Water Balance Study

Water Balance study An application of WPS technologies Training Manual

Dr. Shahriar Shams, Institut Teknologi Brunei, Brunei Darussalam Prof. Daoyi Chen, University of Tsinghua, China Mr. Juan Arevalo, European Commission, Joint Research Centre, Institute for Environment and Sustainability Dr. Andrea Leone, European Commission, Joint Research Centre, Institute for Environment and Sustainability Dr. Cesar Carmona Moreno, European Commission, Joint Research Centre, Institute for Environment and Sustainability

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European Commission Joint Research Centre Institute for Environment and Sustainibility Contact information Cesar Carmona Moreno Address: Joint Research Centre, Via Enrico Fermi 2749, TP 440, 21027 Ispra (VA), Italy E-mail: [email protected] Tel.: +(39) 0332 789654 Fax: +(39) 0332 789073 http://www.jrc.ec.europa.eu/ This publication is a Reference Report by the Joint Research Centre of the European Commission.

Legal Notice Neither the European Commission nor any person acting on behalf of the Commission is responsible for the use which might be made of this publication. Europe Direct is a service to help you find answers to your questions about the European Union Freephone number (*): 00 800 6 7 8 9 10 11 (*) Certain mobile telephone operators do not allow access to 00 800 numbers or these calls may be billed. A great deal of additional information on the European Union is available on the Internet. It can be accessed through the Europa server http://europa.eu/. JRC 81548 doi: 10.2788/97423 EUR 26099 EN ISBN 978-92-79-32536-6 ISSN 1831-9424

Reproduction is authorised provided the source is acknowledged. Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union, 2013 © European Union, 2013

Printed in Ispra

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FOREWORD

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MODULE 1 WATER BALANCE AND BASIC CONSIDERATION IN HYDROLOGY

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Learning Objectives

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1.1

What is Water Balance?

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1.2

Definition of Key Variables in Water Balance Study

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1.3

Importance of Water Balance

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1.4

Sustainable Water Management

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References and Further Reading

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MODULE 2 VARIOUS METHODS AND TOOLS USED FOR WATER BALANCE STUDY

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Learning Objectives

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2.1

Introduction

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2.2

Various Methods of Carrying Out Water Balance Study

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References and Further Reading

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MODULE 3 CASE STUDY AND APPLICATION OF WATER BALANCE STUDY

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Learning Objectives

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3.1

Introduction

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3.2

Case Study Area

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3.2.1

Data Requirement

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3.2.2

Data Processing

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3.2.3

Methodology and Analysis

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3.2.4

Results and Discussion

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Contents

TABLE OF CONTENTS

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Conclusion

References and Further Reading

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MODULE 4 CLIMATE CHANGE AND ITS IMPACT ON WATER BALANCE

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Learning Objectives

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4.1

What is Climate Change?

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4.2

Climate Change and Hydrologic Variability

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4.3

Impacts of Climate Change on Water Balance

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4.3.1

Recharge

4.3.2

Discharge

4.3.3

Water Storage

4.4

38 39 39 40 40 41

Impacts on Water Dependent Sectors

4.4.1

Water Supply

4.4.2

Agriculture

4.4.3

Ecosystems

References and Further Reading

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MODULE 5 ADAPTATION TO CLIMATE CHANGE

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Learning Objectives 5.1 5.2

What is Adaptation?

5.3 5.4

Adaptive Water Management Building Adaptive Capacity for Water Management

Types of Adaptation

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References and Further Reading

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MODULE 6 STAKEHOLDER PARTICIPATION IN WATER MANAGEMENT

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Learning Objectives

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6.1

Why to Involve Stakeholder?

6.2 6.3 6.4

Stakeholder Analysis and Identification of Key Stakeholders

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Stakeholders Functions in Water Management

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Institutional Mechanisms for Stakeholder Participation in Water Management

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References and Further Reading

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Contents

3.3

MODULE 7 INFORMATION MANAGEMENT AND DISSEMINATION Learning Objectives

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7.1

Introduction

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7.2

Information Management Process

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7.2.1

Information Capture

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7.2.2

Information Processing

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7.2.3

Information Sharing and Dissemination

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7.3

Information Management Tools

7.4

Modelling and Monitoring

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7.5

Dissemination Methods and Materials

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7.6

Conclusion

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References and Further Reading

Contents

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Contents

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Foreword The amount of freshwater on Earth is finite, but its distribution has varied considerably, driven mainly by natural cycles of freezing and thawing and fluctuations in precipitation, water runoff patterns and evapotranspiration levels. Alongside natural causes, there is pressure from continuing human activities related to development and economic growth. A range of physical, socio-economic and climate change factors have contributed to the current stress on fresh water resources, and these will influence their management in the future also. Climate change is likely

Inadequate information to inform water allocation; lack of qualified personnel; increasing contamination of water resources from agriculture, industries and mining; uncontrolled water abstraction; lack of land use planning; inadequate financial capacity and a lack of education and awareness amongst stakeholders are some of the challenges ahead that needs to be addressed urgently. There is widespread recognition that water resources, including groundwater and surface water, are coming under pressure from increasing demand of water uses. Water supply systems have often been developed in an unsustainable way, threatening vital social and economic developments. As a result many governments have been reforming water resources management to adopt the approach known as Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM). An important objective of this training manual is to address the factors that influence water storage and how water can be used in the most beneficial way based on available water budget which is the output from a water balance study. The goal of this manual is to introduce the broader framework of water management to be used by the water engineers/professionals, mangers so that they can identify the various challenges of water management and take appropriate measure to mitigate or eliminate the problems. Various tools have been introduced to estimate water budget, pros and cons of each tools were discussed. The manual also highlight the impact of climate change on water sector and various adaptive measures that can be used as potential mitigation measures. It also emphasis the issue of public participation and various stakeholders’ roles for water management. Finally it explains the importance on information management for processing various hydrological data and the process of disseminating information among various stake holders.

5 5

Foreword

to lead to a greater dependence on water and increase uncertainty in surface water availability.

MODULE 1 WATER BALANCE AND BASIC CONSIDERATION IN HYDROLOGY

Learning Objectives To understand the basic concepts of water balance study. To understand the various parameters used in water balance study and hydrological cycle. To identify the challenges of water management and the importance of water balance study to address the challenges ahead.

1.1 What is Water Balance? The water balance is an accounting of the inputs and outputs of water. The water balance of a place, whether it is an agricultural field, watershed, or continent, can be determined by calculating the input, output, and storage changes of water at the Earth's surface. The assessment also takes into account the existing supply of stocks and future appropriation of these stocks. Water inputs are brought by precipitation. Outputs are from the combination of evaporation and the transpiration of plants, called evapotranspiration. Both quantities are estimated in terms of the amount of water per surface unit, but they are generally translated into water heights, the most currently used unit being the millimetre. Mathematically, we can express it as

P = E + dS/dt………………………………………………Eq. 1.1

Where P is Precipitation mm/area E is Evapotranspiration mm/area dS/dt is change in storage per

time step in mm/area

dS/dt

Figure 1.1 A simple water balance diagram.

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  

However, from hydrological point of view we can express precipitation as:

P = E + R + I + dS/dt

Where P is Precipitation mm/area E is Evapotranspiration mm/area R is Runoff mm/area

dS/dt is change in storage per time step in mm/area

Each water system is unique in that the source and amount of water flowing through the system is dependent upon external factors such as rate of precipitation, location of streams and other surface water bodies, and rate of evapotranspiration. The one common factor for all water systems, however, is that the total amount of water entering, leaving, and being stored in the system is in balance. An accounting of all the inflows, outflows, and changes in storage is called a water balance. The study of water balances is complicated by the fact that the two commanding variables are not independent of each other. The quantity of evaporated water obviously depends on the total available quantity of water: it stops when the water volume brought by precipitation is exhausted. This has led to the introduction of the notion of potential evapotranspiration: the quantity of water that can go into the atmosphere according to its state alone, assuming that the quantity of available water is not a limiting factor. (The amount of water added to a vase of flowers in order to keep its level constant is a measure of the potential evapotranspiration, depending on the state of the atmosphere in the place where the vase is located.) It is usual, in the study of water balances, to compare precipitation, P and potential evapotranspiration, ETP, which makes it possible to distinguish different situations according to thresolds that are of special significance for a given place or period of time: 

If P < ETP, the real evaporation will be equal to P; there will be an appropriation of reserves and an absence of runoff; the period will be said to be a deficit period.



If P > ETP, the real evaporation will be equal to the ETP; there will be runoff and a building up of reserves; the period will be called surplus period.

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I is Infiltration mm/area

1.2 Definition of Key Variables in Water Balance Study Precipitation Precipitation is any form of water that falls to the Earth's surface. Different forms of precipitation include drizzle, rain, hail, snow, sleet. Precipitation is a major component of the water cycle and is responsible for depositing the fresh water on the planet. Approximately 505,000 cubic kilometres (121,000 cubic miles) of water falls as precipitation each year; 398,000 cubic kilometres (95,000

the globally averaged annual precipitation is 990 millimetres (39 inch).

Evapotranspiration Evapotranspiration (ET) means transport of water into the atmosphere from surfaces, including soil (soil evaporation), and from vegetation (transpiration). The latter two are often the most important contributors to evapotranspiration. Other contributors to evapotranspiration may include evaporation from wet canopy surface (wet-canopy evaporation), and evaporation from vegetation-covered water surface in wetlands. The process of evapotranspiration is one of the main consumers of solar energy at the Earth's surface. Energy used for evapotranspiration is generally referred to as latent heat flux; however, the term latent heat flux is broad, and includes other related processes unrelated to transpiration including condensation (e.g., fog, dew), and snow and ice sublimation. Apart from precipitation, evapotranspiration is one of the most significant components of the water cycle. Assuming that moisture is available, evapotranspiration is dependent primarily on the availability of solar energy to vaporize water. Evapotranspiration therefore varies with latitude, season of year, time of day, and cloud cover. Most of the evapotranspiration of water on the Earth's surface occurs in the subtropical oceans. Evaporation can classified as

Actual evapotranspiration (AE or AET) Potential evapotranspiration (PE or PET)

Actual evapotranspiration (AE or AET) is the quantity of water that is actually removed from a surface due to the processes of evaporation and transpiration. While Potential evapotranspiration or PE is a measure of the ability of the atmosphere to remove water from the surface through the processes of evaporation and transpiration assuming no control on water supply. Since PET assumes that water availability is unlimited, vegetation would never reach the wilting point (the point in which there is not enough water left in the soil for a plant to transpire). Therefore, the only limit to the transpiration rate of the plant is due to the physiology of the plant and not due to any atmospheric or soil moisture restrictions. Therefore, PET is considered the maximum ET rate

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cubic miles) of it over the oceans (Chowdhury, 2005). Given the Earth's surface area, that means

possible with a given set of meteorological and physical parameters. On this basis, any irrigation that supplies more water than PET can accommodate could be viewed as wasted water. The rate of evapotranspiration at any location on the Earth's surface is controlled by several factors: 

The availability of energy. The more energy available, the greater the rate of evapotranspiration. It takes about 600 calories of heat energy to change 1 gram of liquid water into a gas.



The humidity gradient away from the surface. The rate and quantity of water vapor



The wind speed immediately above the surface. The process of evapotranspiration moves water vapor from ground or water surfaces to an adjacent shallow layer that is only a few centimeters thick. When this layer becomes saturated evapotranspiration stops. However, wind can remove this layer replacing it with drier air which increases the potential for evapotranspiration. Winds also affect evapotranspiration by bringing heat energy into an area. A 5-mile-per-hour wind will increase still-air evapotranspiration by 20 %; a 15mile-per-hour wind will increase still-air evapotranspiration by 50 %.



