Water Productivity of Rice Genotypes with Irrigation ...

IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE

Irrig. and Drain. (2018) Published online in Wiley Online Library (wileyonlinelibrary.com) DOI: 10.1002/ird.2250

WATER PRODUCTIVITY OF RICE GENOTYPES WITH IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE† RUTILO LÓPEZ‐LÓPEZ1*, JOSÉ ALFREDO JIMÉNEZ-CHONG1, LEONARDO HERNÁNDEZ-ARAGÓN2 AND MARCO ANTONIO INZUNZA IBARRA3 1

Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Agrícolas y Pecuarias en México (INIFAP), Huimanguillo, Tabasco, Mexico 2 Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Agrícolas y Pecuarias en México (INIFAP), Zacatepec, Morelos, Mexico 3 Centro Nacional de Investigación Disciplinaria en Relación Agua Suelo Planta Atmósfera (CENID RASPA INIFAP), Gómez Palacio, Dgo., Mexico

ABSTRACT The aims of this study were: (i) to evaluate the agronomic characteristics of thin-grain rice genotypes with high yield potential under irrigation conditions; (ii) to quantify water productivity (WP) in thin-grain rice genotypes, based on crop evapotranspiration (ETC) and irrigation and surface drainage control. Eight genotypes were planted: four varieties, two promising lines and hybrid Clearfield XL745 and IRGA. Direct dry seeding was carried out mechanically at a density of 80 kg ha-1 for the varieties and 32 kg ha-1 for the hybrid; drainage was performed every 9.3 m inside of the border. The results indicate that there are significant differences (P > 0.05) among genotypes for grain yield and its components, except for lodging. The varieties and promising rice lines evaluated expressed good productive capacity, but they were surpassed by 19% by the average productivity recorded by the variety IRGA and the hybrid Clearfield. The variation in water demand based on ETC is evident in the optimal irrigation depth applications of 264 mm for the hybrid and 318 mm for the intermediate-cycle genotypes. The border irrigation method with drainage troughs significantly increases water productivity based on the applied irrigation (WPI), averaging 2.0 kg m-3. Copyright © 2018 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. key words: border irrigation; genotypes; grain yield; water productivity

RÉSUMÉ Les objectifs de cette étude étaient les suivants: (i) évaluer les caractéristiques agronomiques des génotypes de riz à grains fins avec un potentiel de rendement élevé dans les conditions d’irrigation; (ii) quantifier la productivité de l’eau (WP) de ces génotypes basée sur l’évapotranspiration des cultures (ETC), l’irrigation et le contrôle du drainage de surface. Huit génotypes ont été plantés; quatre variétés, deux lignées prometteuses et les hybrides Clearfield XL745 et IRGA. L’ensemencement direct sec a été réalisé mécaniquement à une densité de 80 kg ha-1 pour les variétés et de 32 kg ha-1 pour l’hybride; les rigoles de drainage sont espacées de 9.3 m à l’intérieur des bassins d’irrigation. Les résultats indiquent qu’il existe des différences significatives (P > 0.05) entre les génotypes pour le rendement en grains et ses composantes, sauf pour la verse. Les variétés évaluées ont exprimé une bonne capacité de production, mais elles ont été surpassées de 19% par la productivité moyenne enregistrée par la variété IRGA et l’hybride Clearfield. La variation de la demande d’eau basée sur l’ETC est évidente avec des lames d’eau optimales de 264 mm pour l’hybride et de 318 mm pour les génotypes de cycle intermédiaire. La méthode d’irrigation bassins avec du drainage augmente significativement la productivité de l’eau en fonction de l’irrigation appliquée (WPI), avec une moyenne de 2.0 kg m-3. Copyright © 2018 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. mots clés: irrigation au calant; génotypes; rendement en graines; productivité de l’eau

INTRODUCTION *Correspondence to: Dr Rutilo López‐López, Investigador del Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Agrícolas y Pecuarias en México (INIFAP), Campo Experimental Huimanguillo, Km 1, Carretera Huimanguillo Cárdenas, Ap. 86400, Huimanguillo, Tabasco, Mexico. Tel.: 01 800 0882222 ext. 87515. E-mail: [email protected] † Productivité de l’eau de genotypes du riz avec irrigation et drainage.

