low- Volume Roads, Transportation Research Board, Washington, DC,77–86. Humphrey, D. N., and Sandford, T. C. (1993). ―Tire chips as light weight subgrade fill and retaining wall backfill.‖ Proc. of the Symp. on Recovery and Effective Reuse of Discarded Materials and By-products for Construction of Highway Facilities, Federal Highway Administration, Washington, DC, 5-87 to 5-99. Humphrey, D. N., Whetten, N.,Weaver, J., Recker, K., and Cosgrove, T. A. (1998). ―TDA as lightweight fill for embankments and retaining walls.‖ Proc., Conf. on Recycled Materials in Geotechnical Applications, ASCE, Arlington, VA, 51–65. IS 4332: Part 5: (1970). Methods of test for stabilized soils: Part 5 Determination of unconfined compressive strength of stablized soils. Jesionek, K. S., Humphrey, D. N., and Dunn, R. J. (1998). ―Overview of shredded tire applications in landfills.‖ Tire Industry Conf., Clemson Univ., Clemson, SC. Jha, J. N., Gill, K. S., and Choudhary, A. K. (2009). ―Effect of high fraction Class F fly ash on lime stabilization of soil.‖ Int. J. Geotech. Environ., 1(2), 105–128. Kaniraj, S. R., and Gayathri, V. (2003). ―Geotechnical behaviour of fly ash mixed with randomly oriented fiber inclusions.‖ Geotext. Geomembr., 21(3), 123–149. Kershaw, D. S., Kulik, B. C., and Pamukcu, S. (1997). ―Ground rubber: Sorption media for ground water containing benzene and O-xylene.‖ J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng., 123(4), 324–334. Kim, J. Y., Park, J. K., and Edil, T. B. (1997). ―Sorption of organic compounds in the aqueous phase onto tire rubber.‖ J. Environ. Eng., 123(9), 827–835. Kim, S. S., and Chun, B. S. (1994). ―The study on a practical use of wasted coal fly ash for coastal reclamation.‖ Proc., 13th Int. Conf. on Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering (ICSMFE), CRC, Boca Raton, FL, 1607– 1612. Kim, S., Park, J. K., and Chun, H. (1995). ―Pyrolysis kinetics of scrap tire rubbers. I: Using DTG and TGA.‖ J. Environ. Eng., 121(7), 507–514. Kumar, V. (2003). ―Keynote address.‖ Proc., 3rd Int. Conf. on Fly Ash Utilisation and Disposal, Central Board of Irrigation and Power (CBIP), New Delhi, India. Lassiter, A. (2009). ―Septic system trench TDA—A national overview.‖ New York State TDA Workshop, Center for Integrated Waste Management, Buffalo, NY. Lawrence, B., Humphrey,, D., and Chen, L.-H. (1999). ―Field trial of tire shreds as insulation for paved roads.‖ 10th Int. Conf. on Cold Regions Engineering: Putting Research into Practice, ASCE, Reston, VA. Lee, H. S., Lee, H., Moon, J. S., and Jung, H. W. (1998). ―Development of tire added latex concrete.‖ ACI Mater. J., 95(4), 356–564. Lee, J. H., Salgado, R., Bernal, A., and Lovell, C. W. (1999). ―Shredded tires and rubber-sand as lightweight backfill.‖ J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng., 125(2), 132–141. Lee, J. H., Salgado, R., Bernal, A., and Lovell, C. W. (1999). ―Shredded tires and rubber-sand as lightweight backfill.‖ J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng., 125(2), 132–141. Lovely, M., Joseph, K. U., and Joseph, R. (2006). ―Swelling behaviour of isora/natural rubber composites in oils used in automobiles.‖ Bull. Mater. Sci., 29(1), 91–99. Marinkovic, S. K., and Pulek, A. (2007). ―Examination of system fly ash–lime calcined gypsum-water.‖ J. Phys. Chem. Solids, 68(5–6), 1121–1125. Meiarashi, S. (2004). ―Porous elastic road surface as urban highway noise measure.‖ Transportation Research Record 1880, Transportation Research Board, Washington, DC, 151–157. Moo-Young, H., Sellasie, K., Zeroka, D., and Sabnis, G. (2003). ―Physical and chemical properties of recycled tire shreds for use in construction.‖ J. Environ. Eng., 129(10), 921–929. Nelson, B. E. (2009). ―Using tire chips for roadway embankment fill.‖ New York State TDA Workshop, Center for Integrated Waste Management, Buffalo, NY. Pamukcu, S., and Akbulut, S. (2006). ―Thermoelastic enhancement of damping of sand using synthetic ground rubber.‖ J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng., 132(4), 501–510. Park, J. K., Edil, T. B., Kim, J. Y., Hul, M., Lee, H. S., and Lee, J. J. (2003). ―Suitability of shredded tires as a substitute for a landfill leachate collection medium.‖ Waste Manage. Res., 21(3), 278–289. Petulanas, G. M. (1988). ―High volume fly ash utilization projects in the US and Canada.‖ 2nd Ed., Final Rep. CS4446 to EPRI, Palo Alto, CA. Ramirez, D., Sullivan, P. D., Rood, M. J., and Hay, K. J. (2004). ―Equilibrium adsorption of phenol-, tire-, and coal derived activated carbons for organic vapors.‖ J. Environ. Eng., 130(3), 231–241. Rangarajan, P., Sisk, P., and Bhattacharyya, D. (1999). ―Novel applications of scrap tire for organic sorption/separations.‖ Clean Products Proc., 1(3), 199-209. Rao, G. V., and Dutta, R. K. (2006). ―Compressibility and strength behaviour of sand-tire chip mixtures.‖ Geotech. Geol. Eng., 24(3), 711–724. Raymon, S. (1961). ―Pulverized fuel ash as embankment material.‖ ICE Proc.,19(4), 515–536. Reid, R. A., and Soupir, S. P. (1998). ―Mitigation of void development under bridge approach slabs using rubber tire chips.‖ Proc., Conf. on Recycled Materials in Geotechnical Applications, ASCE, Arlington, VA, 37–50. 870

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Rollings, R. S., Burkes, J. P., and Rollings, M. P. (1999). ―Sulfate attack on cement-stabilized sand.‖ J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng., 125(5), 364–372. Rubber Manufacturers Association. (2006). U.S. scrap tire markets, 2005, Washington, DC. Shi C. (1996). ―Early microstructure development of activated lime–fly ash paste.‖ Cem. Concr. Res., 26(9), 1351– 1359. Tweedie, J. J., Humphrey, D. N., and Sandford, T. C. (1998a). ―Full scale field trials of tire chips as lightweight retaining wall backfill, at-rest conditions.‖ Transportation Research Record 1619, Transportation Research Board, Washington, DC, 64–71. Tweedie, J. J., Humphrey, D. N., and Sandford, T. C. (1998b). ―Tire shreds as lightweight retaining wall backfill: Active conditions.‖ J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng., 10.1061/(ASCE)1090-0241(1998)124:11(1061), 1061–1070. Valdes, J. R., and Liang, S. H. (2006). ―Stress-controlled filtration with compressible particles.‖ J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng., 132(7), 861–868. Whetten, N. L., Weaver, J., Humphrey, D. N., and Sandford, T. C. (1997). ―Rubber meets the road in Maine.‖ Civ. Eng., 67(9), 60–63. Wolfe, S. L., Humphrey, D. N., andWetzel, E. A. (2004). ―Development of tire shred underlayment to reduce groundborn vibrations from LTR track.‖ GeoTrans 2004, ASCE, Reston, VA. Wu, W. Y., Christopher, C. B., and Cauley, R. F. (1997). ―Triaxial determination of shear strength of tire chips.‖ J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng., 123(5), 479–482. Xu, A., and Sarkar, S. L. (1994). ―Microstructural developments in high volume fly-ash cement system.‖ J. Mater. Civ. Eng., 6(1), 117–136. Yang, M., Qian, J., and Pang, Y. (2008). ―Activation of fly ash–lime systems using calcined phosphogypsum.‖ Constr. Build. Mater. 22(5), 1004–1008. Zornberg, J. G., Cabral, A. R., and Viratjandr, C. (2004). ―Behaviour of tire shred-sand mixtures.‖ Can. Geotech. J., 41(2), 227–241.

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Waste Management & Resource Utilisation www.iswmaw.com

ISWMAW

Utilization of an Industrial Waste from Alumina Industry for Partial Substitution of Crushed Fines in High Volume Fly Ash Concrete M.P. Deshmukh1,*, D.D. Sarode2 1

Research Scholar, General Engineering Department Institute of Chemical Technology, Mumbai, India Associate Professor, General Engineering Department, Institute of Chemical Technology, Mumbai, India *Corresponding Author: Email- [email protected] 2

ABSTRACT Red mud (Bauxite residue) is an industrial by-product produced in Bayer‘s process of production of alumina. An inventory of 3 Billion tons of high alkaline red mud is awaiting in stock-pilling yards for its bulk utilization at global level. Annual generation of 120 MTPA of red mud is putting an additional burden on the storage yards. This red colour, fine, dustlike red mud produced needs large land areas for storage and poses a serious threat to the environment due to its high alkalinity. Concrete is the largest consumable on the earth, next to water. Consumption of concrete has already crossed the mark of 20 Billion tons per annum, globally. Aggregates comprise 60% to 80% of concrete composite volume. The available sources of natural aggregates and sand are getting exhausted because of their excessive exploitation. Due to the restrictions on dredging of sand, manufactured sand and crushed fine aggregates are employed in concrete. This has caused in increasing the further exploitation of natural resources. Hence there is an urgent need to explore a substitute material for fine aggregates in concrete. An attempt is made here to substitute Crushed fine aggregate in concrete partially with raw red mud with 0 (control mix), 50, 100, 150 and 200 kg per cubic meter of concrete .Composite of high fly ash content (50% of cementitious mass) and red mud in concrete is tested for compressive strength, tensile strength, water-binder ratio and chloride permeability. It is observed that replacement of 150 kg crushed fine aggregates with red mud exhibits better strength parameters of the red mud concrete as compared to the control mix. Use of large quantities of fine industrial waste by-products in concrete leads to better particle packing in concrete improving its strength and durability parameters. Keywords: Bauxite residue, red mud, crushed fines, industrial by-products; International Society of Waste Management, Air and Water

1.0 Introduction Alumina production was estimated to be around 45 million tons in 2011 and projected to touch 50 million tons in 2013, at global level. Over 95% of the alumina manufactured globally is derived from bauxite by Bayer process. Bayer‘s process for the production of alumina from bauxite ore results in the production of a significant amount of a dust-like, high alkaline bauxite residue known as red mud. It is one of the largest industrial by-products in modern society estimated at around 3000 million tons at the end of 2010 (Power et al, 2009) and the global inventory is growing approximately by 120 million tons per annum. In India, total bauxite ore consumption is 8.375 MT and annual generation of red mud is 5.55 M. 872

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Red mud released in Bayer‘s process is highly alkaline in nature and is likely to contaminate soil and water and cause pollution. 1-1.6 tons of red mud is generated per ton of alumina produced. The disposal cost of red mud is about 2% of the production cost of alumina. Large land areas are required for constructing stock piling yards for storage of red mud. Typical values of particle size distribution are 90 % of weight fraction is below 75 micron and specific surface area between 10-30 m2/gm.

Figure 1: XRD of red mud from Hindalco, Belgaum, and Karnataka, India.

There is an urgent need to explore methods of utilization of this high alkaline industrial waste for some constructive purpose. The activity of utilizing a waste from one industry, converting it into a useful raw material, mixing it with other composites and using them in prescribed ways to solve a range of environmental remediation and waste problems is a reasoned example of sustainable waste management. Red mud has been tried and tested in many research laboratories worldwide in combination or partial substitution of various ingredients of concrete like cement, sand, fine aggregates, fly-ash, etc. and a lot of work is still going on to explore its utilization in bulk quantity. Red mud has been also successfully used in ceramic, plastic, waste-water treatment and also in developing various value-added products. Some of its utilities are explained below. 1.1 Cement production Red mud contains di-calcium silicates. Addition of red mud as a raw ingredients helps to reduce clinkering temperature in the process of manufacture of cement. Red mud, fly ash, lime and gypsum as raw materials, when introduced along with the basic ingredients of cement manufacturing not only reduces the energy consumption of cement production but also improves the early strength of cement and resistance to sulphate attack. Iron rich, special setting cements with higher strength as compared to ordinary Portland cement have been made by adding red mud and gypsum together up to 50% at Renukoot, India. 1.2 Red mud concrete Red mud concrete prepared by Zhong proved to be better than ordinary cement concrete for pavement materials. The compressive and flexural strength of this red mud concrete after 28 days was in the range of 30–40 MPa and 4.5–5.5 MPa respectively. Pan et al. developed alkali slag red mud cement which has the properties of greater early strength and a very high compressive strength of 125 MPa. Excellent resistance to corrosion was recorded by utilizing 30% of red mud in concrete. 873

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1.3 Geo-polymers The formation of geo-polymers involves the dissolution of silica and alumina species in an alkali. This will then result in effecting polymerisation of a – (-Si-O-Al-O-) n- polymer chain. The presence in bauxite residue of aluminium, and silicon species in a highly alkaline could offer attractive opportunities for it‘s the manufacture of construction materials. Massive structural bricks were produced by geo-polymerisation process by using red mud by synthesising of inorganic polymeric materials. Red mud was reacted with fly ash, sodium silica to produce cementations material that can be used in road constructions. The sustainable use of bauxite residue for road construction as an embankment landfill is an attractive option with a high potential for large volume reuse. Laboratory of Road Engineering of the Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece has conducted successful pilot project of construction of road embankment by using red mud. Elastic behaviour theory was bulk utilization of red mud. 1.4 Brick manufacturing As an alternative to traditional raw materials used in brick production, red mud utilization can not only reduce the cost of raw materials, but also have great environmental significance. Investigations of the use of red mud and fly ash for the production of heavy clay products have been extensively undertaken at the Central Building Research Institute, Roorkee. The test results show that compacted clay samples containing red mud and cement–red mud additives have a high compressive strength, decreased hydraulic conductivity and swelling percentage as compared to natural clay samples. Study on the exploitation of red mud as a clay additive for the ceramic industry or as a compound for self-binding mortars in the fabrication of stoneware was carried out at National Institute of Technology, Rourkela, Orissa, India. Lightweight aggregates with the addition of fly ash and foaming agents into the mixes. Roof tiles have been manufactured in Turkey alumina plant. Concrete is composed of about 60-80% of aggregates. Due to the restrictions on the dredging of sand, large quantities of manufactured sand or crushed sand is used in mortar and concrete as a sand substitute. This involves a lot of energy and exploitation of natural resources. This necessitates an exploration of some substitutes for sand /crushed fine aggregates. There are examples in the literature that fillers may modify the properties of the hardened state as well as the properties of the fresh state of concrete. Fillers have been reported to accelerate the cement hydration in some cases. Examples of increased compressive strength also exist. This is believed to be due to a general filler effect, i.e. that the cement hydration products may grow faster and become more evenly distributed in the presence of small mineral particles. In addition to the general filler effect, there might be chemical effects because of high alkalinity, in some cases, pozzolanic reactions might occur. 2. Material and Methods The materials used in the experiment are described as the following:      

Cement: Associate Cement Companies‘ (ACC) 53 Grade Ordinary Portland cement Fly ash: Tata fly ash from Tata with specific gravity 2.85 Fine aggregate: Crushed fine aggregate from TATA, Bhayender pada, Thane of sp.gr.2.65 Red Mud: Red mud from Hindalco, Belgaum, Karnataka with a specific gravity of 3.10 Coarse aggregate: Coarse aggregate from TATA, Bhayender pada, Thane of sp.gr.2.65 Admixture: ACC admixture- 15 B

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CHEMICAL ANALYSIS OF RED OTHERS, 15, 15% Al2O3, 20.5, 21% MUD,BELGAON TiO2, 8.35, 8% MnO2, 0.08, 0% K2O, 0.17, SiO2, 11.6, 12% CaO, 4.8, 5% Na2O, 4, 4%

Fe2O3, 34.3, 35%

Figure 2: Chemical Analysis of Red Mud from Belgaum, Karnataka, India

Al2O3

Fe2O3

Na2O

CaO

SiO2

K2O

MnO2

TiO2

Table 1: Chemical composition of RED MUD, Crushed fine aggregates, Ordinary Portland cement and fly ash Mat

Al2O3

Fe2O3

SiO2

CaO

MgO

Na2O

K2O

TiO2

MN2O3

P2O5

SO3

LOI

Red Mud

20.5

34.3

11.6

4.8

0.4

4.0

0.17

8.35

0.08

0.32

0.33

15

CFA

14.3

12.2

49.7

9.5

4.8

2.13

0.79

1.72

0.21

0.17

0.04

4.2

OPC (53 G)

5.3

3.4

21.3

62.6

0.4

0.08

0.55

0.38

0.05

0.16

2.3

2.5

Fly Ash

12.5

18.3

41.1

16

7.6

0.82

1.06

0.14

0.16

0.15

0.94

1.0

2.1 Determination of Compressive and Flexural strength of concrete Control mix (without red mud) for 350 cementitious mass is prepared. Concrete cubes of size 15 cm x 15 cm x 15 cm are cast and cured as per IS 456:2001. Keeping rest of the composition constant and replacing crushed fines from control mix with red mud in 50, 100, 150 and 200 kg/m3, various trials are conducted. Compressive strength of cubes at 3, 7 and 28 days is tested in compression testing machine. Flexural strength determination is carried out on beam of size 70 cm*15cm*15cm after 28 days of curing. Table 2: Comparison of Water-Binder Ratio, Compressive strength, Flexural Strength and RCPT values for different quantities of Red Mud in the concrete mixture Water/Binder ratio

Red Mud (Kg/m3)

3 day CS (MPa)

7 day CS (MPa)

28 day CS (MPa)

28 day FS (MPa)

RCPT

01

0.458

00

12.44

17.78

32.3

3.80

1854

02

0.515

50

8.89

14.22

25.78

3.00

1800

03

0.631

100

9.78

14.67

20.89

2.82

1557

04

0.564

150

12.44

18.67

25.78

3.64

1458

05

0.577

200

13.33

17.34

21.78

2.88

1404

Trial No. 350

400 875

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06

Water/Binder ratio 0.572

Red Mud (Kg/m3) 00

3 day CS (MPa) 12.44

7 day CS (MPa) 14.67

28 day CS (MPa) 26.67

28 day FS (MPa) 3.00

07

0.472

50

19.56

22.67

31.56

3.16

1179

08

0.449

100

16.89

19.56

28.44

3.20

1737

09

0.531

150

16.69

24

31.11

4.10

954

10

0.530

200

21.33

25.34

35.56

4.32

990

Trial No.

RCPT 1503

Figure 3: Comparison of Compressive strength for 3, 7 and 28 day with different quantities of Red Mud and 350 cementitious mass

Figure 4: Comparison of Compressive strength for 3, 7 and 28 day with different quantities of Red Mud and 400 cementitious mass.

FLEXURAL STRENGTH (MPa)

FLEXURAL STRENGTH OF CONCRETE (MPa) 10 5

3 3.8

3.16 3

3.2 2.82

4.1 3.64

0

50

100

150

0

AMOUNT OF RED MUD PER CUMTR OF CONCRETE

Figure 5: Comparison of Flexural strength for 28 day curing period with concrete mixtutes having different quantities of Red Mud and cementitious mass of 350 and 400.

350 cm

400 cm

876

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2.2 Determination of RCPT values In case of Reinforced concrete (RCC) components, resistance against corrosion of reinforcement is a necessity. Durability of structural components greatly depends upon preventing penetration of water, oxygen, carbon dioxide, and salts from the concrete surface to the reinforcement. The RCPT is a measurement of the electrical charge that travels between two sides of a concrete specimen during a specified period. This charge is correlated to chloride ions travelling through the pore system. Lower value indicates a higher resistance to chloride intrusion. Rapid chloride permeability (RCPT) test values are tabulated below:

Figure 6: Comparison of RCPT values for different compositions of concrete mixtures

2.3 Determination of water binder ratio in concrete Fly ash is taken as 50% of the total cementitious mass in all mixes for all the trials. High volume fly ash content helps to improve the durability and performance of concrete in high performing concrete.

Figure 7: Comparison of Water-Binder ratio for different compositions of concrete mixtures

3.0 Results and Discussions It can be observed from the results in 350 cementitious composition that early strength development values of compressive strength of concrete are reduced in trial 2 and 3 as compared to control mix. In trial 3 and 4, the early strength was found to be improving as compared to control mix with maximum strength of 13.33 MPA in trial no. 5. Compressive strength after 28 days was found to be in the range of 20.89 MPA to 25.78 MPA and highest value of compressive strength 32.3 MPA was obtained in 877

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trial 1 (control mix). This may be due to higher water binder ratio for all the trials as compared to control mix. Rapid chloride penetration resistance value goes on decreasing steadily from trial no. 1 (1854) to trial no. 5 (1404). It can be observed from the results in 400 cementitious composition that early strength development values of compressive strength of concrete are higher in all the trials from 7 to 10 as compared to control mix with a maximum value of 21.33 MPa for trial no 10. Compressive strength after 28 days found to be in the range of 26.67MPA to 35.56 MPA with a lowest value for trial 6 and highest value for trial 10. This may be due to lower water binder ratio for all the trials as compared to control mix. Rapid chloride penetration resistance value was found to be lowest in trial no. 9 and highest in trial no. 8. 4.0 Conclusion It can be concluded that an industrial waste product from alumina industry, Red mud, can be utilized for replacement of crushed fines in concrete without affecting strength parameters. It also helps to improve the chloride ion penetration resistance of concrete. Bulk utilization of red mud will resolve the environmental pollution and sustainability issues. It will also help in conservation of natural resources and conversion of waste into wealth. Bibliography Aluminium Association (2000), ―Technology Roadmap for Bauxite Residue Treatment and Utilization‖. Bayer Process. Available; http://en.wikipedia.org.wiki/Bayer process Banvolgyi, G. Huan, T. M., ―De-watering, disposal and utilization of red mud: state of the art and emerging technologies‖. Critical Review Environ. Sci. and Tech., (41) 271-315. Chaddha M.J., Rai S.B., Goyal R.N. (2007). ENVICON 2007, National seminar on environmental concern and remedies in Alumina industry at Nalco, Damanjodi, India. Characteristics of red mud of red mud of Indian Alumina Industry Plants and their possible utilization. 2007; 41-44 Dimas DD, Loanna P, Panias D. Utilization of alumina red mud for synthesis of inorganic polymeric materials. Mineral processing and Extractive Metallurgy Review, 2009; 30(3):211-239. Fotini K. An innovative geotechnical application of bauxite residue. Electronic Journal of Geotechnical Engineering, 2008; 13/G: 1-9.Nanjing Technology: Nanjing, China; 1999 International Aluminium Institute, European Aluminium Association. Bauxite Residue Management, http://www.alueurope.eu/wp-content/uploads/2011/08/Bauxite-Residue-Management-v.6.pdf; 2011. Klauber, C., Grace, M., and Power, G, ―Review of Bauxite Residue ―Re-use‖ Options‖, CSIRO Document DMR3609 (2009). J.N.Jordon, W.R. Kinnock, M.M.Moore, A preliminary investigations of strength development in Jamaican red mud composites, Cem.Concr.Comp. 18(19960 371-379 R.J..Gray, ―Engineering Properties and Dewatering Characteristics of Red Mud Tailings‖, (1974) University of Michigan, DRDA project 340364 Jamaican Bauxite Institute and the University of the West Indies, ―Bauxite Tailings ―Red Mud‖, Proceedings of International Workshop Kingston, Jamaica, October 1986. Jones, B.E. H., and Haynes, R.J., ―Bauxite Processing Residue: A Critical Review of Its Formation, Properties, Storage, and Revegetation‖, (2011) Pinnock, W.R.: ―Measurement of Radioactivity in Jamaican Building Materials and Gamma Dose Equivalents in a Prototype Red Mud House‖, J. Health Physics, (1991), 61 (5), 647-651. Power, G., Grafe, M., and Klauber, C., ―Review of Current Bauxite Residue Management, Disposal and Storage: Practices, Engineering and Science.‖ CSIRO Document DMR-3609 (2009). Purnell, B.G., ―Mud disposal at the Burntisland alumina plant‖, Light Metals (1986), 157-159. S.S. Amritphale ,, M. Patel ,, Utilisation of red mud,, fly ash for manufacturing bricks with ppyrophyllite, Silicates Ind 2 (1987) 31-35 Y.Wang (et.al), the use of thermo dyanamic analysis in assessing alkali contribution by alkaline minerals in concrete Cement concrete Res. 30 (2008) 353-359.

