Water Transformed - Lecture 1.1 - The Natural Edge Project

W A T E R T R A NSF OR M E D : S UST A I NA B L E W A T E R S OL UT I ONS F OR C L I M A T E C H A NG E A DA PT A T I ON M ODUL E C : I NT E G R A T E D W A T E R R E SOUR C E P L A NNI NG A ND M A NA G E M E NT

This online textbook provides free access to a comprehensive education and training package that brings together the knowledge of how countries, specifically Australia, can adapt to climate change. This resource has been developed through support from the Federal Government’s Department of Climate Change’s Climate Change Adaptation Professional Skills program.

C H A PT E R 6: A UG M E NT I NG T R A DI T I ONA L W A T E R S UPPL Y T H R OUG H W A T E R R E USE A ND R E C Y C L I NG – I NT R ODUC T I ON A ND O V E R V I E W L E C T UR E 6.1: U R B A N W A T E R R E USE A ND R E C Y C L I NG – A N I NT R ODUC T I ON

© The Natural Edge Project (‘TNEP’), 2010 Copyright of this material (Work) is owned by the members of The Natural Edge Project, based at Griffith University and the Australian National University. The material contained in this document is released under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License. According to the License, this document may be copied, distributed, transmitted and adapted by others, providing the work is properly attributed as: ‘Smith, M.(2009) Water Transformed: Sustainable Water Solutions for Climate Change Adaptation, Australian National University, Griffith University, The Natural Edge Project (TNEP), Australia.’ Document is available electronically at http://www.naturaledgeproject.net/Sustainable_Water_Solutions_Portfolio.aspx. Acknowledgements The Work was produced by The Natural Edge Project supported by funding from the Australian Government Department of Climate Change under its ‘Climate Change Adaptation Skills for Professionals Program’. The development of this publication has been supported by the contribution of non-salary on-costs and administrative support by the Griffith University Urban Research Program, under the supervision of Professor Brendan Gleeson, and the Australian National University Fenner School of Environment and Society and Engineering Department, under the supervision of Professor Stephen Dovers. Chief Investigator and Project Manager: Mr Karlson ‘Charlie’ Hargroves, Research Fellow, Griffith University. Principle Researcher and Author: Dr Michael Smith, Research Fellow, Fenner School of Environment and Society, Australian National University. Peer Review This chapter has been peer reviewed by Bevan Smith, Senior Project Officer (WaterWise) Recycled Water and Demand Management, Queensland Government, Department of Natural Resources and Water and Professor Stephen Dovers. Director, Fenner School of Environment and Society, Australia National University. Peer review for this module was also received from: Harriet Adams - Water Efficiency Opportunities, Commonwealth Department of Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts. Chris Davis, Institute of Sustainable Futures, University of Technology; Alex Fearnside, Sustainability Team Leader, City of Melbourne. Associate Professor Margaret Greenway, Griffith University; Fiona Henderson, CSIRO Land and Water, Dr Matthew Inman, Urban Systems Program, CSIRO Sustainable Ecosystems, CSIRO; Anntonette Joseph, Director – Water Efficiency Opportunities, Commonwealth Department of Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts. Dr Declan Page, CSIRO Land and Water. Bevan Smith, Senior Project Officer (WaterWise) Recycled Water and Demand Management, Queensland Government, Department of Natural Resources and Water. Dr Gurudeo Anand Tularam, Griffith University. Associate Professor Adrian Werner, Flinders University. Professor Stuart White, Director, Institute of Sustainable Futures, UTS, Disclaimer While reasonable efforts have been made to ensure that the contents of this publication are factually correct, the parties involved in the development of this document do not accept responsibility for the accuracy or completeness of the contents. Information, recommendations and opinions expressed herein are not intended to address the specific circumstances of any particular individual or entity and should not be relied upon for personal, legal, financial or other decisions. The user must make its own assessment of the suitability of the information or material contained herein for its use. To the extent permitted by law, the parties involved in the development of this document exclude all liability to any other party for expenses, losses, damages and costs (whether losses were foreseen, foreseeable, known or otherwise) arising directly or indirectly from using this document. This document is produced for general information only and does not represent a statement of the policy of the Commonwealth of Australia. The Commonwealth of Australia and all persons acting for the Commonwealth preparing this report accept no liability for the accuracy of or inferences from the material contained in this publication, or for any action as a result of any person’s or group’s interpretations, deductions, conclusions or actions in relying on this material. Enquires should be directed to: Dr Michael Smith, Research Fellow, Australian National University, Fenner School of Environment and Society, CoFounder and Research Director 2002-2010, The Natural Edge Project Contact Details at http://fennerschool.anu.edu.au/people/academics/smithmh.php

Prepared by The Natural Edge Project 2010

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Water Transformed: Sustainable Water Solutions

Augmenting Water Supply through Water Reuse and Recycling – Introduction and Overview Lecture 6.1: Urban Water Reuse and Recycling – An Introduction Educational Aim The aim of this lecture, and the lectures which follow, is to teach how to identify and implement water recycling opportunities within a rigorous risk assessment and community consultation framework to ensure that water recycling projects address all relevant health, environmental and community concerns. This lecture and the following lectures are deliberately aligned to introduce students to the range of Australian National Water Quality Guidelines for Water Recycling. 1 The aim of this lecture is thus to help improve skills in this area to ensure that all future reuse and recycling projects effectively address health concerns and are carried out with meaningful community consultation. As many significant reports 2 have outlined, until recently, wastewater, such as sewage effluent and stormwater, was seen as a waste problem rather than as a potential water resource. Hence the potential to increase the levels of recycling in Australia is large. However, as these reports 3 have shown, community support for water recycling can be fickle. It could take just one major outbreak of disease from one water recycling project for community support for water recycling to be lost. Hence this lecture, and the following lectures, focus significantly on how to take an effective risk management approach to water quality and protecting human health for all water treatment, reuse and recycling projects.