Copyright © 2018 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Water for agriculture is becoming increasingly scarce due to the growing demands of other sectors. The development of optimal irrigation management methods for rice production, with the aim of reducing water consumption, allows saving and distributing water to other users (Mostafa and Fujimoto, 2014).

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R. LÓPEZ-LÓPEZ ET AL.

Rice cultivation in the Lower Usumacinta Basin of Mexico is characterized by high rainfall (1880 mm) that can be uneven in its distribution. In this region, rice is mainly grown under rainfed conditions, but in areas with water infrastructure it can be cultivated under irrigation conditions or with auxiliary irrigation. In 2013, 34 109 ha were planted with rice in Mexico, resulting in a production of 180 000 t and an average yield of 5.43 t ha-1. The state of Campeche in the same year reported a rice-sown area of 7438 ha with a production of 31 200 t. In this state, 4300 ha were planted in the autumn–winter (AW) and 3138 ha in the spring–summer (SS). Campeche ranks among the lowest states in terms of crop productivity, with an average yield of 4.21 t ha-1 (Servicio de Información Agroalimentaria y Pesquera (SIAP), 2014). In this area of the state of Campeche, there are periods in which the occurrence of rainfall does not coincide with crop water requirements, making irrigation necessary for obtaining potential yields. The water balance shows that from mid-May to late October, rainfall exceeds crop water demands. However, there is a 6-month period in which the supply curve is below the demand curve (December to May). The problems that limit paddy rice yields in this region of Mexico are: irregular rainfall causing losses mainly due to the lack of water affecting the vegetative and reproductive development of the plants, lack of suitable varieties for cultivation in an irrigated system, and inadequate weed control, which is a serious problem in this rice-growing area. Facon (2000) points out that total water requirements and specific water use for rice production under different agro-ecosystems can be roughly estimated on average (evapotranspiration 550– 950 mm per crop, which is the water actually consumed by the plant) as follows: (i) in rainfed rice, 5500 m3 ha-1 (evapotranspiration only) are needed for a grain yield of 1.25 t ha-1, with specific water use of 6.5 m3 kg-1; (ii) in rice with auxiliary irrigation, 10 000 m3 ha-1 (evapotranspiration + supplementary irrigation) are required for a grain yield of 2.5 t ha-1, with specific water use of 4.0 m3 kg-1; (iii) in irrigated lowland rice, 16 500 m3 ha-1 (evapotranspiration and full irrigation) are required for a grain yield of 4.5 t ha-1, with specific water use of 3.77 m3 kg-1. Molden (1997) originally promoted the concept of water productivity (WP) for reporting results on water use. Kijne et al. (2003) presented a collection of articles discussing definitions, applications and case studies of WP. It was subsequently concluded that increasing WP is the best way to achieve efficient water use (Rodrigues and Pereira, 2009). Numerous studies, both conceptual and practical, have been published on this topic worldwide (Cao et al., 2015). WP can be quantified with respect to water use in different production sectors as the amount of output per unit of water used. Therefore, for rice cultivation it is the grain yield obtained based on the water volume used in production. Copyright © 2018 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