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Sludge Management

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Waste Management & Resource Utilisation 2016

Waste Management & Resource Utilisation www.iswmaw.com

ISWMAW

Sustainable Management of Arsenic Bearing Sludge I. Mookherjee1, A. Roy2, A. Dutta3,*, A. Debsarkar3, P. Aitch3 1

M.C.E Student, Dept. of Civil Engineering, Jadavpur University, Kolkata, India Research Scholar, Dept. of Civil Engineering, Jadavpur University, Kolkata, India 3 Associate Professor, Dept. of Civil Engineering, Jadavpur University, Kolkata, India *Corresponding Author: Email- [email protected] 2

ABSTRACT Electrochemical Arsenic Remediation (ECAR) technology has been developed to efficiently reduce high levels of arsenic in groundwater below the WHO MCL at extremely low cost.This process produces arsenic bearing sludge which being a hazardous waste has to be disposed by a cost effective robust stabilization process. This study is focused on the embedment of ECAR sludge in concrete in variable proportion (% by weight of cement) up to the point of substantial deterioration in strength in an environmentally sound manner. This sludge differs reasonably from that of silt and sand in terms of parameter viz. specific gravity, optimum moisture content, void ratio and porosity. Grain size is similar to filler materials used in concrete, which suggests that there is potential for the sludge to be embedded in concrete, thus emphasizing its immobilization. The sludge was added by replacing equivalent amount of sand and extra water equivalent to the OMC of the sludge in the concrete mix. Seven cubes (3 cubes each for determining strength on 7days and 28days, 1 cube for determining long-term leachability) of dimension 100mm×100mm×100mm were cast for each of the percentages. In each case the slump height and compacting factor had been determined to signify its workability. These cubes were crushed to three size ranges viz. 10 %), and 40 % floor tiles waste replacement in floor mix with firing temperature of 1100 oC for tiles water absorption (6% < E < 10%) . Keywords: ceramic dust waste – ceramic tiles industry – ceramic tiles standards; International Society of Waste Management, Air and Water

1.0 Introduction The ceramic tiles industry is a dynamic sector whose market is growing worldwide, it is impacted by the need for the availability of the raw materials and the high energy costs, a great quantity of fuel is consumed in the manufacturing process mainly in the firing stage [Mezquita et al., 2014]. The main raw materials for the ceramic tile industry are clay, quartz, and feldspar, but recently due to the flexibility of the manufacture cycle, a range of wastes are incorporated in the manufacture of ceramic wall and floor tiles. Blast furnace slag, byproduct of steel production, can be used for ceramic wall tile [Ozturk and Gultekin, 2015]. The sugarcane baggase ash, generated from sugarcane industry, is used for ceramic floor tile [Schettino and Holanda, 2015], and the glass powder waste, collected from waste broken bottles, is used in ceramic wall and floor tiles [Mustafi et al., 2011].

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This Research aims to accomplish improvements in the technical process of the ceramic manufacture of wall and floor tiles, by using the ceramic powder waste produced from the cyclone which follows the spray drier in the manufacturing process of ceramic tiles, so it‘s the same composition of the manufactured ceramic floor and wall tiles powder, but a finer grade, which results in savings in the raw materials used in wall and floor tiles manufacture, and will lower in energy needs. 2.0 Materials and Methods: 2.1 Raw materials characterization These consisted two components: First, the raw mix used to manufacture ceramic wall and floor tile bodies, which was prepared from Egyptian raw materials, (kindly supplied by Ceramica Royal Company located in a Cairo suburb). Its composition is displayed in Table 1, as stated by the supplying company. The second is the ceramic powder waste produced from the cyclone which follows the spray drier in the manufacturing process of ceramic tiles. Table 1: Raw Mix Tiles Body Composition Percent

Kaolin

Ball clay

Bentonite

Feldspar

Sand

Limestone

Talc

Wall tile mix

25

35

2

14

15

9

-

Floor tile mix

25

35

-

28

10

-

2

The chemical composition of both materials was determined using X–ray fluorescence technique type Axios, panalytical 2005, wavelength dispersive (WD–XRF) sequential spectrometer. On the other hand, the mineralogical composition was assessed using X–ray diffraction Brukur D8 Advanced Computerized X–ray Diffractometer apparatus with mono–chromatized Cu Kα radiation, operated at 40 kV and 40 mA. Thermal analysis (DTA – TGA) was performed on both materials using Netzsch STA 409 C/CD apparatus at a heating rate of 10 oC/min. Runs were performed in air. The particle size distribution (PSD) of a granular material (wall and floor mixes) was determined according to the standard sieving procedure described by ASTM D 422 [2007]. Alternatively, the waste fineness was investigated through BT–2001 Laser Particle Size Analyzer, which is conforming to ISO 13320 [2009]. Finally, the powder densities of basic mixture of wall and floor tiles (raw mixes) and ceramic powder waste were measured using the standard pycnometer method (density flask). This method is a very precise procedure for determining the density of powders, granules and dispersions that have poor flowability characteristics [Density and Porosity, 2012]. 2.2 Samples preparation The ceramic powder waste was blended in different proportions (from 0 up to 50 % by weight) with basic mixture powder of wall and floor tiles in a laboratory horizontal tumbler for two hours. The plasticity of the different blends was determined using the Pfefferkorn method [De–Andrade et al., 2010]. Rectangular tile specimens of approximate dimensions 110.4 × 55.4 × 8 mm3 were then molded using the blend by dry pressing using the automatically laboratory hydraulic press under uniaxial pressure of 25 MPa and (5–7) % water. Tile specimens were then dried on a laboratory dryer for 24 hours at (110 ± 5) ºC.

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The following properties of green dried samples were determined: Linear drying shrinkage [ASTM C 326 / 2014], green breaking strength, and green modulus of rupture [ISO 10545–4 / 2014]. Each sample consisted of three specimens and the average value was taken. The dried samples were then fired in a laboratory muffle furnace at three different temperatures, following a programmed schedule that takes into account the evolution water from the dehydroxylation of kaolinite by fixing the temperature at 750 ºC for 30 minutes. The maximum temperatures attained varied from (1000, 1050, and 1100) ºC for wall tiles, while at (1050, 1100, and 1150) ºC for floor tiles, with a soaking time of 15 minutes to simulate fast firing conditions. The following tests were performed to determine the characteristics of fired samples: percent linear firing shrinkage [ASTM C 326 / 2014], percent water absorption and apparent porosity [ASTM C 373 / 2014], breaking strength and modulus of rupture [ISO 10545–4 / 2014]. SEM was also used to provide micrographs of some chosen sections. The used SEM apparatus was of type JEOL–JSM 6510 apparatus with maximum zoom magnification power = 300000x. 3.0 Results and Discussion: 3.1 Raw Materials Characterization 3.1.1 Chemical analysis of raw materials Table (2) shows the chemical analysis of raw materials. It can be noted that the loss on ignition is mainly due to loss of the chemical water of clays, carbon dioxide from limestone, and organic matter content. It is also higher in case of wall tile mix than floor tile since the former contains limestone while most of the L.O.I of the latter is due to loss of water of hydration in clays. Table 2: Chemical Analysis of Raw Materials Constituents, Wt. (%)

Wall Mix

Wall Dust

Floor Mix

Floor Dust

SiO2

55.18

61.29

58.53

61.13

Al2O3

19.24

14.67

22.97

20.82

Fe2O3

3.03

2.80

3.68

3.66

TiO2

0.92

0.74

1.06

0.98

MgO

0.41

0.32

1.40

1.37

CaO

7.88

8.26

1.34

1.40

Na2O

1.41

1.60

2.59

2.96

K2O

1.81

2.14

1.37

1.52

P2O5

0.16

0.14

0.21

0.20

SO3

0.43

0.44

0.41

0.40

Cr2O3

0.014

0.016

0.023

0.023

MnO

0.019

0.023

0.027

0.031

ZrO2

0.072

0.044

0.056

0.048

ZnO

0.018

0.025

0.018

0.050

NiO

0.007

0.007

0.012

0.016

CuO

0.007

0.007

0.009

0.009

Ga2O3

0.005

0.004

0.007

0.005

Nb2O5

0.002

0.003

0.004

0.003

Rb2O

0.009

0.010

0.007

0.007

tot.

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Constituents, Wt. (%)

Wall Mix

Wall Dust

Floor Mix

Floor Dust

SrO

0.021

0.017

0.022

0.020

Y2O3

0.003

0.003

--------

--------

Cl

0.06

0.07

0.07

0.08

L.O.I

9.29

7.37

6.18

5.26

Total

99.997

99.999

99.995

99.992

3.1.2 Mineralogical analysis of raw materials Figure 1 shows the mineralogical analyses of all four raw materials (wall mix, wall dust waste, floor mix, and floor dust waste), whereas wall mix and dust main phase presence is quartz, while floor mix and dust main phases noticed are quartz and albite.

(a): Wall Mix

(b): Wall Dust Waste

(c): Floor Mix

(d): Floor Dust Waste

Figure 1: XRD Pattern of Raw Materials, (a): Wall Mix, (b): Wall Dust Waste, (c): Floor Mix, and (d): Floor Dust Waste

3.1.3 Thermal analysis of raw materials Combined TGA – DTA charts of all four raw materials (wall mix, wall dust waste, floor mix, and floor dust waste) are shown in Fig (2). It appears from the charts that there is a slight early decrease in weight due to elimination of physical water followed by a small exothermic peak at about 425 ºC due to oxidation of organic impurities. An endothermic peak follows at about 485 ºC that extends to some extent in case of floor tiles. This is presumably due to loss of lattice water of clays present in the mixes that is 1072

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practically completed at about 650 ºC. In case of wall tiles and owing to the presence of limestone a supplementary peak can be observed at about 720 ºC.

(a): Wall Mix

(b): Wall Dust Waste

(c): Floor Mix

(d): Floor Dust Waste

Figure 2: DTA and TGA Pattern of Raw Materials, (a): Wall Mix, (b): Wall Dust Waste, (c): Floor Mix, and (d): Floor Dust Waste

3.1.4 Screen analysis of raw materials Figure 3–a) shows the cumulative screen analysis of wall and floor mixes, which determined using several sieves according to ASTM D 422 [2007]. On the other hand, Figure 3–b) shows the cumulative screen analysis of wall and floor dust wastes, which determined using BT–2001 Laser Particle Size Analyzer, which is conforming to ISO 13320 [2009]. The vertical axis represents the fraction retained on each particular screen diameter. This figure shows that the two wastes are very fine.

(a): Wall and Floor Mixes

(b): Wall and Floor Dust Wastes

Figure 3: Cumulative Particle Size Distribution of Raw Materials, (a): Wall and Floor Mixes, and (b): Wall and Floor Dust Wastes 1073

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Sauter mean diameter (SMD) is an average particle size for a mixture of particles. It was originally developed by German scientist J. Sauter in the late 1920s. It is defined as the diameter of a sphere that has the same volume / surface area ratio as a particle of interest. Several methods have been devised to obtain a good estimate of the SMD. Probably, the most used is the volume – surface mean diameter ( D s ), which is related to the specific surface area ( Aw ). It is defined by the following equation [McCabe et al., 2005]:

Ds 

n



i 1

1 Xi

(4.1)

D Pi

Where: Xi is the differential fraction retained between two sieves ( i ) and ( i ‒ 1 ),

D Pi is the average particle diameter, or the mean nominal screen opening between these two sieves ( i ) and ( i ‒ 1 ). Table 3 shows both of the volume – surface mean diameter ( D s ) and D50 values for all four powders. Table 3: The Volume – Surface Mean Diameter ( D s ) and (D50) Values of Raw Materials Powder

Wall mix

Floor mix

Wall dust

Floor dust

D50 μm

420

410

23.35

13.72

D s μm

355

338

7.91

5.392

3.1.5 Powder density of raw materials The following table displays the powder density of the materials used in this work. It appears that wall and floor raw mix densities are lower than the wall and floor dust waste, so it is expected adding the waste to the raw mix will increase the densities. Table 4: Powder Density of Raw Materials Raw Material

Powder Density, (gm/cm3)

Wall Mix

2.28

Wall Dust Waste

2.57

Floor Mix

2.23

Floor Dust Waste

2.37

3.2 Unfired Mixes Characteristics 3.2.1 Effect of waste replacement on plasticity of mixes The plasticity of the mixed powders of the tiles, which are prepared by substituting the raw mix with different waste proportions from (0–50) % wt., was determined using the Pfefferkorn apparatus [De– Andrade et al., 2010]. The final results illustrating the effect of waste replacement on plasticity are shown in Fig (4–a). The results show that plasticity of wall tiles mixes generally increases while increasing waste replacement, while plasticity of floor tiles mixes shows practically no change on waste replacement. 3.2.2 Effect of waste replacement on drying shrinkage The linear drying shrinkage for dry samples was determined according to ASTM C 326 [2014]. The effect of waste replacement on the linear drying shrinkage of both wall and floor raw mix is shown in 1074

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Fig (4–b). Since the percent water used is limited (5 %), it is much lower than the critical moisture content of ceramic – water mixtures which usually ranges from 10 to 20 %. That is why the measured values of linear drying shrinkage were insignificant for as much as 50 % dust replacement [Mujumdar and Menon, 1995]. 3.2.3 Effect of waste replacement on Green Strength The breaking strength and modulus of rupture of the resulting green bodies were determined according to ISO 10545–4 [2014], in order to assess the possibility of proper handling of the green bodies prior to firing. The results in Fig (4–c) and (4–d) show that wall dust waste replacement causes the breaking strength and modulus of rupture for green tiles to drop till 20 % waste replacement then values stabilize, while adding floor dust show slight increase in both properties till 10 % waste replacement then a linear decrease until reaching 50 %.

Figure 4–a): Effect of Percent Dust Replacement on Plasticity Number

Figure 4–b): Effect of Percent Dust Replacement on Linear Drying Shrinkage

Figure 4–c): Effect of Percent Dust Replacement on Green Breaking Strength

Figure 4–d): Effect of Percent Dust Replacement on Green Modulus of Rupture

Figure 4: Effect of Percent Dust Replacement on Unfired Mixes Characteristics

3.3 Fired Tile Samples Characteristics: 3.3.1 Effect of waste replacement on percent linear firing shrinkage Figure (5–a) displays the effect of waste replacement on linear firing shrinkage. While increasing the firing temperature had a predictable effect of increasing shrinkage, the effect of dust replacement was insignificant at all firing temperatures for floor tiles, while the waste replacement tends to reduce the firing shrinkage for wall tiles. The main reason for shrinkage is the elevated amount of feldspar in the original mix which, by lowering vitrification temperature enhances liquid phase sintering [Martín–Márquez et al., 2008]. As the percent dust replacement is increased there is a subsequent decrease in raw mix meaningless feldspar. This 1075

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could explain the decrease in shrinkage observed in all curves of wall tiles. It is to be noted that all samples resulted in fired tiles of thickness slightly lower than 7.5 mm.

(a–1): Wall Tiles

(a–2): Floor Tiles

Figure 5–a): Effect of Percent Dust Replacement on Linear Firing Shrinkage

3.3.2 Effect of waste replacement on percent water absorption Water absorption is a main property to be reckoned with when characterizing ceramic tiles of any type. Its percent reveals the open porosity of the tile that reflects the degree of vitrification. According to the International Standard [ISO 13006 / 2012], ceramic tiles are classified as either having percent water absorption lying between 6 % and 10 % (6 % < E ≤ 10 %), or higher than 10 % (E > 10 %). Wall tiles usually lie in the latter category, but floor tiles can be lie in either categories. As can be seen from Fig (5–b), it is clear that, for wall tiles, water absorption is affected by the presence of waste, its values increases with increasing percent waste replacement. In this case, the main reason is the decomposition of limestone present in waste that opens up new pores in the fired bodies. For floor tiles, water absorption show no significant change by the presence of waste, but increasing the firing temperature results in decreasing of the water absorption of the tiles. To abide by ISO standard, for floor tiles, for water absorption < 10 %, it is necessary to fire at 1100 ºC and 1150 ºC with 50 % waste replacement. And if the floor tiles are categorized as having water absorption > 10 %, then more waste can be replaced (up to 50 %), and lower firing temperatures can be used (fired at 1050 ºC). For wall tiles, all test samples are having water absorption more than 10 %. So, more waste can be replaced (up to 50 %) and lower firing temperatures can be used (fired at 1000 ºC).

(b–1): Wall Tiles

(b–2): Floor Tiles

Figure 5–b): Effect of Percent Dust Replacement on Percent Water Absorption 1076

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3.3.3 Effect of waste replacement on percent apparent porosity This property is not a standard requirement although it is indicative of the percent open pores and hence extent of vitrification in more direct way than water absorption, to which it is strongly related. The apparent porosity was followed as function of two parameters: Percent waste replacement, and the firing temperature. Figure (5c) shows the results obtained at 15 minutes soaking time. This figure shows the same general trend observed in water absorption. That is, an increase in porosity with increased waste replacement and a decrease in porosity following an increase in firing temperature.

(c–1): Wall Tiles

(c–2): Floor Tiles

Figure 5–c): Effect of Percent Dust Replacement on Percent Apparent Porosity

3.3.4 Effect of waste replacement on mechanical strength According to the International Standard [ISO 13006 / 2012], the mechanical strength of ceramic tiles has to be formulated as two values: The breaking strength and the modulus of rupture (MOR). The minimum values of breaking strengths and MOR are related to the tile thickness as shown in Table (5). Table 5: Minimum Permissible Values for Breaking Strength and MOR Thickness < 7.5 mm

Breaking Strength, (N) 2

MOR, N/mm (MPa)

Thickness ≥ 7.5 mm

6 % < E ≤ 10 %

E > 10 %

6 % < E ≤ 10 %

E > 10 %

≥ 500

≥ 200

≥ 800

≥ 600

Minimum 18

Minimum 12

Minimum 18

Minimum 15

The effect of waste replacement in wall and floor tiles mixes on mechanical properties was established as being one of the most important properties governing the viability of using the tiles. In this respect, the breaking strength and the modulus of rupture serve to assess the mechanical strength of the tile body. Other properties such as abrasion resistance and skid resistance are concerned with the finished glazed surface rather than the body are were not consequently considered in this work. Fig (5–d) and Fig (5–e) illustrate the effect of firing temperature and percent waste replacement on both breaking strength and modulus of rupture, respectively. Values of breaking strength and MOR displayed in the aforementioned figures show that:



For wall tiles of thickness < 7.5 mm and water absorption > 10 %, the minimum breaking strength of 200 N was achieved in all cases. Values of modulus of rupture are higher than the minimum standard values (12 MPa) in all cases containing less than 50 % waste. 1077

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



For Floor tiles of thickness < 7.5 mm and water absorption > 10 %, the minimum breaking strength of 200 N was achieved in tiles firing at 1050 ºC and containing up to 50 % waste. Values of modulus of rupture are higher than the minimum standard values (12 MPa) in all tiles firing at 1050 ºC and containing containing up to 20 % waste. For Floor tiles of thickness < 7.5 mm and water absorption < 10 %, the minimum breaking strength of 500 N and minimum MOR of 18 MPa, were achieved in tiles firing at 1100 ºC and 1150 ºC and containing less than 50 % waste.

(d–1): Wall Tiles

(d–2): Floor Tiles

Figure 5–d): Effect of Percent Dust Replacement on Breaking Strength

(e–1): Wall Tiles

(e–2): Floor Tiles

Figure 5–e): Effect of Percent Dust Replacement on Modulus of Rupture 3.4 SEM Results for Fired Samples In order to assess the previously obtained results, specimens were examined under the Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM). The SEM micrographs at magnifying 5000x of the surface of a transversal section in a wall tile containing 50 % dust fired at 1050 ºC, and in a floor tile containing 20 % dust fired at 1150 ºC, are shown in Fig (6). It indicates a clear reduction in porosity owing to the apparent glassy phase that has formed [Pérez et al., 2012].

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(a): Wall Tiles containing 50 % dust fired at 1050 ºC

(b): Floor Tiles containing 20 % dust fired at 1150 ºC

Figure 6: SEM micrograph of firing samples (5000×)

4.0 Conclusions The ceramic dust waste produces from the cyclone which follows the spray drier in the manufacturing process of ceramic tiles, was mixed with a standard mix of ceramic wall and floor tiles at different percentages reaching 50 %, molded and pressed uniaxially at 25 MPa. Firing was performed for a soaking period of 15 minutes to simulate fast firing conditions. It was possible to obtain tiles of thickness less than 7.5 mm that abided by standards for 20 % wall powder waste replacement in wall mix with firing temperature of 1000 oC for tiles water absorption (E > 10 %), 10 % floor powder waste replacement in floor mix with firing temperature of 1050 oC for tiles water absorption (E > 10 %), and 40 % floor tiles waste replacement in floor mix with firing temperature of 1100 oC for tiles water absorption (6% < E < 10%) . References ASTM C 326 / 2009 (Reapproved 2014), ―Standard test method for drying and firing shrinkages of ceramic white– ware clays‖, ASTM Annual book, U.S.A., 15 (2), (2015). ASTM C 373 / 2014, ―Standard test method for water absorption, bulk density, apparent porosity, and apparent specific gravity of fired white ware products‖, ASTM Annual book, U.S.A., 15 (2), (2015). ASTM D 422 / 1963 (Reapproved 2007), ―Method for particle–size analysis of soils‖, ASTM Annual book, U.S.A., 4 (8), (2015). De–Andrade F.A., Al–Qureishi H.A., Hotza D., ―Measuring and modeling the plasticity of clays‖, Mater. Res., 13 (3), (2010), 395–399. Density and Porosity, retrieved from http://micrx.com/repository/files/Density_and_ Porosity_Definition.pdf, (2012). ISO 10545 – 4 / 2014, ―Ceramic tiles – Part 4: Determination of modulus of rupture and breaking strength‖, International Organization for Standardization (ISO), Geneva, (2014), 1–16. ISO 13006 / 2012, ―Ceramic Tiles – Definitions, classification, characteristics and marking, Annex K and L‖, International Organization for Standardization (ISO), Geneva, (2012), 38–43. Martín–Márquez J., Rincón J.M., Romero M., ―Effect of firing temperature on sintering of porcelain stoneware tiles‖, Ceramics International, 34, (2008), 1867–1873. McCabe W.L., Smith J.C., Harriott P., ―Unit operations of chemical engineering‖, 7th Edition, McGraw–Hill, New York, (2005). Mezquita, A., Boix, J.,Monfort, E., and Mallol, G., 2014, "Energy saving in ceramic tile kilns: Cooling gas heat recovery" 65(1), Spain. Mujumdar A.S., Menon A.S., ―Handbook of Industrial Drying – Drying of Solids‖, 2nd Edition, Marcel Dekker, New York, (1995), 1–46. Mustafi S., Ahsan M., Diwan A.H., Ahmed S., Khatun N., Absar N., ―Effect of Waste Glass Powder on PhysicMechanical Properties of Ceramic Tiles‖, Bangladesh Journal of Scientific Research, 24 (2), (2011), 169–180. 1079

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Ozturk, Z.B., and Gultekin, E.E., 2015, "Preparation of Ceramic wall tiling derived from blast furnace slag", journal of ceramics international, 41, pp. 12020- 12026 Pérez J.M., Rincón J.M., Romero M., ―Effect of moulding pressure on microstructure and technological properties of porcelain stoneware‖, Ceramics International, 38, (2012), 317–325. Schettino, M.A., and Holanda, J.N.F., 2015, "Characterization of Sugarcane baggase ash waste for its use in Ceramic floor tile", journal of Procedia materials science, 8, pp. 190-196

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Waste Management & Resource Utilisation www.iswmaw.com

ISWMAW

Significance of Presence of Asbestos in Construction and Demolition Wastes in India Richa Singh1, J.M. Vivek1, Bakul Rao2, Shyam R. Asolekar1,* 1

Centre for Environmental Science & Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, Powai, Mumbai, India 2 Centre for Technology Alternatives for Rural Areas, Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, Powai, Mumbai, India *Corresponding Author: Email- [email protected] ABSTRACT Construction and Demolition (C&D) wastes, typically referred to as "debris", is continuously generated and is being seen as an urban nuisance in the last three decades in the developing world, particularly in India. The unrestricted use of asbestos has led to the generation of extremely high levels of carcinogenic wastes in the environment. In the Indian context, exposure to asbestos can be attributed to asbestos mining, asbestos cement (AC) industries, asbestos product manufacturing and processing units and renovation and demolition of old asbestos cemented building roofs and other insulation materials. A major portion of C&D waste comes from the demolition of old buildings. The present study deals with analysis of current patterns of asbestos production, import and usage, thus examining, quantifying and forecasting asbestos containing C&D wastes. Weathered 30 year old AC roof sheets and pipes were analyzed using analytical techniques such as scanning electron microscope (SEM) fitted with EDX prime energy dispersive analysis system. The study points out that the asbestos fibres are encapsulated in cement matrix but the hazardous characteristic of the chrysotile is not altered and this can be a matter of great concern as these fibres can released into the atmosphere due to demolition activity or aging. Keywords: Asbestos, AW, ACM, ACW, Carcinogenic, Chrysotile, C&D Wastes, Fibres, SEM; International Society of Waste Management, Air and Water

1.0 Introduction The rapid industrialization and infrastructural development in Asia during the last few decades have resulted in the difficult task of finding means to manage the tremendous amount of C&D wastes generated. The developmental expansion is often derailed when a disaster strikes, causing causalities, loss of property and livelihood, leading to economic and social pressures [1]. As the environmental impacts from C&D waste are increasingly becoming a major bottleneck in urban solid waste management, it has become a vital need for the environmental regulators to study C&D waste generation and handling to develop accurate statistics and establish sustainable techniques to manage construction wastes. In this context, hazardous entities in C&D waste such as asbestos have to be addressed and proper management solution should be put into practice. Asbestos is considered as an "industrial resource", which has historically been used in manufacture of around 3000 products due to its durability, long fibrous shape, high tensile strength and flexibility, low thermal and electrical conductivity, high absorbency and high 1081