Key Learning Points 1. When we use the term, water recycling we mean, ‘water which, as a result of treatment of wastewater, is suitable for a direct beneficial use or a controlled use that would not otherwise occur’. 4 ‘Water recycling’, in line with this definition, best describes generic water reclamation and use in the Australian context. 2. Water recycling may encompass 5 -

Rainwater recycling which is the collection, storage and treatment of rain falling on hard surfaces and running off the built environment

1

Natural Resource Management Ministerial Council (NRMMC), Environment Protection and Heritage Council (EPHC), Australian Health Ministers Conference (AHMC) (2006) National Guidelines for Water Recycling: Managing Health and Environmental Risks. NRMMC, EPHC, AHMC. at http://www.ephc.gov.au/taxonomy/term/39 accessed 4 March 2010 2 SECITA (Senate Environment, Communications, Information Technology and the Arts References Committee) (2002) The Value of Water: Inquiry into Australia’s Management of Urban Water, The Parliament of the Commonwealth of Australia, Canberra. athttp://www.aph.gov.au/SENATE/committee/ecita_ctte/completed_inquiries/2002-04/water/report/contents.htm accessed 4 March 2010 Rathjen, D., Cullen, P., Ashbolt, N., Cunliffe, D., Langford, J., Listowski, A., McKay, J., Priestley, T., and Radcliffe, J. (2003) Recycling Water for our Cities, Prime Minister’s Science, Engineering and Innovation Council, Canberra.at http://www.dest.gov.au/NR/rdonlyres/076C55AA-FB04-42A6-8794-B6760767ED5E/1997/Recyclingwaterforourcities.pdf AATSE (Australian Academy of Technological Sciences and Engineering) (2004) Water Recycling in Australia, AATSE, Parkville, Victoria. http://www.atse.org.au/index.php?sectionid=600 accessed 4 March 2010 3 Ibid. 4 AATSE (Australian Academy of Technological Sciences and Engineering) (2004) Water Recycling in Australia, AATSE, Parkville, Victoria. at http://www.atse.org.au/index.php?sectionid=600 accessed 4 March 2010 5 Ibid. Prepared by The Natural Edge Project 2010

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-

Stormwater recycling which involves recycling the water which drains into the stormwater system from roofs, roads, footpaths and other ground surfaces.

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Greywater recycling which involves recycling of wastewater from laundry and bathroom drains, but not from toilets or kitchen.

-

Blackwater recycling which involves recycling from the entire domestic sewage stream (black water) or municipal wastewater. Over five hundred sewage treatment plants (STPs) across Australia now engage in the recycling of at least part of their treated effluent. 6 Between 150 GL and 200 GL of effluent are now being recycled each year.

-

Recycling of effluents of industrial processes including commercial, manufacturing and intensive rural industry effluents.

3. A range of motivators leading to a greater focus on water recycling in Australia and internationally. These include the following 7: -

The potential damage caused by inadequately treated sewage effluent being discharged to oceans, rivers and estuaries is now recognised and has led to limitations being placed on treated wastewater discharges.

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A recent water supply crisis and long term drought in countries and regions such as in Australia and California.

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The significant potential for much larger quantities of water to be reused and recycled.

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The safety, dependability and reliability of availability of recycled water supplies.

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The comparatively high social, financial or environmental cost and/or limited availability of new water resources.

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The potential to defer investment in new water resource infrastructure.

4. The potential for much greater levels of water reuse and recycling is significant. As shown above, there is a significant range of ways to recycle water. Consider just one example, namely recycling stormwater through the use of managed aquifer storage and recharge, as discussed in Lecture 5.4. There is significant potential to increase managed aquifer recharge to help meet water demand in Australian cities. The potential of managed aquifer recharge has so far been assessed in three Australian cities: Perth (100–250 GL/year) 8, Adelaide (20– 80 GL/year 9, with 60 GL/yr achievable using urban stormwater 10) and Melbourne (100 GL/year) 11. These studies suggest that managed aquifer recharge, on its own, could be a major contributor to alleviating the projected shortfall in water supplies to Australian cities, which is expected to reach about 800 GL/year by 2030. 12

6

Ibid. Ibid. 8 Scatena, M.,C. and Williamson, D.R. (1999). A Potential Role for Artificial Recharge in the Perth Region: A Pre-feasibility Study, Centre for Groundwater Studies Report no. 84, Glen Osmond, South Australia 9 Hodgkin, T (2005) Aquifer Storage Capacities of the Adelaide Region, South Australian Government Department of Water, Land and Biodiversity Conservation, Report 2004/47 10 Stormwater Management Authority (2009) Urban stormwater harvesting options study. Wallbridge & Gilbert. At http://www.waterforgood.sa.gov.au/2009/06/urban-stormwaterharvesting-options-study/ accessed 9 March 2010 11 Dudding, M., Evans, R., Dillon, P., and Molloy, R. (2006) Report on Broad Scale Map of ASR Potential in Melbourne. SKM and CSIRO Report to Smart Water Fund, March 2006, 49. http://www.smartwater.com.au/downloaddocs/Broad_Scale_Mapping_Report_for_Melbourne.pdf accessed 15 March 2010 12 Water Services Association of Australia (2007) Sustainability framework. Report prepared by University of NSW. 7