The differences in WP values reported by several authors are due to the large variations in rice production, which range from 3 to 8 t ha-1, and the different concepts of water use in production of the crop. Thus, WP can be defined as the weight of the rice grain over the cumulative volume of water used for transpiration (WPT), for evapotranspiration (WPETc), for irrigation (WPI), for irrigation and precipitation (WPI+P) or for irrigation, precipitation and capillary rise (WPI+P+C) (Bouman et al., 2007). WP can also vary when evaluated at different spatial scales due to the influence of such factors as crop selection, weather patterns, irrigation technology and water management in plots and inputs, including labour, fertilizers and machinery (Rosegrant et al., 2002). Because of the spatial variability of WP, there are options in agriculture to improve it at plot level. Options may involve combined research on plant physiology, agronomy and agricultural-engineering approaches focused on making transpiration more efficient or productive, by reducing non-beneficial evaporation and by applying more precise and efficient fertilizer amounts and irrigation depths (Mdemu et al., 2004; Shao et al., 2014; Kadiyala et al., 2015; Linquist et al., 2015). WP in rice with respect to total water inputs (irrigation and rainfall) varies from 0.2 to 1.2 g of grain kg -1 of water with an average value of 0.4, which is half that of wheat (Tuong et al., 2005). Wokker et al. (2014) presented a summary of the studies related to WP in rice systems, with special emphasis on the countries of South East Asia. These studies focus on water use quantified by different measures of evapotranspiration (actual, potential and reference), based on data from experimental stations or greenhouse experiments that do not necessarily reflect the conditions of commercial rice production. Values range from 0.04 kg m-3 based on the contributions of rainfall, irrigation, and surface and underground flow, up to 2.1 kg m-3 obtained from irrigation only. Bouraima et al. (2015), in a semi-arid region, estimated rice crop evapotranspiration (ETC) at 651 mm and irrigation requirements (IR) at 383 mm in the rainy season; in the dry season ETC was 920 mm and IR 1150 mm. Reference evapotranspiration (ET0) was estimated by the Penman– Monteith method and crop coefficients (Kc) were adjusted based on the phenological stages of rice to estimate ETC through the water balance for the calculation of irrigation requirements. Xihua et al. (2016) studied the effect of irrigation depth on rice production and WP. The experiment included four treatments: (i) traditional irrigation; (ii) shallow wet irrigation; (iii) intermittent irrigation; (iv) controlled irrigation. The study showed that controlled irrigation had the highest WP (1.64 kg m-3). However, the highest rice yield was found in the shallow wet irrigation (9867 kg ha-1), which achieved the second highest WP (1.63 kg m-3). Compared to Irrig. and Drain. (2018)

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WATER PRODUCTIVITY OF RICE

traditional irrigation, shallow wet irrigation and controlled irrigation consumed 7.3 and 36.1% less water, respectively. They conclude that if adopted at the operational scale, these two treatments could help reduce pressure on the local water supply and lower production costs significantly. WP can be improved by increasing yield or decreasing infiltration and percolation. Under climate change scenarios, irrigation techniques for saving water, such as alternate wetting and drying, are also efficient measures (Luo et al., 2015). Faced with the challenge of producing more rice with less water, this study applies a border irrigation method with drainage troughs (Figure 1) to make more efficient use of irrigation water, improve weed control and the use of nitrogen fertilizers, facilitate harvesting and increase rice productivity. The objectives of the study were: (i) to evaluate the agronomic characteristics of thin-grain rice genotypes with high yield potential under irrigation conditions and (ii) to quantify WP in thin-grain rice genotypes, based on crop evapotranspiration (ETC) and the irrigation-surface drainage method.

MATERIALS AND METHODS Study area and climate During the 2015 spring–summer cycle under irrigated conditions, rice was grown at Rancho Kronos S.A. de C.V. in Palizada, Campeche, Mexico, in a 520 ha area, geographically situated at 18° 30 16.7″ N and 91° 560 09.8″ W at an elevation of 5 m, located in the Lower Usumacinta Basin. The climate is warm humid with abundant summer rains (Am), with an average annual rainfall of 1880 mm and average temperature of 27.0°C.

Soil The soil is classified as Luvisol gleico. Analysis of the physical properties of the soil indicated that it has: a loamy clayey texture; bulk density of 1.25 and 1.36 g cm-3 at 0.1

and 0.3 m deep, respectively; real density of 2.3 at 0.1 m and 2.4 g cm-3 at 0.3 m deep, respectively; moisture content at field capacity (FC) of 29.6% and a permanent wilting point (PWP) of 16.5%. The characteristic moisture curve was determined in the laboratory with the pressure membrane and plate method using soil samples taken with an Uhland auger, then dried at 105°C for 24 h, in order to obtain the pore space or the moisture at soil saturation. Subsequently, the moisture content (W) was determined by weight difference, based on a succession of suction changes (θ) in the drying process. These characteristics indicate that the soil has medium to high moisture retention capacity, with a pore space or volumetric moisture content at saturation (θs) of 0.47 at 0.1 m deep and 0.44 at 0.3 m deep. The pH is moderate to slightly acidic (5.1–6.2) with moderate to poor organic matter (0.8–1.2%), phosphorus (5–10 mg kg-1) and potassium (0.5–0.8 mg kg-1) contents.

Ground preparation and levelling Once the young shoots of the previous cycle’s rice crop were harvested, the ground was flooded in November and December of 2014 to carry out weed-clearing work using a rotary plough called a bolillo. Later, glyphosate was applied at a dose of 3 l ha-1 to remove emerging weeds. Ground levelling was performed with a satellite signal using geopositioners, high-clearance motorized agricultural equipment and levelling implements. Primary levelling was done 20 days after the clearing work using the Screpón (a mechanical shovel guided by a laser beam leveller located at the centre of the border strip that transmits the satellite signal to the receiver that automatically calculates the uneven points). Finally, one pass was made with a harrow to crumble the clods and facilitate mechanical planting.