Availability of water. Evapotranspiration cannot occur if water is not available.



Physical attributes of the vegetation. Such factors as vegetative cover, plant height, leaf area index and leaf shape and the reflectivity of plant surfaces can affect rates of evapotranspiration. For example coniferous forests and alfalfa fields reflect only about 25 % of solar energy, thus retaining substantial thermal energy to promote transpiration; in contrast, deserts reflect as much as 50 % of the solar energy, depending on the density of vegetation.



Stomata resistance. Plants regulate transpiration through adjustment of small openings in the leaves called stomata. As stomata close, the resistance of the leaf to loss of water vapor increases, decreasing to the diffusion of water vapor from plant to the atmosphere.



Soil characteristics. Soil characteristics that can affect evapotranspiration include its heat capacity, and soil chemistry.

Interception Interception is the amount of rainfall, which is intercepted and will not infiltrate into the ground or take apart in the runoff process. Interception significantly reduces precipitation intensity as water is first temporarily stored and much is lost. It is that part of the precipitation on the canopy that doesn't reach the ground, because it evaporates from the canopy (canopy interception loss) and from near-ground plants and leaf litter (litter interception loss) or, to a lesser extent, is absorbed by plants. Interception increases exponentially during a storm until the interception capacity is achieved and the weight of more rain overcomes the surface tension holding the water on the plants. Interception depends on the following factors: 9

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entering into the atmosphere both become higher in drier air.



Growth of trees, shrubs, grasses, forbs  coniferous trees intercept 25-35% of annual precipitation  deciduous trees intercept 15-25% of annual precipitation, but just as much as coniferous trees during the growing season  trees also have greater interception capacity because they project above ground and into the wind, creating turbulence which drives water on the lee side and into the interior of the tree  grasses and forbs have high interception capacity during the growing but

grazed and harvested (spring wheat intercepts 11-19% of precipitation before harvest) 

Plant density  biomass data (mass/unit area) are a poor indication of interception capacity, rather the extent of ground cover and canopy closure are the important aspect of density



Plant structure: number, size, flexibility, strength and pattern of branches; texture, surface area and orientation of leaves.  trees native to regions of heavy snowfall have flexible branches and trunks to support and shed heavy snow loads (10-20 kg/m2 for wet snow)  thus forest data (tree heights, diameters and volumes) are a poor indication of interception capacity since they don't convey tree structure



Plant community structure  secondary interception occurs in stratified forest communities where water drips from the canopy and is intercepted by lower plants  in short vegetation, interception storage merges with surface storage, especially if the plants are flexible and bed under the weight of water (e.g., the lodging of crops, which can substantially reduce yields)  snowcover on shrubby vegetation and tall grasses is very irregular with large void spaces representing up to 40% of the snowpack

Surface Runoff Surface Runoff is flow from a drainage basin or watershed that appears in surface streams. It generally consists of the flow that is unaffected by artificial diversions, storages or other works that society might have on or in a stream channel. The flow is made up partly of precipitation that falls directly on the stream, surface runoff that flows over the land surface and through channels, subsurface runoff that infiltrates the surface soils and moves laterally towards the stream, and groundwater runoff from deep percolation through the soil horizons. Part of the subsurface flow enters the stream quickly, while the remaining portion may take a longer period before joining the 10

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then either die (annual plants) or loose mass (perennial plants); also they are

water in the stream. When each of the component flows enters the stream, they form the total runoff. The total runoff in the stream channels is called stream flow and it is generally regarded as direct runoff or base flow.

Infiltration Infiltration is the physical process involving movement of water through the boundary area where the atmosphere interfaces with the soil. The surface phenomenon is governed by soil surface

profile. Typically, the infiltration rate depends on the striking of the water at the soil surface by the impact of raindrops, the texture and structure of the soil, the initial soil moisture content, the decreasing water concentration as the water moves deeper into the soil filling of the pores in the soil matrices, changes in the soil composition, and to the swelling of the wetted soils that in turn close cracks in the soil.

Base flow Groundwater seepage into a stream channel is called baseflow. During most of the year, stream flow is composed of both groundwater discharge and land surface runoff. When groundwater provides the entire flow of a stream, baseflow conditions are said to exist. The amount of baseflow a stream receives is closely linked to the permeability of rock or soil in the watershed.

1.3 Importance of Water Balance The concept of water balance provides a framework for studying the hydrological characteristics and behavior of a catchment. The estimation of water balance is necessary in water resources development not only for economic appraisal of the project but also for checking the reliability and general pattern of availability of water on a monthly or yearly basis. The planning, development and operation of water resources project is dependent upon the availability of water in the required quantity. Water balance study is an essential part before deciding for an irrigation project. A water balance provides a means of testing, confirming or refining our hydrological understanding of the system. The modelling approach may be a useful tool to refine our understanding of the system.

1.4 Sustainable Water Management Sustainable Water Management is simply to manage our water resources while taking into account the needs of present and future users. However, it involves much more than its name

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conditions. Water transfer is related to the porosity of the soil and the permeability of the soil

implies. It involves a whole new way of looking at how we use our precious water resources. The International Hydrological Programme, a UNESCO initiative, noted: "It is recognised that water problems cannot be solved by quick technical solutions, solutions to water problems require the consideration of cultural, educational, communication and scientific aspects. Given the increasing political recognition of the importance of water, it is in the area of sustainable freshwater management that a major contribution to avoid/solve water-related problems, including future conflicts, can be found."

sectors affecting water use, including political, economic, social, technological and environmental considerations. A key issue of sustainable water management is balancing the available resources with the increasing demands of water use. To that end, the following resources management objectives are crucial: 

Balancing groundwater recharge against abstraction is the main emphasis of groundwater management.



Sustainable management of water resources cannot be achieved only by addressing surface water management but must include groundwater. A new approach guided by IWRM principles and goals is needed for water resource governance and management.

1.5 Concepts of IWRM At its simplest, IWRM is a logical and appealing concept. Its basis is that the many different uses of water resources are interdependent. That is evident to us all. High irrigation demands and polluted drainage flows from agriculture mean less freshwater for drinking or industrial use; contaminated municipal and industrial wastewater pollutes rivers and threatens ecosystems; if water has to be left in a river to protect fisheries and ecosystems, less can be diverted to grow crops. There are plenty more examples of the basic theme that unregulated use of scarce water resources is wasteful and inherently unsustainable. Integrated management means that all the different uses of water resources are considered together. Water allocations and management decisions consider the effects of each use on the others. They are able to take account of overall social and economic goals, including the achievement of sustainable development. This also means ensuring coherent policy making related to all sectors. As we shall see, the basic IWRM concept has been extended to incorporate participatory decision-making. Different user groups (farmers, communities, environmentalists) can influence strategies for water resource development and management. That brings additional benefits, as informed users apply local self-regulation in relation to issues such as water conservation and catchment protection far more effectively than central regulation and surveillance can achieve. Management is used in its broadest sense. It emphasises that we must

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Therefore, it attempts to deal with water in a holistic fashion, taking into account the various

not only focus on development of water resources but that we must consciously manage water development in a way that ensures long term sustainable use for future generations.

Box 1.1. Dublin statements and principles

Principle No. 1 - Fresh water is a finite and vulnerable resource, essential to sustain life, development and the environment

approach, linking social and economic development with protection of natural ecosystems. Effective management links land and water uses across the whole of a catchment area or groundwater aquifer.

Principle No. 2 - Water development and management should be based on a participatory approach, involving users, planners and policy-makers at all levels The participatory approach involves raising awareness of the importance of water among policy-makers and the general public. It means that decisions are taken at the lowest appropriate level, with full public consultation and involvement of users in the planning and implementation of water projects.

Principle No. 3 - Women play a central part in the provision, management and safeguarding of water This pivotal role of women as providers and users of water and guardians of the living environment has seldom been reflected in institutional arrangements for the development and management of water resources. Acceptance and implementation of this principle requires positive policies to address women’s specific needs and to equip and empower women to participate at all levels in water resources programmes, including decision-making and implementation, in ways defined by them.

Principle No. 4 - Water has an economic value in all its competing uses and should be recognized as an economic good Within this principle, it is vital to recognize first the basic right of all human beings to have access to clean water and sanitation at an affordable price. Past failure to recognize the economic value of water has led to wasteful and environmentally damaging uses of the resource. Managing water as an economic good is an important way of achieving efficient and equitable use, and of encouraging conservation and protection of water resources.

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Since water sustains life, effective management of water resources demands a holistic

IWRM is therefore a systematic process for the sustainable development, allocation and monitoring of water resource use in the context of social, economic and environmental objectives. It contrasts with the sectoral approach that is still applied in many countries. When responsibility for drinking water rests with one agency, for irrigation water with another and for the environment with yet another, lack of cross-sectoral linkages leads to uncoordinated water resource development and management, resulting in conflict, waste and unsustainable systems.

Cap-Net, 2005, IWRM Plans Manual. http://www.cap-net.org/node/1515. Cap-Net, 2008, IWRM for River Basin Organisations - training manual, http://www.capnet.org/node/1494. Dr.

Chowdhury's

Guide

to

Planet

Earth,

2005,

"The

Water

Cycle",

WestEd.

http://www.planetguide.net/book/chapter_2/water_cycle.html. Retrieved 24-10-2006. GWP, 2004, Catalyzing Change: A handbook for developing integrated water resources management (IWRM)

and

water

efficiency

strategies,

ISBN:

91-974559-9-7,

www.gwpforum.org/gwp/library/Catalyzing_change-final.pdf. Kapp, H.V., 1985, Evaporation and Transpiration, In Handbook of Applied Meteorology, ed. D. Houghton, pp. 537-554, New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc. Sustainable Water Management, http://www.dainet.org/water/intro.htm. Watson, I. and Burnett, A.D., 1995, Hydrology: An environmental approach, Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.

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References and Further Reading

MODULE 2 VARIOUS METHODS AND TOOLS USED FOR WATER BALANCE STUDY



To understand various methods used for water balance study.



Identify various tools used for computing water balance.