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5. In Australia, CSIRO has run a 5 year Urban Water R&D and delivery programme working with the major European Urban Water Network on urban water issues. 13 CSIRO’s Australian Urban Water Program concluded that, Water reuse and recycling provides a means of extending limited water resources. In some circumstances, there is potential to support three times as much activity as is possible under traditional water use practices where water is used once and then thrown away.’ 14 6. Thus combining the water efficiency opportunities outlined in Module B with water treatment, reuse and recycling opportunities outlined in Module C enables water authorities and water planners to delay, or even eliminate, the need to construct new dams and other new major centralised water infrastructure such as desalination plants. 7. Despite the potential for water recycling, there have been significant institutional and economic barriers to wider uptake that only recently have begun to be addressed in Australia. For instance, currently there is a significant disincentive to this shift to use more water recycling and decentralized approaches if that water has to be re-treated to drinking standard water quality 15, as this is relatively expensive. Table 6.1.1 shows that there are many fit for purpose uses for recycled water other than for drinking water. 8. Therefore governments should do much more to encourage water recycling by setting a series of clear standards for different uses of recycled water and price each standard differently. Differential water pricing based on water quality would do much to encourage the uptake and usage of treated recycled water in cities around the world. This would ensure that recycled water was cheaper than drinking standard water quality 16 and thus ensure that recycled water was used more by industry and communities for non-drinking purposes. 9. Another significant barrier to the uptake and greater use of recycled water has been perceptions of negative health impacts. Current centralised linear urban water systems were designed largely to meet the health concerns of over 100 years ago, and ensure clean water. The obligation to maintain public health standards is the foundation to water supply services. Historically, water supply systems and sewerage systems have been kept as separated from each other as possible. 17 Hence any water recycling project that brings recycled water closer to direct human contact must be designed to assure public health. Any scheme to recycle water must ensure that public health and the environment are protected. This is best achieved through a risk management approach, which actively identifies and manages risks, rather than simply reacting to problems if they arise. 10. Australian Guidelines for Water Recycling have been developed which apply a risk management approach to manage risks to human health and the environment from recycling

13

Booker, N., Gray, S., Mitchell, G., Priestley, A., Shipton, R., Speers, A., Young, M. and Syme, G. (2000) 'CSIRO Australia Sustainable Alternatives in the Provision of Urban Water Services: An Australian Approach', paper submitted to IWRAs 5th World Water Congress, International Water Resources Association, Melbourne. 14 Speers, A., Booker, N., Burn, S., Gray, S., Priestly, T. and Zappou, C. (2001) Sustainable Urban Water-Analysis of the Opportunities, CSIRO, IWRA's 6th National Water Conference, Melbourne, Australia. 15 Nation Health and Medical Research Council (2004) Australian Drinking Water Guidelines. Commonwealth Government. http://www.nhmrc.gov.au/publications/synopses/eh19syn.htm Accessed 21 April 2010 16 Ibid. 17 Hamlyn-Harris, D. (2003) Integrated Urban Water Management and Water Recycling in SE Queensland. Institute of Public Works Engineering Australia, Queensland Division Inc., State Conference, Mackay, 5-10 October 2003 at http://www.ipwea.org.au/papers/download/Hamlyn-Harris_David.pdf accessed 4 March 2010 Prepared by The Natural Edge Project 2010

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and reusing stormwater, greywater and treated sewage. These are overviewed further in the Brief Background Reading. 18 Then in lectures 6.2-6.3 and Lectures 7.1-7.3 we apply the risk management approach outlined here in Lecture 6.1 to a variety of important water treatment and recycling systems of different scales to further demonstrate the value of placing public and environmental health at the centre of any water recycling project.

Brief Background Information Why Water Recycling? As climate variability and population levels increase, many areas of Australia are facing a serious water shortage. Alternative sources of water are becoming more important as water restrictions become more widespread and severe. One option for an alternative water source is to reuse water such as stormwater, greywater and treated sewage. As explained in the key learning points the most common areas of water recycling include: -

Greywater is wastewater from the laundry and bathroom drains, but not from toilets and kitchen.

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Sewage is material collected from internal household and other building drains. It includes faecal waste and urine from toilets, shower and bath water, laundry water and kitchen water.

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Treated sewage is the product that flows out of a sewage treatment plant.

-

Stormwater is water draining into the stormwater system from roofs, roads, footpaths and other ground surfaces. Rain collected from a roof is sometimes called roofwater. 19

The Potential for Water Recycling The potential for much greater levels of water reuse and recycling is significant. This is partly because currently much of the rainwater which falls on our cities simply flows out to sea as treated stormwater. This is also because the amount of water used for drinking is relatively tiny compared with the total water usage across the whole economy and society. Hence there is significant scope for wider reuse and recycling of water where water of drinking water quality is not required. To help give a sense of how significant the scale and potential is for greater levels of recycled water, consider the fact that most of the water used for agriculture and 70 per cent for domestic purposes (use for toilet flushing, laundry and gardens) does not need to be water of drinking quality. 20 In addition there are numerous potential areas of water can be treated to acceptable standards to be reused in many ways, as illustrated in Table 6.1.1. It is important to note that water needs to undergo either primary, secondary of tertiary levels of water treatment to ensure

18

Natural Resource Management Ministerial Council Environment Protection and Heritage Council Australian Health Ministers’ Conference (2006) National Guidelines for Water Recycling: Managing Health and Environmental Risks. Natural Resource Management Ministerial Council Environment Protection and Heritage Council Australian Health Ministers’ Conference. at http://www.ephc.gov.au/taxonomy/term/39 accessed 4 March 2010 19 AATSE (Australian Academy of Technological Sciences and Engineering) (2004). Water Recycling in Australia, AATSE, Parkville, Victoria. at http://www.atse.org.au/index.php?sectionid=600 accessed 10 March 2010 20 AATSE (Australian Academy of Technological Sciences and Engineering) (2004). Water Recycling in Australia, AATSE, Parkville, Victoria. at http://www.atse.org.au/index.php?sectionid=600 accessed 10 March 2010 Prepared by The Natural Edge Project 2010