Genotypes, planting and population density We used four varieties from Mexico’s National Institute of Forestry, Agricultural and Livestock Research (INIFAP), namely Azteca, Choca A-05, INIFLAR R (FL05392) and INIFLAR RT (FL04621), two promising lines (FL09218 and FL06747) and the hybrid Clearfield CLXL 745 from the United States and the variety IRGA from Brazil; the last two are used by the producer (controls). Direct dry seeding was done at a density of 80 kg ha-1 for the varieties and promising lines and at a density of 32 kg ha-1 for the hybrid; a mechanical seeder with 24 rows spaced 20 cm apart was used.

Irrigation and surface drainage

Figure 1. Border irrigation method with drainage troughs to improve rice WP in Palizada Campeche, Mexico. [Colour figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com] Copyright © 2018 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Irrigation water is drawn from the Usumacinta River by two 150-HP electric pumps with a total flow of 550 l s-1, and channelled into a reservoir equipped with four 75-HP pumps. This flow is conducted through the main canal and Irrig. and Drain. (2018)

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distributed into secondary channels to irrigate border strips ranging from 5.5 to 22 ha. In each border strip, troughs were dug 9.3 m apart (twice the width of the planter), 0.3 m deep and 0.5 m wide using a double-wheel rotary ditcher (Dondi®) to channel the irrigation water and drainage (Figure 1). Drainage is performed after germination irrigation to prevent birds from eating the rice seeds, before nitrogen fertilization and before herbicide application. These troughs are connected to the secondary channel and to the parcel drains of the borders that divert the water, in turn, into the main irrigation canal. This work is guided by a GPS device that allows precise troughs to be made, parallel to each other and at the same depth. Rice crop evapotranspiration (ETC) is related to the evapotranspiration of a grass taken as reference (ET0), with the use of crop coefficients (Kc). First, reference evapotranspiration was obtained by the Penman–Monteith method (Allen et al., 2006): ET0 ¼

900 0:408 Δ ðRn GÞ þ y T þ273 u 2 ðe s e a Þ Δ þ yð1 þ 0:34 u2 Þ

(1)

where Rn is the net radiation at the crop surface (MJ m-2 day-1), G the soil heat flux density (MJ m-2 day-1), T the mean daily air temperature (°C), u2 the wind speed at 2 m height (m s-1), es the saturation vapour pressure (kPa), ea the actual vapour pressure (kPa), Δ the slope vapour pressure curve (kPa °C-1) and γ the psychrometric constant (kPa °C-1). Weather data were taken from an automated weather station in Juncal Palizada, Campeche, located 0.5 km from the experimental plot. Crop evapotranspiration was calculated as follows: ETc ¼ K c ET 0

(3)

It is considered that 0.3 m ground depth is where the greatest proportion of roots (70%) can be found in rice Copyright © 2018 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

D i ¼ ðθ s θ 0 Þ D r

(4)

With the fixed flow (Q) and knowing the area (A), the volume of irrigation water applied per unit area (V), which identifies the run-time (t), was calculated, Lr = Irrigation depth (mm) to be applied: V ¼ Lr A

(5)

V Q

(6)

t¼

where Q is the flow entering the border strip estimated from the velocity per section area. Six irrigations with depths ranging from 46 to 54 mm, with a total of 264 mm for the short-cycle hybrid and 318 mm for the intermediate-cycle genotypes, were applied. The germination irrigation (GI) was conducted on 18 April 2015, and the following five irrigations were applied at an average interval of 15 days (Figure 2).

Weed control Weed control began with the ground-clearing work, coupled with pre-emergence application based on Pendimethalin (Prowl® H2O 3.0 l ha-1) and a second application of glyphosate at a dose of 3–4 l ha-1 plus Metsulfuron (Accurate®) at a rate of 14 g ha-1, with an adherent and acidifier being added to both products at a rate of 50 ml ha-1. At 20 days after plant emergence, Propanil was applied at a dose of 4 l ha-1 for grass control, and Metsulfuron at a rate of 4 g ha-1 or Triclopyr at a dose of 600 ml ha-1 for broadleaf weed control.

