Water consumptive use of Radish - International Journal of Farming ...

International Journal of Farming and Allied Sciences Available online at www.ijfas.com ©2016 IJFAS Journal-2016-5-1/66-75/ 30 January, 2016 ISSN 2322-4134 ©2016 IJFAS

Water consumptive use of Radish (Rhapanus sativus L. Var sativus), as influenced by varying temperatures Caser G. Abdel SG. Um Institute Für Gartenbauliche Produktionsysteme, Abteliung Systememodullieerung Gemüsebau, Leibniz Universität, Hannover, Germany Corresponding author: Caser G. Abdel ABSTRACT: Seeds of Topsi, Famox F1, Corox F1, and Altox F1 radish cultivars germinated in controlled 20 and 12oC cabinets. The objective of this experiment was to determine water consumptive use, water use efficiency and irrigation frequencies in response to 12 and 20 oC temperatures. The obtained results revealed that water consumptive use, water use efficiency, and irrigation frequencies for radish grown at 20oC were 143.93 mm, 232.3 ml.g-1 edible biomass and 14.5, respectively. However, 12oC substantially reduced these parameters to 99.39mm, 82 ml.g-1 and 9.5, respectively. 0%AWC depletion gave the highest water consumptive use (167.91949mm), water use efficiency (218.1 ml.g-1), and irrigation frequencies (24). The lowest observed in 100%AWC depletion, which were 89.48mm, 163.1 ml.g -1 and 3.5, respectively. Radish irrigated by 0%AWC grown at 20 oC gave the highest consumptive use (205.6157mm), water use efficiency (360.4 ml.g-1) and irrigation frequencies (30). The lowest observed in radish grown at 12oC irrigated by 100%AWC, which were 77.10589mm, 108, and 3, respectively. Keywords: : Radish, Temperatures, Water consumptive use, water use efficiency, irrigation frequency Introduction Yuan et al. (2001) used 20 cm pan measurements to determine the water requirement of tomato planted in unheated greenhouse, and found that accumulative value of ET usually approximated the accumulative value of water surface evaporation of a 20 cm pan installed at the top of tomato canopy. Irrigation treatments had marked influence on water use of radish. There was decline in ET with decreasing frequency of irrigation. With frequent irrigations, evaporation losses from the soil surface would naturally be higher than under the drier regimes (Hedge, 1978). The highest ET value was 38 mm more than the lowest value, a decrease of 19%. The total ET order among the five watering treatments was a little different with the ET determined using the weighing lysimeter. These differences may be the result of sampling error in the observation of soil moisture content and/or calculation of drainage losses when using the water balance method (Kang and Wan, 2005). Water use efficient under different irrigation frequencies WUE is the relation between yield and ET, and computed based on fresh root yield dividing by the water consumption. The general relationship between radish WUE and different irrigation frequency treatments. They also found that radish WUE increased with the decreasing of irrigation frequency, and reached the maximum value when irrigation frequency was about once every 6 days, and then WUE began to decrease as irrigation frequency decreased (Wan and Kang, 2006). Different SWP treatments affected radish evapotranspiration (ET) and WUE. The total radish ET decreased as SWPs decreased in both years. The highest radish WUE values achieved with SWPs of 55 and 35 kPa, respectively, and the lowest WUE values recorded at a SWP of 15 kPa. The SWP of 35 kPa at 20 cm depth immediately under drip emitter can be used as an indicator