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that health standards are met. Primary, secondary or tertiary levels of treatment are defined by the Australian National Water Quality Guidelines for Water Recycling as follows: Primary Treatment — Primary treatment is a physical treatment process which removes suspended solids through settling. According to the Australian National Water Quality Guidelines for Water Recycling “Primary sedimentation tanks should remove 50–70% of the suspended solids, and 25–40% of the biochemical oxygen demand (BOD).” 21 But, for instance, it has limited impact on microbial pathogens, one of the major health risks from using recycled water. Hence highly levels of water treatment are required. Secondary Treatment — Secondary treatment refers to technical processes that remove dissolved and suspended organic material through a combination of biological treatment and sedimentation. As the Australian National Water Quality Guidelines for Water Recycling explain, “The action of biological treatment is to remove organic material by digestion. Approximately 85% of BOD and influent suspended solids are removed. Some secondary treatment designs incorporate biological nutrient reduction (BNR, see below) and aerobic and anaerobic digestion. Processes include activated sludge, trickling filters and oxidation ditches, all with secondary sedimentation, and lagoons or oxidation ponds.” 22 Tertiary treatment: Tertiary treatment refers to processes that remove suspended solids, BOD, heavy metals and pathogenic organisms. Water treatment techniques used here include membrane and conventional filtration and the use of biological treatment such as wetlands. Such tertiary treatment techniques need often to be used in conjunction with disinfection to ensure that risks from bacteria, viruses, protozoa and helminths are minimised. Lecture 6.2 will discuss, in detail, a range of water treatment techniques, which can be used in combination to achieve tertiary level water treatment standards. Table 6.1.1 Potential Uses of Recycled Water and The Minimum Treatment Levels Required to Protect Public Health. Types of Use

Water Treatment Level Required Disinfected

Disinfected

Un-disinfected

Tertiary

Secondary

Secondary

Urban uses and Landscape Irrigation Fire protection

X

Toilet & Urinal flushing

X

Irrigation of Parks, Schoolyards,

X

Residential Landscaping

X

21

Natural Resource Management Ministerial Council Environment Protection and Heritage Council Australian Health Ministers’ Conference (2006) National Guidelines for Water Recycling: Managing Health and Environmental Risks. Natural Resource Management Ministerial Council Environment Protection and Heritage Council Australian Health Ministers’ Conference. at http://www.ephc.gov.au/taxonomy/term/39 accessed 4 March 2010 22 Natural Resource Management Ministerial Council Environment Protection and Heritage Council Australian Health Ministers’ Conference (2006) National Guidelines for Water Recycling: Managing Health and Environmental Risks. Natural Resource Management Ministerial Council Environment Protection and Heritage Council Australian Health Ministers’ Conference. at http://www.ephc.gov.au/taxonomy/term/39 accessed 4 March 2010 Prepared by The Natural Edge Project 2010

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Irrigation of cemeteries, Highway landscaping

X

Irrigation of Nurseries

X

Landscape impoundment

X

Agricultural Irrigation Pasture for milking animals

X

Fodder and Fibre Crops

X

Orchards (no contact between fruit and recycled water)

X

Vineyards (no contact between fruit and recycled water)

X

Non food-bearing trees

X

Food crops eaten after processing

X

Commercial and Industrial uses Cooling & Air Conditioning with cooling towers

X

Structural fire-fighting

X

Commercial Car Washes

X

Commercial Laundries

X

Artificial Snow Making

X

Soil Compaction, Concrete Mixing

X

Environmental and other uses Wildlife Habitat - Wetland

X

Groundwater Recharge Seawater Intrusion Barrier

X

Replenishment of potable aquifer

X

(Source: California, DWR, 2003 23)

Multiple Benefits of Water Recycling In Module B we showed the significant potential for water efficiency improvements to be made in most sectors of the economy. Thus by using water more efficiently whilst also utilising the full array of water recycling options, it is possible in most places globally to delay, or even eliminate, the need to construct more dams and other major centralised water infrastructure such as desalination plants. De-centralised water systems are smaller than centralised systems and thus 23

Californian Department of Water Resources (DWR) (2003) Water Recycling 2030 – Recommendations of California’s Recycled Water Task Force. DWR, Sacramento, California, Prepared by The Natural Edge Project 2010

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have both lower up front costs (See Figure 6.1.1) and shorter construction time reducing the cost of tying up capital unproductively or needing to rely on loans from banks. Decentralised approaches also overcome the main risks of centralised systems namely that demand will not match the new level of supply. In cases when future demand fails to meet expectations, additional scheduled increments of decentralized capacity can be foregone, avoiding the cost of overbuilt centralized capacity. (See Figures 6.1.2 and 6.1.3) As Amory Lovins noted in the 1970s for the energy industry, the industrial dynamics of this approach are very different, the technical risks are smaller, and the dollars risked far fewer than those of the hard path. 24 In 2004, the USA EPA funded Amory Lovins and the Rocky Mountain Institute (RMI) to apply “soft path” methods to the water sector. This has led to RMI publishing a major report on distributed methods of supplying and treating water. 25 The RMI report provides much evidence to suggest that decentralised approaches to water supply and treatment offer significant cost savings to enable developing countries to more cost effectively afford water infrastructure and also help OECD nations upgrade and replace aging water infrastructure. As CSIRO’s Professor Mike Young stated: ‘One of the really interesting ones is how we use sewage water. Recent work by CSIRO’s urban water programme is showing that the most profitable sewage treatment plants now are really ones that treat effluent, between 5000 and about 8000 or 10,000 houses, so rather than having sewage treatment plants right at the end of the city and taking all the sewage the whole way down, you would take the sewage from say, 5000 houses, treat it, and then actually pass it down in a dual system through the rest of the city.’9

Figure 6.1.1 Comparison of Up front capital costs (money spent) to build large centralised systems versions smaller distributed supply and treatment water systems.