(2)

where Kc values depend on the crop’s phenological stage. The values used for rice were 1.05 at the vegetative stage, 1.2 at the reproductive stage and 0.9 to 0.6 at the ripening stage (Allen et al., 2006). Outlets or sluice gates were used to apply different unit flows (available flow per linear metre of border strip width). The higher the flow per unit of width, the greater the application efficiency and the lower the irrigation run-time, but it should be noted that this flow does not erode the soil. To determine the irrigation depth (Di) from the initial soil moisture conditions (θ0 = W ρa), we proceeded to calculate the volumetric moisture content at saturation (θs) assumed equal to the pore space of the soil (0.47), using the true density (ρr) and bulk density(ρa) according to Equation (3): ρ θs ¼ 1 a ρr

cultivation. Therefore, by knowing the root depth (Dr), the irrigation depth is obtained:

Fertilization In the soil preparation stage or before seeding, base fertilization of 100 kg of diammonium phosphate (18-46-00) and 85 kg of potassium chloride (00-00-60) was applied. At Irrigation deep (mm)

60 Irrigations

50 40

Precipitation

30 20 10

Evapotranspiration

0 Seedling emergence

Tillering

Flowering

Maturation

Figure 2. Variation in the demand for irrigation water due to the effect of evapotranspiration and precipitation during seeding on 14 April 2015. Irrig. and Drain. (2018)

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30 days after seeding, 300 kg ha-1 of urea (46-00-00) were applied with a mechanical spreader, resulting in a formula of 154-46-51; however, just before flowering, a supplementary application of 80 kg ha-1 of urea was made in areas where there were nitrogen (N) deficiencies to complete the 193-46-51 formula of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium, respectively.

Pest and disease control At 20 days after emergence, together with the postemergence herbicides, cypermethrin was applied at a dose of 250 ml ha-1 for the control of fall armyworm (Spodoptera frugiperda). From the start of the flowering stage to grain filling, Imidacloprid plus Lambda-cyhalothrin at a dose of 100 g l-1 (250 ml ha-1) and a second application of Sulfoxaflor at a dose of 240 g of ai l-1 (Toretto™) were applied to control the stink bug (Oebalus insularis). Control of pyricularia and brown spot caused by Maganoporte grisae and Hemiltonsporium oryzae, respectively, was conducted with Fenpropimorph + Epoxiconazole + Kresoxim methyl (Juwel®) at a rate of 125 g l-1 ha-1.

Measurement variables and statistical analysis Manual harvesting and recording of continuous variables were performed by selecting five central troughs (experimental unit) of 5 m in length (5 m2). Once the rice was cut from the useful plot, the panicles were beaten on clean barrels to prevent seed contamination. The grains were exposed to the sun for 2 days and then cleaned with a fan to eliminate straw and impurities. On a scale, the grain content of each replication per genotype was weighed and subsequently 100 g were taken to determine the grain yield corrected for a standardized moisture content of 14%. The variables of plant height, days to flowering and ripening, stained grain and lodging were also

measured in each experimental unit and analysed at average level. The study variables were analysed under a completely randomized design with five replications where the experimental plot per genotype varied depending on the amount of seed available, consisting of 24–192 lines of 100 m in length. Analysis of variance of the measured variables and the Tukey test (α = 0.05) for multiple comparison of means were performed. WP was obtained based on crop evapotranspiration (WPETc), irrigation water (WPI) and irrigation water plus precipitation (WPI+P), dividing grain yield at 14% moisture content in kg ha-1 by the volume of water consumed in m3 ha-1.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Grain yield and its components Analyses of variance indicate significant differences (P < 0.05) for the variables grain yield, days to flowering, days to ripening, plant height, stained grain and brown spot, but not for lodging, as the evaluated genotypes presented high plant-lodging resistance. Tukey’s test (α = 0.05) separates the genotypes into statistical groups, where it can be seen that both the new varieties and the promising lines evaluated obtained acceptable yields and have agronomic characteristics suitable for the soil and climatic conditions of the region (Table I). These genetic materials recorded a plant height of 112–115 cm, 87–100 days to flowering, and 120–128 days to ripening; moreover, they showed no lodging problems, their phenotypes are good, and they had only slight damage to leaves and grains caused by Helminthosporium oryzae, except INIFLAR R and Aztecas. The control genotypes used by the producer, IRGA and Clearfield XL745, proved to be materials with good productivity, with the two combined obtaining an average yield of 7400 kg ha-1 and agronomic characteristics like those of the varieties and promising lines; yields of 5500 kg ha-1 for FL06747 and