2.1 Introduction Water balance techniques, one of the main subjects in hydrology, are a means of solution of important theoretical and practical hydrological problems. On the basis of the water balance approach it is possible to make a quantitative evaluation of water resources and their change under the influence of anthropogenic and climatic activities. The water budget of a catchment for a time interval Δt is written as P – R – G – E – T = ΔS…………………….Eq. 2.1

Where P = Precipitation R = Surface Runoff G = Net groundwater flow out of the catchment E = Evaporation T = Transpiration ΔS = Change in storage The storage consists of three components as S = Ss + Sm + Sg Where Ss = Surface water storage Sm = Storage of water as soil moisture Sg = Storage of water as groundwater Therefore ΔS = ΔSs + ΔSm + ΔSg

2.2 Various Methods of Carrying Out Water Balance Study Many regions are facing formidable freshwater management challenges. Allocation of limited water resources, concerns regarding environmental quality, planning under climate variability and uncertainty, and the need to develop and implement sustainable water use strategies are increasingly pressing issues for water resource planners. Conventional supply-oriented simulation

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Learning Objectives

models are not always adequate for exploring the full range of management options. In order to calculate water storage a number of methods can be used from simple to complex. Method 1: The simplest one is P = ET + dS/dt already mentioned as Eq. 2.2 This method is particularly useful for a catchment area where vegetation types are known and surface runoff and infiltration are negligible as compared to evapotranspiration. Since infiltration is too small and hence storage of groundwater would be too small to consider here. This method

future climate scenario with changes in precipitation and evapotranspiration. The snow cover and melting of ice affect has also been neglected as most of the developing countries are located in tropical or arid regions. Precipitation influences the plant species, quality and quantity of water consumption, root depth and shading conditions (Comstock and Ehleringer, 1992). It has been also observed that old trees do not use surface water but consume water from deep layers and therefore have less significance on water balance (Dowson and Ehleringer, 1991). Complexity of interactions between elements of atmosphere-plant-soil system and temporal variability of vegetation cover, amount of available water and dynamic atmosphere conditions are the agents for complexity of ET computations that take place in the form of water vapour fluxes, a common parameter in water and energy balance equations; that has been identified as a key factors in hydrological modeling. For this reason several methods have been developed to calculate potential evapotranspiration (ETP) (Buttafuoco et al., 2010). ETP is an essential parameter for computation of effective recharge and evaporation from ground water. There are some known methods as Pennman-Monteith, Thorwaite and Hragreaves, Hamon and FAO56-PM to compute ETP. There is not much differences between them and FAO56-PM is more suitable for computation of ETP because of its simplicity (Alkaeed et al., 2006). Method 2: This method is more accurate than the previous method as it calculates runoff and infiltration with precipitation and evapotranspiration as shown in the eq. below P = ET + R + I + dS/dt………………………………………Eq. 2.2 Since runoff and infiltration depends on the soil type and hence geological characteristics of the catchment area is required to be known to calculate runoff. The catchment area can be sub-divided into a number of small segments with its geo-characteristics known. The use of GIS data could be very helpful to identify the soil profile or spatial distribution of the catchment area. The storage Δs for each segment can be computed and summed up to estimate the total storage. The direct run-off is estimated using the SCS-CN method (Soil Conservation Service, 1972). The SCS method has been successfully used as it gives consistently usable results for run-off

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can be widely applied in a large catchment area and water balance can be computed based on

estimation (Rao et al., 1996; Yu, 1998; Sharma et al., 2001; Chandramohan and Durbude, 2001; Sharma and Kumar, 2002). The SCS method uses the following Equations R = (P – 0.2S)2 / (P + 0.8S) if P > 0.2S and R = 0 if P < 0.2S

where R is the accumulated run-off volume or rainfall excess, P is the precipitation,

S = (25000/CN) - 254 (Q, P and S in mm),

where CN are the curve numbers (Soil Conservation Service, 1972). Method 3: This method is the most accurate one as net groundwater water flow out of the catchment, G and withdrawal or extraction of water, W by human for water supply or agricultural consumption is taken into consideration. P = ET + R + I + G + W + dS/dt………………………………………Eq. 2.3

The groundwater flow or subsurface lateral flow can be computed using hydrograph. While runoff and infiltration depends on the soil type. The catchment area can be sub-divided into a number of small segments using GIS data and computation can be carried out. However, the total withdrawal of water needs to be calculated and it has to be deducted from computed total storage ΔS to obtain the final storage of a catchment area.

WEAP (Water Evaluation and Planning) WEAP is a tool for integrated catchment hydrology and water supply modelling, assessment and planning (Yates et. al., 2005).The reason for using WEAP is that it provides a comprehensive, flexible and user-friendly framework for planning and policy analysis. WEAP has been widely used in various field as it has the capability to calculate water demand, supply, runoff, infiltration, crop requirements, flows, and storage, and pollution generation, treatment, discharge and instream water quality under varying hydrologic and policy scenarios (Vogel et al., 2007; Hall and Murphy, 2010; Akivaga et al., 2010; Ospina-Norena et al., 2011; Condom et al,. 2011). It evaluates a full range of water development and management options, and takes into account of multiple and competing uses of water systems. WEAP operates on the basic principle of a water balance and can be applied to municipal and agricultural systems, a single watershed or complex transboundary river basin systems. Rainfall runoff is simulated using either the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO rainfall-runoff) or the soil moisture sub-routines in WEAP. The model simulation is structured as a set of scenarios with monthly time steps. WEAP solves the 17

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and S is the maximum soil water retention parameter, computed from

water allocation problem by a linear programme with the objective of maximizing demand node satisfaction constrained by water availability, demand priority, supply priority and proximity to supply.

References and Further Reading Akivaga, E. M., Fred A. O. Otieno, F. A. O., Kipkorir, E. C., Kibiiy, J. and Shitote, S., 2010, Impact of introducing reserve flows on abstractive uses in water stressed Catchment in

Vol. 5, No.16, pp. 2441-2449, Available online at http://www.academicjournals.org/IJPS. Alkaeed, O., Flores, C., Jinno, K. and Tsutsumi, A., 2006, Comparison of several reference evapotranspiration methods for itoshima peninsula area, Fukuoka, Japan, Memoirs of the Faculty of Engineering, Kyushu University, Vol. 66. No.1. Buttafuoco, G. T., Caloiero and Coscarelli, R., 2010, Spatial uncertainity assessment in modeling reference evaporation at regional scale, Hydrol. Earth. Syst. Sci., Vol. 14, pp. 2319-2327. Chandramohan, T. and Durbude, D. G., 2001, Estimation of runoff using small watershed models, Journal of Hydrology, Vol. 24, No. 2, pp.45–53. Comstock, J. P. and Ehleringer, J. R., 1992, Plant adaptation in great basin and Colorado Plateau, Great Basin Nat., Vol. 52, pp. 195-215. Condom, T., Escobar, M., Purkey, D., Pouget, J. C., Suarez, W., Ramos, C., Apaestegui, J., Zapata M., Gomez, J. and Vergara, W., 2011, Modelling the hydrologic role of glaciers within a Water Evaluation and Planning System (WEAP): a case study in the Rio Santa watershed (Peru). Hydrology Earth System. Science. Discussion. Vol. 8, pp. 869–916, 2011,www.hydrol-earth-syst-sci-discuss.net/8/869/2011/. Dowson, T. E. and Ehleringer, J. R., 1991, Streamside trees that do not use stream water, Nature, Vol. 350, pp. 335-337. Hall, J. and Murphy, C., 2010, Vulnerability Analysis of Future Public Water Supply Under Changing Climate Conditions: A Study of the Moy Catchment, Western Ireland, Water Resource Management, Vol. 24, pp. 3527–3545. Ospina-Norena, J. E., Gay-Garcia, C. and Conde, A. C., 2011. Water availability as a limiting factor and optimization of hydropower generation as an adaptation strategy to climate change in the Sinú-Caribe river basin, Atmósfera, Vol. 24, No. 2, pp. 203-220. Rao, K. V., Bhattacharya, A. K. and Mishra, K., 1996, Runoff estimation by curve number method – case studies, Journal of Soil Water Conservation, Vol. 30, No. 2, pp.141-145. Sharma, D. and Kumar, V., 2002, Application of SCS model with GIS data base for estimation of runoff in an arid watershed, Journal of Soil and Water Conservation, Vol. 30, No. 2, pp.141–145.

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Kenya: Application of WEAP21 model, International Journal of the Physical Sciences

Sharma, T., Satya, K. P. V., Singh, T. P., Trivedi, A. V. and Navalgund, R. R., 2001, Hydrologic response of a watershed to landuse changes: a remote sensing and GIS approach, Int. J. of Remote Sensing, Vol. 22, No. 11, pp. 2095–2108. Soil Conservation Service, 1972, Soil Conservation Service, US Dept. of Agriculture National engineering handbook, Section 4, hydrology, Chapters 7–10. US Govt. Print. Off. Washington, DC. Yates, D., Sieber, J., Purkey, D. and Huber-Lee, A., 2005, WEAP21 - A demand, priority and Preference driven water planning model, Part 1: model characteristics, Water

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International, Vol. 30, pp. 487–500.

19

MODULE 3 CASE STUDY AND APPLICATION OF WATER BALANCE



To validate the models based on case study



To understand the application of water balance study

3.1 Introduction Validation of model is important and to validate the model, a case study has been demonstrated.

3.2

Case Study Area

The case study area is chosen from Bangladesh (South Asia) to validate the model.

Case Study Area: Bangladesh Dhaka, the capital of Bangladesh, is situated in the central part of the country and has an area of 298 Sq. Km. It is bounded by the Buriganga River in the south, the Balu River in the east, the Tongi Khal in the north and the Turag River in the west (Figure 3.1). These rivers are connected to the Ganges-Brahmaputra River system (locally known as the Padma-Meghna-Jamuna River system and also include the Old Brahmaputra river) flowing towards southeast from the all sides of the bigger neighbouring region of the study area. The bigger area is closely dissected by number of rivers and cannals which are hydrologically connected to these major rivers. Dhaka is the fastest growing mega-city in the world (UN, 1999; Alam and Rabbani, 2007), with an estimated 300,000 to 400,000 new migrants, mostly poor, arriving to the city annually. Its population is currently around 12 million and is projected to grow to 20 million in 2020, making it the world’s third largest city (BBS, 2011). The landform of the city is characterized by the Madhupur Tract--an elevated Pleistocene terrace (Morgan and McIntire, 2007) that stands higher than the neighbouring floodplain and lowlying marshlands. The area represents significant variation in elevation ranges from 1.5 to 15 m with an average of 6 m above PWD (Public Works Datum) (+/- 0.45 meter with respect to mean sea level). The area slopes towards southeast, east and west, but general slope is from the north to southeast where the ground surface merges gently with the floodplains of the Buriganga River. The eastern edge is mainly covered by the floodplains of the Balu River. These floodplains are characterized by low-lying depressions and marshy areas which remain inundated during significant period of the year. The storm runoff accumulates in the low-lying areas, flows through canals and local rivers and ultimately discharges to the major rivers. These lowlands and wetlands

20

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Learning Objectives

are performing important drainage function by storing storm water and keep the relatively higher lands free from rainfall flooding. The area has a tropical monsoon (May to October) climate like

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other part of the country with an average precipitation of 2000 mm/year.

Figure 3.1 Map of Dhaka City

3.2.1 Data Requirement Data are required to quantify: precipitation, evaporation, evapotranspiration, wind velocity and solar radiation. Such data may come from one or more of many sources, including site measurement records, regional databases—usually the local airport, local and national databases accessible on the web, or synthetically generated data that many computer codes produce. Data may be also needed for a water balance study about local stream flow, surface runoff patterns and 21

quantities, and infiltration patterns and rates depends on the details of water balance study carried out.

3.2.2 Data Processing The average daily precipitation and evapotranspiration data is obtained as Excel file or Dbase format which is used as the basic input during the modeling analysis. The GIS data in the form of vectors or shape files were used to delineate the catchment or river basin area as shown in Fig. 3.2

km. of which 37.69 sq. km. 12.62 sq. km is residential area and 3.37 sq. km. is industrial area. The rest of the area 21.7 sq. km. is agriculture type. The cultivated area based on various crops and vegetation types are calculated.

Figure 3.2 Catchment area delineated using GIS ArcView

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below. The catchment area is calculated using spatial function of GIS ArcView which 37.69 sq.

3.2.3 Methodology and Analysis The simple method for calculating water storage by knowing precipitation and evapotranspiration i.e. equation P = ET + dS/dt has been used. The precipitation data in mm, mean maximum temperature in oC, mean minimum temperature in oC, air humidity %, wind speed in km/day, daily sunshine in hours from the year 2002 to 2011 was obtained from Bangladesh Meteorological Department (BMD) for study area Demra of Dhaka city. The evapotranspiration was calculated using FAO Pennman-Monteith equation. The evapotranspiration ET for the agriculture area can

following equation: ET = ETf x K……………………Eq. 3.1 The value of K for selected crops are given in Table 3.1.