24

Lovins, A. (1977) Soft Energy Paths: Toward a Durable Peace. Ballinger, Cambridge, MA, 1977. Rocky Mountain Institute (2004) Valuing Decentralized Wastewater Technologies: A Catalogue of Benefits, Costs, and Economic Analysis Techniques. RMI Available at http://www.rmi.org/images/PDFs/Water/W04-21_ValuWstWtr.pdf Accessed 21 September 2008 25


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(Source: RMI, 2004) 26

Figure 6.1.2. Flow versus capacity for centralised and decentralised waste-water systems Source: RMI (2004) 27

Addressing Barriers to the Uptake of Water Recycling This lecture will also overview and address some of the institutional and economic barriers to wider uptake of recycling. A)

Water Pricing Regimes

Currently there is a significant disincentive to this shift to use more water recycling and decentralized approaches if that water has to be re-treated to drinking water quality standards 28 as this is expensive. Differential water pricing based on water quality would do much to encourage the uptake and usage of treated recycled water in cities around the world. Pricing needs also to reflect the quality of water being used. Currently drinking water quality standards 29 are subsidized by governments and water authorities to be the same price or even cheaper than recycled water which is treated to a standard below that of drinking water, but which nevertheless is safe to be used on gardens, sports ovals, landscapes and agriculture and industry. This has meant there has not been a clear incentive to design our cities, residential developments and industry to enable both drinking water quality standard 30 and recycled water treated to a lower standard to be used. This has led to an economic disincentive penalizing the use of recycled stormwater and recycled treated wastewater in cities around the world. 26

Ibid. Rocky Mountain Institute (2004) Valuing Decentralized Wastewater Technologies: A Catalogue of Benefits, Costs, and Economic Analysis Techniques. RMI Available at http://www.rmi.org/images/PDFs/Water/W04-21_ValuWstWtr.pdf Accessed 21 September 2008 28 Nation Health and Medical Research Council (2004) Australian Drinking Water Guidelines. Commonwealth Government. http://www.nhmrc.gov.au/publications/synopses/eh19syn.htm Accessed 21 April 2010 29 Ibid 30 Ibid. 27


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This has resulted in most OECD countries residential, commercial and industrial sectors all using drinking water quality standard. 31 For instance in Australia, roughly 1-2 per cent of drinkable water that comes through the tap of an Australian home is drunk by Australians and only another 6 or 7 per cent is actually used to prepare food and to cook it and to clean up the dishes and so on afterwards. Most is used in showers or on the garden of homes. Similarly drinkable water is used by industry, manufacturing, mining and on sports ovals and landscapes in Australia. The water used in many areas of industry, manufacturing and mining and on urban landscapes does not need to be at such a high standard of water quality. Differential pricing can be easily brought in to ensure that people pay the highest amount for top quality drinking water and lesser rates for recycled water that is not treated to drinking water standard. This would also provide a clear economic incentive to encourage greater levels of recycling of water in cities around the world for the majority of areas of water usage where there is low risk to human health. B)

Health Issues and Concerns

Current urban water systems were designed largely to meet the health concerns of over 100 years ago, and ensuring clean water. The obligation to maintain public health standards is basic to water supply services. Since the middle of the 19th Century, any use of a contaminated water source has been contrary to a basic principle of drinking water supply. Any recycling strategy that brings recycled water closer to direct human contact must be designed to minimise the risk to public health. To help water authorities address the human and environmental health risks of recycling and reusing water the national health and medical research council has developed The Australian Guidelines for Water Recycling. 32 This provides a systematic method for assessing risks to human health and the environment. We present an overview summary of this approach here. This overview is supported by detailed further reading resources listed in the key reading section below. Water Recycling: Addressing Health Concerns through A Risk Management Framework The approach used in the 2006 Australian Guidelines for Water Recycling: Managing Health and Environmental Risks 33 is modelled closely on the approach developed for the 2004 edition of the Australian Drinking Water Guidelines discussed in Lecture 5.3. The guidelines incorporate a generic framework that can be applied to any system that is recycling water, whatever its size or type. The framework contains 12 elements organised into four main areas, as shown in the figure on the next page. The 12 elements are related, and all need to be considered for the risk management approach to be successful. Well-designed recycling schemes already use many elements of the framework. For example, a key component of the risk management framework employed by many schemes is the use of preventative measures. Such measures, known as barriers, are central to the risk management and system analysis section of the framework, and should be part of every recycled water system. The complexity of the risk management plan should be in proportion to the complexity of the system it relates to.

31 32

Ibid

Natural Resource Management Ministerial Council (NRMMC), Environment Protection and Heritage Council (EPHC), Australian Health Ministers Conference (AHMC) (2006) National Guidelines for Water Recycling: Managing Health and Environmental Risks. NRMMC, EPHC, AHMC at http://www.ephc.gov.au/taxonomy/term/39 accessed 10 March 2010. 33 Ibid.. Prepared by The Natural Edge Project 2010

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The first steps in the risk management approach are to commit to developing a recycled water scheme and then assess any risks it may pose. 34 We recommend a stepwise method for assessing risks to human health (in Chapter 3) and the environment (in Chapter 4).

Figure 6.1.3 12 elements to reducing health and environmental risks of using recycled water. Source, NRMMC, EPHC, AHMC (2006) 35

Identifying Potential Risks and Hazards to Human and Environmental Health Sewage and greywater can contain a range of different contaminants that are hazardous to human health, all of which need to be considered in identifying potential risks. Sewage and greywater may contain the following potential hazards to human health: -

Pathogenic (disease-causing) microorganisms, such as bacteria. There is a range of water borne pathogens such as cryptosporidium 36 that can cause a variety of diseases and can be highly infective. 37 Disinfection is much more effective at destroying bacteria than preliminary and primary treatment processes. Whereas secondary sedimentation tanks can harbour large quantities of bacteria, the use of tertiary treatment essentially eliminates them.