Intl J Farm & Alli Sci. Vol., 5 (1): 66-75, 2016

for radish drip irrigations cheduling in the North China Plain (Kang and Wan, 2005). Hayat and Ali (2010) reported better water use efficiency of subsequent wheat under rainfed conditions due partly to the mulching effect of remains of previously grown summer legumes. Nitrogen fertilization marginally increased ET probably due to increased leaf area. As the increase in ET was smaller than the yield increases, WUE increased with N fertilization upto 120 kg/ha (Hedge, 1978). Meshkat et al. (2000) concluded that an excessively high irrigation frequency could cause the soil surface to remain wet and the first stage of evaporation to persist most of the time, and resulted in more water loss. Goldberg and Shmueli (1970) indicated that yields of cucumber (Cucumis sativus L.) and melon (Cucumis melo L.) planted in sandy soil would be reduced if irrigation frequencies were beyond one day. However, Bucks et al. (1974) experimented on clay soil showing that the yields of cabbage (Brassica oleracea L.) would drop by the increase in irrigation frequency. Levin et al. (1979a) illustrated that different irrigation frequencies (once every day, twice every week and once every week) had no distinct effects on apple (Malus pumila Mill.) yield. Radin et al. (1989) indicated that the relationship between water and cotton (Gossypium herbaceum L.) was highly dependent on the frequency of irrigation when the fruit load was heavy, but was generally independent of irrigation frequency before and after the period. Oktem et al. (2003) suggested that among 2-, 4-, 6- and 8- irrigation frequencies, a 2-day irrigation frequency, with 100% ET water application was optimal for sweet corn (Zea mays L.) grown in semi-arid regions. Potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) subjected to six irrigation frequencies treatments (1-, 2-, 3-, 4-, 6- and 8-irrigation frequencies) to evaluate the effects of several irrigation frequencies on potato yield, ET and water use efficiency (WUE). The results showed that potato yield, ET and WUE increased as irrigation frequency increased, and the highest yield, ET and WUE values achieved with an irrigation frequency of once a day (Kang et al., 2004). Low temperatures may disturb the key organs of photosynthesis, including chloroplast and thylakoid membranes, causes swelling of plastids and thylakoid lamellae, vesiculation of thylakoid, accumulation of lipid drops and ultimately disorganization of entire plastid (Kratsch and Wise, 2000; Ishikawa, 1996). Low temperature also disrupts the systems including electron transport, carbon cycle metabolism, and gs. Among the photosynthetic apparatus, PSII is the primary target of damage under LT stress. Moreover, LT reduces the activities of stromal and carbon assimilation enzymes like Calvin cycle enzyme, ATP synthase, and restricts RuBisCO regeneration and limits the photophosphorylation (Allen and Ort, 2001). Another impact of LT exposure is the decline of carbon export from leaves, which results in the accumulation of soluble carbohydrates (Strand et al., 2003). Yordanova and Popova (2007) stated that exposure of wheat plants to a LT (3°C) for 48 h and 72 h resulted in decreased levels of Chl, CO 2 assimilation and transpiration rates. Photosynthesis is strongly reduced below 18ºC (Ramalho et al., 2008), while temperatures around 4ºC dramatically depress photosynthetic performance (Silva et al., 2004). The decline of photosynthetic capacity in LT related to a decrease in the quantum efficiency of PSII and the activities of PS I, the ATP synthase, and the stromal enzymes of the carbon reduction cycle (Allen and Ort, 2001). Partelli et al.(2009) showed that coffee plant resulted in 30% reduction in Chl a, 27% reduction in Chl b, 29% reduction of total Chl when the day/night temperature decreasing from 25/20° to 13/8°C. For Car, 86% reduction of α-carotene, 57% reduction in β-carotene, 68% reduction in α/β-carotene ratio, 32% reduction in lutein, but 21% increase in zeaxanthin. In O. sativa, the total Chl content was reduced by 50% due to exposure to LT (15/10 ºC) for 2 weeks. Reda and Mandoura (2011) reported that even at LT stress of 3°C the enzyme chlorophylase is still activated and led to a decline in Chl in T. aestivum plant. Low and freezing temperatures lead to cellular dehydration, reduce water and nutrient uptake and conduction by the roots in some plants, thus causing osmotic stress (Chinnusamy et al., 2007). Yadav (2010) stated that dehydration during cold occurs mainly due to reduction in water uptake by roots and a hindrance to closure of stomata. The success or failure of a seedling in the field is strongly related to the development of its root system under cold stress (Enns et al., 2006). In root of cucumber, it was found that chilling caused injury to the cortical cells and further long time exposure increased the density of cytoplasm and damage the endoplasmic reticulum (Lee et al., 2002). Chillingsensitive plants exposed to LT usually show water-stress symptoms due to decreased root hydraulic conductance; and decreased leaf water and turgor potentials (Aroca et al., 2003). Freezing-induced increase in water viscosity is partly accounted for an initial decrease in root hydraulic conductance (Matzner and Comstock, 2001). During cold stress another phenomenon is common with, the imbalanced water movement. The metabolic functions are altered those include production of more enzymes, isozymes though they help in maintaining more catalytic activity to cope with the LT stress (Hurry et al., 1994). Rahman ( 2004) reported that plant height of wheat plant ranges from 66.497.3 cm and 55.7-82.3 cm in normal and heat stress condition, respectively. While studying with T. aestivum. Ahamed et al. (2010) observed that sowing time mediated heat stress negatively influenced the plant height and number of tillers of 4 different genotypes. Al-Busaidi et al. (2012) observed that high atmospheric temperature caused significant water loss, which negatively influenced the growth and biomass production in biofuel plant, Jatropha curcas. Parallel