Table 3.1 Values of K for selected crops (Source: Subramanya, 2008)

Crops

Average value of K

Range of monthly values

Rice

1.10

0.85-1.30

Wheat

0.65

0.50-0.75

Maize

0.65

0.50-0.80

Sugarcane

0.90

0.75-1.00

Cotton

0.65

0.50-0.90

Potatoes

0.70

0.65-0.75

Natural Vegetation Very Dense

1.30

Dense

1.20

Medium

1.00

Light

0.80

While the Actual Evapotranspiration ET for the urban (industry and residential area) are calculated using the following equation (Pike, 1964). ET = ( P)/(√(1+(P/ET)2)) ………………………………Eq. 3.2 The landuse map for the catchment area or the study area is obtained as GIS data and type of vegetation cover is calculated from using GIS spatial function. The no. of pixels for each type of vegetation cover is determined. Each pixel has unique ET which is calculated based on particular type of vegetation for which crop coefficient is known. The analysis is done using a computer model that is developed in Java and linked to the database MySQL/PostgreSQL where time series 23

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be calculated by multiplying the reference evapotranspiration ET f by crop coefficient K as per the

data such as precipitation, evapotranspiration can be stored. The model obtains the required data from the database and compute storage of water which is compared with measured discharge for validating the model. The methodology describes the application of Geographic Information System (GIS) technology in the field WPS (Web Processing Service) integration. Hydro information system (HIS) have been developed by Spanou and Chen (Spanou and Chen, 2002) and Leone et al. (2007), which used object oriented (OO) technologies with extensions of OpenGIS standards (OpenGIS, 2006) . Thus, HIS not only provides a link to a relational database management

process using XML and Java based coding standard for the OpenGIS Consortium (OGC, http://www.opengeospatial.org/). A user-friendly interface has been developed based on Openlayers for integrating WPS in HIS. A case study related to water balance study is demonstrated using 52 oN Geo-processing service.

WPS WPS technique can analysis and process the data through web, which is open source and can be developed by Java language. The result obtained through analysis can be directly posted on the internet. WPS provides us a solution with accuracy and reliability, which can reduce the time and cost to make a forecast.

The Software architecture The specified Web Processing Service (WPS) provides client access to pre-programmed calculations and computation models that operate on spatially referenced data. The data required by the WPS can be delivered across a network, or available at the server.

Figure 3.3 The WPS’s architecture

24

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systems and simulation models in client side, but also facilitates the development of the internet

WPS interface specifies three operations-GetCapabilities, DescribeProcess and Execute in order to make applications easier to assemble, maintain and extend. GetCapabilities provides the names and general descriptions of each of the processes offered by a WPS instance. For example in water balance study GetCapabilities extract data for precipitation, evapotranspiration and landuse data, DescribeProcess describe the detailed information about the processes that can be run on the

Inherent Hydro

Model

Server

Model

OpenLayers

XML

Hydro Information

Client

System

Describe WPS

GetCapilibities

process

Execute

Figure 3.4 The HIS’s architecture

Development of Hydro Information System and Display of map using 52oN The research has focused on development of such a system that deals with different areas of water resources engineering starting from low-flow estimation, vegetation water content, non-point source pollutant load (Shams et al., 2010) and ground water contamination. Water discharge module which compares the calculated or predicted water discharge with measured water discharge is deployed on WPS client. There are totally 74 agriculture areas in catchment in Bangladesh established by the crop coefficient K. The agriculture areas have been shown in Fig. 3.5. Each agriculture area is calculated using spatial function of GIS ArcView which is 90.488m2 for minimum and 489392.728m2 for maximum value. Finally the discharge of each area is calculated by the Eq.3.3. Dischargei = Total Discharge x (Areai / Total Area)……………Eq. 3.3

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service. Execute indicate a specified process implemented by WPS.

Deployment in WPS Generally the Water Discharge Module remains on server side while HIS remains on client side. In server side, XML file relate with DescribeProcess. It sends the type of data for input and output to service. Water Discharge Module complied by Java is uploaded to 52 oN. In addition, the resource map of case study area, Demra of Bangladesh is uploaded as GML format to server. Finally the water discharge module plugin written in HIS activate the module in 52 oN. The

OpenLayers

XML

Water Discharge Module

52oN

HIS

Demra map

PostgreSQL

Figure 3.5 The relationship between WPS service and HIS

XML XML file represents the type of input and output parameter. Based on the simple discharge module, shp file for case study area for example type for Catchment in Bangladesh map and Double type for the N Parameter are as input parameter. Type of polygon Geometries as result for output parameter is shp. The input and out parameter are shown as Fig. 3.6 and Fig. 3.7.

26

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architecture of HIS related with WPS service is shown in Fig.3.5.

Figure 3.7 Output parameter in XML

The core of Run () Water Discharge Module function is shown in Fig. 3.8.

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Figure 3.6 Input parameter in XML

Module 3 Figure 3.8 Water Discharge Module with Java

Upload Case Study map to Service

Figure 3.9 Using Geoserver to upload case study map

28

From 2002 to 2010, there are totally 9 maps uploaded to Geoserver, and they generate GML format to describe geography feature. For example, the GML format for case study map in 2002 is

Figure 3.10 GML format for water discharge in case study area, Demra of Bangladesh in 2002

Client The Fig.3.11 displays java and xml files uploaded in 52 oN.

Figure 3.11 52north Upload water discharge module

29

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shown in Fig. 3.10.

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Finally, the water discharge analysis running in HIS is shown in Figure 3.12.

Figure 3.12 Water Discharge Analysis plugin in HIS

In HIS, the raw hydro data is processed and the outcome which results in meaningful information is simply understood as the Hydro Information. For example by having precipitation and evapotranspiration data for the catchment area, the amount of water stored can be calculated. If N parameter sets 1.5, the spatial map is shown in Figure 3.13 below.

Figure 3.13 Display of Catchment area using 52 oN

30

Accuracy In real, there is an error between the prediction and measure discharge in each agriculture area. Because of the difference of crop coefficient K and value of area, the relativity parameter N used to represent the difference between calculated/predicted and measured discharge.

under 5, Low Ni value represents Predicted discharge is more relative with Measured discharge than High Ni. K is the random value between 10% - 15% based on the value of areas. Generally the N parameter value is under 5 for all lines. Each color represents an agriculture area. There are several agriculture areas with a high N parameter for many years. For example, Fig.13 shows several blue lines have a high N parameter from 2002 to 2006. These blue lines represent the areas that have more errors than other areas. If N=1.5, the number of result line above 1.5 is same as red areas as shown in Fig. 3.14.

Figure 3.14 N parameter for the catchment in Bangladesh (2002-2010)

In Fig. 3.14, the N parameter has two increased rapidly periods which are from 2004 to 2005 for blue lines and for red and pink lines from 2005 to 2006. It makes sense because Table 3.2 displays abundant precipitation from 2004 to 2006. Excess of rainfall or also the recharge season being short, result can increase the error for calculating the predicted discharge. Therefore, the uncertainty in prediction of discharge leads to the increase of N parameter.

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Ni represents the relativity between Predicted and Measured discharge. The Ni value is usually

Predicted annual

Measured annual

Discharge

Discharge

1166.47

910.52

914.80

378.89

1311.34

932.45

944.29

2004

454.46

1407.51

953.05

959.07

2005

330.15

1456.60

1126.45

1151.3

2006

375.33

890.57

515.24

612.34

2007

354.37

1005.6

651.23

698.23

2008

228.29

964.87

736.58

744.65

2009

226.58

780.87

554.29

627.28

2010

246.32

835.55

589.23

641.37

Year

Evaporation

Precipitation

2002

255.95

2003

Table 3.3 Water Storage for the Study area Year

Water Storage (m3)

2002

3.43 x 1010

2003

3.49 x 1010

2004

3.59 x 1010

2005

4.25 x 1010

2006

1.94 x 1010

2007

2.43 x 1010

2008

2.78 x 1010

2009

2.09 x 1010

2010

2.21 x 1010

3.2.4 Results and Discussion The discharge data of Lakhya river flowing through Demra of Dhaka, (Station ID: SW179) was measured from 2002 to 2011 as shown in Fig. 3.15. The annual discharge from the year 2002 to 2011 was calculated based on the time series discharge data for the Demra study area. The discharge from precipitation and evapotranspiration were computed using equation 2.2. The measured annual discharge was compared with the calculated discharge as shown in the Fig. 3.16. The water stored for the study area is computed in Table. 3.3. It shows a declining trend over last decade which indicates a water stress that needs to be managed. This declining trend could be result of increased urbanization with increased population followed by less precipitation. 32

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Table 3.2 Prediction and Measured annual Discharge (2002-2010)

Figure 3.16 Comparison between measured and calculated annual discharge

3.3 Conclusion The study shows that the calculated water storage and observed water storage from the year 2002 to 2010 are close to each other’s which indicated the method applied for computing water storage for the study area is validated. The model can be further used to predict water storage based on precipitation and evapotranspiration data which can be obtained using PRECIS model that has been used for regional climate prediction. The predicted water storage based on various scenarios

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Figure 3.15 Discharge of Lakhya river from 2002-2011 (Source: BWD)

of climate model would assist the decision makers how much water would be available in future so that the water can be allocated wisely.

References and Further Reading Leone, A. and Chen, D., 2007, Implementation of an object oriented data model in an information system for water catchment management: Java JDO and Db4o Object Database, Environmental Modelling & Software, Vol. 22, pp.1805-1810.

Information System (30-HIS) for Upper Mersey River Basin Management. Journal of River Basin Management, Vol 4, No. 2, pp. 1-9. Shams, S. and Huang. J., 2009, Object-Oriented Hydro Information System (OHIS) for the Estimation and Visualization of Vegetation Water Content, Journal of Engineering and Technology (JETIUT), Vol. 7, No. 2, pp. 37- 50. Shams, S., Zakzok, E., Chen, D. and Huang. J., 2010, Estimation and monitoring non-point source pollutant loads: an object oriented hydro information approach. Int. J. Environment and Waste Management. Vol. 6, No.3/4 pp. 220 - 236. Spanou, M. and Chen, D., 2002, Integrated management of Upper Mersey River basin using the SMILE Object-Oriented software system, IWA Water Science and Technology, Vol. 46, No. (6-7), pp.105-112 Subramanya, K., 2008, Engineering Hydrology, McGraw-Hill, pp. 75.

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Leone, A., Shams, S. and Chen, D., 2006, An Object-Oriented and OpenGIS Supported Hydro

MODULE 4 CLIMATE CHANGE AND ITS IMPACT ON WATER BALANCE



To identify the impacts of climate change on water sector.



To understand the basic concepts of adaptive water management.

4.1 What is Climate Change? Climate is the accumulation of weather effects—wind, rainfall, heat, cold—experienced in a place over many years, an average of thousands of days’ worth of weather. Climate is what one expects in a certain place; weather is what occurs day by day. The increase or decrease of global temperature results into climate change, referring to a shift not only for average local temperature but also for rain and snowfall, cloudiness and storms, the seasons, and river flow, with associated impacts on the biosphere, the portion of the Earth and its atmosphere that supports life. According to IPCC 2007, climate change is “an altered state of the climate that can be identified by change in the mean and/or variability of its properties and that persists for an extended period, typically decades or longer”. It may be due to “natural internal processes or external forcing, or to persistent anthropogenic changes in the composition of the atmosphere or in land use” (IPCC, 2007). Any variations in climate have the potential to affect recharge, discharge and groundwater quality, either directly or indirectly.