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mechanical thermal stability [2, 3]. In United States and Europe, it has been banned for most of its uses because of its unambiguous links to deleterious health impacts in the form of "Mesothelioma" and "lung fibrosis", but it is still widely used in Asian countries and other nations because it is effective, yet relatively inexpensive. As per Indian bureau of mines, the apparent demand of asbestos was estimated to be 393,000 tonnes in 2011-12 and is expected to touch 605,000 tonnes by 2016-17 with 9% growth rate as per the report of the working group for 12th Plan [4]. The unique mineralogical characteristic of asbestos minerals is their morphologic form or crystallization property to form polyfilamentousfibre bundles where the individual fibrils comprising the fibre bundles have a tendency to form very long structures with a narrow range of diameters and grow with their long fibre axis in parallel orientation to the bundle length. The fibres are formed under rare conditions when certain silicate minerals crystallize in bundles of hundreds of thousands of strong, flexible fibrils that look like vegetable fibres [5]. Chrysotile (hydrated magnesium silicate, 3MgO2 SiO2 2H2O) accounts for approximately 95% of all asbestos manufactured and used in a wide variety of industrial applications, due to its properties to be easily woven, melded and added to other inorganic and polymeric compounds to form composite materials [6, 7]. Besides its useful properties, it is an established carcinogen [8]. The major havoc arises when there is demolition of old buildings mainly during dry cutting of ACMs (Asbestos Containing Materials) with abrasive tools. As per WHO definition, the current regulations focus on long asbestos fibre (LAF) (Length: L ≥ 5 μm, Diameter: D < 3 μm and L/D ratio > 3). However, in a recent study on air quality of buildings with asbestos containing materials (ACM), the air samples were found to be composed only of short asbestos fibres (SAF), in a concentration of ≥10 fibers.L−1 [9]. Exposure to these microscopic asbestos fibres occurs through inhalation primarily from contaminated air in the working environment, as well as from ambient air in the vicinity of point sources, or indoor air in housing and buildings containing friable asbestos materials [10]. Due to the lack of adequate identification technology, most asbestos containing C&D wastes have been dumped together with construction waste or household waste, resulting in a public health hazard, the most serious long-term concern for the public. The paramount challenge that needs to be addressed, though, is the amount of untreated and abandoned AW (Asbestos Wastes) in most of the developing countries the challenge that is far reaching in terms of both the environment and human health. And the major blockage is the lack of waste treatment techniques and facilities in these countries. Also there is no stringent regulation for recycling and final disposal of C&D wastes in developing countries. The massive demand for asbestos, currently around 2,000,000 tons per year globally, developed over the last 120 year is an alarming environmental threat [3]. Exposure to asbestos in India can be encountered in the form of asbestos mining, asbestos processing units, asbestos cement industries and during renovation and demolition of old asbestos cemented roof or other structures as well as modern electrical as well as mechanical appliances in which asbestos is still found. Ultimately construction workers, electricians, vehicle mechanics and other workers in the building trades who are exposed to asbestos inhale hundreds and thousands of asbestos fibres which causes lung damage [2]. There are a number of studies conducted by various researchers which has advocated the hazardous impacts of Asbestos on living beings. Some of the stabilization processes reduce the hazards of ACW (Asbestos Containing Waste) by imprisoning in a cement or resonoid matrix. Other processes modify the fibrous structure of asbestos and transform it into an inert substance [11]. 2.0 Potential Health Hazards Asbestos waste is usually categorized into two kinds: one from the tailings of asbestos mining and the manufacture of asbestos products, and the other from the demolition of buildings containing asbestos materials [12]. Moreover, at the end of the service life of products and buildings, or after large natural catastrophe such as earthquakes or floods, the health hazard posed by the asbestos containing material wastes is not given adequate consideration. Simultaneously, heaps of AW from asbestos mining and construction waste are still discarded without proper management and supervision. There are various reasons for these actions and include lack of ample management from local authorities, and inadequate treatment and consumption technologies and methodologies [13]. As per the reports of WHO (2014)at least 107,000 people die each year from asbestos related lung cancer, mesothelioma and asbestosis resulting from occupational exposures. Asbestos is a well-known dust carcinogen and should be taken very seriously by building deconstructors. Many studies have claimed for the carcinogenicity of asbestos fibres [14, 15, 16]. Asbestosis is diffuse interstitial fibrosis of the lungs caused by asbestos dust. It may be 1082

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associated with pleural fibrosis, but pleural disease alone does not constitute asbestosis [17]. The important types of asbestos are the amphiboles, i.e. crocidolite (blue) and amosite (brown), and chrysotile (white). All types cause all the asbestos induced diseases, but the amphiboles are much more carcinogenic than chrysotile. 3.0 Sources of Asbestos Wastes Generation India is rising as the primary consumer of asbestos after China, whereas the developed world have imposed ban on most of its uses. There are around 25 asbestos mines in India, which are in vigorous operation with a production rate of approximately 3,000 tonnes/month along with >70 percent of the quantity being imported from Canada [18]. As per U.S. geological survey report (2003), 182.2 million metric tonnes of asbestos was mined between 1900 and 2003. In present epoch, major producers of asbestos such as Russia, Kazakhstan, China, and Brazil continue to produce and export asbestos to countries around the world, especially to low- and middle-income countries that too often have weak or nonexistent occupational and environmental regulations [19]. Asbestos imports to India accounted to be >300000 metric tons/annum as per US geological survey report. Owing to growing public awareness about the hazards of asbestos, consumption of asbestos dropped by 36% from 2010 to 2011 in India but this is hardly enough to save us from the unacknowledged imminent public health crisis. India's asbestos consumption in 2010 was 407000 MT which got dropped to 303000 MT in 2011. The asbestos cement industry is the largest user of asbestos in India [20]. This paper focuses mainly on C&D wastes as infrastructure sector is often undergoing rapid transit to consume more and more resources and produce magnanimous quantities of wastes .The average life time of a building is 40 to 50 years and the old age building particularly in developing countries like India had employed low cost light weight durable asbestos and asbestos containing materials during the Victorian era. Sine as posited out earlier since the life has expired of such buildings, it is expected that the dismantling and disposal of such buildings will give rise to asbestos pollution. Moreover in the latter half of 21st century it has become a common practice to venture upon the new innovative lightweight sustainable materials for construction thus using asbestos for AC cement products. Thus new avenue of pollution has been opened upon by this product. Its disposal at a later stage is going to be an issue of serious concern. A huge quanta of AW is generated during the process of demolition of old buildings creating hazardous wastes debris. In the construction industry, asbestos is generally found in installed products such as cement corrugated sheets, pipe insulation, floor tiles, cement pipe and sheet, roof and exterior walls and shingles, boiler vessels, interior wall panels etc. These days‘ asbestos is widely used as a major component in corrugated roofing sheets. Workers gets exposed to carcinogenic fibres during the removal of ACM and the renovation and maintenance of buildings and structures containing asbestos.Various sources of asbestos waste generation in India, can be broadly classified into three categories (Figure 1):   

Construction and demolition of old Buildings From Industrial operations From Ship dismantling

All asbestos slates are manufactured in a mixture of about 90% cement and 10% chrysotile (white asbestos) [21]. That is why, a huge amount of ACW is produced during demolition of asbestos roofs (Figure 2.).The huge quantum of asbestos consumption in various industries such as textile, cement and automotive parts manufacturing plants also produce a considerable amount of wastes residues which is termed as asbestos containing wastes. Wastes majorly include asbestos residues, discarded asbestos, used asbestos break liner, asbestos cement, corrugated sheets etc. In a study conducted by Dave and Becket (2005), it was reported that there are nearly 673 small-scale asbestos mining and milling sectors and 33 large-scale asbestos manufacturing plants (17 AC product manufacturing plants and 16 other than AC product plants) in India. A considerable fraction of asbestos containing wastes is generated by ship recycling and dismantling sector also [22].

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Figure 1: Sources of asbestos wastes from different sectors

Figure 2: Asbestos in construction and demolition wastes 1084

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Production and processing of asbestos industry is organized in the following manner. First, asbestos ore is mined and then milling is done to achieve a homogeneous input which is supplied to primary industries. These primary industries then process and modify the raw asbestos fibre to produce an intermediate or finished product. Secondary industries may then be required to complete the final processing of the product into a finished good. This finished good or product is then sold to consumer industries which then apply, install, erect, or consume the product without further modification. All of these operations have the potential for releasing asbestos fibres to the atmosphere. Due to its unique properties, asbestos is being mined and exploited as industrial material in regions where it is produced in large quantities. Asbestos has long been used in constructing fireproof building materials such as roof sheets, cement pipe or ceiling tile and other long-lasting cement products and insulation materials [20]. An illustrative representation of source classified AW and ACM has been presented in Figure 3.

Figure 3: Use of asbestos products in primary secondary, and consumer industries

4.0 Analysis of Construction Materials and Results obtained Chrysotile asbestos cement roof sheets and pipes were analyzed by using scanning electron microscope and quantification of chrysotile present was estimated for calculating the quantum of asbestos containing construction and demolition wastes. The sample was collected from demolition sites. The sample was broken with a hammer and small particles and fibres bundles were suspended in distilled water. The contents were both shaken and subjected to low powered ultrasonic treatment for about 1 minute to disperse the fibres. A single drop was then pipetted onto a carbon film and allowed to dry. The prepared sample after coating with titanium for around 200 seconds, were examined in a scanning electron microscope (SEM) fitted with an EDX Prime energy dispersive analysis system. Energy dispersive X ray analysis results EDX procedures work by focusing the electrons into a small area, on a small area of the fibre. Ideally the electrons in the beam react only with the material targeted in the probe to give rise to x-ray emissions. Some of the x-ray emissions are due to the disruption of the electrons in the atomic shells of an atom, which produce a quantum of x-ray energy that is characteristic of the element and the electron transitions taking place. The EDAX technique collects and measures the energy of x-rays produced and displays a graph of x- ray energy (in KeV) along the bottom axis versus frequency of occurrence. An EDAX spectrum will usually show a number of characteristic xray peaks, associated with the elements present. The fibres in all the bulk samples of construction material (asbestos roof sheets) were found to have the characteristic morphology and appearance of "chrysotile asbestos" (Fig. 4.). When viewed at higher magnification, the extremely fine fibrils showed the peculiar "tubular structure" associated with chrysotile fibres and showed no indication of surface alteration. Individual fibres analyzed by energy dispersive X-ray (EDX) analysis showed chemistry similar to a reference standard of chrysotile studied in literature (Figure 5). It can be inferred that the fibres are encapsulated in cement matrix but the hazardous characteristics of the chrysotile is not altered and this can be a matter of great concern if these fibres are into atmosphere due to demolition activity or due to aging.

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Figure 4: Chrysotile fibre bundle projecting from a broken segment of the asbestos cement sample (scanning electron microscopy image at magnifications 850, 2200, 10000, and 16000x). Fine cement particles and larger pieces of matrix material can also be seen.

The analysis carried out showed that the asbestos cement contained fibres of chrysotile and can release chrysotile asbestos fibres in air when sufficiently disturbed. The fibre-cement corrugated sheets can undergo deterioration similar to the matrixes of other portland cement-based products such as concrete and mortars, from chemically aggressive agents, or by mechanical stress due to stockpiling, transportation, assembling activities and in use exposure to wind, moisture, freezing-thawing cycles, thermal cycles and other environmental factors [23]. The cementitious matrix of fibre-cement corrugated sheets can also suffer weakening through leaching of water. Few literature studies also suggest the leaching effect of portland cement-based materials and it is well established that this mechanism of deterioration can generate a weakening in composites. It is evident from the analysis that a considerable amount of chrysotile is being used in the manufacture of cement corrugated sheets. These sheets (or other construction material made up of asbestos) when demolished after completion of their life span or due to climatic impacts, will release hazardous chrysotile fibres into the environment therebygenerating a massive quantum of wastes containing asbestos which comes under C&D (construction and demolition) wastes; considered as a major urban nuisance in the present era. Now it has become very imperative to device various methods through which the exposure to the workforce to hazardous asbestos fibres could be minimized as well as for various technologies which can be used for conversion of asbestos containing wastes into some useful products (construction products, as the fibres have high tensile strength and durability). Quantitative analysis of the sample showed the presence of major components such as magnesium, silicon, aluminium, calcium, iron etc. 1086

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Element CK OK Mg K Al K Si K SK Ca K Fe K Totals

Weight% 9.87 48.8 15.4 1.4 15.93 0.64 6.36 1.62 100

Atomic% 15.41 57.21 11.88 0.97 10.64 0.37 2.98 0.54

Figure 5: EDS peaks and quantitative elemental analysis of construction material sample

5.0 Inventorization of Asbestos Containing C&D Wastes in India Method for predicting quantifying the asbestos wastes generated from C&D sector involved review of the literature presenting patterns of asbestos apparent consumption; review of documents from UN agencies, national agencies and NGOs on asbestos production and usage. The inventorization was mainly done with regard to wastes generated by demolition activity. For ACW generated from demolition of old buildings, the quantum of ACW was calculated by taking into account the apparent consumption of chrysotile asbestos in India. The consumption data was collected from US geological survey. Assuming that all the asbestos consumed were converted to construction materials (considering the asbestos content as 20% in the bulk material), the asbestos wastes generated at the end of the service life (considering 15 years adopted from the literature). The volume of AW generated in the region can be calculated by equation no. (1) studied by (12). (1) Where, Qn: quantity of asbestos waste in year n Cn-15: consumption of asbestos in year n-15 k: an approximate rate of asbestos-containing materials The quantity of asbestos containing hazardous wastes can be projected in the coming years using the above mentioned assumptions (presented in Table 1.). It is found that there is regular increase in the consumption of asbestos from the year 1950 to 2012 [24, 25,26,27,28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45], thereby a considerable increase in generation of asbestos wastes too. Table 1: Asbestos consumption in India and projection of asbestos wastes generated

Export

Apparent consumption

Rate of ACM

Year of waste generation

Quantity of asbestos waste generated (in MT)

10,957

8

11160

20

1965

558000

1,711

21,967

26

652

20

1975

32600

1970

10,056

39,766

30

49,792

20

1985

2489600

1975

20,312

41,514

—

61,826

20

1990

3091300

1980

33,716

63,176

—

96,892

20

1995

4844600

1985

29,450

78,075

—

107,525

20

2000

5376250

1990

26,053

93,165

254

118,964

20

2005

5948200

Year

Production (in MT)

Import

1950

221

1960

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Export

Apparent consumption

Rate of ACM

Year of waste generation

Quantity of asbestos waste generated (in MT)

91,909

14

115,739

20

2010

5786950

27,180

84,378

275

111,283

20

2011

5564150

1997

25,537

83,356

282

108,611

20

2012

5430550

1998

20,000

109,036

348

128,688

20

2013

6434400

1999

21,000

115,220

172

136,048

20

2014

6802400

2000

21,000

124,433

403

145,030

20

2015

7251500

2001

21,000

130,291

1,129

150,161

20

2016

7508050

2002

18,000

150,461

169

168,292

20

2017

8414600

2003

19,000

175,581

2,548

192,033

20

2018

9601650

2004

18,000

—

—

190000

20

2019

9500000

2005

19,000

—

—

255000

20

2020

12750000

2006

20,000

—

—

2,40,000

20

2021

12000000

2007

21,000

—

—

3,02,000

20

2022

15100000

2008

20,000

—

—

3,10,000

20

2023

15500000

2009

—

—

—

3,22,000

20

2024

16100000

2010

—

—

—

4,07,000

20

2025

20350000

2011

19000

302915

-112

3,21,803

20

2026

15150000

2012

—

—

—

4,73,000

20

2027

23650000

Year

Production (in MT)

Import

1995

23,844

1996

On the basis of asbestos consumed per annum in India (data obtained from US geological survey) the quantity of asbestos wastes has been projected as illustrated in Figure 7. There is a continuous increase in the asbestos wastes produced with increasing consumption. In the year 2015, it has been estimated that the quanta of ACW generated is 72,51,500 MT.

Figure 7: Quantity of asbestos waste projected in coming years

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6.0 Management of Asbestos Containing C&D Wastes Recycling secondary raw materials in concrete industry, one of the basic principles of the green concrete concept, is becoming a field of research that has growing interest globally, due to adverse environmental impact of the concrete industry. Recycling asbestos containing C&D wastes as a secondary raw material (SRM) for use in the place of cement in concrete is the need of the hour, due to its physical properties such as high tensile strength and durability.[46] represented a viable recycling opportunity for this class of hazardous wastes. Simultaneous destruction of asbestos and formation of reactive MgO during thermal treatment, is highly profitable in terms of energy requirements and preservation of natural resources in cement industries. In their study, ACW was used in the formulation of magnesium phosphate cements, where samples were mixed with magnesium carbonate and heated at 1100 °C and 1300 °C. The treatment of ACW involved the complete and irreversible transformation of hazardous asbestos and their possible recycling in industrial applications as a secondary raw material [47].Asbestos can also be converted into non-hazardous silicate phases by microwave thermal treatment. The microwave inertization process of asbestos containing waste (ACW) and its recycling potential in porcelain stoneware tiles, porous single-fired wall tiles and ceramic bricks has also being investigated[48]. The study by [49], showed that the powders obtained through the high energy milling of asbestos cement waste are asbestos free and can be profitably recycled in the field of building materials. Destruction of hazardous characteristic of AW through chemical-physical transformationssuch as mechano-chemical, hydrothermal, recrystallization, vitrification, etc. and recycling/reuse of the altered product as secondary raw material, guarantying a lower environmental impact and a reduction in the consumption of the primary raw materials. Asbestos containing material (ACM) converted into SRM offers attractive recycling solutions. There are plenty of literature available describing recycling opportunities for SRM derived from ACM inertization.      

Thermal transformation product of AC can be used as a secondary raw material of great importance, which is chemically comparable to a Mg-rich clinker [50]. The pozzolanic property of treated asbestos containing wastes (roof sheets) was studied and it was found suitable to be used as construction material [49]. Study done on asbestos tailings, claimed that asbestos tailing has no heavy metals and toxic pollution, so it can be used as aggregate material [51]. The product of transformation of cement- asbestos has been successfully recycled for the production of different construction products including glass, glass- ceramics, clay bricks, ceramic pigments, ceramic frits, and plastic materials. Similarly, asbestos tailings can be recycled and used as strengthening fillers to improve the mechanical properties of polypropylene [52]. Studies on the thermo-chemical inactivation of AC wastes and the recycling of the mineral residues in cement products were done by few researchers. They found parameters of tensile stress and mechanical strength by incorporating the SRM into mortars up to 10 %wt.

Similar work on conversion of different type of hazardous wastes into advanced construction material are done by many researchers, One such classic work where jarosite wastes generated by zinc metallurgy industries was blended with other wastes products such as coal combustion residue and marble processing residues and finally converted into construction bricks, was done by [53]. 7.0 Conclusion An attempt is to be made for assessment of various technologies available for the pre-treatment and recycling of asbestos containing wastes and strategies for minimization of exposure of the workforce. Various techniques such as solidification, stabilization, chemical fixation, thermal treatment, encapsulation etc. can serve for the purpose of immobilization of hazardous waste into physically and chemically stable form, which could have a better environmental acceptance. There is a continuous increase in the asbestos wastes production, with an increasing consumption rate over the years. In the year 2015, it has been estimated that the quanta of ACW generated is 7251500 MT in India. From the study conducted, it can be concluded that a major portion of asbestos consumed is ultimately ending-up as C&D wastes and another considerable fraction is contributed by ship dismantling industry and asbestos processing and product manufacturing industries. A proper methodological framework to provide a practical assistance to the 1089

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construction and demolition waste managers and handlers to minimize the potential risk of exposure has to be articulated in the scientific study aimed at asbestos wastes management. When buildings are torn down, workers, neighbors and the environment can be exposed to hazardous fibres. In European countries there are regulations and norms for collection, disposal and recycling of C&D wastes but in India and other developing nations there is lack of solid waste regulations particularly for dealing with hazardous entities of C&D wastes, due to which a major portion of asbestos wastes remain unidentified and hence unattended. Therefore, it is advisable to designate the buildings and/or building components prior to demolition. It is much easier to sample a standing structure than a large pile of heterogeneous building debris. Also, sampling prior to the demolition allows identification and removal of specific components (such as siding with lead paint, asbestos etc.) that designate as dangerous waste. A major portion of asbestos wastes in India remains unidentified, rest of the wastes fraction, which is generated from ship dismantling sector and asbestos product manufacturing industries is disposed through landfilling as per the CPCB norms and Hazardous Waste (Management, Handling and Transboundary) Rules-2008. Keeping in mind the integrated approach of wastes management, it is required to work on various recycling technologies for asbestos wastes in order to process and convert them into some constructive material and minimize the health risk to the population. Acknowledgements Authors acknowledge the co-funding from Department of Science and Technology, New Delhi and Indian Institute of Technology Bombay for this work. References 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

8. 9.

10.

11.

12. 13. 14. 15.

16. 17. 18.

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Technical and Economic Parameters Affecting Reuse of Construction & Demolition Waste in India: Case Studies from Bengaluru and Ahmedabad A. Banerjee*, R. Arora, U. Becker, T. Fernandes GIZ, New Delhi, India *Corresponding Author: Email- [email protected] ABSTRACT The construction sector in India requires enormous amounts of natural resources such as sand, soil, stones, etc. and the demand is expected to increase manifold in coming decades. Serious environmental impacts of extraction of these resources has often led to bans and restrictions, leading to price spikes and supply disruptions. Construction and demolition (C&D) waste can be used as a substitute for construction materials with proper management and processing, but such practice is still at a nascent stage in India. Under the new Construction and Demolition Waste Management Rules 2016, all cities will have to institute C&D waste management within a specified timeframe, and there is a dire need of capacity development to make this happen. The GIZ Resource Efficiency project is working to promote sound management and utilisation of C&D waste in Ahmedabad and Bengaluru. The main challenge was found to be the lack of a solid business case for processing in the absence of a reliable market for C&D waste based products due to negative perception among buyers. Paving blocks made with C&D waste from Ahmedabad exceeded BIS standards for strength and were cost competitive with conventional blocks; therefore a recognised certification scheme would help their market uptake. In addition, the processing facility being located in the south, a decentralized option for waste generated in the northern part of the city was found to be optimal. In Bengaluru, preliminary analysis showed that C&D waste processing enterprises located close to designated C&D waste disposal sites as well as to product markets are likely to be commercially viable under high capacity utilisation scenarios. Attractive payback periods of 5 years or less were found for existing stone crushing units with idle capacity. Lessons from these cases can benefit C&D waste management planning in other cities in India. Keywords: Construction & Demolition Waste, India, Ahmedabad, Bengaluru; International Society of Waste Management, Air and Water

1.0 Introduction The booming construction sector in India has put tremendous pressure on natural resources such as sand, soil, stones, etc. Extraction of these resources has created serious environmental impacts in many parts of the country, often leading to restrictions, and therefore price spikes and supply disruptions [1]. These trends are expected to worsen with increasing demand, absent steps to promote resource efficiency, substitution and recycling [2]. Construction and demolition (C&D) waste offers a partial solution since it 1092

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can be processed into fine and coarse aggregates suitable for the construction industry. However, at present, management and utilisation of C&D waste is extremely poor in most parts of India, with widespread unauthorised dumping creating serious nuisance and environmental problems. Only Delhi and Ahmedabad currently have C&D waste management and processing systems, but the new Construction and Demolition Waste Management Rules 2016 notified by the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEF&CC), will make it mandatory for all cities [3]. In this scenario, a thorough analysis of the C&D waste challenge is essential to develop appropriate and viable management plans in different cities. 2.0 Context and methodology of the study The Resource Efficiency project, an Indo-German bilateral cooperation project, is being implemented in India by Deutsche Gesellschaft fur Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) GmbH. C&D waste reuse is one of the areas of focus in this project, and Development Alternatives (DA) is the project partner of GIZ on this sector. As a first step, the project completed a survey of the C&D waste situation in 10 cities across India – a mix of metros and smaller cities geographically spread out all over the country. During the survey, interviews were conducted with government officials and building industry stakeholders to understand the current C&D waste management scenario and field visits and sampling were also conducted to understand the trends in C&D waste generation, utilisation and disposal. Based on the outcome of this initial survey, two cities – Ahmedabad and Bengaluru – were shortlisted for further detailed analysis and possible pilot interventions. These two cities were chosen because either a pilot C&D waste management system was already in place (Ahmedabad) or ULB and private sector interest were strong in setting up a C&D waste management and utilisation system (Bengaluru). Detailed studies were conducted in these two cities and the findings for each are presented in this paper. 3.0

Case study of Ahmedabad

3.1 Background of C&D waste management in Ahmedabad Ahmedabad was the second city in India, after Delhi, to successfully implement a C&D waste management and utilisation system. The process was initiated by the Ahmedabad Municipal Corporation (AMC) in 2012 and the processing plant started operating in 2014. A Public Private Partnership (PPP) model was followed, with Amdavad Enviro Projects Pvt. Ltd. (AEP) as the private sector partner establishing and operating the processing plant. The initially approved processing capacity of the plant is 300 tonnes per day (TPD), which was agreed on a pilot basis with scope for further expansion in future [4]. AMC has designated 16 intermediate collection points for C&D waste across the city to which construction contractors are supposed to bring their C&D waste free of cost. From these points, AEP picks up the waste and transports it to their processing plant for which they are paid by AMC Rs. 200/tonne. AMC collects C&D waste dumped in unauthorised locations and brings it to these designated collection points. AEP is also authorised to charge private parties for collection of waste from their respective sites at a pre-determined rate approved by AMC (exact charge depends on tonnage and distance). The collection and transportation of waste by AEP is tracked electronically and the data is submitted to AEP on a realtime basis for accurate and efficient monitoring. AEP processes the collected waste at their plant initially into coarse and fine aggregates. These aggregates are then used for manufacture of building materials like paver blocks, kerb stones and other pre-cast structures which are sold under the brand name of Nu-Earth materials [4]. However, the market uptake of these products has not met expectations so far. 3.2 Study scope and methodology GIZ and DA collaborated with AMC and AEP with the objective of improving C&D waste management and utilisation in Ahmedabad through analysis of gaps and challenges and providing recommendations. As part of the market analysis, to visualise current management practice of C&D waste in the city, dumping sites were visited and mapped using Global Positioning System (GPS) coordinates. 1093

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Paver block manufactures were identified as potential users of C&D waste based aggregates and the paver blocks manufacturing units in two clusters, namely Gota and Naroda-Dehgam region, were mapped. In addition to obtaining relevant data from AMC and AEP, field surveys with a range of stakeholders were conducted to gather data on prices of raw materials, prices of finished products, prices of equipment and operating costs, knowledge, interest and concern about C&D waste based products, etc. for analysing financial viability scenarios. Stakeholders surveyed included builders/construction contractors, demolition contractors and C&D waste handlers, and building/construction material manufacturers including stone crushers and paving block manufacturers. Surveys were conducted in different parts of the city to gain reliable and comprehensive data. 3.3 Findings from survey and mapping Currently, only some of the collection points for C&D waste designated by AMC are active. In many others, insufficient amount of C&D waste is collected to justify transportation effort by AEP. As shown in Figure 1 below, the designated dumping sites in the northern parts of the city are quite far from the AEP facility. Currently, the AEP facility is only processing 300 TPD and has capacity for significant expansion. However, under the current model, this would involve transporting of waste to the facility from further and further away.