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Viruses; for example, rotavirus and hepatitis A. Human waste contains in excess of 100 known viruses, the exposure pathways of which include air, water, soil, food and skin

34

Natural Resource Management Ministerial Council (NRMMC), Environment Protection and Heritage Council (EPHC), Australian Health Ministers Conference (AHMC) (2006) National Guidelines for Water Recycling: Managing Health and Environmental Risks. NRMMC, EPHC, AHMC. http://www.ephc.gov.au/taxonomy/term/39 accessed March 3 2010 35 Natural Resource Management Ministerial Council (NRMMC), Environment Protection and Heritage Council (EPHC), Australian Health Ministers Conference (AHMC) (2006) National Guidelines for Water Recycling: Managing Health and Environmental Risks. NRMMC, EPHC, AHMC.at http://www.ephc.gov.au/taxonomy/term/39 accessed 10 March 2010 36 World Health Organization (2009) Risk Assessment of Cryptosporidium in Drinking-water. World Health Organization. http://whqlibdoc.who.int/hq/2009/WHO_HSE_WSH_09.04_eng.pdf 37 World Health Organisation (1999) Toxic cyano-bacteria in water: a guide to their public health consequences, monitoring and management. World Health Organisation. Rowe, D. and Magid, I. (1995) Handbook of Wastewater Reclamation and Reuse. Lewis Publishers, CRC Press, Boca Raton. Prepared by The Natural Edge Project 2010

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sources. They are relatively persistent and can be highly infectious, resulting in a range of diseases in humans, animals and plants. For example, inhaling a single adenovirus has been shown to be enough to result in an infection rate of 50% in exposed subjects. -

Protozoa; for example, Cryptosporidium 38 and Giardia. Protozoa, along with bacteria and viruses, are present in all wastewater. These can cause significant ill-health. Also cysts can infect human and animal intestinal tracts. Infection can result from exposure to as few as 1 – 10 cysts. 39 While removal of a large proportion of cysts can be affected through primary and secondary treatment, effluents containing significant numbers of cysts may necessitate using high dosages of chlorine and longer reaction times. 40

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Helminths; for example, Ascaris (roundworm) Helminths such as nematodes and flatworms can infect human intestines, and can seriously compromise intestinal function. They are usually found in warmer climates and enter the intestine via ingestion of their eggs. Conventional primary and secondary treatment is insufficient to remove them, necessitating tertiary treatment systems.

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Harmful Chemicals. There are many chemicals (a sample is provided in Table 6.1.2) that have been identified in wastewater and hence also have to be understood and their risks assessed in any water recycling project. For a complete list of chemicals identified in Australian wastewater see the 2008 Guide to Determining, Monitoring and Achieving Safe Concentrations of Chemicals in Recycled Water. 41

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Pharmaceuticals: Most pharmaceuticals are not fully metabolised, meaning they pass through the body. Furthermore, until recently people were encouraged to flush unused and redundant pharmaceuticals down the toilet.

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Endocrine-Disrupting Chemicals. Chemical interference with the endocrinological system is hypothesised to cause a range of health problems relating to development, growth and reproduction. The endocrine system uses hormones as chemical messengers and feedback mechanisms. In Europe, endocrine-disrupting chemicals generally originate in wastewater. 42 Representative endocrine disrupting chemicals include: -

Hormones – 17-ethinylestridiole, and diethylstilbestrol

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Herbicides – atrazine, simazine, metoxychlor, and 2,4-D

-

Insecticides – DDT, dieldrin, endosulphan and lindane

-

Industrial chemicals, phthalates, bisphenol A, p-nonylphenol, PCBs, andtributyl tin

-

Biological hormones – 17-estradiol, estriol, estrone, progesterone and

-

Testosterone

38

World Health Organization (2009) Risk Assessment of Cryptosporidium in Drinking-water. World Health Organization. http://whqlibdoc.who.int/hq/2009/WHO_HSE_WSH_09.04_eng.pdf accessed 10 March 2010 39 Rowe, D. and Magid, I. (1995) Handbook of Wastewater Reclamation and Reuse. Lewis Publishers, CRC Press, Boca Raton. 40 Rowe, D. and Magid, I. (1995) Handbook of Wastewater Reclamation and Reuse. Lewis Publishers, CRC Press, Boca Raton 41 The National Research Centre for Environmental Toxicology (ENTOX), Toxikos and UNSW (2008) A guide to determining, monitoring and achieving safe concentrations of chemicals in recycled water. Environment Protection and Heritage Council. The National Water Commission and the Queensland Government at http://www.ephc.gov.au/sites/default/files/WQ_AGWR_RPT_Uniquest_Recycled_Water_Quality_Final_200806.pdf 42 Australian Academy of Technological Sciences and Engineering (ATSE) (2004) Water Recycling in Australia. Australian Academy of Technological Sciences and Engineering at http://www.atse.org.au/index.php?sectionid=600 accessed 28 January 2010 Prepared by The Natural Edge Project 2010

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-

Plant secondary metabolites.