4.2 Climate Change and Hydrologic Variability Over the past 150 years global mean temperatures have increased with the rate of warming, accelerating in the past 25 to 50 years. This process will continue in the future (IPCC, 2007). There is a consensus among climate scientists that climate warming will intensify, accelerate or enhance the global hydrologic cycle (Genio et al., 1991). According to the IPCC, the greatest vulnerability to climate change is in unsustainably managed ecosystems that are currently water stressed. By 2050, the annual runoff in the Brahmaputra is projected to decline by 14% and that in the Indus by 27% (IPCC, 2001), which will have tremendous downstream consequences. Increased warming might result in increased flows initially with reduced flows later as the glacier disappears. Available records suggest that Gangotri glacier is retreating by about 30 metre per year. A warming is likely to increase melting far more rapidly than accumulation. Glacial melt is expected to increase under changed climate conditions, which would lead to increased summer flows in glacier fed river systems for a few decades, followed by a reduction in flow as the glaciers disappear. Direct impacts of climate change on the water cycle could mean that some regions will become dryer and turn into arid and semi-arid regions, or even deserts (UNESCO35

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Learning Objectives

WWAP, 2009). Changes in water cycles will threaten the survival of fragile ecosystems in these regions, and consequently endanger the lives of people who depend on the natural resources that these ecosystems provide. Beach erosion is now among the most serious environmental issues facing the islands of Maldives. On many islands, the sand at the beach and shoreline are being washed off at a greater rate than it is accreted. The process of coastal erosion and accretion is extremely complex with interrelations to climatic, geological, oceanographic, biological and terrestrial processes affecting the growth and stability of the reefs and island structures. Over 80% of the land area in the

are very vulnerable to inundation and beach erosion. An example of a direct impact would be reduced recharge due to a decrease in precipitation. Sea water intrusion to coastal aquifers due to increased temperature and sea level rise represents an indirect influence on groundwater quality. Groundwater quantity and quality can also be affected by water and land use change. Variations in climate will induce hydrologic change. Table 4.1 summarizes the variations in climate and hydrology that are projected to occur due to global warming. The potential impacts of these changes for groundwater resources are discussed in subsequent sections. It is predicted that climatic fluctuations and extreme weather events will have increasingly negative impacts on agriculture, particularly in developing countries where there are fewer options for adapting. Uncertainties throughout the food chain, over a spectrum ranging from yields to trade dynamics, will be heightened. Water, land, biodiversity and terrestrial ecosystem services will become stressed. This will impact food security and the ability to feed a population approaching 9 billion by 2050.

4.3 Impacts of Climate Change on Water Balance Many studies into the impacts of climate change on water resources have been carried out (Leavesley, 1994; Arnell, 1998). All of these studies used models to translate the assumed climate changes into hydrological responses. Depending on the objectives of the study, the spatial and temporal

scales,

and

the

data

availability,

different

model

conceptualisations

and

parameterisations have been applied (Leavesley, 1994). Kwadijk (1993) developed a monthly water balance model to compare the hydrological impacts in the Rhine basin for different climate scenarios (Kwadijk and Rotmans, 1995). The results indicated that the Rhine regime might shift from mixed snowmelt-rainfall to a rainfall dominated regime resulting increase in mass water storage. Arnell (1998) indicated that discharge may decrease in southern Britain, while in northern Britain it may increase, particularly during winter which will may decrease or increase water storage.

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Maldives is less than 1 m above mean sea level. Being so low-lying, the islands of the Maldives

Variable

Projected future change*

Temperature

Temperatures are projected to increase in the 21st century, with geographical patterns similar to those observed over the last few decades. Warming is expected to be greatest over land and at the highest northern latitudes, and least over the Southern Oceans and parts of the North Atlantic ocean. It is very likely that hot extremes and heat waves will continue to become more frequent.

Precipitation

On a global scale precipitation is projected to increase, but this is expected to vary geographically - some areas are likely to experience an increase and others a decline in annual average precipitation. Increases in the amount of precipitation are likely at high latitudes. At low latitudes, both regional increases and decreases in precipitation over land areas are likely. Many (not all) areas of currently high precipitation are expected to experience precipitation increases, whereas many areas of low precipitation and high evaporation are projected to have precipitation decreases. Drought-affected areas will probably increase and extreme precipitation events are likely to increase in frequency and intensity. The ratio between rain and snow is likely to change due to increased temperatures.

Sea level rise

Global mean sea level is expected to rise due to warming of the oceans and melting of glaciers. The more optimistic projections of global average sea level rise at the end of the 21st century are between 0.18-0.38 m, but an extreme scenario gives a rise up to 0.59 m. In coastal regions, sea levels are likely to also be affected by larger extreme wave events and storm surges.

Evapo-transpiration

Evaporative demand, or potential evaporation, is influenced by atmospheric humidity, net radiation, wind speed and temperature. It is projected generally to increase, as a result of higher temperatures. Transpiration may increase or decrease.

Runoff

Runoff is likely to increase at higher latitudes and in some wet tropics, including populous areas in East and South-East Asia, and decrease over much of the mid-latitudes and dry tropics, which are presently water stressed. Water volumes stored in glaciers and snow cover is likely to decline, resulting in decreases in summer and autumn flows in affected areas. Changes in seasonality of runoff may also be observed due to rapid melting of glaciers and less precipitation falling as snow in alpine areas.

Soil moisture

Annual mean soil moisture content is projected to decrease in many parts of the sub-tropics and generally across the Mediterranean region, and at high latitudes where snow cover diminishes. Soil moisture is likely to increase in East Africa, central Asia, the cone of South America, and other regions with substantial increases in precipitation.

*Relative to 1990 baseline. Source: IPCC (2007), World Bank (2009)

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Table 4.1 Projected impact of global warming for primary climate and hydrologic indicators

4.3.1 Recharge Mass water storage can increase due to recharge from precipitation via the unsaturated soil zone or surface water bodies. Precipitation is the primary climatic driver for groundwater recharge. For evapotranspiration, direct climate change impacts include: (1) changes in groundwater use by vegetation due to increased temperature and CO2 concentrations, and (2) changes in the availability of water to be evaporated or transpired, primarily due to changes in the precipitation regime. Other factors affecting groundwater recharge include land cover, soils, geology,

change on groundwater recharge on a global scale. According to Doll and Floerke (2005) there will be significant decreases in groundwater recharge (>70%) for north-eastern Brazil, the western part of southern Africa and areas along the southern rim of the Mediterranean Sea and increased groundwater recharge (> 30%) across large areas, including the Sahel, Northern China, Western USA and Siberia. Recharge is not only influenced by the magnitude of precipitation, but also by its intensity, seasonality, frequency, and type based on regional variation as shown in Figure 4.1. Other factors are the geological setting of the area and changes in soil properties or vegetation type and water use.

High Altitude Regions Recharge may occur earlier due to warmer winter temperatures, shifting the spring melt from spring toward winter. In areas where permafrost thaws due to increased temperatures, increased recharge is likely to occur.

Temperate Regions Changes to annual recharge will vary depending on climate and other local conditions. In some cases little change may be observed in annual recharge, however, the difference between summer and winter recharge may increase.

Arid and Semi-Arid Regions In many already waterstressed arid and semi-arid areas, groundwater recharge is likely to decrease.

Figure 4.1 Regional variation in recharge (Modified after Doll and Floerke, 2005).

4.3.2 Discharge The impacts of climate change on groundwater discharge are less well understood. In part this reflects the difficulties in measuring discharge, and thus a lack of data to quantify discharge processes. Historically groundwater assessments have also been focused on understanding how much water enters the groundwater system and if this is suitable for human use. Less 38

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topographic relief and aquifer type. Doll and Floerke (2005) estimated the impact of climate

consideration has been given to the ecosystems groundwater supports, such as terrestrial vegetation and groundwater flow to springs, streams, wetlands and oceans. For evapotranspiration, direct climate change impacts include: (1) changes in groundwater use by vegetation due to increased temperature and CO 2 concentrations, and (2) changes in the availability of water to be evaporated or transpired, primarily due to changes in the precipitation regime. Increased duration and frequency of droughts (due to increased temperatures and increased variation in precipitation) is likely to result in greater soil moisture deficits. Where soil water becomes depleted, vegetation may increasingly depend on groundwater for survival (if

evapotranspiration from groundwater. Indirect impacts associated with land use change may also affect groundwater evapotranspiration. Groundwater flow to surface water bodies will be driven by relative head levels between groundwater and surface water. Consequently the effects of climate change are indirect; through alterations to recharge and other discharge mechanisms (e.g. evapotranspiration). If groundwater falls below surface water levels, groundwater discharge may no longer occur (and vice versa). In semi-arid and arid regions, the dependence on groundwater to maintain baseflow in permanent streams is likely to be greater during periods of extended drought. Groundwater pumping also forms a mechanism for groundwater discharge. Projected increases in precipitation variability are likely to result in more intense droughts and floods, affecting the reliability of surface water supplies. Human demand for groundwater is therefore likely to increase to offset this declining surface water availability and, where available, will become a critical facet for communities to adapt to climate change.

4.3.3 Water Storage Water storage is the difference between inflow and outflow over the time frames. Storage is influenced by specific aquifer properties, size and type. Deeper aquifers react, with delay, to large-scale climate change but not to short-term climate variability. Shallow groundwater systems (especially unconsolidated sediment or fractured bedrock aquifers) are more responsive to smaller scale climate variability. The impacts of climate change on storage will also depend on whether or not groundwater is renewable (contemporary recharge) or comprises a fossil resource. For shallow groundwater storage the vulnerability to climate change can partly be solved by artificial recharge. This is further discussed below.

4.4 Impacts on Water Dependent Sectors Water dependent sectors comprise those communities, industries and environments that rely on water for water supply. Dependence on water in developing countries is high, due to either water

39

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groundwater occurs in proximity to the root zone). During dry periods this may lead to increased

scarcity or a lack of safe drinking water from surface water supplies. Climate change and other pressures may compromise the availability and quality of water resources with significant implications for human and environmental health, livelihoods, food security and social and economic stability.

4.4.1 Water Supply Shallow wells often provide an important source of drinking water for rural populations in

these shallow wells to dry up. With limited alternatives for safe drinking water supplies (surface water may be absent or contaminated and deeper wells may not be economically feasible), loss of groundwater would force people to use unsafe water resources or walk long distances for water. This has associated impacts for human health and the capacity (time) to earn an income or gain education. Reduced water availability can cause severe hardships. Drying up of pasture and drinking water to livestock can wipe out herds of livestock that are sources of income, family security and food. Small scale irrigation enterprises, usually reliant on shallow groundwater, may also fail. Where increases in heavy rainfall events are projected, floods can wash away sanitation facilities, spreading waste water and potentially contaminating groundwater resources. This may lead to increased risk of diarrhoeal disease. The risk of such contamination is likely to be greater in urban areas due to higher population density and concentration of source pollutants. In coastal regions, sea water intrusion may limit the capacity of groundwater to serve already large and rapidly expanding populations.

4.4.2 Agriculture It is predicted that climatic fluctuations and extreme weather events will have increasingly negative impacts on agriculture, particularly in developing countries where there are fewer options for adapting. Uncertainties throughout the food chain, over a spectrum ranging from yields to trade dynamics will impact food security and the ability to feed a population approaching 9 billion by 2050 (UN, 2008). Globally, irrigated agriculture is the largest water use sector. 70% of existing global freshwater is withdrawn for irrigation in agriculture (UNESCO-WWAP, 2003). This, however, refers only to water from lakes, rivers and aquifers (blue water), and does not take into account the water stored in the soil from rainfall (green water) that is used in agriculture production. Agriculture is extremely vulnerable to climate change. Higher temperatures eventually reduce yields of desirable crops while encouraging weed and pest proliferation. Changes in precipitation patterns increase the likelihood of short-run crop failures and long-run production declines. Although there will be gains in some crops in some regions of the world, the overall impacts of climate change on agriculture are expected to be negative, threatening global food security (IFPRI, 2009). In areas where the availability of water is reduced, irrigation may

40

Module 4

developing nations. Increased demand and potentially increased severity of droughts may cause

become unviable, particularly if demand for drinking water supply in the area (a higher priority) cannot be met. Alternatively, irrigation may need to occur on an opportunistic basis during periods of water availability or adopt alternative water resources (such as recycled waste water), or technologies and methods for increased water use efficiency.