Figure 1: C&D waste management sites in Ahmedabad and proximity to paver clusters

However, the collection sites in the north are quite close to two paver block manufacturing clusters – Gota and Naroda. This location synergy can potentially be utilised beneficially if C&D waste is processed at or near these sites; this would significantly minimise transportation distances. In terms of raw materials, river sand mining is banned inside the city but is easily available from the outskirts of the city; aggregates are transported from neighbouring towns like Baroda, Surat, Sevali and Moda. Hence an additional cost is paid for the transport. There is shortage of river sand during monsoon season. Cost of sand was found to be uniform across the city at Rs. 450/tonne while cost of aggregates varied Rs. 300-550/tonne based on distance from stone quarries and crushing units. 1094

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A major problem identified was that building material manufacturers (paver block makers) were not very enthusiastic about using recycled aggregates from C&D waste citing concerns over cost, quality and reliable supply. Builders were also not very enthusiastic about using building products like paving blocks and bricks made from C&D waste, again citing similar concerns. Although AEP tests their product quality and their products are cost competitive, lack of an independent certification system is hampering market development of such products. 3.4 Results of financial viability analysis Based on data collected on market conditions through the survey, business cases were modelled for different cases with the goal of promoting decentralised C&D waste management for optimal utilisation. The different cases analysed and key results are summarised in Table 1 below: Table 1: Summary of business case modelling Case

Key Results

Case 1: Existing stone crushing entrepreneur processes C&D waste into secondary aggregates and an existing paver block manufacturer utilises the secondary aggregates into finished products

Since only minor modifications will be required for stone crushers to utilise C&D waste, there is little additional investment required. Input cost savings are significant if C&D waste is obtained within short distance. For paving block manufacturers, no additional investment is required for using recycled aggregates. Profit margin and/or cost competitiveness is increased significantly.

Case 2: Existing stone crushing entrepreneur process C&D waste into secondary aggregates and also starting a new paver block manufacturing unit that utilises the secondary aggregates

Since only minor modifications will be required for stone crushers to utilise C&D waste, there is little additional investment required. Input cost savings are significant if C&D waste is obtained within short distance. However, significant investment is required for setting up a new paving block manufacturing unit, which will be profitable after a cost recovery period.

Case 3: Existing paver block manufacturing unit that utilises the secondary aggregates with additional investment for mini-crushing unit

Major investment will be required for the mini-crushing unit and the cost recovery period may be quite long.

Case 4: New enterprise for C&D waste crushing and processing and new enterprise for paver block manufacturing utilising the secondary aggregates

Major investments will be needed for both the crushing unit as well as the new paving block making unit. A long cost recovery period may not be justified if high capacity utilisation cannot be guaranteed (if the large AEP facility expands, then supply of C&D waste for another large facility may be uncertain).

Case 5: New enterprise renting out minimobile crusher to waste generators/demolition sites

The mini-mobile crusher is expensive and the investment is justified if decentralised waste processing and utilisation becomes widespread, necessitating high utilisation of the crusher.

Case 6: Existing Crushing unit enterprise using mini-mobile crusher

A crushing unit invests in a mobile crusher to go to waste generation sites and the crushed aggregate is transported back to the entrepreneur for marketing. The additional investment in the mobile crusher will only be justified if decentralised waste processing and utilisation becomes widespread, necessitating high utilisation of the crusher.

From the analysis, Case 1 appears to be the most viable, while cases 5 and 6 may be quite attractive under conditions where decentralised C&D waste processing becomes widespread.

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3.5 Key recommendations 1) 2) 3) 4)

4.0

A testing and certification system (such as GRIHA1, which is recognised by the Government of India) will help to create market acceptance of products made from processing C&D waste. Preferential procurement of such recycled products in contracts of government agencies will create a broad market for these products. Decentralised C&D waste processing and utilisation should be promoted by AMC in light of the spatial analysis for optimal and efficient utilisation of C&D waste. Education of all stakeholders in the construction, demolition and building material manufacture industry is essential through workshops, etc. to promote better adherence to AMC‘s management plan (proper disposal in designated areas, etc.), as well as to inform and convince entrepreneurs of the viability and profitability of decentralised C&D waste utilisation. Case study of Bengaluru

4.1 Background of C&D waste management in Bengaluru Bengaluru is a fast growing metropolis with a booming construction sector. Proper management of municipal waste, including C&D waste, has been an ongoing challenge. The Greater Bengaluru Municipal Corporation (BBMP) has recently concluded a feasibility analysis for setting up a C&D waste management system in 2015. According to the BBMP analysis, the amount of C&D waste generation in Bengaluru is 2,500 TPD [5]. Other estimates have put the figure above 3,000 TPD. Currently, there is no comprehensive management system for C&D waste in place; BBMP is in the process of developing a management plan. BBMP has designated 8 sites for disposal of C&D waste but they remain underutilised; unauthorised dumping is common elsewhere [5]. Due to shortage of natural (river) sand, the manufactured sand (msand) industry is well established with entrepreneurs in the stone crushing industry making m-sand from virgin rock. One SME2 entrepreneur, Rock Crystals Pvt. Ltd., has also started crushing small amounts of C&D waste into coarse and fine aggregates on a pilot basis, and selling these aggregates directly in the market. 4.2 Study scope and methodology GIZ and DA, in collaboration with Bengaluru-based Centre for Study of Science, Technology & Policy (CSTEP), conducted a detailed study to analyse factors that may influence the viability of a future C&D waste management system in Bengaluru and identify the most promising models suited to the local context. First, existing C&D waste disposal sites and practices were surveyed. Second, locations of existing stone crushing units (SCUs) and paver block manufacturers (PBMs) were mapped vis-à-vis their proximity to designated C&D waste disposal sites using Geographic Information Systems (GIS) tools. Third, a wide range of stakeholders in the construction/demolition industry as well as building product manufacturers were interviewed to obtain data on market trends for conducting a financial viability analysis. Finally, financial viability modelling analysis was conducted for a range of scenarios including greenfield projects for processing and utilising C&D waste, as well as for existing SCUs and PBMs to start utilising C&D waste. 4.3 Findings from survey and mapping None of the 8 sites designated for C&D waste disposal by BBMP are properly demarcated and there is no monitoring of these sites. Only 3 of the designated sites are actively receiving C&D waste. Interviews with construction industry and independent experts revealed that only about 10% of the C&D waste generated in the city is disposed in the designated sites. About 30% is re-used in construction sites for land levelling and low lying areas reclamation, while the other 60% ends up being disposed illegally in unauthorised places. 1

Green Rating for Integrated Habitat Assessment (http://grihaindia.org/) Small and/or Medium Enterprise

2

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For the mapping exercise, a buffer of 30 km was generated from the center of the city and only stakeholders falling within the buffer zone were mapped. A total of 118 SCUs and 26 PBMs were mapped, in addition to the 7 designated C&D waste dumping sites. The mapping results are shown in Figure 2.

Figure 2: Location of SCUs, PBMs, and designated C&D waste dumping sites within a 30 km buffer of Bengaluru (active dumping sites depicted in red)

Further, individual SCUs and PBMs were grouped into clusters based on proximity and a distance analysis was conducted between the clusters as well as from the city center. The results of the cluster mapping and distance analysis are depicted in Figure 3 and Table 2. Table 2: Distance analysis between SCU and PBM clusters in Bengaluru

Number of Units

Cluster 1 [North Bengaluru]

> 60

22.6

8.6

42.0

46.5

Cluster 2 [North Bengaluru]

>7

33.4

15.4

52.6

57.1

Cluster 3 [West Bengaluru]

> 30

37.5

51.6

12.0

49.6

Cluster 4 [South Bengaluru]

>7

34

51.9

38.8

10.3

19.4

25.5

24.4

Distance Matrix (in km)

Clusters of Stone Crushing Units

City Centre

Clusters of Paving Block Manufacturers Cluster 1 Cluster 2 Cluster 3 [North [West [South Bengaluru] Bengaluru] Bengaluru] >8 >5 >5

City Centre (km)

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Figure 3: SCU and PBM clusters in Bengaluru vis-à-vis C&D waste dumping sites

From the analysis, some clear trends are noticeable. For example, PBM cluster 1 is close to SCU clusters 1 and 2 and both are close to one active C&D waste dumping site in north Bengaluru. Therefore, such analyses could be used to plan a decentralised C&D waste collection and utilisation system that maximises the chance of financial viability by reducing transportation distances along the value chain. 4.5 Results of financial viability analysis Since no functioning C&D waste processing plant exists in Bengaluru, proxy figures from SCUs, PBMs, and equipment suppliers, as well as the C&D waste processing plant in Ahmedabad were used to estimate investment costs for setting up C&D waste processing units. Figure 4 shows these costs for SCUs and Integrated PBMs producing aggregates and paver blocks respectively.

Figure 4: Investment costs vs. size for C&D waste processing units 1098

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From Figure 4, although it appears that economies of scale are more attractive for larger plants, in practice, larger plants may not be able to perform efficiently with high capacity utilisation due to the dispersed nature of C&D waste generation, collection and disposal. A key advantage of C&D waste based products is that they turn out to be cheaper than products made from natural raw materials (NRM). The cheaper cost is an important factor for C&D waste based products to gain market penetration. Financial viability modelling was first conducted for hypothetical new ―greenfield‖ units – for both SCUs and Integrated PBMs. For each kind of unit, different sizes (from 100 – 1,000 TPD), different product configurations, and different capacity utilisation (CU) levels were examined. Outcomes with Internal Rates of Return (IRR) above 10% were considered financially attractive. 100 TPD SCUs become viable only if they operate at 90% CU throughout, whereas 250 TPD SCUs offer moderate returns from 80% CU onwards. Larger units offer moderate-to-good returns at 70% or higher CU, which can be considered a threshold for the SCUs. At 60% or lower CU, it becomes difficult to justify the investment. Therefore, market assurance and organisation will play a critical role for a profitable C&D waste reprocessing business. For IPBMs, the story is very similar to that of the SCUs, except the returns are much better at higher capacities and utilisation factors. Conversely, the returns at smaller capacities (e.g. 100 TPD) are worse than those of the SCUs. Financial viability modelling was then conducted for existing SCU units, assuming that they add C&D waste processing to their operations. For plants with idle crushing capacity, an analysis of the marginal cost and benefits of adding a unit of C&D waste processing capacity was conducted. C&D waste can be used to blend with virgin material to improve the CU of existing units and offer cheaper recycled products. The additional investment cost for C&D waste handling and processing (pre-crushing) was estimated to be INR 6,400/TPD based on stakeholder surveys. The C&D waste handling costs (operational expenses) are variable according to the planned CU. The average annual revenues are adjusted to account for the value addition from the marginal C&D waste processing capacity. Five cases of capacity utilisation are examined- 30%, 40%, 50%, 60, and 70%; Figure 5 shows the payback period in each case.

Figure 5: Payback period for existing SCUs with C&D waste processing added

C&D waste-based investments in existing SCUs have attractive payback periods at 50% or higher CU. This is because the additional investment is small relative to net surplus generated annually, and operating expenses can be managed more effectively in existing SCUs. Decision on such expansion must therefore carefully consider the health of existing operations and the anticipated market growth for building materials.

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4.6 Key recommendations 1) Better demarcation and road access of designated C&D waste disposal sites, along with publicising their location to the construction industry will help achieve better utilisation of these sites and reduce unauthorised dumping. Better regulation of demolition contractors through registration and tracking will also be necessary. 2) BBMP should plan to establish (with private sector partner) C&D waste processing units near geographically optimal points in close proximity to C&D waste dumping sites and building material manufacturing clusters, as demonstrated through the mapping analysis. 3) Although large capacity plants are more cost effective in theory, the initial C&D waste plant should not be more than 500 TPD capacity to ensure high capacity utilisation for financial viability. Collection and transportation related logistical challenges may take time to sort out in the beginning and there may be unexpected surprises. 4) BBMP should encourage existing SCUs with idle capacity to take up C&D waste processing and existing PBMs to utilise aggregates produced thereof. Targeted outreach to geographically proximate clusters can help generate interest of these entrepreneurs. The participation of such entrepreneurs will gradually help to create a market for C&D waste based products. 5) Other measures to build up market demand for C&D waste based products should also be initiated such as: facilitation of testing and certification of such products, adoption of preferential procurement policies, and targeted awareness campaigns for the construction industry. 5.0 Overall conclusion It is clear from the study that simply being interested in adopting a C&D waste management system is not enough for a city. Careful planning and involvement of multiple stakeholders is essential for a successful outcome. Even in cities where pilot programs have started, there remains scope for improvement. It is essential for MoEF&CC/CPCB, with relevant partners, to conduct capacity development workshops for ULBs to enable them to plan and initiate a C&D waste management system. At the same time, it is equally important for the ULBs to pay attention to the business case of C&D waste utilisation by the private sector. The business case is context specific and is likely to vary from city to city, but is crucial for the long term success of the venture. In parallel, market development through standards, certification and public procurement will help to establish C&D waste based products as a viable commercial enterprise. Acknowledgements The study was made possible due to the Indo-German Bilateral Resource Efficiency project. The authors would like to thank study partners Development Alternatives and CSTEP, as well as acknowledge help in data collection from BBMP, AMC, AEP and other stakeholders. References 1. CSE. (2012). Grains of Despair: Sand Mining in India. Centre for Science and Environment, New Delhi. Available at: http://www.cseindia.org/content/grains-despair-sand-mining-india

2. IGEP. (2013). India‘s Future Needs for Resources: Dimensions, Challenges and Possible Solutions. IndoGerman Environment Partnership. New Delhi: GIZ-India. (2016). Construction & Demolition Waste Management Rules. Available at: http://www.moef.gov.in/sites/default/files/C%20&D%20rules%202016.pdf 4. AEP. (2016). Amdavad Enviro Projects Pvt. Ltd. Construction and Demolition Waste Management Project. Available at: http://amdavadenviro.com/our-construction-and-demolition-waste-management-project/ 5. BBMP. (2016). Bruhat Bengaluru Mahanagara Palike, Construction and Debris Management. Available at: http://bbmp.gov.in/construction-debris-management

3. MoEF&CC.

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Waste Management & Resource Utilisation 2016

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Use of Minestone from Coal Mine Overburden as Aggregate in Concrete B.P. Bose1, K. Behera2, M.K. Mondal3,* 1

Ph.D. student, Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur, Kharagpur, India M.Tech, Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur, Kharagpur, India 3 Assistant Professor, Rajendra Mishra School of Engineering Entrepreneurship, IIT Kharagpur *Corresponding Author: Email- [email protected] 2

ABSTRACT This paper investigates the process of using minestones from coal mine spoil as fine and coarse aggregates to produce concrete by fully replacing conventional materials and reports the feasibility thereof. Mine spoil in general and the mine rocks in particular generates polluting leachate while occupying vast land area. A strand of research has been recommending utilization of part of the small granular components of the overburden in construction work, thereby reducing significant portion of the mine spoil. Even though some uses of larger rocks are reported in Civil Engineering works, literature on its suitability and standardization of parameters appears lacking. The objective of the present study is to explore the technical feasibility of using this waste in construction materials that can lead to large-scale consumption and thereby eliminating the problem of disposal and related environmental issues. To achieve this goal, mine spoil was collected from overburdens in Burdwan district of West Bengal, India; M20 and M30 grades concrete blocks of 150 mm3 were made, and various properties were measured following IS:516-1959. The compressive strength and water absorption of the M30 blocks after 7 days and 28 days of curing were found to be in the range of 26.70–30.03 MPa and 4.28–4.75% respectively, which compare well with the conventional concrete. The research findings reveal that a significant part of the mine spoil can be conveniently used in production of concrete of desirable mechanical properties. It ushers the possibility of replacing scarce conventional materials and translating a source of perennial environmental problem into useful construction materials. The paper will also pave the way for further research in this area helping to identify minestones as a sustainable source of construction material. Keywords: Coal mine spoil, Waste management, Sustainable construction materials, Minestone to concrete, Waste to wealth, Aggregate, Concrete; International Society of Waste Management, Air and Water

1.0 Introduction Global annual coal production has been recorded at 8.022 billion tonnes (bt) in 2014 (World Coal Association1) and is predicted to peak at roughly 9 bt by 2050 (Maggio and Cacciola 2012). Coal mining produces huge quantities of wastes consisting of fragments of rocks of different sizes, soil, sand, trace of heavy metals and other waste materials that remain stockpiled for many years (Sadhu et al. 2012). These waste materials cause serious environmental problem and perennially continue to occupy vast expanse of land (Bian et al. 2009). The absence of biodegradable materials and presence of heavy metals in the waste makes it unsuitable for plant growth. Heavy metals are present mostly in the form of salts. They get 1101

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dissolved in rainwater and under conducive atmospheric conditions form leachate contaminating the surface water and soil. Thus, the environment around the overburden becomes unsuitable for flourishing flora and fauna and poses serious challenge for human habitation around the place (Sainz 2002, Dang et al. 2002). Furthermore, the overburdens frequently slide down inflicting damage to properties and causing fatalities to animal and human. Minestones constitute predominant component of overburden and are partially responsible for lower spoil heap stability (Kainthola et al. 2011). The dumps are inferior to native soil in terms of low water holding capacity, low porosity, high bulk density, low pH, poor NPK content, and are devoid of exchangeable cations such as Na, Ca, and Mg (Juwarkar et al. 2016) that are critical for supporting vegetation (Sadhu et al. 2012). The spoils also lack organic carbon, microbial concentration, and turn toxic over time in stockpiles (Ghose 2004, Yellishetty 2009). The rain water washes overburden and transports the waste to far off places causing erosion of cultivable land area (Singh et al. 2007). Low electrical conductance is another characteristic of mine spoils indicating low organic matter content that makes it unsuitable for plant growth (Kuranchie et al. 2015). Sediment run off and entry of overburden into streams due to landslides and erosion would increase turbidity, TDS, TSS, acid mine drainage, degradation of soil quality, danger to aquatic habitat and decrease DO content of water thus making it unfit for consumption (Sangita et al. 2010, Kusuma et al. 2012). Heavy metals may contaminate ground water by percolation (Tiwary 2001). In an extensive review of applications of minestones, Skarżyńska (1995) lists applications such as construction of road and railroad banks, river embankments, dykes and dams, filling of land depressions and open pits, as well as for sea wharfs and land reclamation, mine backfilling and restoration of derelict land. However, newer applications are emerging in literature in recent years particularly in value-added civil engineering materials such as geopolymer bricks (Kuranchie et al. 2016), replacement of aggregate (Huang et al. 2013, Klauber et al. 2011), man-made eco-park (Haibil and Zhenling 2010), medium strength concrete (Kinuthia et al. 2009), aggregate in concrete paving blocks (Santos et al. 2013). Gime nez et al. (2016) observe that coalmine waste demonstrates good pozzolanic activity following thermal activation at temperature between 600 to 900°C. Vegas et al. (2016) develope process technology for manufacturing cement blended with thermally activated coal mining waste even though the long-term durability of such cement has not been established. Among others recommending use of mining spoil to make bricks or construction materials are Jamal and Sidharth (2008), Safiuddin et al. (2010), Santos et al. (2013). The process used in their research mostly involves incineration at high temperature and they do not use specific binder. In spite of empirical evidence supporting possibility of use of minestones as inputs in construction materials there is still no well-accepted process or product for using colliery spoil in civil engineering work (Kinuthia et al. 2009). As such, the present trend of direct application of the coalmine waste in hydraulic engineering works is fraught with the risk of heavy metal leachate in water table (Leuven et al. 1999) and the amount of waste in such application is limited. If these materials can be applied in concrete and bricks they lie embedded in the matrix of cement and sand. Such application would reduce environment pollution while turning waste into wealth (Haibin 2010). The results in small strand of research aiming to use minestone as fine and coarse aggregate show promise. However, further research is necessary so as revalidate the findings and cover larger geographical reach and gain confidence by the user community. There are reports that the characteristics and composition of minespoil vary with geology, climate and type of ore being mined in the area (Hitch et al. 2010). However, a detailed review of literature on properties of minestones in various countries reveals that ‗noticeable similarity does exist between the chemical, physical, and mechanical properties of minestone from different sources and countries (Skarżyṅ 1995, p. 3)‘. This findings assure high appropriability of specific research findings to geographies across the world. The fact that coal helps to provide reliable and economical electricity across the world directly links economic development to the coal consumption. Therefore, mining of coal will continue in the foreseeable future with increasing adverse ecological implications. Any productive use of the waste can reduce the cost of stockpiling, provide solution to plethora of related other problems, and can release vast 1102

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land area for agricultural activity (Costa et al. 2014). Since use of natural aggregates as a primary construction material is not sustainable in the long run due to depleting source of rock quarries and the resulting ecological implications, huge R&D endeavor is being made to find alternatives but with limited success, if any. We argue that mine spoil can potentially be converted into useful construction materials, exploration of which remains inadequate. The process recommended in this paper is an effort in this direction. The said process is carbon neutral, cost-competitive, and environmentally attractive. 2.0 Experimental Program 2.1 Materials Used We obtained samples of mine spoil from Bonjemehary colliery of Eastern Coal Fields Ltd., India (Fig. 1a and 2a) consisting of randomly picked up small amounts from different locations. We manually mixed them to obtain representative sample of coalmine spoil (CMS). Large stones were consciously avoided as that might sway the composition of the mix and the CMS would not be a representative sample. The CMS went through a process of washing, crushing, and sieving for preparing final sample of coarse and fine aggregate. Portland Pozzolana Cement (PPC), conforming to IS: 1489 (Part-1): 1991, manufactured by Lafarge India, a company of repute, was used as binder material for making concrete blocks.

Figure 1: Google screenshot of Bonjemehary Colliery

2.2. Aggregate The stone pieces larger than 20mm (Fig. 2b) were identified visually and were broken with hammer. The entire material was segregated into two parts: above and below 4.75 mm size sieve. The part containing stones of 4.75 mm size and larger (Fig. 2c) was used as coarse aggregate. The grain size distribution of that is presented in Figure 3a. The other part (Fig. 2c) was used as fine aggregate, grain size distribution of the same was also performed (Fig. 3b). The average density of the dry coarse and fine aggregates were found to be 1640 kg/m3 and 1605 kg/m3 respectively. Chemical compositions of the aggregates as obtained through SEM test are presented in Table 1 and 2. The major elemental constituents are similar in both minestone and stone chips, though their percentages are different.

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Figure 2: a. Image of overburden dump of the Bonjemary colliery of eastern coalfield limited, India; b. Minestones larger than 20mm; c. Coarse aggregate consisting of stones of size 4.75 mm and larger from coal mine over burden; d. Fine aggregate passed through 4.75mm sieve and retained in 1.00 mm sieve. Table 1: Chemical compositions of fine aggregate from overburden (OB) & conventional fine aggregate (river sand) Mine OB Fine Aggregate

Conventional Fine Aggregate (River Sand)

Symbol

Weight %

Atomic %

Compound

Weight %

Symbol

Weight %

Atomic %

Compound

Weight %

C

6.94

10.66

CO2

25.44

C

13.39

19.25

CO2

49.08

Al

1.53

1.05

Al2O3

2.89

Al

1.21

0.77

Al2O3

2.28

Si

32.77

21.53

SiO2

70.10

Si

20.77

12.76

SiO2

44.42

Fe

1.22

0.40

FeO

1.57

Fe

3.27

1.01

FeO

4.21

O

57.54

66.36

O

61.36

66.20

Table 2: Chemical compositions of coarse aggregate from overburden & conventional coarse aggregate (stone chips) Mine OB Coarse Aggregate

Conventional Coarse Aggregate (Stone Chips)

Element

Weight %

Atomic %

Compound

Weight %

Symbol

Weight %

Atomic %

Compound

Weight %

C

6.18

10.42

CO2

22.65

C

3.24

5.31

CO2

11.88

Na

0.61

0.54

Na2O

0.82

Na

1.19

1.02

Na2O

1.61

Mg

5.06

4.22

MgO

8.40

Mg

0.30

0.24

MgO

0.49

Al

4.42

3.32

Al2O3

8.36

Al

17.32

12.62

Al2O3

32.73

Si

17.50

12.61

SiO2

37.43

Si

22.26

15.58

SiO2

47.61

K

0.15

0.08

K2O

0.18

K

0.02

0.01

K 2O

0.03

Ca

3.11

1.57

CaO

4.35

Ca

3.01

1.48

CaO

4.21

Ti

0.17

0.07

TiO2

0.28

Ti

0.11

0.04

TiO2

0.18

Fe

13.63

4.94

FeO

17.53

Fe

0.98

0.35

FeO

1.26

O

49.17

62.23

O

51.57

63.36 1104

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Figure 3: Particle size distribution of (a) fine aggregate and

(b) coarse aggregate

2.3. Mix Design and Preparation of Specimen Density of both the fine and coarse aggregates were determined. Slump tests (Fig. 4a) were conducted for M 20 and M 30 grades of concrete (Nominal mix) with increasing water cement ratios (WCR) using standard cone with height of 300 mm, bottom and top diameters of 200 mm and 100 mm respectively conforming to IS code 10262: 2009. The optimum WCR was found to be 0.45 and 0.40 for M20 and M30 grades respectively. The concrete mix was filled in the cone in three layers; each layer was compacted applying 25 strokes by tamping rod of 16 mm diameter. The procedure was repeated for both the grades of concrete. Concrete specimens, 5 numbers of each of M 20 and M 30 grades, all cubes of 150 mm3, were prepared in standard moulds using optimum WCR (Fig. 4b). The mixes were prepared at the ambient temperature ranged from 250 to 300 C for both the grades. The blocks were removed from the moulds after 24 hours of curing. They were cured under water for 7, 14, 21, and 28 days (Fig. 5b) and compressive strengths were measured after of curing.