67


to shoot growth heat stress often decreases root growth, number of roots and root diameter (Porter and Gawith, 1999). Low root temperatures have been shown to decrease nutrient uptake (Legros and Smith, 1994). However, this decrease may actually result from a decline in growth rate associated with decreased ability to take up water at low root temperatures (Li et al., 1994). Practicing irrigation water management with minimal plant water stress by maintaining a high soil moisture content between irrigations can lead to significant deep percolation losses (Levin et al. 1979b). Water stress can also be associated with temperature stress. A rapid photosynthesis rate and a simultaneous increase in respiration rate under high temperatures may lead to plant starvation and death (Sutcliffe, 1977). Cell membrane plays major roles in water and nutrient movements within and outwards the cell. Intra and extracellular water and nutrient movement inhibited due to LT due to membrane damage under low temperature (LT). There can be of two types of abnormalities during LT stress. Cold damages the membrane that makes the membrane permeable to undesired nutrients and ions and causes ion leakage; another is cell membrane and cell wall can be ruptured by the cold which is also responsible for disrupting cellular homeostasis by destroying both intra and extracellular nutrient and water movements (Salinas, 2002; Mahajan and Tuteja, 2005). Severe dehydration may also occur due to freezing of cell constituents, solutes and water (Yadav, 2010). Available literature states that when temperatures drop below 0°C, the ice formation generally begins in the intracellular spaces because the intracellular fluid has a higher freezing point as compared to the other suborganales of cell (Yadav, 2010; Thomashow, 1999). Materials and Methods This experiment was conducted in controlled growth cabinets at Institute Fur Gartenbauliche Produckions Systeme, Biologie, Liebniz Universitat, Hannover, Germany. The objective of this trail was to determine the water consumptive use, water use efficiency and irrigation frequencies of for irrigation levels namely 0, 33, 66 and 100% depletions of available water capacities (%AWC) for radish (Raphanus sativus L. var. sativus) grown in cabinets of two varying (12 and 20 oC) temperatures. Untreated seeds of the evaluated cultivars were produced Verschliessung in 2013-2014, EG-Norm Standardsaatgnt DE 08-9387st. These cultivars can perform storage root of 2.5-2.75 mm diameter. Lots number of Topsi RA0002CTP (T) was 01972-007, Famox F1 RA4798CTP (F) was 00013-001, Corox F1 was 07110-000 (C) and Altox F1 (A) was 00212-007. Experimental Design Split plot with in Factorial Complete Randomized Block Design (S S F-CRBD) was chosen for the trail where Factor (A) was represented by cabinet temperature of 20oC (a1) and cabinet temperature 12oC (a2). Factor (B) was represented by 0%AWC (b1), 33%AWC (b2), 66% AWC (b3), and 100%AWC (b4). Therefore, 16 treatments were included in the trail each replicated four times with 18 plants for a replicate. Cultural practices Experiment conducted in two cabinets, radish cultivars in the first cabinet (figure, M1) subjected to controlled temperature 120C, while the second (figure, M2) radish cultivars exposed to controlled temperature 20oC. Therefore, 176 plastic trays dedicated to 128 trays for investigation, besides 48 guard trays, each tray contains18 cells of 5.4749732831g dry peat moss. Trays filled with peat moss and taken to the controlled cabinets (Figures, M1, and M2) then trays were set according to the above-proposed statistical design. Trays were brought up to field capacity on December 9 th 2013, and then one seed was sown in each cell. 15 days from sowing undesired plants replaced by transplants from guard trays to maintain uniformity and then these transplants substituted by seedling grown in separate plastic plates. Consumed water determined by weighting methods with 2 decimal electrical balance. Moistened peat moss weighted, and then oven dried at 55 oC for 73hrs then reweighed to record dry weight. Plants left to wilt in the peat moss to determine the moisture percentage at wilting. Therefore, water holding capacity, wilting point, available water capacity (AWC) and when to irrigate for each irrigation levels were calculated (table, M1). Exceeding % = higher value – low value/ low value. Sas 9.3 and Minitab 16.1 software used for statistical analysis and regression.

68


Table (M1). Water relation analysis of applied peat moss Peat S g

Peat dwt g

Peat AWC ml

Peat M% at W

Peat M% oven

Bulk D g.Cm-3

Peat M C Ov ml

1072.58

445.9

626.69

58.26

80.37

0.29

861.89

Peat S = peat moss saturation weight; Peat dwt = peat moss dry wt at radish wilting point; Peat AWC = peat moss water available capacity; Peat M% at W = peat moss moisture percentage at radish wilting point; Peat M% oven = Peat moisture percentage after oven drying at 55oC for 73hrs; Peat M C Ov = peat moisture holding capacity at oven drying