4.4.3 Ecosystems The impact of climate change is likely to accentuate the competition between human and

implications include the reduction or elimination of stream base flow for aquatic plants and animals, dependent vegetation, and reduced water supply for terrestrial fauna. In areas where salinisation occurs, e.g. coastal regions, salt sensitive species may be lost. Other sources of groundwater contamination may also adversely affect ecosystems. According to Iyer (2005) “Flows are needed for maintaining the river regime, making it possible for the river to purify itself, sustaining aquatic life and vegetation, recharging groundwater, supporting livelihoods, facilitating navigation, preserving estuarine conditions, preventing the incursion of salinity, and enabling the river to play its role in the cultural and spiritual lives of the people”. Ecologists agree that the major criteria for determining EFR should include the maintenance of both spatial and temporal patterns of river flow, i.e. the flow variability, which affects the structural and functional diversity of rivers and their floodplains, and which in turn influences the species diversity of the river (Ward and Tockner; 2001; Ward et al., 2001; Bunn and Arthington, 2002). Thus EF should not only encompass the amounts of water needed but also when and how this water should be flowing in the river.

References and Further Reading Arnell, N. W., 1998, Climate Change and Water Resources in Britain, Climate Change, Vol. 39, pp. 3-110. Bunn S. E. and Arthington, A. H., 2002, Basic principles and ecological consequences of altered flow regimens for aquatic biodiversity, Environmental Management, Vol. 30, pp. 492507. Del Genio, A. D., Lacis, A. A. and Ruedy, R. A., 1991, Simulations of the Effect of a Warmer Climate on Atmospheric Humidity, Nature, Vol. 351, pp. 382-385. Iyer, R. R., 2005, The Notion of Environmental Flows: A Caution NIE/IWMI Workshop on Environmental Flows, New Delhi, 23-24 March 2005. Kwadijk, J. C. J., 1993, The Impact of Climate Change on the Discharge of the River Rhine, Ph.D. Thesis,

Department

of

Physical

Geography,

Geographical Studies, pp. 171.

41

Utrecht

University,

Netherlands

Module 4

ecological water uses, particularly during periods of protracted drought. Environmental

Kwadijk, J. C. J. and Rotmans, J., 1995, The Impact of Climate Change on the River Rhine: A Scenario Study, Climate Change, Vol. 30, pp. 397–425. Leavesley, G. H., 1994, Modeling the Effects of Climate Change on Water Resources - A Review. Climate Change, Vol. 28, pp. 159–177. UN, 2008, Overview of United Nations activities in relation to climate change, Report of the Secretary-General, A/62/644. UNESCO-WWAP, 2009, Climate Change and Water: An overview from the world water development report 3: Water in a changing world. A world water assessment programme

Ward, J. V. and Tockner, K., 2001, Biodiversity: towards a unifying theme for river ecology. Freshwater Biology, Vol. 46, pp. 807-819. Ward, J. V., Tockner, K., Uehlinger, U. and Malard, F., 2001, Understanding natural patterns and processes in river corridors as the basis for effective river restoration, Regulated Rivers: Research and Management, Vol. 17, pp. 311-323.

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special report.

MODULE 5 ADAPTATION TO WATER SECTOR DUE TO CLIMATE CHANGE

Learning Objectives 

To understand the concept of adaptation and various adaptation strategies.



To identify the adaptive water management to minimize the impact of climate change on water sector. To increase and promote adaptive capacity for water management.

5.1 What is Adaptation? Adaptations are adjustments made in natural or human systems in response to experienced or projected climatic conditions or their beneficial or adverse effects or impacts. IPCC defines adaptation as adjustments in ecological, social or economic systems in response to actual or expected climatic stimuli and their effects (Smit et al., 2001). It is concerned with reducing the vulnerability of water dependent systems to climate change and hydrological variability. Adaptation strategies and measures should be based on the results of vulnerability assessments as well as on development objectives, stakeholder considerations and the resources available (UNECE, 2009). If little or no information is available for structured vulnerability assessments, adaptation should be based on available general information combined with expert and local knowledge. Effective adaptation strategies are a mix of structural and non-structural, regulatory and economic instruments, and education and awareness-raising measures to tackle short, medium and long-term impacts of climate change. Given the uncertainty associated with climate change, win-win, no regret and low regret measures should be chosen as a priority. The challenges for adapting to climate change are substantial, particularly in the developing countries (Leary et al., 2007). Developing countries have a high dependence on climate sensitive natural resource sectors for livelihoods and incomes and the changes in climate that are projected for the tropics and sub-tropics, where most developing countries are found, are generally adverse for agriculture. The means and capacity to adapt to changes in climate are scarce due to low levels of human and economic development and high rates of poverty. These conditions combine to create a state of high vulnerability to climate change in much of the developing world.

5.2 Types of Adaptation To be successful, any adaptation strategy should include measures covering all the steps of the adaptation or safety chain: pro-action, prevention, preparation, response and recovery as shown in Fig. 5.1. Pro-action includes taking spatial planning measures such as building houses on high land, keeping retention area to be flooded during flood. Measures for prevention includes building 43

Module 5



dams, embankments and storm surge barriers which can protect from the gradual effects of climate change to extreme events. Preparation, response, and recovery measures are chiefly relevant for extreme events such as floods and droughts and mostly applicable for developing

Figure 5.1 Adaption strategy or safety chain

Figure 5.2 Various types of adaptation strategies (Source: Jos van Alphen, 2011). 44

Module 5

countries which is hostile to nature as shown in Fig. 5.2.

Preparation measures include early warning systems, emergency planning, raising awareness, water storage, water demand management and technological developments to support preparation measures, short-term weather forecasts are needed as well as seasonal forecasts. Response measures include, for instance, evacuation, establishing safe drinking water and sanitation facilities inside or outside affected areas during extreme events, movement of assets out of flood zones, etc. Response measures target the operational level. Recovery measures aim to restore the economic, societal and natural system after an extreme event. To support recovery measures, instance, activities for the reconstruction of infrastructure and operate at the tactical level – short term and long term – e.g. restoration of electricity supply etc. Recovery measures also include insurance, as a risk transfer mechanism.

5.3 Adaptive Water Management A various adaptive measures can be taken to mitigate or reduce the impact of climate change. This section contains a review of adaptation options for risks to water dependent systems from climate change and hydrological variability. A number of adaptations particularly Managed Aquifer Recharge (MAR) can be effectively used to enhance groundwater recharge (Fig.5.1) It is increasingly being considered as an option for improving the security of water supplies in areas where they are scarce (Gale, 2005). MAR is among the most significant adaptation opportunities for developing countries seeking to reduce vulnerability to climate change and hydrological variability. It has several potential benefits, including: storing water for future use, stabilising or recovering groundwater levels in overexploited aquifers, reducing evaporative losses, managing saline intrusion or land subsidence, and enabling reuse of waste or storm water. Sand dams can also be constructed as adaptive measures for water storage. It is made by constructing a wall across a riverbed, which slows flash floods/ephemeral flow and allows coarser sediment to settle out and accumulate behind the dam wall. The sedimentation creates a shallow artificial aquifer which is recharged both laterally and vertically by stream flow (Gale, 2005). Since 1995, over 400 sand dams have been constructed in the Kitui District of Kenya, supported by the SASOL Foundation (Foster and Tuinhof, 2004). Each of these dams provides at least 2,000 m3 of storage and has been constructed by local communities using locally available material. The benefits identified through this program include: water supplies more readily available in the dry season, enhanced food security during drought periods, and less travel time to obtain water supply. Climate change is expected to bring more highs and lows in water availability as well as increasingly erratic rainy seasons. With this larger uncertainty the management of the water buffer assumes a central place. 3R (recharge, retention and reuse) can be used as part of buffer 45

Module 5

predictions are needed both on a seasonal and a long-term basis. Recovery measures include, for

management. It can be applied in humid and arid areas, in rural and urban areas. 3R needs to be part and parcel of local land use planning and regional development. It concerns the up scaling of local water storage techniques (subsurface dams, sand dams, surface storage), large scale infiltration, the creation of water banks, groundwater retention in very humid areas, the conjunctive management of large irrigated areas, controlled drainage, the dovetailing of road planning to water recharge and retention, restoration of wetland etc. According to Khan et al. (1994) wetland holds water for a significant duration sufficient to support organism adapted to life in inundated or saturated soil condition and consists of wide

The extent of groundwater recharge by a wetland is dependent upon soil, vegetation, site, perimeter to volume ratio, and water table gradient (Winter, 1999). Plants and soils in wetlands play a significant role in purifying water, removing high levels of nitrogen and phosphorus, and in some cases, removing toxic chemicals through biogeochemical cycling and storage (Wang et al., 2006).

5.4 Building Adaptive Capacity for Water Management Building adaptive capacity is a crucial cross-cutting theme or does at least partially apply to multiple themes. Adaptive capacity building options are generally concerned with providing the necessary conditions for other forms of adaptation to be implemented successfully, rather than managing or avoiding climate or hydrological risks directly. These include introduction of groundwater extraction law and water right, defined water allocation scheme or policies, set and regulate standards for groundwater resource and land use planning, water governance, environmental management. Some adaptation options from World Bank (2009) are given below to illustrate the importance of the theme (Table 5.1).

46

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variety of types ranging from lakes, rivers and coastal forest to deepwater paddy fields and ponds.

ASTR

Dune Filtration

Bank Filtration

Infiltration Pond

Perculation Tank

Rainwater Harvesting

STP

wet cycle

dry cycle

Underground Dam Soil Aquifer Treatment

Sand Dam Recharge Releases

47

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ASR

Module 10

Figure 5.3 Examples of managed aquifer recharge (MAR) approaches. ASR: aquifer storage and recovery; ASTR: aquifer storage, treatment and recovery; STP: sewage treatment plant (Source: Dillon et al., 2009)

Table 5.1 Adaptation options: building adaptive capacity

Adaptations

Social capital  These options are concerned with enabling communities to understand climate and hydrological risks and  actively participate in management responses. 

Education and training – to improve community and stakeholder understanding of climate risks and their capacity to participate in management responses and/or generate, modify or apply adaptations. Governance – devolve some level of responsibility for planning and management of groundwater to local communities to increase local ‘ownership’ of problems and responses Sharing information – instigate processes for sharing of information regarding climate risks and responses within and between vulnerable communities.

Resource information  Gathering and providing information on climate risks and the groundwater system  being managed. 

Understanding climate – analysis of historical and palaeoclimate information to understand the natural drivers of climate variability. Climate change projections – developing downscaled climate change projections for the area of interest Quantify the groundwater system – understand the scale and characteristics of the aquifer(s); recharge, transmission and discharge processes; water balance (including use); water quality, etc. Monitoring, evaluation and reporting – of the state of the groundwater resource.

 Research & development  Research and development activities to improve the effectiveness of adaptive  responses to climate change  and hydrological variability. 



Governance & institutions Improving governance and institutional arrangements for groundwater resource management. Improved planning regimes for groundwater and associated human and natural systems .