Table I. Grain yield and its components for rice genotypes under border irrigation with drainage furrows in the Lower Usumacinta Basin, Mexico Genotype Choca A-05 FL09218 FL06747 Iniflar R Aztecas Iniflar RT IRGA Clearfield XL 745 a

Grain yield (kg ha-1)

Days to flowering

Days to ripening

Stained graina

Plant height (cm)

Brown spota

6100 bc 6400 b 5500 bc 5800 bc 5700 b 6350 b 6900 ab 7900 a

94 b 100 a 100 a 99 a 101 a 87 b 100 a 80 c

125 a 128 a 127 a 127 a 128 a 120 b 127 a 98 c

2.0 b 2.0 b 3.0 b 4.0 a 4.0 a 3.5 a 4.5 a 2.0 b

112 a 112 a 115 a 115 a 103 b 115 a 110 a 97 b

3.0 a 2.0 bc 1.0 c 3.5 a 3.0 a 2.5 bc 3.0 ab 2.0 bc

Standard Evaluation System Scale for Rice (IRRI, 1996).


Irrig. and Drain. (2018)

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6350 kg ha-1 for INIFLAR RT were obtained. These genetic materials expressed good productive capacity, but they were surpassed by 19% by the average productivity recorded by the variety IRGA and the hybrid Clearfield.

Water productivity The total precipitation that occurred during the crop cycles was from 467 to 513 mm; the evapotranspiration requirement was 511 mm for the hybrid and 635 mm for the intermediate-cycle genotypes. Six auxiliary irrigations (includes germination irrigation) with a total depth of 264 mm for the hybrid and 318 mm for the varieties and intermediate-cycle lines were applied. The analysis of the variation in water demand based on crop evapotranspiration (ETC) from the water balance during the 2015 spring–summer (SS) cycle shows that water depths have high ETC values for the relatively higher temperatures and high global radiation. Figure 2 shows that water demand and irrigation depth application correspond to fluctuations in the amount of precipitation that reached a peak value of 41.4 mm and crop evapotranspiration that ranged from 0.42 to 7.68 mm. Based on the water balance, rice plantings in the SS cycle necessarily require supplemental irrigation to ensure acceptable yields are obtained. The ETC value obtained from the ET0 by the Penman–Monteith method and the FAO Kc averaged 5.2 mm day-1 during the crop period. Bouraima et al. (2015), with the same method, obtained ETC values of 651 mm during the rainy season and 920 mm in the dry season. In this regard, Facon (2000) notes that rice production under different agro-ecosystems can be roughly estimated as averaging 550–950 mm. According to Tabbal et al. (2002), the ETC rate in rice is 4–5 mm day-1 in the wet season and 6–7 mm day-1 in the dry season, but it can be as high as 10–11 mm day-1 in subtropical regions. During the crop’s growth period, about 30–40% of the ETC is evaporation (Bouman et al., 2005). It can also be seen that there is a close relationship between global radiation and precipitation and its influence on crop water requirements; when rainfall occurs, global radiation decreases and therefore crop water needs do as well. The difference between the total irrigation depth applied plus rain and the ETC needs ranged from 196 to 226 mm, which can be considered as losses due to infiltration or percolation into the soil. Linquist et al. (2015) found average water percolation losses of 269 mm. Typical combined values of infiltration and percolation range from 1 to 5 mm day-1 in heavy clayey soils and from 25 to 30 mm day-1 in sandy soils and sandy loams (Bouman and Tuong, 2001). These values show evidence of high efficiency in the application of irrigation depths by the border irrigation method with drainage troughs. Percolation occurs Copyright © 2018 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