Results and Discussion A. Temperature Growing radish at 20oC (figure, R1) significantly increased the accumulative water consumptive use from (44.81%), efficiency of plant water use (182.3%), storage root water use efficiency (159.4%), and irrigation frequencies (52.6%), as compared to 12oC (table, R1). These results suggested that 20oC substantially increased the evapotranspiration of water from leaves and growing media, because temperature weakening the hydrogen bond between water molecules and facilitating the molecule escapee. In fact, temperature is a secondary factor for evaporation, where humidity is the primary factor. Vapor saturation deficit of materials surrounding the plants including air and soil and others determined the evaporation potency. Since, each material tends to approach homeostasis. Radish favoured 12oC temperature (figure, R2), which accompanied with lowest water consumptive use (figure, R3). However, under extreme temperature injuries caused either by cold or by HT first attack on the cell membrane. There are many studies where cellular membranes have been shown as the primary site of freezing injury in plants (Steponkus et al., 1998; Thomashow, 2001). Cell membrane is damaged in two ways viz. disruption of protein lipid structure, protein denaturation, and precipitation of solutes that indulges the membrane permeability. Due to LT stress the fatty acids become unsaturated and the lipid protein ratios of the membrane become altered which ultimately affect the membrane fluidity and structure as well (Wang and Li, 2006). The flexible liquid-crystalline phase is converted in to a solid gel phase, thereby affecting the cellular function in different ways, viz. increased membrane permeability increases ion leakage, allows the entrance of undesirable anions and cataions into the cell, obstructs the exchange of essential ions, hampers the osmosis and diffusion processes, etc. All the phenomena are responsible for disrupting cellular homeostasis (Farooq et al., 2009). Conversion of cellular water into ice is a major reason for cell rupture in cold stress. At first the ice formation occurs in apoplast having low solute concentration, this creates a vapor pressure between cytoplasm and apoplast and results in the migration of unfrozen cytoplasmic or cytosol water to the apoplast. This water gives a pressure, which is the cause of enlargement of existing ice crystals and the pressure towards the cell wall and cell membrane, which leads to cell rupture (Mckerise and Bowley, 1997; Olien and Shmith, 1997).

69


Table (R1). Water requirements of radish grown in controlled cabinet under varying temperatures (*); (**) HPWUE ml.g-1 fwt SRWUE ml.g -1 fwt Irrigation FRQ

Treatments

WCU mm

CU L

20 oC

A 143.93

A 84

A 232.3

A 153.8

12 oC

B99.39

B 58

B 82.3

B 59.3

A 14.50 B 9.5 ml.g-1

(*). WCU mm = Water consumptive use in mm; CUL = water consumptive use in litter; HPWUE fwt = Whole plant water use efficiency; SRWUE ml/g -1 fwt =Storage roots water use efficiency; Irrigation FRQ = irrigation frequencies. (**). Figures of unshared characters significantly differs at 0.05 level, Duncan.

70


B. Radish responses to irrigation levels Gradual reduction in water consumptive use (table, R2; figure R4) accompanied to gradual reductions in applied water, where the highest water consumptive use (167.91949 mm or 98 liter) applied to 0%AWC depletion, which significantly exceeded all other irrigation levels, particularly 100%AWC depletion (89.95687 mm or 52.5 litter). Radish required 146.25 mm supplementary irrigation besides 254.3 mm rainfall incidences during the growing season (Abdel, 2011). The highest ET value was 38 mm more than the lowest value, a decrease of 19%. The total ET order among the five watering treatments was a little different with the ET determined using the weighing lysimeter. These differences may be the result of sampling error in the observation of soil moisture content and/or calculation of drainage losses when using the water balance method (Kang and Wan, 2005). The process of radish water use can be divided into two stages. The first stage was from the 1st 2 days to the 18th 2 days and the second stage was from the 19th 2 days to the end. In the first stage, radish ET values were relatively more for all of the treatments. EW 20 was also much during this period. The maximum 2-day ET values for N1, N2, N3, N4 and N5 were 12.7, 12.5, 16.0, 12.8 and 11.5 mm, respectively. The 2-day ET value was no more than 16 mm for the most treatment, while the 2day EW 20 was no more than 15 mm. In the second stage, radish ET values were relatively smaller for all of the five watering treatments. The maximum 2-day ET values for N1, N2, N3, N4 and N5 were 5.1, 5.5, 6.1, 5.7 and 4.8 mm, respectively. The 2-day ET values did not exceed 7 mm for all the treatments, and 2-day EW 20 value was no more than 8 mm. The general tendency for all the treatments was similar to that for EW 20 (Kang and Wan, 2005). The highest water use for producing 1g fresh weight (218.1 ml.g -1) observed in 0%AWC depletion, water use gradually reduced until it attain (134.1 ml.g-1) at level of 66%AWC depletion, and then increased at 100%AWC depletion to (163.1 ml.g-1). These results suggested that adopting water use efficiency is incorrect mean for deciding the best irrigation levels for producing marketable radish. Since, low water application with severe drought, which anyhow gives higher biomass than adequately irrigated radish biomass (table, R2; figure, R4). Water use efficiency (WUE) is the relation between yield and the ET, and computed based on radish yield dividing by the water used (calculated based on the water balance equation). The obtained results indicate that radish WUE for the irrigation treatments were ordered from N5 > N4 > N3 > N2 > N1 in 2001 and N3 > N4 N5 > N2 > N1 in 2002. The radish WUE values for N5 and N3 treatments were the highest and those for N1 were the lowest. These results suggest that the application of too much water reduced radish WUE (Kang and Wan, 2005). WUE declined continuously where irrigation treatments scheduled with decreasing soil matric potential. WUE was greatest with irrigation at -40 kPa compared with irrigation at -20 kPa or-60 kPa (Hedge, 1978). The highest number of irrigation accompanied to 0%AWC depletion and then gradually reduced to the lowest value with 100%AWC depletion (table 2; figure R4). Irrigation treatments had marked influence on water use of radish. There was decline in ET with decreasing frequency of irrigation. With frequent irrigations, evaporation losses from the soil surface would naturally be higher than under the drier regimes (Hedge, 1978). There is varying agreement over the effect of irrigation frequency on crop water use. Goldberg et al. (1971) indicated that the high irrigation frequency could reduce evaporation and deep percolation, and establish a favorable soil moisture and oxygen condition in the root zone throughout the crop period. Smasjtrla et al. (1985) pointed out that to minimize deep percolation and to maintain nearly constant high soil water potential, high frequency (multiple applications per day) irrigations recommended. Table (R2). Water requirements of radish grown in controlled cabinet under varying temperatures (*); (**) Irrigation