    

Climate impact assessments – studies to better define the nature of projected climate change impacts on the groundwater system and the associated climate and hydrological risks. Management of groundwater recharge – methods. Management of groundwater storage – technologies, water management and other practices to maximize groundwater storage capacity and resource availability. Protection of water quality – technologies and management systems to enable treatment and reuse of contaminated water and avoid contamination of higher quality water by water of lesser quality. Protection of island and coastal aquifers from effects of sea level rise. Managing demand for groundwater – technologies and management practices that: improve the efficiency of urban and agricultural uses of water; reduce water quality requirements of non-potable uses; or reduce the need for water. Conjunctive management of surface water and groundwater in rural areas. Integrated water cycle management (including various potable and non-potable sources in urban areas). Multi-jurisdictional planning and resource management arrangements for large scale aquifer systems that cross jurisdictional boundaries. Defining water allocations based on resource share rather than volume. Set and regulate standards for (eg.) groundwater resource and land use planning, water governance, environmental management. Drought response planning.

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Adaptation option group

References and Further Reading Background papers: Hydrological Sciences Journal, Vol. 54, No. 4, August 2009 Special Issue Groundwater and Climate in Africa, available online: http://iahs.info/hsj/hsj544.htm. Dillon, P., Pavelic, P., Page, D., Beringen, H. and Ward. J., 2009, Managed aquifer recharge: An Introduction.

Waterlines

Report

Series,

13,

February

2009,

http://www.nwc.gov.au/resources/documents/Waterlines_MAR_completeREPLACE.pdf. Döll, P and Floerke, M., 2005, Global-scale estimation of diffuse groundwater recharge: model

impact,

Frankurt

Hydrology

Paper,

August

2005,

http://www.geo.uni-

rankfurt.de/ipg/ag/dl/f_publikationen/2005/FHP_03_Doell_Floerke_2005.pdf Foster, S. and Tuinhof, A., 2004, Sustainable Groundwater Management, Lessons from Practice: Brazil, Kenya: Subsurface Dams to Augment Groundwater Storage in Basement Terrain for Human Subsistence. GW-MATE Case Profile Collection, Number 5. The World Bank, Washington, pp. 8. Gale, I. (ed)., 2005, Strategies for Managed Aquifer Recharge (MAR) in semi-arid areas. UNESCO publication, pp. 34, available online: http://www.iah.org/recharge/. Khan, M. S., Huq, E., Rahman, A. A., Huq, S., Rashid, S. M. A. and Ahmed, H., 1994. Wetlands of Bangladesh, Bangladesh Centre for Advanced Studies (BCAS) in association with Nature Conservation Movement (NACOM), Dhaka, Bangladesh. Leary, N., Adejowan, J., Barros, V., Burton, I., Kulkarni, J. and Lasco, R., 2007, A Stitch in Time: Lessons for Climate Change Adaptation from the AIACC Project. AIACC Working Paper No. 48, May 2007, available from http://www.aiaccproject.org. Leary, N., Adejowan, J., Barros, V., Burton, I., Kulkarni, J. and Lasco, R., 2008, Climate Change and Adaptation: Urbanization, Poverty and Environment in the 21st Century, ISBN 9781-84407-689-5. Smit, B., Pilifosova, O., Burton, I., Challenger, B., Huq, S., Klein, R. and Yohe, G., 2001, Adaptation to climate change in the context of sustainable development and equity, In J. McCarthy, O. Canziani, N. Leary, D. Dokken, and K. White (eds), Climate Change 2001: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability, Contribution of Working Group II to the Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge University

Press,

Cambridge,

UK

and

New

York,

USA,

http://www.ifpri.org/publication/climate-change-impact-agriculture-and-costs-adaptation. UN-ECE, 2009, Guidance on Water and Adaptation to Climate Change. UNESCO-WWAP, 2003, Water for people, water for life –United Nations World Water Development Report, UNESCO Publishing, Paris. Van Steenbergen, F. and Tuinhof, A., 2009, Managing the Water Buffer for Development and Climate Change Adaptation, available in PDF on http://www.bebuffered.com/

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tuning to local data for semi-arid and arid regions and assessment of climate change

Wang, L., Wang, W. D. , Gong, Z. G. , Liu, Y. L. and Zhang, J. J., 2006, Integrated management of water and ecology in the urban area of Laoshan district, Qingdao, China, Ecological Engineering, Vol. 27, pp. 79-83. Winter, T. C, 1999. Relation of streams, lakes, and wetlands to groundwater flow systems, Hydrogeology. Vol. 7, pp. 28-45. World Bank, 2009, Water and climate change: Impacts on groundwater resources and adaptation

Module 5

options. Water Unit - Energy, Transport, and Water Department.

50

MODULE

6

STAKEHOLDER MANAGEMENT

PARTICIPATION

IN

WATER

Learning Objectives 

To identify and categorise stakeholders.



To consider different stakeholder structures and responsibilities in water management by

6.1 Why to Involve Stakeholder? This module will give an overview on how stakeholders should be involved in water management and describe how to identify and mobilise stakeholders. We also look at stakeholder structures in the basin and the roles and responsibilities that they may have and finally some suggestions are given to maintain active participation. The notion that stakeholders should have a say in the management of the water resources on which they depend is one of the building blocks of the concept of integrated water resources management (IWRM). Ensuring active participation of various stakeholders in water balance study and water management is crucial to minimize any conflicts that may arise due to water allocation or water sharing. A consensus or agreement can be reached if all stakeholders are consulted prior to the implementation of any projects. Management decisions taken unilaterally by the regulatory agency without social consensus are often impossible to implement. Besides more informed decision-making as stakeholders often possess a wealth of information which can improve water management.

6.2 Stakeholder Analysis and Identification of Key Stakeholders The process of identifying stakeholders and assessing their relative interests in an activity or decision-making process is called Stakeholder Analysis (SHA). SHA is an approach, or set of tools, for generating knowledge about actors – individuals and organizations – in order to understand their behavior, intentions, inter-relations, and interests, and for assessing the influence and resources they bring to bear on a decision-making or implementation process (Varvasovszky and Brugha, 2000). SHA is a critical step in any participatory planning process. Stakeholder analysis essentially involves three steps:



Identify the key stakeholders from the large array of groups and individuals that could potentially affect or be affected by changes in water management.

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resolving conflicting interests.



Assess stakeholder interests and the potential impact of groundwater management decisions on these interests.



Assess the influence and importance of the identified stakeholders.

It is very easy to be overwhelmed by the potentially large number of stakeholders with an interest in water so it is important to take a careful look at who should be involved and why.

Sector

Water users

Agriculture

Farmers, Fishermen

Energy

Hydropower

Municipality

Water Utilities

Trade and Industry

Manufacturing companies, Shipping industry

Tourism

Hotels and Resorts

Environment

River/wetland, ecosystems represented by NGOs

One purpose of stakeholder analysis is to ensure that we adequately understand the stakes of different interest groups, where they wish to participate, and what are their expectations and skills. One common problem, especially with water balance study is to define the system boundaries. Water affects society in many ways and the socio-economic development of river basin in a country may affect stakeholders on the national and even international scale. It is also important to realize when assessing the interests of the different stakeholders that some stakeholders may have hidden, multiple, or contradictory aims and interests that they will seek to promote and defend. Stakeholders who are important are often stakeholders who are to benefit from groundwater or whose objectives converge with the objectives of the groundwater management. Some stakeholders who are very important might have very little influence and vice versa as shown in Table 6.2.

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Table 6.1 Potential stakeholders for water balance study

A. High interest/Importance,

B. High Interest/Importance,

High Influence

Low influence

These stakeholders are the basis for an

These stakeholders will require special attention

effective coalition of support.

if their interests are to be protected.

C. Low Interest/Importance,

D. Low Interest/Importance,

High influence

Low influence

These stakeholders can influence the

These stakeholders are of least importance to the

outcomes but their priorities are not those

project.

of groundwater management. They may be a risk or obstacle to progress.



In order to assess the importance and influence of the stakeholder we should try to assess:



The power and status (political, social and economic) of the stakeholder.



The degree of organization of the stakeholder.



The control the stakeholder has over strategic resources.



The informal influence of the stakeholder (personal connections, etc.).



The importance of these stakeholders to the success of water management.

6.3 Stakeholders Functions in Water Management There are many ways in which stakeholders may participate in the management of water resources. A summary of the potential functions that can be performed, and the management levels to which these functions generally correspond, is given in Table 6.3. Approaches will vary somewhat according to both the specific interests of the stakeholders and the nature of land and water rights in the area concerned. In order to ensure stakeholder ownership of decisions, participation should start when resource issues and concerns are first being identified and profiled, and then continue through the management planning, implementation and monitoring stages.

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Table 6.2 Categories of Stakeholders

Table 6.3 Summary of functions commonly performed by stakeholders in water management. Level at which function performed Water User Association hold water rights

Yes

maintain water supply/distribution

Yes

collect water-use charges at distribution level

Yes, x

perform operational water monitoring

Yes, +

undertake policing of groundwater use

Yes, x +

River Basin Organisation

Yes, x +

participate in setting criteria/targets

Yes, +

formulate/implement aquifer water management plans

Yes, +

implement water protection measures

Yes, x +

settle water resource disputes

Yes, x +

review conjunctive use and water transfer schemes

Yes, +

x needs legal status of the organisation or association; +

Requires formalisation of relationship with water regulatory agency.

6.4 Institutional Mechanisms for Stakeholder Participation in Water Management Stakeholder and community participation in water management should take place at various territorial levels, ranging from the individual well to the basin or national level. It should be encouraged at all levels where the stakeholders may make an important contribution to water conservation and protection. Local entities have been in existence since time immemorial in some countries, distributing water from wells or rivers to their members, mostly for irrigation, collecting operational charges, maintaining infrastructure and settling water disputes, in accordance with customary rules. These groups may form an important basis for sharing good practices with other communities and may be provided with recognition under the law so as to facilitate their work and enable them to enter into contractual relations with local water and land regulatory agencies. Formalising stakeholder participation in structures is particularly important as a formal stakeholder structure makes the work of the water manager much easier, limiting the need for continued stakeholder mobilisation and ensuring a formal and regular link to the stakeholders.

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FUNCTIONS

Procedures and guidelines must be clarified on how different groups are represented and how these representatives are selected and replaced from time to time. Clear and documented rules for this are important to obtain equitable participation.There are various types of stakeholders participation which are given in the Table 6.4.

Table 6.4: Types of stakeholder participation

Manipulative Participation

Participation is simply a pretence

Passive participation

People participate by being told what has been decided or has already happened. Information shared belongs only to external professionals

Participation by Consultation

People participate by being consulted or by answering questions. No share in decision-making is conceded and professionals are under no obligation to take on board people’s views

Participation for material incentives

People participate in return for food, cash or other material incentives. Local people have no stake in prolonging practices when the incentives end

Functional Participation

Participation is seen by external agencies as a means to achieve project goals, especially reduced cost. People may participate by forming groups to meet predetermined project objectives

Interactive Participation

People participate in joint analysis, which leads to action plans and the formation or strengthening of local groups or institutions that determine how available resources are used. Learning method is used to seek multiple viewpoints.

Self-mobilization

People participate by taking initiatives independently of external institutions. They develop contacts with external institutions for resources and technical advice but retain control over how resources are used

Source: Dalal-Clayton B, Bass S (2002)

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CHARACTERISTICS

EXERCISE Stakeholder Participation Purpose: Examine the roles that stakeholders can play in water management. Activity: Group work 2 hours, report back 30 min.

    

What steps will you take to involve the community? What tasks/responsibilities will you allocate to them? What will be your role? How do you plan to solve the problem? What powers and responsibilities can be given to the community?

Report back: Report back (30 min.) then discussion (15 min).