Figure 4a: Image of the slump test;

Figure 4b: Image of casted concrete blocks

2.4 Tests Compressive strengths were tested following the procedure mentioned in IS Code 516: 1959 using a 300 tonnes capacity machine with ultrasound thickness measurement facility (Fig. 5a). Water absorption tests were conducted as follows: 1105

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Three sample blocks were completely immersed in clean water at room temperature of around 30C for 24 hours. After removing the blocks from water all loose water sticking on the surface was remove and their weights measured (W1). The blocks were then placed into oven with proper ventilation and were kept there for 24 hours at 115C. Presuming that it was sufficiently dry, their weights were taken again (W2). Water absorption rate (WAR) was estimated by the formula WA 

(W 1  W 2) 100 W2

Densities of the blocks were measured using standard method. 3.0 Results and discussion The densities of the M20 and M30 grade concretes prepared in this research are observed to be 2421 Kg/m3 and 2439 Kg/m3 respectively and is close to the density of conventional concrete that is about 2400 Kg/m3 indicating that minestones have similar specific gravity as of conventional aggregates. Compressive strength of the blocks of M20 and M30 grades of concrete are presented in Table 3, Fig. 6a and Fig. 6b.

Figure 5a: Measuring the Compressive strength

Figure 5b: Sample blocks after curing

Table 3: Compressive strength (CS) of the concrete blocks vis-a-vis acceptance criteria of IS code (10262:2009) Grade of Concrete

Curing period (days)

CS of concrete (MPa) recommended in IS code (10262:2009)

CS of Test Sample (MPa)

M20

7

67% ( 13.40)

15.02

M20

14

90% (18.00 )

19.43

M20

21

Not available

24.15

M20

28

99% (19.80)

25.07

M 30

7

67% ( 21.10)

26.70

M 30

21

Not available

29.37

M 30

14

90% (27.00)

28.78

M 30

28

99% (29.70)

30.03

4.0 Cost analysis for M30 grade concrete made using minestone The following cost estimate for 1 m3 M30 concrete has been made based on the assumptions that: (i) the cost of minestones pertains to their transportation expense only for an average distance of 200 km (roughly ₹200 for producing 1 m3 concrete); (ii) cost of conventional aggregates and that of cement are based on the prevailing retail price in the local market; (iii) quantities of fine aggregate, coarse aggregate, and cement required for 1 m3 of concrete are 0.36 m3, 0.652 m3, and 48 kg respectively. 1106

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Figure 6a: CS of M20 concrete versus

Figure 6b: CS of M30 concrete versus

Table 4: Cost estimate for 1m3 of M30 grade concrete and comparison with that of concrete with conventional aggregates Concrete using minestone

Concrete using conventional aggregates

Cost drivers

Cost (in ₹*)

Cost (in ₹*)

Cost of fine aggregate of 0.36 m3

70

400

Cost of coarse aggregate of 0.652 m3

130

1100

Cement (9.5 bags of 50 kg each @ ₹ 350* per bag)

3325

3325

Processing and labor cost

350

300

Total cost

3,875

5,125

Difference of cost or 1 m3 concrete made out of minestone saves over that of stone chips:

₹ 1,250 or 24%

*1 ₹ is equal to 67 US $ (as on 07.08.2016)

5.0 Conclusions This study presents evidence that minestone can be conveniently and economically used in civil engineering application, particularly in making concrete, without compromise on desired mechanical properties. The compressive strengths (CS) of M20 and M30 grades of concrete that were produced under this study using minestones are comparable to that of concrete made with conventional aggregates and are much above the benchmark minimum CS prescribed by Indian Standard for concrete of different periods of curing. The other physical properties such as water absorption rates and bulk densities are similar to that of the conventional concrete. The large reservoir of minestone in overburden dumps across the country, therefore, can be a sustainable source of inputs for construction industry. Besides being suitable to replace conventional aggregates, the minestones are available without license fees or incurring any other cost except the transportation and processing costs. The minestone, therefore, offers cheaper alternative source to stone queries that is depleting and the use is increasingly being restricted. The larger rocks that were excluded in the present study can also be used after pulverization. Thus, the total consumption of mine spoil in the form of aggregate can be higher than 60% of the overburden. This may potentially reduce the waste materials that otherwise are likely to remain dumped for indefinite period of time. Reduction of waste materials through such consumption can directly benefit the environment by ameliorating their perilous impact on water, soil and flora and fauna. Furthermore, the mining industry may benefit by the prospect of reduced cost of maintaining the dump, reduced prospect of payment of damage for causing environmental degradation, and release of land that the dump occupies. By offering cheaper alternative source of inputs to construction industry the process may create economic value to citizens, open up entrepreneurial opportunities and help generate employment to people living in the vicinity of the dump. In a way, the research proposes a method to convert waste into wealth. 1107

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Future Scope It appears that the minestone from the particular overburden contains substantial iron. Cement being alkaline, there is possibility of formation of Fe(OH)3 in presence of water. Thus, water exposure may lead to swelling of the concrete. This requires further study. References Behera B., and M. K. Mishra (2012) Strength behaviour of surface coal mine overburden–fly ash mixes stabilised with quick lime, International Journal of Mining, Reclamation and Environment, vol. 26, no. 1, pp. 38–54. Bian Z. H., Wang, S. Mu, H. Leng, H. Leng, S. Mu, and H. Wang (2009) The Impact of Disposal And Treatment of Coal Mining Wastes on Environment and Farmland, International Conference ―Waste Management,‖ Environmental Geology, vol. 58, no. 3, pp. 625–634. Costa A. V., A. G. Gumieri, and P. R. G. Brandão (2014) Interlocking Concrete Blocks Produced with Sinter Feed Spoils, Ibracon Structures and Materials J., vol. 7, no. 2, pp. 228–259. Dang Z., C. Liu, and M. J. Haigh (2002) Mobility of heavy metals associated with the natural weathering of coal mine spoils, Environmental Pollution, vol. 118, pp. 419–426. Ghose M. K., (2004), Effect of Opencast Mining on Soil Fertility, Journal of Scientific and Industrial Research, Vol. 63, pp. 1006–1009. Giménez R. G., R. Vigil de la Villa, and M. Frías (2016) From Coal-Mining Waste to Construction Material: A Study of its Mineral Phases, Environ Earth Sci (2016) Vo. 75, N0. 6, pp. 478-486 Goswami S., and R. Goswami, (2015) Coal Mining vis-à-vis Agriculture in India: A Question of Sustainability,‖ EnvironmentAsia, vol. 8, no. 1, pp. 24–33. Haibin L. and L. Zhenling (2010) Recycling Utilization Patterns of Coal Mining Waste in China, Resources, Conservation and Recycling, Vol. 54, pp. 1331–1340. Hitch M., S. M. Ballantyne, and S. R. Hindle (2010), Revaluing Mine Waste Rock for Carbon Capture and Storage, International Journal of Mining, Reclamation and Environment, Vol. 24, No. 1, pp. 64–79. Jamal A. and S. Sidharth (2008) Value Added Constructional Brick from Overburden Opencast Coal Mines, Journal of scientific and Industrial research, Vol. 67, pp. 445–450. Juwarkar A. A., Singh L, Kumar G. P., Jambhulkar H. P., Kanfade H. and Jha A. K. (2016) Biodiversity Promotion in Restored Mine Land through Plant-Animal Interaction, Journal of Ecosystem & Ecography, Vol. 6, No. 1, pp. 110. Kainthola A. D, D. Verma, S. S Gupte and T. N. Singh (2011) A Coal Mine Dump Stability Analysis – A Case Study, Geomaterials, Vol. 01, pp.1-13. Kinuthia J., D. Snelson, and A. Gailius (2009) Sustainable Medium-Strength Concrete (Cs-Concrete) From Colliery Spoil in South Wales UK, Journal of Civil Engineering And Management, vol. 15, no. 2, pp. 149–157. Kuranchie F. A., S. K. Shukla, and D. Habibi (2016) Utilisation of Iron Ore Mine Tailings for the Production of Geopolymer Bricks, International Journal of Mining, Reclamation and Environment, Vol. 30, No. 2, pp. 92-114. Kuranchie, F.A., Shukla, S.K., D. Habibi, and A.K. Mohyeddin, (2015). Utilisation of iron ore tailings as aggregates in concrete. Cogent Engineering, Vol. 2, No. 1, pp. 1-11 Kusuma G. J., H. Shimada, T. Sasaoka, K. Matsui, C. Nugraha, R. S. Gautama and B. Sulistianto (2012), Physical and Geochemical Characteristics of Coal Mine Overburden Dump Related to Acid Mine Drainage Generation, Memoirs of the Faculty of Engineering, Kyushu University, Vol. 72, No. 2, pp. 23–38. Leuven R. S. E. W., P. H. Nienhuis, J. M. A. Kesseleer and W. A. Zwart (1999) Annual Emissions of Pullutants from Minestone Applications in Drainage Basins of Dutch Rivers, Hydrobiologia, Vol. 410, pp. 315–323. Maggio G. and G. Cacciola (2012) When will Oil, Natural Gas, and Coal Peak? Fuel, 98 (2012), pp. 111–123. Sadhu K., K. Adhikari, and A. Gangopadhyay (2012) Effect of Mine Spoil on Native Soil of Lower Gondwana coal fields: Raniganj Coal Mines Areas, India, International Journal of Environmental Sciences, vol. 2, no. 3, pp. 1675–1687. Safiuddin Md., M. J. Jumaat, M. A. Salam, M. S. Islam and R. Hashim (2010) Utilization of Solid Wastein Construction Materilas, International Journal of Physical Sceinces., Vol. 5, No. 13, pp. 1952–1963. Sainz A., J. A. Grande, M. L. de la Terro, and D. S. Rodas(2002) Characterisation of Sequential Leachate Discharges of Mining Waste Rock Dumps in the Tinto and Odielrivers, Journal of Environmental Management, Vol. 64, pp. 345–353. Sangita, G. Udaybhanu and B. Prasad (2010), Studies on Environmental Impact of Acid Mine Drainage Generation and its treatment: An Appraisal, International Journal of Environment and Pollution, Vol. 30, No. 11, pp. 953– 967 Santos C. R., J. R. A. Filho, R. M. C. Tubino, and I. A. H. Schneider (2013) Use of Coal Waste as Fine Aggregates in Concrete Paving Blocks, Geomaterials, Vol. 3, pp. 54–59. Singh M. P., J. K. Singh and R. Mohonka (2007), Forest environment and biodiversity, Diya Publishing. 1108

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Skarżyńska K. M. (1995b) Reuse of Coal Mining Wastes in civil Engineering — Part 1: Properties of minestone, Waste Management, Vol. 15, No. 1, 1995, pp. 3-42, Tiwary R. K. (2001), Environmental Impact of Coal Mining on Water Regime and Its Management, Water, Air, and Soil Pollution, Vol. 132, No. 1, pp. 185–199, Yellishetty M., P. G. Ranjith, and D. L. Kumar (2009) Metal Concentrations and Metal Mobility in Unsaturated Mine Wastes in Mining Areas of Goa, India, Resources, Conservation and Recycling, Vol. 53, pp. 379–385.

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WEEE Management

1110

Waste Management & Resource Utilisation 2016

Waste Management & Resource Utilisation www.iswmaw.com

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A Pilot Study of E-Waste Management in Ahmedabad City E.V. Dalal1, G.M. Doctor2,* 1

Student, Faculty of Management, CEPT University, Ahmedabad, India Associate Professor, Faculty of Management, CEPT University, Ahmedabad, India *Corresponding Author: Email- [email protected] 2

ABSTRACT In today‘s urbanized world, the use of technology is growing rapidly, especially computers, electronic gadgets and devices. The more the usage of these technologies leads to more production, consumption and generation of Waste Electrical or Electronic equipment (WEEE) or E-Waste. E-Waste is a hazardous waste, thus there is a challenge to manage it and its proper disposal. The authorized E-waste recycling facilities in India capture only 3% of total E-waste generated; the rest makes its way to informal recycling yards in major cities like Delhi, Mumbai and Bangalore (Borthakur & Singh, 2012). Among the top ten cities generating E-waste, Mumbai ranks first followed by Delhi, Bangalore, Chennai, Kolkata, Ahmedabad, Hyderabad, Pune, Surat and Nagpur (Gupta, Sangita, & Kaur, 2011). The paper describes the pilot study of the existing scenario of e-waste management; the level of awareness in the people for the disposal of e-waste by surveying the formal and informal sector, consumers/end-users in the city of Ahmedabad. Keywords: E-waste, e-waste management, e-waste awareness, Ahmedabad; International Society of Waste Management, Air and Water

1.0 Introduction E-waste or Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE) illustrate discarded appliances that utilize electricity for their functioning (Borthakur & Singh, 2012). "Electronic waste" may be defined as discarded computers, office electronic equipment, entertainment device electronics, mobile phones, television sets and refrigerators. This definition includes used electronics which are destined for reuse, resale, salvage, recycling, or disposal. E-waste is a term used to cover almost all types of electrical and electronic equipment (EEE) that has or could enter the waste stream. Although e-waste is a general term, it can be considered to cover TVs, computers, mobile phones, white goods (e.g. fridges, washing machines, dryers etc.), home entertainment and stereo systems, toys, toasters, kettles almost any household or business item which works on electric or on electromagnetic principle (ECS Environment Website, 2016). In today‘s urbanized world, use of technology is growing rapidly, especially computers, electronic gadgets and devices. The more the usage of these technologies leads to more production, consumption and generation of Electronic Waste (e-waste). This Electronic Waste (E-Waste) is increasing in India as well 1111

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as in other countries. The waste electronic and electrical equipment (WEEE) is most hazardous waste among all kinds of waste, thus the challenge is to manage this E-Waste and its proper disposal. The authorized E-waste recycling facilities in India capture only 3% of total E-waste generated; the rest makes its way to informal recycling yards in major cities like Delhi, Mumbai and Bangalore (Borthakur & Singh, 2012). The people in informal sector handle this E-Waste with open handed dismantling activities with no mask and gloves and working in the unhygienic condition and even burning the unwanted things in the open environment, which is hazardous to their health as well as for the environment. Though there are laws for handling the E-Waste, but adherence to these laws by the informal sector is yet to happen. Among the top ten cities generating E-Waste, Mumbai ranks first followed by Delhi, Bangalore, Chennai, Kolkata, Ahmedabad, Hyderabad, Pune, Surat and Nagpur (Gupta, Sangita, & Kaur, 2011). A pilot study of existing scenario of E-Waste in Ahmedabad City, the level of awareness in the people (end consumers/users) for the disposal of e-waste by surveying the formal and informal sector, consumers/end-users in the city of Ahmedabad is explored in the paper. 2.0 Methodology Figure 1 shows the methodology to study the E-waste Management of Ahmedabad city. Literature review, Site visits and a pilot survey were necessary to understand the overall process of e-waste management. Data Analysis of the Pilot Survey was done based on the questionnaire survey and in-depth interviews of the formal and informal sector, consumers/end-users in the city of Ahmedabad.

Figure 1: Methodology for Study

2.1 Literature Review Dealing with e-waste management is a long term process involving cooperation between different stakeholders and technological advancements for better handing of e-waste and e waste minimization by better designing of future electronic products (Sawhney, Henzler, Melnitzky, & Lung, 2008). In India, due to lack of knowledge towards disposal of E-Waste, it was been observed that a lot of electronic waste was just lying in the houses, offices, warehouses, etc. In many instances, it is mixed with municipal solid waste and discarded. Observing this, there is necessity of appropriate management measures. The informal sector plays an important part; as they have limited knowledge; the disposal of EWaste is not done in a correct way, giving rise to yet another issue of harmful environment and health hazards (Borthakur & Singh, 2012) . E-Waste (Management & Handling) Rules, 2011 (Ministry of Environment and Forests, 2011) are applicable to every producer, consumer or bulk consumer (formal and informal sector), and recycler units. These rules should be followed by all the sources that are majorly responsible for producing electronic 1112

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waste. The E-Waste (Management) Rules, 2016 are effective from 1st October 2016 (Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change, 2016). The Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) is the overall coordinating body for enforcement of rules and is entrusted with the responsibilities, some of which are preparing guidelines for environmentally sound management of e-waste; conducting assessment of e-waste generation and processing; recommending standards and specifications for processing and recycling e-waste; conducting training and awareness programs (Central Pollution Control Board, 2016). A study of the scenario of E-waste in Mumbai-Pune area talks about the hazardous elements presented in Electronic and Electric Equipment. It also highlights that when these elements are disposed and treated using incorrect practices it is harmful for human health and the environment (Maharastra Pollution Control Board, 2007). 3.0 Overall Process of E-Waste Collection in Ahmedabad Ahmedabad in western India is the largest city in the state of Gujarat. Ahmedabad is selected among the first 20 Smart Cities in India under the Smart Cities Mission, Ministry of Urban development (MOUD), Government of India (GOI). As per provisional reports of Census India, population of Ahmedabad in 2011 was 5,577,940 (Government of India, Minsitry of Home Affairs, 2011) and is expected to grow to 7 million in 2016. Ahmedabad is at sixth position in top ten cities of India, generating E-Waste (Gupta, Sangita, & Kaur, 2011). Table 1: Top 10 cities generating E-Waste Sr. No.

City

WEEE, Tons per Year

1

Mumbai

11017.1

2

Delhi

9790.3

3

Bangalore

4648.4

4

Chennai

4132.2

5

Kolkata

4025.4

6

Ahmedabad

3287.5

7

Hyderabad

2833.5

8

Pune

2584.2

9

Surat

1836.5

10

Nagpur

1768.9

Source (Gupta, Sangita, & Kaur, 2011).

The major sources from where the e-waste is being generated are the bulk buyers or suppliers and the users of electrical and electronic products. The producers are at the initial level of generating the ewaste. End users are responsible for not being aware of what the e-waste is and how it should be discarded. Scrap dealers in the city play an important role in collection and treating the collected e-waste. There are other sources such as Cyber Cafes, I.T training centers, I.T. Companies, Computer Labs of School and Colleges, Banks or any offices where there is bulk usage of computers. The more usage of electronic equipment, the more would be the wastage of that electronic equipment. While studying the current scenario of Ahmedabad City, there were some areas where huge amount of E-Waste was found. Scrap dealers of E-Waste were observed at New Electronic Market on Relief Road, Sarkhej and Rakhial etc. as shown in Figure 2. There are certain places like Ravivari Bazaar (River front market), where on every Sunday, scrap dealers sell their collected goods of electronic waste by either repairing the collected unused electronic waste, or either doing some upgradation in the item as per the requirement. It was observed that these scrap dealers adopted improper practices like burning the wires, cables, in the open environment which is really harmful for them as well as for the environment. 1113

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Figure 2: E-Waste Collection Areas in Ahmedabad city

Site Visits and a survey of the Citizens/Consumers were done to gain a basic understanding of the e-waste scenario in Ahmedabad city. The survey conducted consisted of a questionnaire survey and interviews. The survey was a pilot survey with a small sample size. Interacting with many end users, scrap dealers, suppliers, traders, an overall process of managing the e-waste was observed as seen in Figure 3.

Figure 3: Overall process of managing E-Waste

4.0 Data Analysis The pilot questionnaire survey was conducted of Citizens / Consumers (20 responses) to gain a gain a basic understanding of the e-waste scenario in Ahmedabad city.

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Focus Group/In depth Interviews with the Informal Sectors (Scrap Dealers of e-waste) and a Company dealing with e-waste were also done. 4.1 Data Analysis – Consumers Different people i.e. students, employees, employers etc. were approached to get a holistic view in the study. Different age groups were also covered as shown in Figure 5.

Figure 5: Demographics of the citizens / consumer’s responses

Figure 6 shows the usage of electronic equipment, showing cellphones, refrigerators, chargers, televisions as the most used equipment. Figure 7 shows the consumers‘ preference for disposal of the ewaste when their life is ended, or when the electronic equipment is damaged. Majority was seen to first prefer repairing, or selling them second hand. If not repairable then, keep at home or give them to scrap dealers.

Figure 6: Usage of electronic items 1115

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Figure 7: Users choice for discarding the electronic waste

Some end users use the policy of buy back system. This policy can be used when the buyer goes for buying new items and they give their old items to the dealers. Figure 8 shows the percentage of the consumers using buy back policy. Figure 9 shows the awareness of what is e-waste in the consumers. Figure 10 shows the awareness regarding the disposal of e-waste.

Figure 8: Users using buyback policy

Figure 9: Awareness of what is e-waste

Figure 10: Awareness for disposal of electronic waste 1116

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4.2 Interview with Scrap Dealers Different scrap dealers had been interviewed at different locations of Ahmedabad city. These scrap dealers play important role in treating the electronic waste. The following are some of the important point to be looked at about their activities.    

They regularly collect E-Waste (door to door) and also have regular customers who always give EWaste to them. They themselves do all the dismantling work and further sales of all the materials. Students sometimes approach them to buy some parts for fulfilling their projects. Every Sunday in Ravivari, many of them sell the repaired items in 2nd hand with minor instalments of new parts.

Figure 11 shows the process for collection and disposal of e-waste by scrap dealers.

Figure 11: Process for collection and disposal of e-waste by scrap dealers

Figure 12: Image taken on site while interacting with scrap dealers of e-Waste

4.2 Interview with ECS Environment Pvt Ltd. ECS Environment Pvt. Ltd. is an ISO 9001, ISO 14001, and ISO 18001 certified company that facilitates the integration of quality, environmental and occupational health and safety management systems by organization. ECS is an authorized recycler and has its own recycling plant, which is situated around 55 kms away from the city of Ahmedabad. They specially segregate all printed circuit boards, whose disposal is very critical. 1117

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This company have tie ups with large organisations like State Bank of India (SBI), Unit Trust of India (UTI) for collection of E-Waste. Two years ago, they started the collection of E-Waste in Vadodara Municipal Corporation. The type of problems they are facing there is lack of awareness of e-waste and its disposal, that they can‘t give the same amount of money which scrap dealers gives to the people; they have difficulty in collection of small quantity of E-Waste. In 2016, Ahmedabad Municipal Corporation has initiated collection of E-waste with ECS. 5.0 Conclusion The formal sector, large organizations like SBI, UTI are aware of the right channel for disposal of e-waste. They have resources to manage electronic waste, but still face difficulty in having sufficient quantity of e-waste for collection. The pilot survey revealed that there is a lack of awareness of e-waste and its method of disposal. The end consumers / users are confused about what should be the right channel through which the electronic waste should be discarded. Awareness about authorized collectors is limited and so majority of them end up giving to the scrap dealers. Also a tendency to store old electronic goods at their store room in the house, offices store, is observed. Discarding of small electronic items with the municipal solid waste is also observed. Awareness that proper disposal & recycling of e-waste helps in environment sustainability. A large number of small children and women are also involved in the activities of the informal sector, unaware of the health hazards. The burning the cable wires for the retrieval of copper, unwanted things open in the environment by scrap dealers is hazardous for the environment also. As one of the initiatives, in moving towards sustainability Ahmedabad Municipal Corporation, has tied up with ECS Environment Pvt Ltd in 2016 with an objective of facilitating the collection of e-waste from citizens. Bibliography Borthakur, A., & Singh, P. (2012). Electronic Waste in India : Problems and policies. International Journal of Environmental Sciences, 3(1), 353-362. Central Pollution Control Board. (2016). e-Waste . ECS Environment Website. (2016, June). Retrieved from ECS Environment Website: http://ecsenvironment.com/eWaste.html Government of India, Minsitry of Home Affairs. (2011). Census of India Website. Retrieved from http://www.censusindia.gov.in/: http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011-common/aboutus.html Gupta, R., Sangita, & Kaur, V. (2011, December). Electronic Waste: A Case Study. Research Journal of Chemical Sciences, vol.1 (9), 49-56. doi:ISSN 2231-606X Maharastra Pollution Control Board. (2007). Report on Assessment of Electronic Waste in Mumbai-Pune Area. Ministry of Environment and Forests. (2011). E-Waste ( Management and Handling) Rules. Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change. (2016). E-Waste ( Management) Rules. Sawhney, P., Henzler, M., Melnitzky, S., & Lung, A. (2008). Best Practices for e-waste management in developed countries.