WCU mm

CU L

HPWUE ml.g-1 fwt

SRWUE ml.g -1 fwt

Irrigation FRQ

0% awc

A167.91949

A98

A218.1

A131.4

A24.5

33% awc

B128.50982

B75

D114

B106.6

B12.5

66% awc

C100.23766

C58.5

C134.1

D81.9

C7.5

100% awc

D89.95687

D52.5

B163.1

C106.2

D3.5

-1

(*). WCU mm = Water consumptive use in mm; CUL = water consumptive use in litter; HPWUE ml.g fwt = Whole plant water use efficiency; SRWUE ml/g -1 fwt =Storage roots water use efficiency; Irrigation FRQ = irrigation frequencies. (**). Figures of unshared characters significantly differs at 0.05 level, Duncan.

71


C. Radish responses to varying temperature and irrigation levels The highest water consumptive use for radish (205.61571mm or 120L) found in radish irrigated by 0%AWC depletion grown at 20oC (table, R3; figure, R5), which substantially exceeded all other interaction treatments, particularly radish irrigated by 100% AWC grown at 12oC (77.10589mm or 45L). Total water use by the plants decreased and water use efficiency increased at high salinity. Plant growth was optimal at 2–4 dS m-1. At salinities higher than 4 dS m -1 total plant dry weight decreased 2.8% per dS m -1. About 80% of the growth reduction at high salinity could be attributed to reduction of leaf area expansion and hence to reduction of light interception. The remaining 20% of the salinity effect on growth most likely explained by a decrease in stomatal conductance. The small leaf area at high salinity related to a reduced specific leaf area and increased tuber/shoot weight ratio. The latter could be attributed to tuber formation starting at a smaller plant size at high salinity (Marcelis and Van Hooijdonk, 1999). Radish grown at 20oC required more water to produce 1g biomass regardless to irrigation levels than water required for producing 1g biomass in radish grown at 12oC. The highest required water (360.4 ml for entire plant and 203.6 ml) for producing 1g edible tissue (table, R3; figure, R6). In contrast, the lowest required water for producing 1g entire plant biomass (72.4ml) observed in radish irrigated by 66%AWC grown at 12oC and the lowest required water for producing 1g edible tissue (53.8 ml), found in the same combination treatment. Practicing irrigation water management with minimal plant water stress by maintaining a high soil moisture content between irrigations can lead to significant deep percolation losses (Levin et al. 1979b). Different SWP treatments affected radish evapotranspiration (ET) and WUE. The total radish ET decreased as SWPs decreased in both years. The highest radish WUE values achieved with SWPs of 55 and 35 kPa, respectively, and the lowest WUE values recorded at a SWP of 15 kPa. The SWP of 35 kPa at 20 cm depth immediately under drip emitter can be used as an indicator for radish drip irrigations scheduling in the North China Plain (Kang and Wan, 2005). Higher irrigation frequencies (30) observed in radish grown at 20 oC irrigated with 0%AWC followed by (19) found in radish grown at 12oC irrigated by 0%AWC. These results revealed that 12oC reduced irrigation frequencies from 30 to 19 times (table, R3; figure, R7). The lowest irrigation frequenecies (3) accompanied to radish irrigated by 100%AWC depletion grown at 12oC. Kang et al. (2004) Potato subjected potato (Solanum tuberosum L) to six irrigation frequency treatments (1-, 2-, 3-, 4-, 6- and 8-irrigation frequencies), to evaluate the effects of several irrigation frequencies on potato yield, ET and water use efficiency (WUE). The results showed that potato yield, ET and WUE increased as irrigation frequency increased, and the highest yield, ET and WUE values achieved with an irrigation frequency of once a day.