Chemical Disinfection by-products: As a result of using chlorine to disinfect treated effluent, water and wastewater, a number of potentially harmful by-products are produced, including trihalaomethanes and haloacetic acids. However, while these by-products of reactions with organic matter are thought to have possible health implications for humans, the risk level is much lower than that of not sterilising with chlorination. The wide range of potential hazards and risks from recycled wastewater have been summarised in Table 6.1.2 by Shanableh and Rahman. 43

Table 6.1.2 Chemicals, bacteria and algal risks to human health from wastewater 44 In-organics

Organic Compounds

Pesticides

Volatile Organics

Disinfection Byproducts

Algal Toxins

Pharmaceuticals

Aluminium

Acrylamide

Aldrin/

Benzene

Halogenated furanones

Microcystins

Radiopharmaceuticals

Ammonia Arsenic Asbestos

Dieldrin Chlorobenzene

Atrazine

Carbon tetrachloride

Halo-acetic acids

Cylindrospermopsin

Synthetic oestrogens /Progesterones (oral contraceptives) – levonogestrel and ethynlestradiol

Dichlorobenzenes

Chlordane

Dichloroethanes

Halo-aldehydes

Saxitoxins

Cardiovascular drugs

Barium Beryllium Boron Bromate Cadmium

-

Beta blockers

-

Atenolol

Chloride

-

Anticholosterol

Chlorine Dioxide

- Simvastatin Antiobiotics

Epichlorodydrin

DDT

Di-chloroethenes

Halo-ketones

Nodularin

-

Cephalexin

Chlorate

-

Cefactor

Chromium

- Amoxycilin Analgesics

Chlorite

Copper

ETDA

Heptachlor

Cyanide

Di-chloromethane

Chlorophenols

Ethylbenzene

Chloropicrin

Fluoride Sulphide Iodine/iodide

Hexa-chlorobutadiene

Lindane

Nitrotri-acetic acid

Endosulfan

Tetra-chloroethene

Phthalates

OrganoPhosphates

Toluene

Treatment Byproducts from Algal Toxins

-

Paracetamol

Microcystin byproducts

Sedatives

Cyanogen chloride

Cyclindrospermopsin byproducts

Hormones

Formaldehyde

Sacitoxon byproducts

17 B estradiol

-

Temazepam

Iron Lead Manganese Mercury Molybdenum

Estron

43

Rahman, A., and Shanableh, A., (2001) Wastewater - An Essential Water Source for the Millennium: Risk-Based Assessment. In: Proceedings of the AWA 19th Convention, 1-5 April 2001 Endocrine Disruptors – These are a diverse group of chemicals and have been included in Table 6.1.2 under pesticides, organic compounds, and pharmaceutical hormones. 44


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Monochloramane Nickel Nitrate/nitrite

Testosterone PAHs

Chlorpynfos

111-trichloroethylene

Halocetonitriles

Styrene

Fungicides

Xylenes

Chloral hydrate

Phosphates Selenium

Trichlorobenzenes

Trihalomethanes

Vinyl chloride monomer

Radionuclides

Chlorinated dioxins

Radium – 226 and -228

Sliver Sodium Sulphate Tin Zinc

Radon – 222 PCBs

Uranium generated Cs 137, Sr – 90 etc)

(Source: Shanableh and Rahman (2001) 45) There are a range of reports and guides to help undertake such a risk assessment of these potential hazards. (See Further Reading) For instance, to help undertake such risk assessments, in 2008, The National Research Centre for Environmental Toxicology (ENTOX), Toxikos and UNSW published a detailed guide for determining, monitoring and achieving safe concentrations of chemicals for human health in recycled water. 46 Other useful sources to help identify risks from chemicals to human health include The World Health Organisation’s Guidelines for DrinkingWater Quality which includes fact sheets and review documents for many individual chemicals. 47 Assessing impacts on human health: The health outcomes of the assorted risks present in recycled water range from mild to severe. Comparison of these risks is achieved by using a ‘disability adjusted life year’ (DALY). A DALY is a unit of risk recommended by Australia’s recycling guidelines for use in water recycling programs in order to: -

define the level of risk to public health that is acceptable

-

compare impacts from different hazards; for example, those that cause acute impacts (such as a brief episode of diarrhoea) and those that cause chronic impacts (such as arthritis)

-

ensure that control efforts are directed at hazards with the greatest potential impact on public health. An acceptable risk is considered to be one-millionth of a DALY per person annually, which equates to one person per thousand acquiring diarrhoea from a water recycling scheme. Performance targets for water recycling schemes can be established,

45

Rahman, Ataur and Shanableh, Abdullah (2001) Wastewater - An Essential Water Source for the Millenium: Risk-Based Assessment. In: Proceedings of the AWA 19th Convention, 1-5 April 2001. 46 The National Research Centre for Environmental Toxicology (ENTOX), Toxikos and UNSW (2008) A guide to determining, monitoring and achieving safe concentrations of chemicals in recycled water. Environment Protection and Heritage Council. The National Water Commission and the Queensland Government at http://www.ephc.gov.au/sites/default/files/WQ_AGWR_RPT_Uniquest_Recycled_Water_Quality_Final_200806.pdf accessed 4 March 2010 47 The WHO Guidelines for Drinking-Water Quality include facts sheets and comprehensive review documents for many individual chemicals. For many of these, guideline values are derived. All of these can be accessed at www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/dwq/chemicals/en/index.html accessed 4 March 2010 Prepared by The Natural Edge Project 2010

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based on levels of acceptable risk. The most common targets are guideline values for chemical hazards and performance targets for microbial hazards in line with or exceeding World Health Organisation standards.

Identifying Hazards to Environmental Health In looking at potential hazards to the environment in treated sewage and greywater, the Australian Guidelines for Water Recycling: Managing Health and Environmental Risks 48 focuses on chemical rather than microbial hazards. This is due to the fact that chemical hazards (i.e. both organic and inorganic agents) present in sewage and greywater are a much more significant environmental threat than pathogenic microbial hazards, which are generally eliminated via preventative human health protection measures. As mentioned above the key report to assist this assessment of risks to the environment is the 2008 report by The National Research Centre for Environmental Toxicology (ENTOX), Toxikos and UNSW that provides a detailed guide for determining, monitoring and achieving safe concentrations of chemicals in recycled water. 49 This provides a detailed analysis of this issue. For those looking for a more succinct overview, the Australian Guidelines for Water Recycling: Managing Health and Environmental Risks 50 lists some of the priority environmental risks associated with particular uses of recycled water in Table 6.1.3: Table 6.1.3 Major Chemical Hazards and Risks – in Australia Major Hazards Boron

Risk Toxic (in large amounts) to plants and animals.