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Estimation of E-Waste Generation – A Lifecycle based Approach Reshma Roychoudhuri1, Biswajit Debnath2, Debasree De3, Pavel Albores4, Chandrima Banerjee5, Sadhan Kumar Ghosh6,* 1

Assistant Professor, Department of Computer Science, Heritage Institute of Technology, India PhD Scholar, Department of Chemical Engineering, Jadavpur University, Kolkata, India 3 PhD Scholar, Department of Operations and Information Management Group, Aston University, Birmingham, UK 4 Senior Lecturer, Department of Operations and Information Management Group, Aston Business School, Birmingham, UK 5 P.G. Scholar, Department of Computer Science, Heritage Institute of Technology, India 6 Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Jadavpur University, Kolkata, India *Corresponding Author: Email- [email protected] 2

ABSTRACT The problem of e-waste disposal is a very well-known fact and its generation is increasing exponentially every year. In 2015, 54 million tons of e-waste was generated whereas it has been predicted, that around 50 million tons of E waste will be generated world wide by 2018, by the UN report. Another source predicts that e-waste generation will be 72 million tonsby 2017. This anomaly exists due to the different methodologies adopted in prediction of e-waste. The most common method used so far to calculate the amount of e-waste generated is as follows. The amount of EEE sold by manufacturers is collected first. The average life span of an EEE is known. Thus applying the average life span of the EEE on the amount sold per year the amount of e-waste is calculated. However, this method is not free from flaws since a sizable portion of the EEE, once the average life span is over, does not directly become e-waste. They land in the second hand market and are resold, and are again used for more number of years. Hence, the process of becoming e-waste for these recycled products is delayed. Once an EEE leaves the Original Equipment Manufacturer (OEM) the lifecycle of an EEE begins. After a certain time of use, the user may discard it for several reasons which then become Used EEE (UEEE). One can exchange this UEEE for a newer and upgraded models (or cash) via authorized or unauthorized resellers, in which case also the UEEE lands up in the second hand market. The original user can also discard the product completely so that it lands up as e-waste. From the e-waste precious metals are recovered through recycling process and the discarded parts mostly end up as landfill. In this paper, a model has been proposed based on the lifecycle of EEE. Based on this model, an attempt has been made to predict the amount of e-waste generation in India. Standard data available from the data bank of EU has been used for this purpose. The work has been carried out using Vensim software. The results have been compared with the real life data. Keywords: E-waste generation, E-waste Estimation, EEE Lifecycle, Vensim; International Society of Waste Management, Air and Water

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1.0 Introduction E-waste is the waste electrical and electronic equipment, whole or in part or rejects from their manufacturing and repair process, which are intended to be discarded. The developing countries are suffering with the rapidly growing problems of e-waste need to have an efficient solution to the sound e-waste management system (Krishna and Saha, 2015). E-waste contaminates the environment and threatens human health. The tools used to manage the e-waste are Life Cycle Assessment (LCA), Material Flow Analysis (MFA), Multi Criteria Analysis (MCA) and Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) in developed countries. In 2015, 54 million tons of e-waste was generated whereas it has been predicted, that around 50 million tons of E waste will be generated world wide by 2018, by the UN report. Another source predicts that e-waste generation will be 72 million tons by 2017. This anomaly exists due to the different methodologies adopted in prediction of e-waste. The amount of EEE sold by manufacturers is collected first. The average life span of an EEE is known. Thus applying the average life span of the EEE on the amount sold per year the amount of e-waste is calculated. However, this method is not free from flaws since a sizable portion of the EEE, once the average life span is over, does not directly become e-waste. They land in the second hand market and are resold, and are again used for more number of years. Hence, the process of becoming e-waste for these recycled products is delayed. Once an EEE leaves the Original Equipment Manufacturer (OEM) the lifecycle of an EEE begins. After a certain time of use, the user may discard it for several reasons which then become Used EEE (UEEE). One can exchange this UEEE for a newer and upgraded models (or cash) via authorized or unauthorized resellers, in which case also the UEEE lands up in the second hand market. The original user can also discard the product completely so that it lands up as e-waste. From the e-waste precious metals are recovered through recycling process and the discarded parts mostly end up as landfill. In this paper, a model has been proposed based on the lifecycle of EEE. There is a need to handle this huge waste generated and hence forecast the actual amount of waste which will be generated. The amount of waste generated has been forecasted in the past by the ITU data released in June 2012 and UNEP (Balde et al. 2015). Rajya Sabha Secretariat (2015) estimates the amount of amount of E-waste generated in India. The amount of E-waste generated depends on the life span of the different mobile phones (Yu et al. 2010). MFA which based on the principal of material conservation (Graedel and Allenby, 2010) has been applied to estimate generation of obsolete computers and mobile phones. They give an idea of production, export and import of phones whereas the information derived from Euguster et al (2007). There is a significant impact of collection rate on amount of mobile phones in E-waste due to the presence of user in second-hand market. The lifespan of EEE, assessment of e-waste volumes and their corresponding impact and management status globally is measured from harmonized modeling steps and data sources by using Internationally-Adopted measuring framework. There is always a clear view of second hand market and regional details of e-waste quantities and management (Yu et al. 2010). The huge amount of e-waste generated needs to be handled and catered properly. This requires the need for forecasting of the amount of e-waste which will be generated. The prediction of the exact amount of waste generated will help the second market to utilize their capacity efficiently and effectively. There have been efforts to put forward an estimation technique to calculate the growth of e-waste (Bhutta et al. 2011). The e-waste estimation technique in 3 steps those are: - the first one is to Estimating the Quantity of End-Of-Life Product Generated that is recycled versus disposed. 2nd is to Estimating the portion of End-Of-Life Electronics Recycled and the 3rd one is to Estimating the portion of End-Of-Life Electronics disposal (Bhutta et al. 2011). The paper aims to predict the amount of e-waste generated based upon the system dynamics software in Vensim PLE software. 2.0 Objective The main objective of the paper is to develop a new method for estimation of e-waste generation which takes the said gaps into account for a realistic result. 3.0 Methodology The methodology adopted in this paper spans published literature including journals, books, conference proceedings and information obtained from electronic media. Science Direct, Google Scholar, Emerald Insight, Wiley, Springer databases were explored for literature search. Different keywords such as 1120

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‗E-waste estimation‘, ‗EEE life cycle simulation‘ and ‗EEE sales data‘ were used for this purpose. The publications were found in the areas of EEE life cycle simulation and e-waste estimation. Vensim PLE has been used to sketch and simulate the model. Papers and other materials illustrating the usage of Vensim were also referred for this purpose. The references cited in each relevant literature were examined to find out additional sources of information. In this research, more than 50 publications have been reviewed. All the literature has been studied and referred properly. 4.0 Existing e-waste estimation framework Widmar et al. (2005) summarizes aptly the different methods to estimate possible global quantities of WEEE. The first and most common used model is the ―consumption and use method‖, which takes the average lifespan of an EEE as the basis for a prediction of the potential amount of WEEE. The second method is the ―market supply method‖, which uses data about production and sales figures in a given geographical region. The Global E-waste monitor published in 2014 has used a method which is a combination of the above two methods to predict that the amount of e-waste is expected to grow to 49.8 Mt in 2018, with an annual growth rate of 4 to 5 per cent. A third method is used by the Swiss Environmental Agency‘s which estimates based on the assumption that private households are already saturated and for each new appliance bought, an old one reaches its end-of-life. The missing link in the above methods is the acknowledgement of the existence of the second hand market. After the lapse of the life span while some UEEE becomes WEEE, a significant portion of UEEE is introduced into the second hand market. Hence, the process of becoming e-waste of that particular UEEE is delayed. A model similar to this was mentioned in the proposed by Matthews et al. (1997). The paper devised a model, only for the US market, which acknowledges the fact that some UEEE do not become WEEE immediately but enter the second hand market. Our model is on the same line but a more generic one. Our objective is, if the sales data is provided to the model then it should be able to estimate ewaste taking into consideration both life span and the second hand market. 5.0 Proposed Model The model proposed in this study is based on the lifecycle of EEE. Debnath et al. (2016) discussed about a framework of lifecycle of EEE. Based on that framework of lifecycle of EEE, the following model has been proposed in this study. The proposed model (Fig. 1) depicts the possible flow of EEE from OEM‘s warehouse to landfill. The following are the assumptions taken for this model –

Figure 1: E-waste Generation Estimation model based on the Lifecycle of EEE

a) There is no defective product manufactured by the OEM‘s. b) The Users doesn‘t buy same electronic equipment over the period of whole lifespan. 1121

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c) No new equipments enter the inflow of the chain over the lifespan. d) Only the non-recyclable fraction lands up in the landfill. e) The End of life equipment from second hand users is not being repaired or refurbished. In this proposed model, OEM‘s are the manufacturers of the electronic and electrical equipments (EEE) which are being used by the users. Within the lifecycle period some users may discard the EEE and that goes to the second hand user with or without repairing via the second hand market. After being used by the second hand user, it becomes waste electronic and electrical equipments (WEEE) or e-waste. The non-recyclable fraction ends up in e-waste and the rest is recycled. 6.0 Results and Discussion The simulation has been carried out using the Vensim PLE software. Under the present study, two cases has been explored – a) case of personal computers and b) case of mobile phones. The study has been carried out on the Indian Perspective. 6.1 Case 1: Personal Computers (PC) The personal computers are one of the major sources of e-waste. In general, standard lifespan of a PC is considered as five years (Matthews et al. 1997). Simulations were carried out over the whole lifespan of five years and the % of e-waste generated per year was estimated by the model (Figure 2).

Figure 2: E-waste generated per year by personal computers (in %)

It was found that at the end of the lifespan nearly 67% of the total PCs acquired by the users were e-waste. The amount of land fill was found to be nearly 27% of the manufactured EEE. This indicated nearly 73% material in e-waste is recyclable and materials can be recovered. 6.2 Case 2: Mobile Phones. Rate of obsolescence of mobile phones are higher than any other EEE. Standard lifespan of mobile phones are considered as two years. However, in case of developing countries it may be extended to three years. Studies were carried out over the lifespan of three years and the % of e-waste generated per year was estimated by the model (Figure 3).

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Figure 3: E-waste generated per year by mobile phones (in %)

The result found in this case is really interesting. The model predicts that the maximum percentage of e-waste is generated in the second year of the lifecycle which is nearly 46% and it decreases during the last year of lifespan, which is in compliance with the practical scenario i.e. the average lifespan of mobiles are considered to be two years. Nearly 9% of the manufactured EEE goes to landfill during the second year. According to the StEP (Solution to E-waste Problem) world map, 52% of the total EEE put into the market turned into e-waste over the span of two years. Our model predicted individually for PC and mobile phone which are well in the vicinity of the data provided by StEP. The discrepancies are possibly due to the stochastic nature of the problem and the dynamics of the e-waste market. A physical interpretation is that component wise the values may fluctuate. 7.0 Conclusion and Future Recommendation Under the present study, a model has been proposed which predicts the amount of e-waste generated over the lifespan of an EEE. The model has certain limitations; the predicted data is well within the range of the other predicted secondary data. There are certain challenges faced in during the course of the study. The primary problem faced is the absence of data indicating the amount of UEEE that enters the second hand market. An informal industry has fostered in developing countries like India that is specialized in refurbishment and upgrade of UEEE (Porte et al. 2005). Even some electricians take away the CFL lamps discarded from domestic sector with which they are in good terms and work under pay per view scheme and refurbish them for their personal use. Once these UEEE are refurbished and upgraded they enter the Second Hand market. This informal industry constitutes about 90% of the total market in India and does not have any formal record keeping. While records are available for the US and the EU, formal records are not present for most of the remaining parts of the world. There is also hardly any documented evidence available of the amount of e-waste generated for any region. Reason being, a considerable amount of this waste is handled by informal sector to extract precious metals using methods which are not green compliant. A significant portion of the e-waste is also exported illegally to developing nations which use them in a variety of ways, the primary usage being that of landfill. In such a scenario verification of model becomes a challenge in the absence of data. 8.0 Future Scope The paper presents a new approach towards estimation of e-waste generation. There are several factors which are associated with these. A practical model with more complexity is not desired. Despite the

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stochastic nature of the problem, it may be useful carry out such an analysis for better understanding of the response of the problem and the output predicted may be close to reality. Acknowledgement The authors would like to thank International Society of Waste Management, Air and Water (ISWMAW) and Centre for Quality Management Systems (CQMS), Jadavpur University for their support. References Baldé, C.P., Wang, F., Kuehr, R., Huisman, J., 2015. The Global E-waste Monitor – 2014. United Nations University, IAS – SCYCLE, Bonn, Germany Bhutta, M.K.S., Omar, A. and Yang, X., 2011. Electronic waste: a growing concern in today's environment. Economics Research International, 2011. Debnath B., Roychowdhuri R., Ghosh S.K., 2016. E-waste Management – A potential route to Green Computing. Procedia Environmental Sciences; 35, pp. 669 – 675. Eugster, M., Hischier, R., Duan, H., 2007. Key environmental impacts of the Chinese EEE-industry—a life cycle assessment study, EMPA, Materials Science and Technology. http://ewasteguide.info/system/files/Eugster_2007_Empa.pdfS (accessed October 2009) Graedel, T.E. and Allenby, B.R., 2010. Industrial ecology and sustainable engineering. Prentice Hall. Krishna., R., and Saha., S. 2015. Study Report on E-waste management. Available from: http://tec.gov.in/pdf/Studypaper/e%20waste%20management_11.08.pdf (last accesed on 7 th August 2016) Matthews, H.S., McMichael, F.C., Hendrickson, C.T. and Hart, D.J., 1997. Disposition and end-of-life options for personal computers. Rajya Sabha., 2015. E-Waste in India. eSocialSciences. Widmer, R., Oswald-Krapf, H., Sinha-Khetriwal, D., Schnellmann, M. and Böni, H., 2005. Global perspectives on ewaste. Environmental impact assessment review, 25(5), pp.436-458. Yu, J., Williams, E. and Ju, M., 2010. Analysis of material and energy consumption of mobile phones in China. Energy Policy, 38(8), pp.4135-4141.

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Assessment of Ecological and Health Risk Associated with Informal Handling of E-waste: A Case Study of Sangrampur, West Bengal Dipsikha Dasgupta1,*, Anupam Debsarkar1, Amitava Gangopadhyay2, Debasish Chatterjee3 1

Department of Civil Engineering, Environmental Engineering Division, Jadavpur University, Kolkata, India Department of Civil Engineering, Brainware Engineering College, West Bengal, Kolkata, India 3 Department of Chemistry, University of Kalyani, Kalyani, West Bengal, India *Corresponding Author: Email- [email protected] 2

ABSTRACT Management of electronic waste (e-waste), in true sense, has become globally a matter of rising concern. Though, the developed countries have some strict laws and regulations to control the menace of e-waste, the scenario in the developing countries are miserable. In developing countries like India, majority of the e-waste handling operation takes place in the informal sector in a rudimentary way. Reuse and refurbishment of e-items is the key process for handling of e-waste in India. The operations are carried out by the workers without any protective devices. Open burning of plastics, cables, disposal of e-waste near the water bodies and mixing of hazardous components of e-waste with the municipal solid waste (MSW) are common occurrences in the informal e-waste recycling sectors of India. Despite having 138 formal recycling set ups, most of the operations are carried out in the informal sector (≈ 95%), which are reasonably organized. In India, implementation of E-waste Management and Handling Rules, 2011 has occurred in a rather relaxed way due to absence of appropriate surveillance framework. The informal handling operation of e-waste causes not only health disorder to the workers, but can also contaminate various environmental resources extensively. Several studies have highlighted the negative impact on different environmental components due to handling of e-waste in a rudimentary way. In India, for the first time, a study has been undertaken to assess the magnitude of risk in terms of ecological and health risk associated with informal e-waste handling in Sangrampur region of district South 24 Parganas, West Bengal. The risk analysis reveals that handling of e-waste not only causes environmental pollution but also may become lethal to the inhabitants residing adjacent to these sites. Keywords: E-waste, Pollution, Ecological risk, E-waste management and handling rules; International Society of Waste Management, Air and Water

1.0 Introduction Electronic waste or e-waste generally refers to electronic items at the end of their useful life (Garlapati, 2016). The composition of e-waste is complex in nature (Garlapati, 2016). It contains both precious metals and materials (Au, Ag, Cu, etc.) as well as hazardous materials like halogenated compounds (Polychlorinated biphenyls, Polybrominated biphenyls, Polybrominated diphenyl ethers, Chlorofluorocarbon, Polyvinyl chloride etc), heavy metals (Lead, Cadmium, Arsenic, Chromium, Mercury, Nickel etc.) (Robinson, 2009). Table 1.1 lists some toxic constituents and their relationship with e-waste. 1125

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Table-1: E-waste, its toxic components and related health problems Heavy Metals

Occurrence in e-waste

Possible health impact

Lead (Pb)

Printed circuit boards, cables, cathode ray tubes, fluorescent tubes etc.

Anaemia, impairs intellectual development , hearing loss. Can damage kidney, central nervous system, impaired mental function. Long term high level exposure may be very much fatal to pregnant women leading to miscarriages and stillbirths.

Mercury (Hg)

Switches, fluorescent lamps, batteries.

Depression, memory impairment, defects in hearing, vision and speech, difficulty in writing and tremors. Long term exposure to elemental mercury through inhalation may damage kidney, brain etc.

Chromium (Cr)

Hard disks, floppy disks

Irritation in eyes, skin. Prolonged exposure may cause permanent eye injury, DNA damage.

Nickel (Ni)

Batteries, cathode ray tubes, printed circuit boards.

Headache, vertigo, nausea, vomiting, insomnia, irritability. Appear-tightness of the chest, non-productive cough, dyspnoea, cyanosis,tachycardia,palpitations, sweating, visual disturbances, weakness and lassitude

Arsenic (As)

Light emitting diodes.

Skin damage. Chronic exposure may cause lung cancer and impairment of nerve signalling

Antimony (Sb)

Cathode ray tube, cables

It can cause stomach pain, vomiting. Prolonged exposure may cause stomach ulcers.

Berylium (Be)

Cathode ray tube gutters, fluorescent lamps

Dermal disease, delayed wound healing, swellings. Long term exposure can cause berylliosis.

(Source: Kidee et al., 2013, Robinson et al., 2009)

The main concern of e-waste is associated with its disposal options like landfilling, open burning and informal recycling (Kiddee et. al.2013). Developed countries have implemented some strict regulations (viz. advance recycling fee, extended producer responsibilities etc.) for management of e-waste (Ondogo et al., 2011). However, the scenario is entirely different in developing countries like India and China where not only laws are scanty but also the implementation of the laws is very relaxed (Awasthi et al., 2016). The main concern of e-waste mainly in developing countries is associated with its disposal options like landfilling, open burning and informal recycling as e-waste contains many hazardous substances (Kiddee et. al.2013). Developed countries have implemented some strict regulations (viz. advance recycling fee, extended producer responsibilities etc.) for management of e-waste (Ondogo et al., 2011). However, the scenario is entirely different in developing countries like India and China where not only laws are scanty but also the implementation of the laws are very relaxed and the handling practice is unscientific and mostly rudimentary (Awasthi et al., 2016). In India, The law called 'E-Waste (Management) Rules, 2016', clearly spells out the responsibilities of the different stake holders namely manufacturers, producers, collection centers, dealers, refurbishers, consumers, dismantlers, recyclers, the State Governments etc. In addition to this, it also proposes registration of refurbishers which could help in keeping track of ongoing operations. The new rule does not highlight on skilful management of e-waste in informal sectors as well as protection of the livelihood of the workers. In India, till now, nearly 95% of recycling operations are carried out in the informal sectors in a very unscientific way (Needhidasan et al., 2014). A study conducted by Ha et al. (2009) revealed that the detrimental effects on both the environment and human health are associated with prevailing informal recycling of obsolete or end-of-life (EoL) e-items in Bangalore, India. Needhidasan et al. (2014) reported on the incidents of environmental contamination (soil, air, ground water) due to various activities in the informal recycling hubs at the urban centre near Delhi, India. 1126

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The present paper highlights on the study that has been carried out for the first time in an informal recycling site at Sangrampur area, South 24 Parganas district of West Bengal with the aim of quantification of the magnitude of risk in terms of soil-environment (ecological risk) and associated health risk of the workers of this informal recycling site. 2.0 Materials and Methods 2.1 Study area The study area is located in the district of South 24 Parganas of West Bengal at an approximate distance of 70-75 km from central Kolkata. The daily maximum temperature hovers around the high thirties and low forties in summer (in degree centigrade) while the same for winter lies within the high tens and low twenties (in degree centigrade).The average annual rainfall is about 1750 mm. The location map of the study area is given in Figure 1.

Figure 1: Location map of study area

Majority of the local inhabitants are daily workers, farmers or people who move from place to place and collect the obsolete e-items mainly from domestic sources. These people generally dismantle the items and collect the valuable part and sell it to the large scale waste dealers. The e-waste handling technique that is practiced in these areas is going on for more than 20 years and is unscientific and rudimentary in nature. The main operation involves extraction of the raw materials from obsolete e-items. Firstly, the e-items are dismantled and then are burnt openly. Field experience reveals that the villagers practice agriculture at the field where dismantling operation are usually carried out .These processes cause extensive contamination of different environmental components like soil, water, air and vegetables, cereals (rice) etc. 1127

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2.2 Sampling and analysis of heavy metals in soil and rice 2.2.1 Soil sample Soil samples were collected for heavy metals Pb, Cd, Ni, Cr and As in the year 2015. Soil samples were collected as composite, for obtaining proper representation of the sampling sites. Nishapur village at Sangrampur area was considered as control station where no such e-waste dismantling/ recycling activities are carried out. After collection, all the samples were put in the polythene zip bags and transported to the laboratory on the very day of sampling. The samples were stored in the refrigerator at 4 ºC before analysis in order to inactivate bacteria. After that, the soil samples were freeze-dried. The dried samples were passed through a 2.0mm sieve to remove gravels. A mortar was used to ground the soil particle and the soil was prepared for digestion for heavy metal analysis. Heavy metals (Pb, Cd, Ni, Hg, As) were determined in the soil samples using Atomic Absorption Spectrometer (AAS) (VARIAN make, model-Spectra AA 50). 2.2.2 Rice sample Rice samples were collected for analysis of heavy metal like Pb, Cd, Ni, As and Cr. The rice samples were washed with tap water, rinsed with distilled water and the fresh weight were recorded. They were then freeze-dried and ground with a mortar. Thereafter, the sample was prepared for digestion and heavy metals in rice sample were analysed by using AAS (VARIAN make, model-Spectra AA 50). 2.3 Calculation of the Risk-coefficients 2.3.1 Calculation of ecological risk coefficient To estimate the potential ecological risk of each heavy metal (Pb, Cd, As, Ni, Cr) in soil the following formula was applied (Hakanson, 1980). Eri = Tri × Cfi = Tri× Csi/ Cni (i) where, Eri is ecological risk coefficient. The degree of ecological risk can be specified as: E ri < 40 indicates low risk, 40 ≤ Eri < 80 indicates moderate risk 80≤ Eri< 160 indicates considerable risk 160 ≤ Eri < 320 indicates high risk and Eri ≥ 320 indicates very high risk, Tri is toxic response factor of heavy metal i. Toxic response factor of heavy metals are given below: Pb: 5, Cd: 30, Cu: 5, Zn: 1, As: 10, Hg: 40, Ni: 5 and Cr: 2 Cfi is the contamination factor of heavy metal i, Csi is the measured concentration of heavy metal i in the soil and Cni is the control value of heavy metal i. 2.3.2 Calculation of estimated daily exposure of heavy metals from rice The estimated daily exposure of heavy metals through rice is dependent on the heavy metal concentration of rice, quantity of rice consumption and the average body weight of the consumer. It was calculated by the following formula (Luo et al., 2011) i.e. EDEM = Daily intake of metals (DIM)/ Body weight

(ii)

Where, EDEM is the estimated daily exposure of metals DIM is daily rice consumption × mean concentration of metal in rice.

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2.3.3 Calculation of health risk index Health risk was calculated as the ratio of estimated daily exposure of metals through food (rice) and reference oral dose of each heavy metals. i.e. Health Risk Index = EDEM/ RfDo [where risk index ≥ 1 indicates potential health risk, risk index 1) is high for heavy metals like lead (Pb) and cadmium (Cd) for both male and female habitants in Sangrampur area. The result clearly indicates that those people living around the e-waste recycling area, are probably exposed to some health risks through the consumption of locally grown rice. This may be speculated that rice grown around the study areas could be a potential source of heavy metals to the local residents. 4.0 Conclusion The informal recycling of e-waste using rudimentary techniques at Sangrampur results in contamination of the environment (soil, rice). As a result, plant uptake of heavy metals occurs that is observed in the contamination of locally grown cereals (rice). Consumption of this contaminated food grain undoubtedly puts the health of the local inhabitants at risk. The present work tries to focus on the real conditions prevailing near and around the e-waste recycling site. Till date, formal e-waste recycling set ups are very much unorganized in India. In addition, properly enforced e-waste handling laws are practically nonexistent. In view of these conditions, the present study becomes an eye opener for the responsible, concerned public. Not only that, these revelations can also perhaps expedite the administration to adopt

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and enforce proper rules, laws and regulations that can minimise the unwanted impact of toxic heavy metals on the local environment, health and biosphere at large. References Awasthi, A. K., Zeng, X., and Li, J., 2016, Environmental pollution of electronic waste recycling in India: A critical review, Environmental Pollution, 211: 259-270. E-waste Management and Handling Rules (2011), Ministry of Environment & Forests, Notification, New Delhi, 12thMay. Garlapati, V.K., 2016, E-waste in India and developed countries: Management, recycling, business and biotechnological initiatives, Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 54: 874-881. Ha, N.N., Agusa,T., Ramu,K., Tu, N.P.C., Murata,S., Bulbule, K.A., 2009, Contamination by trace elements at ewaste recycling sites in Bangalore, India, Chemosphere,76: 9-15. Hakanson, L., 1980, An Ecological Risk Index for aquatic pollution control. A sediment logical approach, Water Research, 14: 975-1001. Kidee, P., Naidu, R., and Wong, M.H., 2013, Electronic waste management approaches: An overview, Waste Management, 33: 1237-1250. Luo, C., Liu, C., Wang, Y., Liu, X., Li. F., Zhang, G., and Li, X., 2011, Heavy metal contamination in soils and vegetables near an e-waste processing site, South China, Journal of Hazardous Materials, 186: 481–490 Needhidasan, S., Samuel, M., & Chidambaram, R., 2014, Electronic Waste-an emerging threat to the environment of Urban India, Journal of Environmental Health Science and Engineering, 12: 36-44. Ongondo, F.O., Williams, I.D., and Cherrett, T.J., 2011, How are WEEE doing? A global review of the management of electrical and electronic wastes, Waste Management, 31: 714–730. Robinson, B.H., 2009, E-waste: An assessment of global production and environmental impacts, Science of the Total Environment, 408: 183-191. Su, C., Jiang, L., and Zhang, W. J., 2014, A review on heavy metal contamination in the soil worldwide: Situation, impact and remediation techniques, Environmental Skeptics and Critics, 3(2): 24-38.