when the amount of infiltrated water in the soil is greater than the storage capacity of the root zone (after heavy rain or an irrigation application), so it is not a flow that occurs daily as in lowland rice. Table II shows WP based on crop evapotranspiration, only irrigation and irrigation plus precipitation for the rice genotypes evaluated. The results show that WP based on ETC, for only irrigation and irrigation plus precipitation in the evaluated genotypes, averaged 1.0, 2.0 and 0.8 kg m-3, respectively, which are values similar to those reported by Tuong et al. (2005), with maximum values of 1.2 kg m-3 from the accumulated volume of applied irrigation plus precipitation, and also by Xihua et al. (2016) who, using a controlled irrigation schedule, obtained a WP value of 1.64 kg m-3. The hybrid Clearfield shows the highest WP because it had the highest yields (7.9 t ha-1) and the shortest cycle (98 days), so its total ETC is lower than that of the other genotypes. As for the WP of the genotypes FL06747, INIFLAR R and INIFLAR RT based on irrigation depth application, values of 1.7, 1.9 and 2.0 kg m-3, respectively, lower than those obtained for the control genotypes, 2.1 kg m-3 for IRGA and 2.4 kg m-3 for the hybrid Clearfield, were obtained. These values exceed the world average of 0.4 kg m-3 reported by Tuong et al. (2005). However, the results are similar to those reported by Wokker et al. (2014). The WP values obtained confirm the increase in the efficient use of irrigation water in the current rice production system compared to continuous flooding production systems where accumulated irrigation depths of more than 1 m are applied in this region of Mexico. These results agree with those of Xihua et al. (2016) who increased WP by applying irrigation depths lower than traditional system levels and yet still obtained acceptable grain yields.

Table II. Water productivity based on crop evapotranspiration (WPETc), applied irrigation (WPI) and irrigation plus precipitation (PAI+P) for different rice genotypes Genotypes

WPETc

WPI

WPI+P

(kg m-3) Choca A-05 FL09218 FL06747 Iniflar R Azteca Iniflar RT IRGA Clearfield CLXL 745 Average

1.00 1.05 0.90 0.95 0.94 1.04 1.13 1.54 1.07

1.92 2.01 1.73 1.82 1.81 2.00 2.17 2.48 1.99

0.76 0.79 0.68 0.72 0.71 0.79 0.85 0.98 0.78

WPETc = water productivity based on ETc, WPI = water productivity based on applied irrigation, PAI+P = water productivity based on irrigation plus precipitation. Irrig. and Drain. (2018)


It should be emphasized that the border irrigation method with drainage furrows used, in addition to the water savings generated, reduces nitrogen fertilizer losses, since the 154 kg N dose applied to the crop achieves the expected yield potential and the plant presents greater vigour and an intense green colour. This is consistent with the work done by Shao et al. (2015) on controlled irrigation and drainage at different crop stages where they found that nitrate and ammonia nitrogen losses decreased significantly in surface runoff. On the other hand, ground levelling is an important factor in water use efficiency since it results in reduced irrigation run-times, fuel savings and greater pumping equipment efficiency, meaning a 40% cost saving compared to nonlevelled soils and a considerable reduction in the use of herbicides for weed control. The troughs built into the rice crop border strips improve irrigation uniformity and application efficiencies and drainage is carried out when required.

CONCLUSIONS The control genotypes, IRGA and the hybrid Clearfield, proved to be materials with good productivity and agronomic traits under irrigation conditions, recording high productive behaviour. The varieties and promising lines expressed good productive capacity, but this value was nonetheless 19% lower than the average recorded by the variety IRGA and the hybrid Clearfield. The variation in water demand based on ETC from the water balance shows evidence in the optimal irrigation depth applications of 264 and 318 mm in short- and intermediate-cycle genotypes, respectively. The border irrigation method significantly increases WP based on the applied irrigation (WPI), averaging 2.0 kg m-3.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors wish to thank the SAGARPA-CONACYT Sectoral Research Fund for funding the project entitled ‘Evaluation of Genetic, Thin, Long-Grain Rice Materials for Producing Regions of Mexico’, which is part of this work, and also rice producer Massimo Parietti and Rancho Kronos S.A. de C.V. Palizada Campeche, Mexico, for their cooperation in field activities. REFERENCES Allen GR, Pereira SL, Raes D, Smith M. 2006. Crop evapotranspiration. FAO Irrigation and Drainage Paper 56. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO): Rome, Italy; 300 pp. Bouman BAM, Lampayan RM, Tuong TP. 2007. Water Management in Irrigated Rice: Coping with Water Scarcity. International Rice Research Institute (IRRI): Los Baños, Philippines. Copyright © 2018 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

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