References and Further Reading Cap-Net, GWA, 2005, Why Gender Matters. http://www.cap-net.org/node/1517. Cap-Net, 2008, Integrated Water Resources Management for River Basin Organisations. http://www.cap-net.org/node/1494. Varvasovszky, Z. and Brugha, R., 2000, How to do (or not to do) a Stakeholder Analysis, Health Policy Planning, Vol. 53, pp. 338-345.

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Task: A meeting will be arranged among various stakeholders as to identify the sectors that will be badly affected by the water stress resulting from drought or water scarcity. The group needs to answer following questions.

MODULE 7 INFORMATION MANAGEMENT AND DISSEMINATION

Learning Objectives 

To understand how information management supports water balance study, water demand and management.



To understand the information management process and learn some of the tools used in information management. To identify important information management outputs for water balance study and how they can be disseminated amongst various stakeholders.

7.1 Introduction Information about water is as essential to life as the water itself. It aids decision-making by converting uncertainty into risk, which is more manageable (Winpenny, 2009). It enables a better choice of infrastructure to be made. The physical infrastructure of the water sector is very costly

Module 7



(e.g. navigation channels, hydropower schemes, irrigation schemes, flood protection, water supply, distribution and treatment, etc). These projects involve expensive studies, long planning procedures, extended implementation periods and major physical works. The availability of basic hydrological data (e.g. rainfall, river flows, groundwater levels) can reduce delays and enable more accurate specifications of projects and can save money. Hence, there is a need to identify the key issues for water management and to prioritise the information (essential and non-essential) required to address these issues. Deciding on what and to who to report and how to communicate the report is the final most important step. Thus, for effective implementation of water management, there is a need for an information management function to be carried out. It is also the basis of water democracy, giving citizens and users more control over their lives and making public institutions more accountable for their actions.

7.2 Information Management Process Information management deals with the more technical process of collecting, storing and disseminating information based on identified management issues and on the information needs of the different stakeholders. Communication focuses more on the human dimension of information management. Effective communication ensures that all stakeholders are involved in defining the water resources management issues and in deciding on their (often different) information needs during management. In this sense, communication is at the basis of successful information management. The generic information management process steps that can be used to manage and derive any desired information for decision-making and informing stakeholders is given in Fig. 7.1. For the purposes of water management only the information capture, processing, updating, and sharing and 57

57

dissemination are explained below. The rest of the processes are dictated by the overall information management process for the basin.

Information Capture

Information Processing

Information Retrieval

Information Updating

Information Sharing & Dissemination

Figure 7.1 Information Management Process Steps

7.2.1 Information Capture The first step is to decide “what” and “how” to capture the desired information. The “what” will be defined by the priority information needs of the users, in accordance with the water balance study objectives in a river basin. A list of the required information will then be produced. A time series data consisting of rainfall and evaporation can be obtained from the Metrological Department. The data required for population, water consumption, domestic agricultural and industrial use is needed to calculate human induced water withdrawal from a river basin which will decrease the storage volume. The vegetation types, land use and geology of the study area influences runoff and infiltration and evaporation and therefore information needs to collect accordingly as shown in Table 7.1. Once the raw information needs are defined, one must define the methods to be used to capture the data. These can be simple or complex, depending on the desired levels of accuracy and timeliness of information, and the technical and resource constraints.

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Information Storage

58

Table 7.1 Types of data required for water management Specific Parameter

Source of Data

Climate data

  

Precipitation Temperature Solar Irradiation



Metrological Department

Water use



Population and per capita water consumption Water consumption for irrigation Water consumption for industry

    

Population Census Ministry of Agriculture Ministry of Water Resources Water Development Board Ministry of Industry

Land use Vegetation type Soil Type

 

Ministry of Forestry Ministry Agriculture

  Topographical data

  

7.2.2 Information Processing The desired information will normally be processed from raw data or other lower level information. Thus, there is a need to decide on the level of processing and the quality control required to produce the desired information, and also to define the processing methods to be used.

7.2.3 Information Sharing and Dissemination There is a need to decide what information to share, how to disseminate the information and in what form, to support decision-making and keep stakeholders informed. The choice of methods will depend on the resources available and the target audience. We need to decide the methods of transmitting such information to the users and also how to respond to queries on the published information. All stakeholders should be able to access an annual report on the water balance study and to make queries on the water management and water allocation in the river basin.

7.3 Information Management Tools Information Management is commonly defined as “the collection and management of information from one or more sources and the distribution of that information to one or more audiences”. To facilitate the organisation and classification of information it will be useful to know what the generic information types and their characteristics are. It is also useful to indentify the list of possible information management tools available to them. It is then needed to work with information and communication (ICT) specialists in developing and customising such tools to support its operations.

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Type of Data

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Rapid advances in ICT have enabled a number of new information management tools to be developed and thus assist in its information management tasks. These enable better information generation, processing and dissemination than in the past. 

Dedicated data processing systems and databases can be developed to process raw data for storage in databases. The systems are normally developed based on the specific information needs of the users and follow a very clear set of information processing procedures.



Geographical Information Systems (GIS) use the powers of a computer to display and

associated map will be updated as well. Thus by continually updating data captured from monitoring, updated maps are available for stakeholders to view. GIS databases can include a wide variety of information such as population, vegetation types, land use, location of water bodies, aquifers, rivers, canals etc. 

“Google Earth” Program combines the power of the Google Search engine with satellite imagery, maps, terrain and 3D buildings and makes available a bird’s eye view of the world's geographic information for any area of interest. Most of the satellite imagery used

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analyse spatial data that are linked to databases. When a specific database is updated, the

is one to three years old. For example, from Google earth maps a water manager can identify geological boundaries using surface features to infer tectonic structures. 

Building a community: Offering the various interactive and user friendly tools, the platform aims at building a community to capture the informal knowledge issued from single users improving exchanges on water balance studies. It aims at using Internet as a platform to for presenting disseminating information. It creates a discussion forum to discuss the issues on water related studies and publish report and articles via Internet.

7.4 Modelling and Monitoring There has been significant development on computing technologies and a number of models have been developed to simulate the future scenario to predict water storage volume due to climate change and other anthropogenic activities. Models can estimate how water demand can be met using various engineering interventions. ICT tools have been developed to support the linking and integration of the simulation models with the decision-making process, so as to provide decisionmakers with the simulation modelling tools to conduct “what-if” scenarios, while making decisions. Information management is strongly related to monitoring. The volume of water stored in a river basin can continuously computed based on water inflow and outflow data which is monitored and measured continuously. Effective communication of the results from data interpretation to water managers is an essential component of monitoring, and it is hardly worth monitoring if the information is not put to use. Complex tools for data interpretation such as

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numerical models are useful for preparing predictive scenarios for management of the water resources. In summary, it can be seen that the design and implementation of a monitoring network may be a highly complex task, but even some basic monitoring can be very useful, provided it is carried out in a well structured and intelligent manner.

7.5 Dissemination Methods and Materials There are a number of ways through which information can be disseminated such as conducting workshops, through brochures, leaflets, putting information on the websites, arranging a seminar

audiovisual material, writing for print media such as newspapers and journals, books, advertising. It is strongly recommended that dialogues are initiated among various stakeholders so that conflicts arising from water sharing and allocation is addressed with due consideration keeping in mind the water budget or the output from water balance studies. The conclusion should be concise, to the point and interesting to the various stakeholders. A few general recommendations with respect to the selection of materials are: 

Choosing a picture/simple diagram or cartoons which can effectively deliver the message as shown in Fig. 7.3.



Creating animations and videos to create awareness on the factors that influence water budget, other water management issues such as http://www.thewaterchannel.tv/

Figure 7.3 Cartoon from website Know With the Flow (Source: http://www.knowwiththeflow.org/)

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or lectures, using mass media such as radio or television, films or animations and other

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7.6 Conclusion From experience of information management systems and the information presented above the we can conclude that: 

Good information management is essential for effective water balance study, water demand and water management;



Information management systems should be realistic and work within available resources;



Information management tools and ICT systems should be adopted in a staged process,



The effectiveness of the information management system is demonstrated by information outputs that meet the needs of water managers and stakeholders.

EXERCISE Information Management Introduction: There are two countries called Upland and Downland and a common river called Rivox passes through both of the countries. The Upland is a mountainous country with less population and more developed with economy driven byn industrial activities while Downland is located below the Upland and it is a developing country with rapid growing population. Downland is more or less flat country and it has sea coast along its lower part. Its economy is driven by agricultural activities and water is very vital for its agricultural activities. A joint meeting is to be taking place between the two countries so that water can be harnessed in the most beneficial ways. Purpose: Identify the opportunities and challenges in the water sector and prioritise the water demand based on water balance for next 5 years. The purpose of this exercise is to how to reach consensus among various stakeholders/water users based on available information. The Participants and their Roles There shall be 10 participants. They are: 1. Representative from Ministry of Water Resources 2. Representative from Ministry of Agriculture 3. Water expert or Consultant 4. Representative from Ministry of Industry 5. Representative from Ministry of Finance 6. Representative from Farmer Association 7. Representative from Municipality 8. A Community Based Organisation representing rural communities that use boreholes for drinking water 9. Representative from Hydro-power Group 10. An NGO working with indigenous people and dealing with environmental issues The above 10 participants for each country will sit together for 60 minutes to prioritise the water demand. After prioritising two countries will sit together and chalk out policies through negotiations. This meeting will take place for another 60 minutes. The decision can be taken based on consensus or by majority votes. Facilitator Highlight how decisions are made on the essential non essential information management. 62

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matching the skills available and reliability of the information data base; and

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References and Further Reading Cap-Net, 2008, Module 8, Information Management in Integrated Water Resources Management for River Basin Organisation Training Manual. http://www.cap-net.org/node/1494. Google Earth (http://earth.google.com). Information Management (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_management). Kapoor, T. R., 2007, Role of Information and Communication Technology in Adaptive Integrated Water Resources Management; American Society of Civil Engineering Publication. http://cedb.asce.org/cgi/WWWdisplay.cgi?0603740.

The Water Channel: http://www.thewaterchannel.tv/. What is GIS and how does it work? (http://www.mapcruzin.com/what-is-gis.htm). Winpenny, J., 2009, Investing in Information, Knowledge and Monitoring World Water Assessment Programme side publications, March 2009 WWAP, France.

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Know With the Flow: http://www.knowwiththeflow.org/.

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European Commission EUR26099– Joint Research Centre – Institute for Environment and Sustainability

Title: Water Balance study- An application of WPS technologies. Training Manual

Author(s): Forename Surname, Forename Surname, Forename Surname

Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union

2013 – 69 pp. – 21.0 x 29.7 cm

EUR – Scientific and Technical Research series – ISSN 1831-9424

ISBN 978-92-79-32536-6

doi: 10.2788/97423

Abstract There is widespread recognition that water resources, including groundwater and surface water, are coming under pressure from increasing demand of water uses. Water supply systems have often been developed in an unsustainable way, threatening vital social and economic developments. As a result many governments have been reforming water resources management to adopt the approach known as Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM). An important objective of this training manual is to address the factors that influence water storage and how water can be used in the most beneficial way based on available water budget which is the output from a water balance study. The goal of this manual is to introduce the broader framework of water management to be used by the water engineers/professionals, mangers so that they can identify the various challenges of water management and take appropriate measure to mitigate or eliminate the problems. Various tools have been introduced to estimate water budget, pros and cons of each tools were discussed. The manual also highlight the impact of climate change on water sector and various adaptive measures that can be used as potential mitigation measures. It also emphasis the issue of public participation and various stakeholders’ roles for water management. Finally it explains the importance on information management for processing various hydrological data and the process of disseminating information among various stake holders.

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