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Toxicity Characterization of Heavy Metals from Waste Printed Circuit Boards Anshupriya, Subrata Hait* Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Patna, Bihar, India *Corresponding Author: Email- [email protected] ABSTRACT Toxicity characterization (TC) tests for solid waste have proven to be indispensable characterization tools for estimation of environmental threat. These tests mimic the fate of solid waste in environmental conditions and provide relevant information about the leaching behaviour of metals in natural conditions based on which they are categorized as toxic. In view of this, the aim of this paper is to identify the leaching assessment on six heavy metals, As, Ba, Cd, Ni, Pb and Se from waste printed circuit boards (PCBs) of obsolete electrical and electronic equipments (EEEs), that are, computer, laptop, washing machine (WM), television (TV) and air conditioner (AC) adopting two TC tests namely toxicity characteristic leaching procedure (TCLP) and synthetic precipitation leaching procedure (SPLP) which simulate solid waste leaching in several dumping scenarios and metal mobility potential of solid waste dumped in-situ, in or on the ground, exposed to acid rain respectively. TC results indicated that Pb was the predominant metal specie with concentration of 10.50±0.73 mg/L in SPLP to 856.71±2.30 mg/L in TCLP leachates and exceeded the toxicity characteristic (TC) limit in all the five PCBs investigated for TCLP and SPLP tests. All other metals analysed were below permissible limit while some metals such as Ba was absent in the leachates of all the five waste PCBs in TCLP as well as SPLP analysis. Cd was absent in TCLP leachates of laptop, WM and AC while As was not present in AC TCLP as well as SPLP leachates. Cd, Ni and Se were found to be in superior concentrations in SPLP leachates than TCLP. These results proved that leaching from waste PCBs was a significant source of Pb in landfills and electronic waste (e-waste) dump-yards leading to environmental toxicity. Keywords: Waste printed circuit board, Metals, Leaching, Toxicity characterization; International Society of Waste Management, Air and Water

1.0 Introduction The rapid growth of electric and electronic equipments (EEE) coupled with accelerated product obsolescence has led to build up of electronic waste (e-waste). The quantity of e-waste generated constitutes about 8% of municipal solid waste (MSW) and is the fastest growing waste stream in the world (Widmer, et al., 2005). United Nations University (UNU) reports that around 41.8 Mt of e-waste were generated worldwide in the year 2014 out of which 11.7 Mt originated from America while Europe contributed to a total of 11.6 Mt e-waste generations. In Asia, total e-waste generation in 2014 was 16.0 Mt. India ranks third in the list of Asian countries contributing to 1.7 Mt e-waste generations. China tops among the Asian countries with the highest e-waste generation of 6.0 Mt followed by Japan with 2.2 Mt. The worldwide e-waste generation is predicted to increase at growth rate of 4-5% per annum reaching to 49.8 Mt by 2018 (Baldé et al., 2015). The problem of e-waste generation is, however, more intense in 1132

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emerging economies like Africa, India and China where it is compounded by the trans-boundary export of e-waste in considerable quantities (about 50-80%) from the developed and industrialized countries, despite of prohibition though the Basel Convention (1992) law (Dutta et al., 2006; Hicks et al., 2005). According to a report by UNU 2015, from total of 41.8 Mt of e-waste generated worldwide in year 2014 only around 6.5 Mt of e-waste were collected formally by the take-back systems while the rest were disposed to waste bins. However, there is great disparity and wide gap between e-waste generation, their formal collectionrecycling and those entering the waste bins (Baldé et al., 2015). The composition of e-waste is heterogeneous, diverse and complex. Electronic equipments such as monitors, telecommunication devices and other large electrical appliances which are rich in metallic resources with significant amount of precious, toxic elements are usually subjected to recycling while rest, up to 90% of world‘s e-waste is illegally dumped (UNU, 2016). Discarded e-wastes have toxic, health-threatening metals such as Hg, Cd, Cr, As, Pb, Ag in abundance. End-of-life EEE are disposed off by the consumers to normal dustbins together with the other type of household waste making up MSW stream which depending on the treatment method opted are sent either to incinerators, landfills or are dumped over the ground in the dump-yard. The discarded obsolete ewaste not only leads to resource loss but also have destructive impact on environment. E-waste in incinerators lead to emission of harmful compounds causing air pollution whereas e-waste in landfills and open dump-yards lead to generation of toxic leachates which enter into the environment and become available to humans and biota. Printed circuit board (PCB) is core component of e-waste and constitute 36% of the total weight of e-waste (Das et al., 2009; Li et al., 2004). The dramatic increase in the amount of waste PCBs with the increase in e-waste generation is indispensable (Widmer et al., 2005). A variety of inorganic and organic components including metals such as heavy metals, precious metals, toxic metals; brominated flame retardants like polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), polybrominated biphenyls (PBBs) present in PCBs make them hazardous and also a potential reservoir of recyclable materials. Pb is the most common toxic constituents of PCBs which is abundantly present as Sn-Pb solders (with 60:40 ratio of Sn to Pb) which have found to leach at higher concentrations in landfills and dump-yards (Jang and Townsend, 2003). Several toxicity characteristic (TC) tests have been prescribed by the international organisations for determination of toxicity of solid waste to be classified as hazardous waste and restrict their land disposal. Resource Conservation and Recovery Act of 1976 (RCRA) promulgated criteria to differentiate hazardous and non-hazardous wastes and administers control and management of solid and hazardous waste. One of the most significant dangers posed by hazardous wastes stems from the leaching of toxic metals into soil and groundwater. Based on this concern, RCRA set limit for eight elements, As, Ba, Cd, Cr, Pb, Hg, Se and Ag. The United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) Extraction Procedure Toxicity Characteristic (EP) test was the earliest to be designed to simulate the leaching of a solid hazardous waste co-disposed with municipal waste in a sanitary landfill and to assess the potential impact of the leachates on groundwater contamination (USEPA, 1980). The Toxicity Characteristic Leaching Procedure (TCLP EPA Method 1311) was second generation extraction procedure developed by USEPA as a method addressing the shortcomings of EP (USEPA, 1986). TCLP promulgated for use in determination of mobility of primarily organic and inorganic constituents present in waste that may pose a threat to the environment. Both the tests, EP and TCLP simulate solid waste leaching in landfill condition. However, EP addressed only a few toxic semi-volatile and heavy metals leachates while TCLP waste characterization is based on additional toxic constituents of hazardous waste including extensive list of volatile and semivolatile analytes and thus has replaced EP. In addition to the TCLP test simulating waste disposed inside MSW landfills, USEPA also designed test such as the Synthetic Precipitation Leaching Procedure (SPLP) (EPA Method 1312) for assessment of mobility of both organic and inorganic analytes of waste dumped in-situ, in or on the ground surface exposed to rainfall, with an assumption that rainfall is slightly acidic (USEPA, 1996.). Prior researches have demonstrated TC and mobility potential of various solid wastes (Kendall, 2003; Sorini and Jackson, 1988; Wadanambi et al., 2008; Chang et al., 2001), however, there is very limited study on TC of e-wastes encompassing waste PCBs of various EEEs exploiting standard TCLP and SPLP, mimicking the environmental conditions for the leachability of metals in various dumping scenarios. Several studies have examined TCLP and SPLP assessment for metals leaching from PCBs 1133

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(Jang and Townsend, 2003; Townsend et al., 2008; Zhou et al., 2013) but the studies conducted are not comprehensive and have not taken into consideration leaching behaviour of toxic metals from PCBs of different type of obsolete electronic products. This paper therefore, aims at development of a detailed interpretation of leaching behaviour of six toxic metals As, Ba, Cd, Ni, Pb and Se from waste PCBs of five different end-of-life electronic equipments viz., computer, laptop, washing machine (WM), television (TV) and air conditioner (AC) using TCLP and SPLP simulating landfill and open dump-yards conditions. The objective of this paper is to provide quantitative data for leaching potential of metals from waste PCBs of different EEEs and a comparative assessment of TCLP and SPLP for their ability to extract metals from e-wastes in environment under simulated conditions of landfills and acid rain. 2.0 Methods and materials 2.1. Sample collection and processing PCBs of different discarded electronic equipments viz., computer, laptop, television (TV) washing machine (WM) and air conditioner (AC) were collected from electronics repair shops of Patna, India. The collected waste PCBs samples were then dismantled manually to remove mounted electronic components like capacitors, resistors, semiconductor chips and were mechanically crushed using cutting mill (SM200, Retsch) to particle size < 9.5 mm. Three replicate of shredded samples were taken from each of the PCBs and were subjected to subsequent leaching tests. 2.2. Extraction tests TCLP and SPLP tests are designed to meet the intent of metal leaching in landfills and acidic rainfall conditions. To analyse the potential leachabilities and leaching trends of waste PCBs, extraction tests TCLP and SPLP were performed. Shredded PCBs of particle size < 9.5 mm were subjected to each of the above mentioned tests in polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) bottles at specified test conditions for determination of TC of e-waste. The extractions of metals were performed according to the prescribed standard methods of TCLP, SPLP for six toxic metals and five waste PCBs. A test blank was also included for each of the leachability test. The extraction test conditions for the metals from PCB samples are summarized in Table 1. The leaching tests were performed in triplicates to ensure the reproducibility, reliability and accuracy of the test. The extracts obtained at the end of the extraction tests were measured for their metal contents. All the analyses were conducted in triplicates. Table 1: Leaching test conditions for TCLP and SPLP of waste PCBs. Solid-liquid ratio

Extraction medium (per litre)

Extraction time (h)

pH

Agitation speed (rpm)

Temperature (°C)

TCLP

1:20

5.7 ml glacial acetic acid + 64.3 ml 1N NaOH

18±2

4.93±0.05

30±2

22±2

SPLP

1:20

60/40 weight percent mixture of H2SO4/HNO3

18±2

4.2±0.05

30±2

23±2

Leaching tests

2.3 Metal content analysis and determination of TC For the quantification of metals in TCLP and SPLP extracts, the leachates produced by each of the leaching tests were filtered by 0.7 µm glassfibre filters using pressure filtration. Microwave assisted digestion (Milestone, Ethos easy) of the filtered extracts was then performed according to USEPA Method 3015A (USEPA, 1999). After digestion, the extracts were again filtered by 0.22 µm Millipore filters and analyzed by flame atomic absorption Spectrophotometer (AAS) (iCE3500, Thermo Scientific). All analysis were done in triplicates following the standard methods. 1134

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3.0 Results and discussion 3.1. Leaching potential of metals from waste PCBs Acetic acid used as leaching solution in TCLP represents the organic acids produced during biological degradation of wastes especially MSWs in landfill. TCLP thus, simulates the fate of metals present in PCBs which are indiscriminately dumped into landfills along with MSWs. Similarly, acid mixture of sulphuric and nitric acids represents the acidic constituents of acid rain. However, the concentrations of acids as prescribed by the two methods represent worst case acidic conditions. The metals leaching potential from waste PCBs of obsolete EEEs by TCLP and SPLP are presented in Table 2. Results indicate that the concentration of majority of toxic metals leached from waste PCBs are within the threshold limit for toxicity. However, the concentration of Pb has exceeded the maximum concentration for characteristic toxicity in both TCLP and SPLP. Pb concentrations in all the five PCBs investigated by TCLP are in the range of 856.71±2.30 mg/L to 251.65±3.56 mg/L which is far beyond the USEPA set limit for toxicity. Conversely, metals such as Ba were not at all detected in the TCLP leachates of waste PCBs of five different obsolete EEEs. As was not found in AC TCLP leachates while Cd was found missing in TCLP leachates of laptop, WM and AC. Pb concentrations in SPLP leachates also exceeded the 5 mg/L TC limit and are in the range of 10.50±0.73 mg/L to 16.03±1.11 mg/L. The concentration of Ba in SPLP leachates of all the waste PCBs of five different end-of-life EEEs was also not detected. Like TCLP, As was also absent in SPLP leachates of waste PCBs of AC. Pb has highest ability and sensitivity to be released from PCB substrate in TCLP and SPLP conditions. Several studies have documented that PCBs often exceed the Pb toxicity limit of 5 mg/L (Jang and Townsend, 2003), this might be because of extensive use of Pb in PCBs as solders. Moreover, Pb is higher in hierarchy of metals in reactivity series because of which Pb reacts more vigorously with dilute acids used in TCLP as well as SPLP to form soluble salts like lead acetate and lead nitrate. Ba was not detected in any of the TCLP and SPLP leachates of PCBs, this might be because Ba is not a major component of PCBs and is usually not extensively used in PCBs. The absence of As in both TCLP and SPLP leachates of AC can be correlated either to its nonexistence in AC PCB or inefficiency of acids in its leaching. Additionally, the mobility and stability of metals in waste PCBs depend on their binding to the PCB laminate. The fibreglass/silica laminate locks up the metals which upon physical and chemical action get liberated. Except for computer PCBs, As concentration in leachates of TCLP are higher than in SPLP which indicate its susceptibility to the acidic condition inside landfill and propensity to leach easily as compared to acid rain conditions. Concentrations of Cd Ni and Se in SPLP leachates demonstrate higher leaching potential of H2SO4-HNO3 to acetic acid and NaOH. Thus, because of the dominance of Pb in the leachates beyond permissible limit of toxicity waste PCBs used in this study could be categorized as hazardous waste and require strict regulation and control Table 2: Metal concentrations in TCLP and SPLP leachates of waste PCBs (n= 3) As

PCBs

Ba

Metals (mg/L) Ni

Cd

Pb

Se

Reference

TCLP

SPLP

TCL P

SPL P

TCLP

SPLP

TCLP

SPLP

TCLP

SPLP

TCLP

SPLP

Computer

0.08± 0.42

0.24± 0.21

ND

ND

0.1± 0.01

0.116± 0.009

0.19± 0.68

0.56± 0.09

360.97± 3.71

11.68± 2.25

0.78± 0.01

0.89± 0.11

Laptop

0.40± 0.16

0.09± 0.05

ND

ND

ND

0.04± 0.02

0.03± 1.61

0.44± 0.31

856.71± 2.30

13.73± 1.21

0.39± 1.12

0.55± 0.26

WM

0.90± 0.03

0.16± 0.11

ND

ND

ND

0.02± 0.01

0.42± 0.22

0.70± 0.62

251.65± 3.56

16.03± 1.11

0.76± 0.64

0.84±0. 88

TV

0.02± 0.01

0.05± 0.02

ND

ND

0.02± 0.01

0.09± 0.001

0.49± 0.02

0.52± 0.35

308.59± 4.16

10.50± 0.73

0.151± 0.009

0.48± 0.27

AC

ND

ND

ND

ND

ND

0.007± 0.0004

0.23± 0.001

0.81± 0.03

511.56± 2.87

16.60± 0.10

0.84±0.3 2

0.95± 0.33

Maximum concentrati on for characterist ic toxicity

5

100

1

0.2*

5

1

Values represent arithmetic mean ± standard deviation from three replicates 1135

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4.0 Conclusions The determination of toxicity level of metals is significant factor that indicates extent of risk of metal to environment. The presence of Pb in PCBs leachates upon disposal of the discarded EEEs raises several ecological concerns, such as the fate of the Pb in environment leading to contamination of soil, groundwater and ultimately its uptake by flora and fauna. Leachability testing of the PCBs and subsequent quantification of toxic metals concentration in all the leachates generated signify that the e-waste evaluated here exceed 5 mg/L TC limit for Pb. Cd, Ni and Se showed relatively high mobility potential compared to other metals in case of SPLP. However, all other metals except Pb were in concentrations below the recommended threshold level of toxicity. Although majority of metals under investigation were below the toxic limit, tremendous amount of Pb leached from e- waste, in form of PCBs can pose deplorable risk to environment if inappropriately managed and therefore should be handled as a hazardous waste. Therefore, the focus on safe disposal, management and recovery of metals from e-waste is necessary in present scenario. References Baldé, C.P., Wang, F., Kuehr, R., Huisman, J., 2015. The global e-waste monitor – 2014, United Nations University, IAS – SCYCLE, Bonn, Germany. Chang, E.E., Chiang, P.C., Lu, P.H., Ko, Y.W., 2001. Comparisons of metal leachability for various wastes by extraction and leaching methods. Chemosphere, 45: 91-99. Das, A., Vidyadhar, A., Mehrotra, S.P., 2009. A novel flowsheet for the recovery of metal values from waste printed circuit boards. Resour. Conserv. Recy. 53 (8): 464–469. Department of Toxic Substances Control (DTSC), 2004. Determination of regulated elements in even types of discarded consumer electronic products. Hazardous Material Laboratory, California. Dutta, S. K., Upadhyay, V. P., Sridharan, U., 2006. Environmental Management of Industrial Hazardous Wastes in India. J. Environ. Sci. Eng.48(2): 143-150. Hicks, C., Dietmar, R., Eugster, M., 2005. The recycling and disposal of electrical and electronic waste in China – legislative and market responses. Environ. Impact. Assess. Rev. 25: 459–471. Jang, Y., Townsend, T., 2003. Leaching of lead from computer printed wire boards and cathode ray tubes by municipal solid waste landfill leachates, Environ. Sci. Technol. 37: 4778–4784. Kendall, D., 2003. Toxicity characteristic leaching procedure and iron treatment of brass foundry waste, Environ. Sci. Technol. 37: 367–371. Li, J.; Shrivastava, P.; Gao, Z.; Zhang, H.C., 2004. Printed circuit board recycling: A state-of-the-art survey. IEEE Trans. Electron. Packag. Manuf. 27: 33–42. Sorini, S.S., Jackson, L.P., 1988. Evaluation of the toxicity characteristic leaching procedure (TCLP) on utility wastes. Nucl. Chem. Waste. Manag. 8: 217–223. Townsend, T., Musson, S., Dubey, B., Pearson, B., 2008. Leachability of printed wire boards containing leaded and lead-free solder. J. Environ. Manag. 88: 926–931. United Nations University (UNU) Report. http://unu.edu/media-relations/media-coverage/up-to-90-of-worldselectronic-waste-is illegally-dumped-says-un.html. Accessed on June, 18, 2016. United States (US) Federal Register, 1980. Hazardous/radioactive materials management and operations, 45 (98): 33063–33285. United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA), 1986. Toxicity Characteristics Leaching Procedure. Federal Register. 51, 216. United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA), 1996. Test Methods for Evaluating Solid Waste, SW-846, 3rd ed.; Office of Solid Waste: Washington, DC. United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA), 1999. Method 3015A: microwave assisted acid digestion of aqueous samples and extracts, Washington, DC. Wadanambi, L., Dubey, B., Townsend, T., 2008. The leaching of lead from lead-based paint in landfill environments. J. Hazard. Mater. 157: 194–200. Widmer, R., Karpi, H. O., Khetriwal, D. S., Schenellmann, M., Bonii, H., 2005. Global perspectives on e-waste. Environ. Impact. Assess. Rev. 25(5):436-458. Zhoua, X., Guoa, J., Lina, K., Huanga, K., Denga, J., 2013. Leaching characteristics of heavy metals and brominated flame retardants from waste printed circuit boards. J. Hazard. Mater. 246– 247: 96– 102

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Toxic Pollutants Survey in Soils of Electronic Waste Contaminated Sites in Delhi NCR M.D. Salam*, A. Varma Amity Institute of Microbial Technology, Amity University, Noida, India *Corresponding Author: Email- [email protected] ABSTRACT Over the years, with the advancement in technology, a rise in the usage of electronic items has been developed and along with that there has been an increase in the generation of electronic waste. This is of great concern, especially in developing countries, as it has been gradually polluting the environment, causing bioaccumulation and ultimately affecting the ecosystem function. The present study is on the pollutant level determination of soils in the electronic waste (e-waste) dumping sites with special reference to Delhi NCR, India, and to study the effect of electronic waste contamination on soil microbial activities. Heavy metals like Lead, Cadmium, Chromium, Nickel and Arsenic were studied for their contamination levels in the soil samples collected from different sites of the electronic waste dumping area. The concentrations of heavy metals were compared with a control uncontaminated sample. In India, presently there are no permissible limits set for the contamination of heavy metal pollutants in the soil. Among the heavy metals, Arsenic, Nickel and Chromium (measured by ICPMS), with the values of 3.15 mg/kg, 89.4mg/kg and 35.5 mg/kg respectively were found to be at high levels and are of concern. Contamination of soil with polybrominated diphenyl ether (PBDE), which is a persistent brominated hydrocarbon and which tends to bioaccumulate in the environment, was also detected by GC-MS. This shows that e-waste dumping and recycling sites are some major sources for the contamination of the environment with toxic pollutants. The effect of these toxic pollutants on soil enzyme activities was studied and it was found that soil Dehydrogenase, β-glucosidase and Arylsulphatase activities were significantly reduced in the ewaste contaminated soil samples indicating that the microbial activities are greatly affected by the toxic pollutants generated by the e-waste in the soil. Further work on the microbial community analysis of the contaminated soil samples through molecular fingerprinting is under progress. Keywords: Electronic waste, Heavy metals, Polybrominated diphenyl ether, Microbial activities; International Society of Waste Management, Air and Water

1.0 Introduction Electronic waste (e-waste) has become an increasing type of waste in many countries especially the developing countries where a number of dumping sites and illegal recycling units are present. Formally termed as waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE), these waste materials over a period of time accumulate and because of the toxic components present in the e-waste, the surrounding environment (soil and water) gets contaminated and further affects the ecosystem function. On the other hand, the harsh environmental conditions also give rise to the establishment of beneficial microorganisms which can remediate the toxic pollutants in the contaminated sites. Therefore, intensive research on the soil microbial 1137

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diversity, its function and its relationship to soil components and plants is very much necessary in order to maintain the ecosystem function and to utilize the beneficial effects of the bioremediating microorganisms. The chief pollutants of e-waste contaminated sites are heavy metals like cadmium, lead, hexavalent chromium, mercury, arsenic, nickel, selenium, and Brominated Flame Retardants (BFRs) like PCB (polychlorinated biphenyl), TBBA (tetrabromo-bisphenol A), PBB (polybrominated biphenyl), PBDE (polybrominated diphenyl ether). Heavy metal contamination may result in various harmful effects to human beings such as damage to kidney and liver, brain disorders, skin cancer and respiratory ailments (Lim and Schoenung, 2010). BFRs are known to cause hormonal disorders and also neurobehavorial toxicity (Janssen, 2005; Bhuyan et al., 2014). The heavy metals and organic pollutants also have a harmful effect on the ecosystem fucnction (Crowley, 2008). At low concentrations, some of the heavy metals are essential micronutrients both for the microorganisms as well as the plants, but at higher concentrations, they may have negative influence on the microbial diversity and directly or indirectly on the growth of plants (Crowley, 2008; Chibuike and Obiora, 2014). Brominated flame retardants are considered toxic and persistent group of pollutants. These pollutants are known to cause bioaccumulation and entry into the food chain. The lower congeners formed after abiotic (for e.g. photodegradation and decomposition at high temperature) and biotic degradation (for e.g. bioaccumulation and biotransformation) are known to be more persistent and toxic (Segev et al., 2009). Globally, more than 40 million tons of e-waste generation is estimated every year (Awasthi et al., 2016; Pradhan and Kumar, 2014). India is one of the top countries affected by e-waste pollution among the developing countries because of many informal recycling units, lack of regulations and improper management of e-waste (Awasthi et al., 2016). The toxic pollutants penetrate into the soil and seep into groundwater. Toxic pollutants like BFRs are recalcitrant, cause bioaccumulation and have a long term polluting effect on the soil (Janssen, 2005). There have been a number of reports on the toxic effect of heavy metal contamination on soil microbial activities (Rajapaksha et al., 2004; Xian et al., 2015). It has been found that a number of soil enzyme activities which are important in the bio-geochemical cycles are greatly affected by toxic pollutants present in the soil. Keeping this in mind, the present study focusses on the impact of toxic pollutants (toxic heavy metals and PBDE) on soil enzyme activities. This study gives an important insight into the response of microbial community to e-waste pollutants and will further be useful in soil management studies and bioremediation. 2.0 Materials and methods 2.1 Selection of e-waste contamination and soil sampling In Delhi-NCR (India) Loni and Mandoli are well-known places for informal e-waste recycling and dumping. For the present study, electronic waste contaminated soil samples were collected from Loni Dehat Village and Mandoli Tila Shahbazpur village (Gaddha Colony) by the random sampling method. Five sites were chosen for each location and four subsamples were taken under each site. The subsamples were mixed for each site to get a homogenous mixture and thereafter analyses were carried out. Samples were collected from 0-15 cm depth in aseptic conditions and transported to the lab in 4°C conditions. The samples were sieved through a 2 mm seive and kept at -20°C for analysis of soil microbial activities. Samples for analysis of heavy metals and polybrominated diphenyl ether (PBDE) are air-dried and kept at room temperature. 2.2 Soil analysis for pollutants 2.2.1 Heavy metal contamination Heavy metals like Lead (Pb), Cadmium (Cd), Chromium (Cr), Mercury (Hg) and Nickel (Ni) were tested through ICP-MS at Division of Soil Sceinces, Indian Agricultural Research Institute (IARI), Pusa, New Delhi.