72


Table (R2). Water requirements of radish grown in controlled cabinet under varying temperatures (*); (**) Irrigation

WCU mm

CU L

HPWUE ml.g-1 fwt

SRWUE ml.g -1 fwt

Irrigation FRQ

Temp: Cvs

mm

L

entire plant

storage root

frequencies

20:0%

A205.61571

A120

A360.4

A203.6

A30

20: 33%

B154.21178

B90

D154.8

B161.4

C15

20: 66%

D113.08864

D66

C195.9

D110

E9

20: 100%

E102.80785

E60

B218.2

C140.3

G4

12: 0%

C130.22328

C76

F75.7

F59.2

B19

73


12: 33%

E102.80785

E60

G73.3

H51.9

D10

12: 66%

F87.38668

F51

H72.4

G53.8

F6

12: 100%

G77.10589

G45

E108

E72.1

H3

ml.g -1

(*). WCU mm = Water consumptive use in mm; CUL = water consumptive use in litter; HPWUE fwt = Whole plant water use efficiency; SRWUE ml/g -1 fwt =Storage roots water use efficiency; Irrigation FRQ = irrigation frequencies. (**). Figures of unshared characters significantly differs at 0.05 level, Duncan.

REFERENCES Abdel C. G. (2011). Improving the production of radish (Raphanus sativus L.cv. local black) by FeEDDHA and carrots (Daucus carrota L. var. sativus cv. Nates by indole-3-butyric acid (IBA). African Journal of Agricultural Research. 6, 4: 978-985. Ahamed, K.U., K. Nahar, M. Fujita and M. Hasanuzzaman (2010). Variation in plant growth, tiller dynamics and yield components of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) due to high temperature stress. Advances in Agriculture and Botanics. , 2, 213-224. Al-Busaidi, A., M. Ahmed and J. Chikara (2012). The impact of heat and water stress conditions on the growth of the biofuel plant Jatropha curcas. International Journal of Environmental Studies, 69, 273-288. Allen, D.J. and D.R. Ort (2001). Impacts of chilling temperatures on photosynthesis in warmclimate plants. Trends in Plant Science (2001). , 6, 36-42. Aroca, R., P. Vernieri, J.J. Irigoyen, M. Sánchez-diaz, F. Tognoni and A. Pardossi (2003). Involvement of abscisic acid in leaf and root of maize (Zea mays L.) in avoiding chillinginduced water stress. Plant Science, 165, 671-679. Chinnusamy, V., J. Zhu and J.K. Zhu (2007). Cold stress regulation of gene expression in plants. Trends in Plant Science, 12, 444-451. Enns, L.C., M.E. Mccully and M.J. Canny (2006). Branch roots of young maize seedlings, their production, growth, and phloem supply from the primary root. Functional Plant Biology, 33, 391-399. Farooq, M., T. Aziz, A. Wahid and D.J. Lee (2009). Siddique KHM. Chilling tolerance in maize: agronomic and physiological approaches. Crop & Pasture Science, 60, 501-516. Goldberg S. D. and M. Shmueli (1970). Drip irrigation—a method used under arid and desert conditions of high water and soil salinity.Trans ASAE 13:38–41. Goldberg S. D., M. Rinot and N. Karu (1971). Effect of trickle irrigation intervals on distribution and utilization of soil moisture in a vineyard. Soil Sci Soc Am Proc 35:127–130. Hayat R. and S. Ali ( 2010). Contribution of water use efficiency of summer legumes for the production of rainfed wheat. Int. J. Agric. Biol., 12: 655-660. Hedge D. M. (1978). Effect of Soil Matric Potential, Method of Irrigation and Nitrogen Fertilization on Yield, Quality, Nutrient Uptake and Water Use of Radish (Raphanus sativus L.). Irrig Sci, 8:13-22. Hurry, V.M., G. Malmberg, P. Gardestorm and G. Oquist (1994). Effects of a short term shift to low temperature and of long term cold hardening