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2.2.2 Polybrominated diphenyl ether (PBDE) contamination Contamination of samples with PBDE was analysed by GC-MS using standard solutions of brominated diphenyl ethers (BDE) at the Environment Protection Services at Shriram Institute of Industrial Research, New Delhi (India). 2.3 Soil enzyme activities: Soil enzyme activities for dehydrogenase, β glucosidase, alkaline phosphatase, acid phosphatase and arylsulphatase were determined for the different soil samples. The determinations were carried out in triplicates. 2.3.1 Dehydrogenase activity Dehydrogenase activity was determined by the method developed by Casida et al. (1964). Soil samples were mixed with CaCO3 at a ratio of 0.1 g CaCO3 per 10 g (moist weight) of soil and preincubated for 2 days. Six gram of preincubated soil was mixed with 1 ml of 1% (w/v) dextrose and 1 ml triphenyltetrazolium chloride (TTC). For the soil blank, 1ml of water was taken instead of TTC. The solution was mixed with a glass rod and incubated at 37°C for 24 h. Soil samples were transferred to a funnel containing Whatman no. 5 filter paper with the help of methanol and collected in a graduated cylinder. Filtrate was collected till red color disappeared which indicates that formazan had been extracted. The collected filtrate was read at 485 nm using Shimadzu UV 1800 spectrophotometer. The dehydrogenase activity was determined using a formazan standard curve and expressed as milligrams of formazan per gram dry soil. 2.3.2 β-glucosidase activity For the determination of β-glucosidase activity, 1 g soil was mixed with 4 ml 0.05 M McIlvaine‘s buffer (pH 6) and 1ml 25 mM p-nitrophenyl-β-D-glucoside (pNPG) and kept at 37°C water bath for 1 h. After that 1 ml 0.5M CaCl2 and 4 ml 0.2M Tris-hydroxy methyl aminomethane (pH 12) were added and centrifuged for 10 min at 1500 g. The absorbance was taken at 410 nm and β-glucosidase activity was determined using a p-nitrophenol (pNP) standard curve and expressed as microgram pNP per gram dry soil. 2.3.3 Arylsulphatase activity Soil was preincubated for 1h at 20°C with 0.2 ml toluene to inhibit microbial enzyme activity due to proliferation. Arylsulphatase activity was determined by the method as described in Whalen and Warman (1996). Preincubated soil (2g) together wih 4 ml of 0.5M acetate buffer and 1 ml of 0.02M potassium 4-nitrophenyl sulfate was incubated at 37°C for 1 h. The reaction was stopped by cooling at 0°C and centrifuged at 11,000 g for 10 min. Supernatant (3 ml) was mixed with 2 ml of 0.5 M sodium hydroxide solution. The absorbance of p-nitrophenol released was measured at 410 nm using Shimadzu UV-VIS spectrophotometer. The arylsulphatse activity was determined using a standard curve of pnitrophenol and expressed in microgram pNP per gram dry soil per hour. 2.3.4 Acid phosphatase activity Soil acid phosphatase activity was determined by the method of Tabatabai and Bremner (1969). One gram of air-dried soil together with 4 ml of Sorensen‘s phosphate buffer (pH 6.5), 0.25 ml of toluene, and 1 ml of 0.115 M disodium p-nitrophenyl phosphate tetrahydrate were mixed in a 50-m1 Erlenmeyer flask. The flasks were stoppered and placed in a 37°C water bath for 1 hour. One millilitre of 0.5 M calcium chloride and 4 ml of 0.5 M sodium hydroxide were added to each flask and mixed well. Finally, the soil suspension was filtered through Whatman no.1 filter paper and the absorbance of the filtrate was read at 420 nm. The amount of p-nitrophenol was determined using a standard curve of p-nitrophenol and expressed in microgram pNP per gram dry soil per hour.

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2.3.5 Alkaline phosphatase activity Alkaline phosphatse activity was determined by the method of Tabatabai (1982) and Schinner et al. (1991) with a buffered disodium p-nitrophenyl phosphate tetrahydrate solution. Two gram air dried soil was mixed with 5 ml 0.5 M CaCl2 and 1ml p-nitrophenyl phosphate tetrahydrate solution prepared in 0.1M phosphate buffer (pH 10). The solution was incubated at 37°C for 1 h and 4 ml was transferred to a fresh tube. It was centrifuged at 2500 rpm for 5 min and 3 ml supernatant was transferred to fresh tubes. The absorbance was read at 440 nm and the amount of p-nitrophenol released was determined using a standard curve of p-nitrophenol. Results were calculated in microgram pNP released per gram dry soil per hour. 3.0 Results and Discussion 3.1 Sample collection Samples were collected from sites where e-waste contamination takes place through different activities. Control sample MC is from a place about 1 km away where no e-waste activities take place. Table 1shows description about the different samples collected. Table 1: Description of the soil samples Sl. No.

Sample No.

Site

1

MC

Control (no e-waste)

2

M0

Disposal area

3

M2

Contaminated grassland

4

M3

Area near the open burning site

5

M5

At the open burning site

6

L1

Area near open burning site

7

L2

Contaminated grassland

3.2 Heavy metal contamination Samples of Mandoli had higher levels of heavy metal contamination as compared to those of Loni (Table 2). The pH of all the soil samples ranged between 5.5 to 6.5. Lead levels in the soil samples tested varied from 5.48 to 94.1 ppm. Cadmium levels were found to be very low ranging at 0.05 to 0.91 ppm. However, sample M3 which had the highest Cd level was 9 times higher than the control sample. Hexavalent chromium levels ranged from 5.03 to 35.5 ppm. The highest levels of chromium were found in M0 and M3 with levels about 7 times higher than the control. Arsenic levels varied from 0.95 to 7.93 showing relatively high levels of contamination in samples M0 and M5. The contamination levels were about 7 times higher than that of the control. Contamination with Nickel was also found to be very high in samples M0 and M3 with 63.2 and 89.4 ppm respectively (Fig 2). In India, at present, there are no permissible limits set for the heavy metal contamination in soils. However, results of the analysis showed that lead, cadmium, chromium, arsenic and nickel levels were within the permissible limits of US, UK and Europe (Ghorbani et al., 2002). It has also been observed that arsenic and nickel contamination in the Mandoli soil samples were alarmingly high. 3.3 PBDE contamination PBDE was detected in the Mandoli samples M0, M5, M2 and M3 and not detected in the Loni samples L1 and L2 as well as in the control sample MC. It was observed that in all the four samples collected from Mandoli there was presence of BDE-7, BDE-28 and BDE-100 which are lower brominated congeners of PBDE and are known to be more harmful. The results show that the area contaminated with toxic heavy metals and BFRs is posing a risk to the environment and may cause health hazard to the human population (Robinson, 2009; Awasthi et al., 2016). 1140

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Figure 1: E-waste dumping sites (A) Disposal site Mandoli, (B) & (C) Areas near open burning site in Mandoli, (D) Open burning site in Loni

Figure 2: Heavy metal levels in soil samples

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Table 2: Soil heavy metal and PBDE analysis

Sl. No.

Soil Sample

Cr

Cd

Metals Pb

1

L1

13.9

0.05

2

L2

16.5

3

M0

4

PBDE ng g-1 dry weight

Ni

17.2

As (ppm) 1.43

7.40

0

ND

5.48

1.62

7.41

0

34.8

0.78

58.6

7.22

63.2

48.8

M5

22.1

0.13

14.5

7.93

22.1

45.5

5

M2

32.8

0.09

6.52

3.15

15.5

6.5

6

M3

35.5

0.91

94.1

2.47

89.4

57.5

7

MC

5.03

0.1

5.8

0.95

6.25

0

ND: Not detected Table 3: Comparision of heavy metals level and soil enzyme activities

Sample

MC

M0

M2

M3

M5

L1

L2

Heavy metals (ppm) Cr Cd Pb As Ni Cr Cd Pb As Ni Cr Cd Pb As Ni Cr Cd Pb As Ni Cr Cd Pb As Ni Cr Cd Pb As Ni Cr Cd Pb As Ni

5.03 0.1 5.8 0.95 6.25 34.8 0.78 58.6 7.22 63.2 32.8 0.09 6.52 3.15 15.5 35.5 0.91 94.1 2.47 89.4 22.1 0.13 14.5 7.93 22.1 13.9 0.05 17.2 1.43 7.40 16.5 ND 5.48 1.62 7.41

Dehydrogenase (mg g-1dry soil)

β-glucosidase (µg pNP g1 dry soil h-1)

Arylsulphatase (µg pNP g-1 dry soil h-1)

Acid phosphatase (µg pNP g-1dry soil h-1)

Alkaline phosphatase (µg pNP g1 dry soil h-1)

467.47

13.37

38.64

17.83

14.56

50.75

47.01

24.89

4.97

10.1

96.67

25.84

7.17

5.16

14.93

6.61

62.52

15.63

5.6

11.25

80.14

17.76

11.84

3.5

10.65

34.66

4.12

14.68

5.35

10.37

71.51

7.09

13.4

3.1

12.77

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3.4 Effect of heavy metal contamination on soil enzyme activities The effect of heavy metal contamination on soil enzyme activities has been depicted in Table 3. Heavy metal contamination greatly affected the dehydrogenase activity showing a reduced activity with increasing level of contamination. It was observed that dehydrogenase activity was 467.47 mg g -1dry soil for the control sample MC whereas for sample M3, with the highest level of Pb, Cr and Ni contamination, it was 6.61 mg g-1dry soil. β-glucosidase was not affected by the increasing level of contamination. Arylsulphatase and acid phosphatase activities were also reduced with increasing level of heavy metal contamination. Alkaline phosphatase was not altered much with contamination by heavy metals. There have been a number of studies on the effect of soil toxic pollutants on the soil enzyme activities. It has been reported that most of the soil enzyme activities are reduced greatly by heavy metal contamination (Su et al., 2014). However, microbial communities are known to vary depending on the soil types and on their resistance properties to heavy metals and toxic pollutants (Crowley, 2008). For example, fungi are known to secrete different substances which can absorb or precipitate the heavy metals. Therefore, the effect of toxic pollutants on different soil enzyme activities also varies greatly. 4.0 Conclusion The present study is an initial investigation of the pollution level of e-waste dumping and recycling sites in an around Delhi, India. The effect of heavy metals and PBDE contamination on soil enzyme activities is also studied. It has been found that most of the heavy metals are under the permissible limits but are quite higher than that of the control. PBDE contamination has also been detected in all the soil samples collected from Mandoli region and are significantly high in the areas near the open burning sites. The soil enzyme activities were mostly found to be reduced in the contaminated samples as compared to the control indicating that the activities of enzymes are related to the contamination by toxic pollutants. Further work on the microbial community analysis of these e-waste contaminated samples is underway. This will help in understanding how microorganisms respond to toxic pollutants and influence transformation of these substances. References Awasthi AK, Zeng X, Li J (2016) Environmental pollution of electronic waste recycling in India: A critical review. Environ Pollut 211: 259-270. Bhuyan S, Kodukula J, Swarnkumar B, Sinha A, Osborne WJ (2014) Biodegradation of electronic waste using bacteria. WJPR 3(10): 753-760. Casida LE, Klein DA, Santoro T (1964) Soil dehydrogenase activity. Soil Sci 98:371-376. Chibuike GU and Obiora SC (2014) Heavy metal polluted soils: Effect on plants and bioremediation methods. Applied Environ Soil Sci vol. 2014, Article ID 752708, 12 pages, 2014. doi:10.1155/2014/752708. Crowley D (2008) Impacts of metals and metalloids on soil microbial diversity and ecosystem function. Revista de la ciencia del suelo y nutrición vegetal 8:6-11. Ghorbani, N.R., Salehrastin N. and Moeini, A., 2002. Heavy metals affect the microbial populations and their activities. Symposium no. 54. At 17TH World Congress of soil science, 14-21 August 2002, Thailand, pp: 2234: 1-11 Janssen S (2005) Brominated flame retardents: Rising levels of concern. Health Care Without Harm (HCWH); Arlington, VA, USA. Lim SR, Schoenung JM (2010) Human health and ecological toxicity potentials due to heavy metal content in waste electronic devices with flat panel displays. J Hazard Mater 177(1-3): 251-259. Pradhan JK and Kumar S (2016) Informal e-waste recycling: Environmental risk assessment of heavy metal contamination in Mandoli industrial area, Delhi, India. Environ Sci Pollut Res 21 (13): 7913-7928. Rajapaksha R. M. C. P., Tobor-Kaplon MA, Baath E (2004) Metal toxicity affects fungal and bacterial activities in soil differently. Aplied Environ Microbiol 70(5): 2966-2973. Robinson BH (2009) E-waste: an assessment of global production and environmental impacts. Sci Total Environ 408(2): 183-91. Schinner, H, Ohlinger, R., Kandeler, E. 1991. Bodenbiologische Arbeitsmethoden. Springer-Verlag. Berlin, Germany. Su C, Jiang LQ, Zhang W (2014) A review on heavy metal contamination in the soil worldwide: Situation, impact and remediation techniques. Environmental Skeptics and Critics 3(2): 24-38.

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Tabatabai, M. A., 1982. Soil enzymes. In: Page, A. L., Miller, R. H., Keeney, D. R. Methods of Soil Analysis. Part 2. Chemical and Microbiological Properties. American Society of Agronomy; Soil Science Society of America. Madison, WI. Tabatabai MA, Bremner JM (1969) Use of p-nitrophenylphosphate for assay of soil phosphatase activity. Soil Biol Biochem 1:301-307. Segev O, Kushmaro A, Brenner A (2009) Environmental impact of flame retardants (Persistence and Biodegradability). Int J Environ Res Public Health 6:478-491. Whalen JK, Warman PR (1996) Arylsulfatase activity in soil and soil extracts using natural and artificial substrates. Biol Fertil Soils 22(4):373-378. Xian Y, Wang M, Chen W (2015) Quantitative assessment on soil enzyme activities of heavy metal contaminated soils with various soil properties, Chemosphere 139: 604-608.

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Waste Management & Resource Utilisation www.iswmaw.com

ISWMAW

Challenges and Opportunities of E-Waste Management in Egypt S.T. El-Sheltawy1,*, D.M.Abdo2 1

Faculty of Engineering - Cairo University, Giza, Egypt Central of Metallurgical Research and Development, Cairo, Egypt *Corresponding Author: Email- [email protected] 2

ABSTRACT The volume of electrical and electronic waste (E-waste) being generated is growing rapidly in developed countries and in developing countries, due to exponential growth in electrical and electronic equipment production and consumption worldwide. In Africa, the total Ewaste generation was 1.9 Mt in 2014. The top three African countries with the highest E-waste generation in absolute quantities are Egypt (0.37 Mt), South Africa (0.35 Mt) and Nigeria (0.22 Mt). According to the Egyptian Ministry of Communications and Information survey , the stock of E-waste in Egypt was 6.8 Million EoL (End-of-Life) mobile phone, 1.29 Million EoL PCs and 0.33 Million LCD in 2015 and it will reach 10.5 Million , 1.46 Million , 0.67 Million respectively by 2020. Egypt is faced some challenges like the growing volume and mixture of E-wastes, the potential risk of human health damage and ecosystems, and the contribution of the E-waste to climate change. E-waste management policies can have the potential to generate decent employment, curb health problems, cut greenhouse gas emissions and recover a wide range of valuable metals including silver, gold, platinum, palladium, copper and indium – by turning a challenge into an opportunity. Keywords: E-waste, Waste management, Hazardous waste, Egyptian waste; International Society of Waste Management, Air and Water

1.0 Introduction The term E-waste (electrical and electronic waste) was first introduced in the 1970s and 1980s following the environmental degradation as a result of hazardous products imported to developing countries (E. N. Asiimwe, et al., 2012). Electrical waste refers to obsolete electrical devices that can no longer be used and that had reached its EoL (End-of-Life) (Kim et al., 2011). The volume of E-waste being generated is growing rapidly in developing countries, due to exponential growth in electrical and electronic equipment production and consumption worldwide. The rapid growth and development in the Information and Communications Technology industry has exacerbated the situation with proliferation of computers and mobile devices to address the rising demand. This growth has brought with it a number of challenges including management of e-waste subsequently produced and which has negative impact on human health and the environment as a result of pollution (Sinha, 2004,and many opportunities since e-waste contains significant amounts of copper, plastic, chemicals, glass, lead, and precious metals such as silver, gold, platinum, and palladium and heavy metals (Luttropp and Johansson, 2010). E-waste should have a special collection system, and a management option to handle them properly for sustainable development (M.B Samarakoon, 2014). The international decisions and agreements mainly focus on restricting export e-waste to developing countries,which are conscious and try to use legislations. These characteristics made the 1145

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recycling of e-waste a profitable business whether in developed or non-developing countries (Lun et al., 2011). Although many countries have organized E-waste systems for the collection, recycling, disposal and monitoring, other countries are still to find the first steps to ensure jobs while minimizing the negative environmental impacts of e-waste recycling (Kim et al,. 2011). This paper presents E-waste management in Egypt, since it is one of the highest consuming countries of electronics in the Middle East, taking into account the challenges facing management system and opportunities regarding the Green Supply Chain Management by governmental authorities and manufacturers to deal with them (CEDARE, 2011 and EEAA, 2011). 2.0 E-Waste Management in Egypt Egypt represents one of the highest African E-Waste producer (0.37 Mt/year).In Africa, the total ewaste generation was 1.9 Mt in 2014. Only Cameroon and Nigeria have enforced national e-waste related legislation, while Ghana, Ethiopia and Kenya still have legislation pending approval. The top two African countries with the highest e-waste generation in absolute quantities are South Africa (0.35 Mt) and Nigeria (0.22 Mt), (Balde, et al, 2015). Very few official government reports are available on e-waste management in Africa. On the continent, the e-waste challenge is on the political agenda the past couple of years, but there is generally a lack of e-waste management infrastructure, which is reflected by the absence of ewaste management laws. In Egypt, there has been a phenomenal growth in the information and telecommunications technology (ICT) sector in the last decade. More and more Egyptians today have access to computer facilities at home, school, business centres and Internet cafes. A greater number also have access to mobile telephones and this is now playing a huge role in the development of the Egyptian economy. According to the Egyptian Ministry of Communications and Information survey, the stock of E-waste in Egypt was 6.8 Million EoL mobile phone, 1.29 Million EoL PCs and 0.33 Million LCD in 2015 and it will reach 10.5 Million, 1.46 Million, 0.67 Million respectively by 2020, (1), fig (1) and (2) illustrate some statistics where Egypt is considered to have the largest Mobile phone subscribers and Internet Users in 2010.

Figure 1: Mobile phone subscribers (MPS) –ITU Statistics 2010 (Allam, H., 2010)

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Figure 2: Internet Users (Millions), World Bank Data and Indicators 2010 Arab region (Allam, H., 2010)

From the above figures it may be illustrated that an E-Waste Management system must take the first priority in Egyptian planning for solid waste management systems and strategy. 2.2 Challenges and Opportunities for E-Waste Management in Egypt As previously mentioned E-Waste represents many challenges concerning solid waste management due to the accompanied hazardous effects and provides many opportunities associated with the recovery of valuable components. 2.2.1 Challenges associated with E-Waste Management According to Osibanjo (2007) and Schluep (2008) the greatest challenges facing developing countries in the management of WEEE include: Lack of legislation and appropriate infrastructure for ewaste management, Lack of Reliable Data and Institutional Framework end-of-life (EoL) product take back, Poor Implementation of International Protocols and implementation of extended producer responsibility (EPR). Egypt is not an exception and is faced by similar challenges,( (O.Osibanjo , et al, 2007)( M. Schluep , 2009). In addition to the above items Egyptians are characterized by the high consuming rates and low-level of citizen awareness on the hazards of WEEE and ways to dispose of endof-life ICT products (Allam & Inauen, 2009) (Sinha-Khetriwal et al., 2005). Since most of the country is still in the absorption stage of ICT products, there has been little or no incentive to implement a national policy on proper e-waste management as distinct from waste management in general. Awareness is critical in ensuring that individual households separate their waste and know why and where to place different WEEE for collection. It is also important that any awareness program be designed in such a way that it provides each stakeholder with a view of the entire process to make it easier to understand the social and environmental ramifications. Increased awareness even within the industry would be prudent to protect the workers from exposure to hazardous waste products by ensuring that known toxic substances and components are removed. This has the secondary effect of improving the quality of the waste produced because it is not damaged by the hazardous materials. The lack of awareness means that most of end-of-life 1147

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products are either stored in unsafe places or discarded with municipal waste. One of the foremost challenges for WEEE management programs in Egypt is the lack of any monitoring system for material flow. Most of the available data is based on industry estimates and projections from growth in income and purchasing power parity (PPP). Lack of reliable data means that the problem of WEEE is not properly understood and thus institutional frameworks are not implemented to respond to the issues. Institutional framework is a key in the wider concept of waste management because it creates the environment necessary for sustainable practices (Allam and Inauen, 2009). A host of policies, legislations, and regulations must be supported by cost-recovery mechanisms, enforcement means, programs for awareness and capacity building, and a recycling culture. E-waste has the effect of polluting the environment when burnt or disposed without due diligence; discharging harmful heavy metals such as mercury and lead; depleting the ozone layer; blocking water drainage channels; and causing harmful effects including cancer to living organisms in an ecosystem (EEAA, 2010; EEAA, 2011 and CEDARE, 2011). The problem is compounded by the inability of most consumers to purchase brand new EEE therefore resulting in a substantial number of consumers going for second-hand or refurbished products which are cheaper but have a shorter life-span (BCRC, 2010). The government agencies dealing with waste management have limited capacity to deal with e-waste management and are not working in a co-ordinated manner that could build synergy. The government must take a multi-sectoral and multi-stakeholder approach when dealing with WEEE management in order to be effective. E-waste management has not been given the priority it deserves at a national level. There are no adequate resources and commitment towards addressing the problems and challenges associated with it. Moreover, adequate formal training has not been provided to deal with issues of WEEE management and is therefore largely handled in ad hoc manner. Although Egypt is signatory to most of the International conventions on e-waste, just like many other developing countries, it lacks any serious national programs to handle WEEE. The informal sector handles some of the waste but focuses mostly on circuit boards that are collected and shipped abroad. Most of them use manual disassembly and recycle some of the plastic and metal components (El-Nakib, 2012). The lack of systematic support and processes for such activities means that it is largely unregulated and the players have little knowledge of the toxic levels and components of such WEEE. According to ( El-Nakib,2012) the WEEE management system in Egypt is driven by garbage traders and waste collectors (El-Hadary, 2011). A successful WEEE management system such as Switzerland‗s is in most cases market driven and self-organized. Among the key limitations in such a comparison is that although the bulk of E-waste is growing in Egypt and the rest of the Arab countries, it is still not high enough to attract huge investments. Instead, the current system consists of private-private relationships among recycling enterprises, wholesalers, dealers, itinerant buyers and waste pickers. These relationships are driven by financial profit and not social or environmental awareness. 2.2.2 Opportunities associated with E-Waste Management Despite the many challenges and harmful effects brought about as a result e-waste, there are many useful benefits including creating employment; generating revenue; and producing waste bi-products which can be used to feed other local industries. The informal e-waste industry creates substantial employment for the unemployed youth who on average earn approximately three dollars per day which is above the World Bank poverty level of one dollar a day. Some equipment can be dismantled and some valuable parts reused for repairs or precious metals like gold, silver and copper reclaimed and availed for other useful purposes. 2.3 Approaches to Best E-Waste Management In order to develop a Best E-Waste Management system the Egyptian government should partner with private firms through Public-Private-Partnerships (PPP) to build robust and sustainable infrastructure to facilitate an environmentally friendly e-waste management system and provide incentives for consumers to dispose their WEEE. This will reduce the amount of e-waste stock that consumers are piling in homes, offices and other storage facilities. The government should consider facilitating NGOs, local investors and private organizations by providing them with tax rebates and land on which to put up e-waste management facilities and infrastructure. The government should provide incentives for International companies or investors who are willing to partner in refurbishment of old EEE and take-back programmes to ease the 1148

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WEEE burden in the country. The cost of procuring brand new computers is prohibitive when it comes to developing countries like Egypt and instead of total ban on used computers, the government should discourage imports; facilitate programmes for refurbishing old EEE; and lower the cost of brand new products to increase their affordability. The government should also put in place mechanisms for tracking mass flow of WEEE in and out of the country by use of well-defined models so that it can identify their sources and distribution channels for effective management. The main source of entry of electronic devices in Egypt is through import of (brand new and second-hand) equipment and local assembly. On the other hand, the main channels of disposing e-waste are through the second-hand market, recyclers, refurbishes and dumping as general waste. However, a significant portion of this is still in the hands of consumers who do not know how to dispose it off in an environmental sound way without losing the residual value they attach to it. The government should therefore as a matter of urgency formulate and enforce policies at a national level for effective management of e-waste. These should govern the entire e-waste management process from storage, collection to disposal and licensing of key players. These regulations and policies should also incorporate mechanisms of enforcing the EU recommendations requiring an extended producer responsibility (EPR) system; encourage reuse and recycling of parts and reduce environmental impact of ewaste. The government should also take initiative to amend the public procurement and disposal laws to take cognizance of the emerging environmental and safety issues associated with WEEE management and introduce a more environmentally sound policy. This will ease the burden of e-waste stocks piling in public institutions because of the slow and bureaucratic procurement and disposal processes which do not take cognizance of the emerging challenge of WEEE. 3.0 Conclusion From the above review we may conclude that citizen awareness on the hazards of E-Waste as well as the main benefits associated with the implementation of the best available techniques (BAT) for EWaste management will increase the profitability from this hazardous waste, divert the E-waste problem towards sustainability. In order for the government to achieve its objective of effective WEEE management and have a greater impact, it must encourage citizen participation through deliberate and specific marketing and campaign strategies geared towards reaching out to citizens. Capacity building programmes should be launched in the WEEE management sector from the funds generated from fees levied on EEE imports and licensing fees from recyclers and refurbishment plants. The capacity development initiatives should be done at a national level with the involvement of experts and institutions of higher learning. Benchmarking with other countries that have been successful in management of ewaste should be done and best practices adopted to boost the government efforts. Reference Allam, H. & Inauen, S., 2009, E-Waste Management Practices in the Arab Region, Viewed 10 March 2013, 20kg) generated from commercial land use activities based on the identified solid waste 1465

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generators namely selling product of the commercial establishment, type of commercial activity, floor area of the commercial enterprises, monthly turnover, average daily footfall in the commercial organizations and type of packaging whether natural material, plastic or paper used in commercial land use concerned. Significant equation was found in case of biodegradable waste generated in commercial establishments with (F (6,279) = 62.0158, p