on photosynthesis and ribulose-1, 5-bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase and sucrose phosphate activity in leaves of winter rye (Secale cereale L.). Plant Physiology, 106, 983-990. Ishikawa, H.A. (1996). Ultrastructural features of chilling injury: injured cells and the early events during chilling of suspension cultured mung bean cells. American Journal of Botany, 83, 825-835. Kang Y. and S. Wan (2005). Effect of soil water potential on radish (Raphanus sativus L.) growth and water use under drip irrigation.Scientia Horticulturae 106, 275–292. Kang Y., F. X. Wang, H. J. Liu and B. Z. Yuan (2004). Potato evapotranspiration and yield under different drip irrigation regimes. Irrig. Sci 23:133– 143. Kratsch, H. A. and R.R. Wise (2000). The ultrastructure of chilling stress. Plant, Cell & Environment, 23, 337-350. Lee, H., Y. Guo, M. Ohta, L. Xiong, B. Stevenson and J.K. Zhu (2002). LOS2, a genetic locus required for cold responsive transcription encodes a bi-functional enolase. EMBO Journal, 21, 2692-2702. Legros T. and D. L. Smith (1994). Root zone temperature sensitivity of nitrogen fixing and nitrate supplied soybean (Glycine max L. Merr. cv maple arrow) and lupine (Lupinus albus L. cv ultra) plants. Environmental and Experimental Botany 34: 2, 117-127. Levin I., P. Van Pooyen and F. Van Rooyen (1979b). The effect of discharge rate and intermittent water application by point source irrigation on the soil moisture distribution pattern. Soil Sci Soc Am J 43:8–16. Levin I., R. Assaf and B. A. Bravdo (1979a). Soil moisture and root distribution in an apple orchard irrigated by trickles. Plant Soil 52:31–40. Li X., Y. Feng and L. Boersma (1994). Partitioning of photosynthates between shoot and root in spring wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) as a function of soil water potential and root temperature. Plant and Soil 164, 43-50. Mahajan, S and N. Tuteja (2005). Cold, salinity and drought stresses: An overview. Archives of Biochemistry and Biophysics, 444, 139-158. Marcelis L. F. m. and J. Van Hooijdonk (1999). Effect of salinity on growth, water use and nutrient use in radish (Raphanus sativus L.) Plant and Soil 215: 57–64. Matzner, S. and J. Comstock (2001). The temperature dependence of shoot hydraulic resistance: implications for stomatal behaviour and hydraulic limitation. Plant, Cell & Environment, 24, 1299-1307. Mckersie, B. D. and S.R. Bowley (1997). Active oxygen and freezing tolerance in transgenic plants. In: Li PH, Chen THH (eds) Plant Cold Hardiness, Molecular Biology, Biochemistry and Physiology. Plenum Press: New York, 203-214. Meshkat M., R. C. Warner and S. R. Workman (2000). Evaporation reduction potential in an undisturbed soil irrigated with surface drip and sand tube irrigation. Trans ASAE 43(1):79–86. Oktem A, S. Mehmet, and A. G. Oktem (2003). Deficit irrigation effects on sweet corn (Zea mays saccharata Sturt) with drip irrigation system in a semi-arid region water-yield relationship. Agric. Water Manage., 61: 63-74. Olien, C. R. and M. N. Smith (1997). Ice adhesions in relation to freeze stress, Plant Physiology, 60, 499-503. Partelli, F. L, Vieira, H. D., Viana, A. P. Batista-Santos P., Rodrigues A.P., Leitão A.E., Ramalho J.C. (2009). Low temperature impact on photosynthetic parameters of coffee genotypes. Pesquisa Agropecuária Brasileira, 44, 1404-1415.

74


Porter, J.R and M. Gawith (1999). Temperature and the growth and development of wheat: A review. European Journal of Agronomy, 10, 23-36. Radin J. W., J. R. Mauney,and P. C. Kerridge (1989). Water uptake by cotton roots during fruit ﬁlling in relation to irrigation frequency. Crop Sci 29(4):1000–1005. Rahman, M.M. (2004). Response of wheat genotypes to late seeding heat stress. MS Thesis. Department of Crop Botany. Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman Agricultural University, Gazipur, Bangladesh; (2004). Ramalho, J.C., V.L. Quartin, E. Leitao and P.S. Campos (2003). Carelli MLC, Fahl JI, Nunes MA. Cold acclimation ability and photosynthesis among species of the tropical Coffea genus. Plant Biology, 5, 631-641. Reda, F. and H.M.H. Mandoura (2011). Response of enzymes activities, photosynthetic pigments, proline to low or high temperature stressed wheat plant (Triticum aestivum L.) in the presence or absence of exogenous proline or cysteine. International Journal of Academic Research, 3, 108-115. Salinas, J. (2002). Molecular mechanisms of signal transduction in cold acclimation. In: Scheel D, Wasternack C (eds) Plant signal transduction. London: Oxford University Press, 116-139. Silva, E. A., F.M. Damatta, C. Ducatti, A.J. Regazzi and R.S. Barros (2004). Seasonal changes in vegetative growth and photosynthesis of Arabica coffee trees. Field Crops Research. Smasjtrla A. G., D. S. Harrison and G. A. Clark (1985). Trickle irrigation scheduling I. Duration of water application. IFAS Bulletin 204, University of Florida, Gainesville. Steponkus, P. L., M. Uemura, R. A. Joseph, S.J. Gilmour and M.F. Thomashow (1998). Mode of action of the COR15a gene on the freezing tolerance of Arabidopsis thaliana. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA, 95, 14570-14575. Strand, A., C.H. Foyer, P. Gustafsson and V. Hurry (2003). Increased expression of sucrosephosphate synthase in transgenic Arabidopsis thaliana results in improved photosynthetic performance and increased freezing tolerance al low temperatures. Plant, Call & Environment, 26, 523-535. Sutcliffe J. (1977). Plants and temperature. The Institute of Biology’s Studies in Biology no. 86, University of Sussex, USA. Thomashow, M. F. (1999). Plant cold acclimation: freezing tolerance genes and regulatory mechanisms. Annual Review of Plant Physiology and Plant Molecular Biology, 50, 571-579. Thomashow, M. F. (2001). So what’s new in the field of plant cold acclimation? Lots! Plant Physiology, 125, 89-93. Wang, L.J. and S.H. Li (2006). Salicylic acid-induced heat or cold tolerance in relation to Ca2+ homeostasis and antioxidant systems in young grape plants. Plant Science, 170, 685-694. Yadav, S. K. (2010). Cold stress tolerance mechanisms in plants. A review. Agronomy for Sustainable Development, 30, 515-527. Yordanova, R. and L. Popova (2007). Effect of exogenous treatment with salicylic acid on photosynthetic activity and antioxidant capacity of chilled wheat plants. General and Applied Plant Physiology, 33, 155-170. Yuan B. Z., K. Yaohu and N. Soichi (2001). Drip irrigation scheduling for tomatoes in unheated greenhouses. Irrig. Sci. 20, 149–154. Cassman KG, Dobermann A, Walters DT and Yang H. 2003.Meeting cereal demand while protecting natural resources and improving environmental quality. Ann. Rev. Environ. Resour. 28: 315-358. Charles AS and Charles SW. 2006. Corn response to Nitrogen rate, row spacing, and plant density in Eastern Nebraska. Agron J. 94: 529-535. Cox WJ and Cherney DJR. 2001. Row spacing, plant density, and nitrogen effects on corn silage. Agron J. 93: 597-602. De Pascal S, Tamburrino R, Maggio A, Barbieri G, Fogliano V and Pernice R. 2006. Effect of nitrogen fertilization on the nutritional value of organicallay and conventionally grown tomatoes. Proceeding of the international symposium towards ecologically sound fertilization strategies for field vegetable production. 700:107-110. Emami A. 1975. Plant analysis methods. 1: 11-28. Farahmand AR, H Fardad, A Liaghat and A Khashi. 2006. The effect of water and nitrogen amount on quantity and quality of tomato under deficit irrigation. Irrigation J. Agri. Sci. 37: 273-279. Gehl RJ, Maddux LD and Gordon WB. 2005. Corn yield response to nitrogen rate and timing in sandy irrigated soils. Agron J. 97: 1230-1238. Hatfield JL and Prueger JH. 2004. Nitrogen over-use, under-use, and efficiency. Crop Sci. Lack Sh, Naderi A, Siadat SA, Ayenehband A and N Nour-Mohammadi. 2005. Effects of water deficiency stress on yield and nitrogen efficiency of grain corn hybrid SC. 704 at different nitrogen rates and plant population. J. aric.sci. Natur. Resour. 14 (2): 1-14. Lopez- Bellido RJ and L Lopez- Bellido. 2001. Efficiency of nitrogen in wheat under Mediterranean condition: effect of tillage, crop rotation and N fertilization. Field Crops Res. 71: 31-46. Moll RH, EJ Kamprath and WA Jackson. 1982. Analysis and interpretation of factors which contribute to efficiency of nitrogen utilization. Agron J. 74: 562-564. Oikeh SO, Kling JG and Okoruwa AE. 1998. Nitrogen fertilizer management effects on maize grain quality in the West African moist savanna. Crop Sci. 38: 1056-1061. Sepehr E, Malakouti MJ and Nougolipour F. 2008. Evaluation of phosphorus efficiency in Iranian cereal in a deficient calcareous soil. Euro soil 2008 International conference (Soil- Society-Environment). Book of abstracts: Pp. 182. In: W. E. H. for daily light partitioning in multispeciec canopies. Agricultural forest and meteorology. 101:252-263. Townsend AR, Howarth R, Bazzaz FA, Booth MS, Cleveland CC, Colling SK, Doboson AP, Epstein PR, Holland EA, Keeney DR, Mallin MA, Rogers CA, Wayne P and Wolfe AH. 2003. Human health effects of a changing global nitrogen cycle. Frontiers Ecology and Environment. 1: 240-246. Villar-Mir JM, Villar-Miir P, Stockle CO, Ferrer F and Aran M. 2002. On-farm monitoring of soil nitrate-nitrogen in irrigated cornfields in the Ebro valley (Northeast Spain). Agron J. 94: 373-380.

75