Chloride

Hazardous to aquatic life

Sodium Cadmium Chlorine Salinity Phosphorous Nitrogen

Results in soil degradation, water stress, and increased cadmium uptake in plants Alters plant nutrient balances and can cause algal blooms

(Source: NRMMC, EPHC, AHMC, (2006) 51) Additionally, excess water can not only result in water logging, but also soil salination as a consequence of a raised water table. Assessing Impacts on the Environment: As with human health, potential risks to the environment from recycled water have to be reduced to acceptable levels, and this involves determining what is an acceptable level of risk? Guidelines exist with specific values for 48

Natural Resource Management Ministerial Council (NRMMC), Environment Protection and Heritage Council (EPHC), Australian Health Ministers Conference (AHMC) (2006) National Guidelines for Water Recycling: Managing Health and Environmental Risks. NRMMC, EPHC, AHMC.at http://www.ephc.gov.au/taxonomy/term/39 accessed 4 March 2010 49 The National Research Centre for Environmental Toxicology (ENTOX), Toxikos and UNSW (2008) A guide to determining, monitoring and achieving safe concentrations of chemicals in recycled water. Environment Protection and Heritage Council. The National Water Commission and the Queensland Government 50 Natural Resource Management Ministerial Council (NRMMC), Environment Protection and Heritage Council (EPHC), Australian Health Ministers Conference (AHMC) (2006) National Guidelines for Water Recycling: Managing Health and Environmental Risks. NRMMC, EPHC, AHMC.at http://www.ephc.gov.au/taxonomy/term/39 accessed 4 March 2010 51 Natural Resource Management Ministerial Council (NRMMC), Environment Protection and Heritage Council (EPHC), Australian Health Ministers Conference (AHMC) (2006) National Guidelines for Water Recycling: Managing Health and Environmental Risks. NRMMC, EPHC, AHMC.at http://www.ephc.gov.au/taxonomy/term/39 accessed 4 March 2010 Prepared by The Natural Edge Project 2010

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environmental concentrations of chemicals 52 and soil, air and water 53 characteristics are specified at acceptable levels (i.e. not presenting a major environmental risk) by relevant authorities and regulatory bodies (See Further Reading). Environmental risk is assessed by consideration of numerous endpoints. An endpoint is the location where recycled water ends up. The endpoints for recycled greywater in a garden could include trees, soil and lawn. Whereas assessment of health risk only uses a single endpoint (humans), environmental risk assessment necessitates consideration of many endpoints, generally grouped as air, soils, plants and groundwater. Characterising risks Risks are characterized through consideration of potential hazards and their probability of occurrence and likely severity. The risk posed to human and environmental health is assessed at two levels; residual risk and maximum risk. The residual risk is the threat that exists after consideration of existing preventative measures, and is useful for assessing the safety of a recycling scheme. Residual risk should be lower than that deemed tolerable for both human and environmental health. Maximum risk is the threat that exists in the absence of any preventative measures, and can be used to highlight priority risks and associated contingency plans should preventative measures fail. Managing the Risks The most effective means of managing the risks recycled water poses to human and environmental health is to employ what are known as ‘multiple barriers’. These are series of preventative measures that are put in place to manage potential hazards. They are designed to ensure there is no single point of failure in a system, and that function and protection continue even if one barrier fails or is under performing. Multiple barriers in water recycling schemes are used for preventing hazards (e.g. chemicals) from entering recycled water, the removal of hazards via disinfection and other treatment processes, and to reduce exposure to hazards that remain in the recycled water. This latter outcome can involve restricting the use of recycled water for instance, for orchards but not for leafy vegetables, and employing preventative measure at the end use point. The most essential preventative measures are the critical control points. These measures are focussed on the management or removal of high risk hazards, can be monitored and corrected for, and are indispensable to the operation of the recycling scheme. Utilising various configurations of treatment processes, end use point controls and usage limitations delivers recycled water of a quality suitable for specific uses. A key advantage of using multiple barrier combinations of on-site controls and end use restrictions is that the emphasis on treatment is reduced. This is significant for two reasons. Firstly, the treatment process is a relatively costly option, and management of the process requires technical expertise. Secondly, using combinations of controls means that existing facilities do not need to incur the expense of retrofitting in order to undertake recycling.

52

The National Research Centre for Environmental Toxicology (ENTOX), Toxikos and UNSW (2008) A guide to determining, monitoring and achieving safe concentrations of chemicals in recycled water. Environment Protection and Heritage Council. The National Water Commission and the Queensland Government. 53 Natural Resource Management Ministerial Council (NRMMC), Environment Protection and Heritage Council (EPHC), Australian Health Ministers Conference (AHMC) (2006) National Guidelines for Water Recycling: Managing Health and Environmental Risks. NRMMC, EPHC, AHMC.at http://www.ephc.gov.au/taxonomy/term/39 accessed 4 March 2010 Prepared by The Natural Edge Project 2010

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Water source and intended end use are key factors in shaping the most appropriate combination of preventative measures for a recycling scheme, as these determine the hazards that need to be controlled. However, other factors such as available facilities and cost are also important. The Australian Water Recycling Guidelines: Managing Health and Environmental Risks 54 provides valuable information on the use of multiple barriers in the management of micro-organism and chemical hazards, and provides overviews of typical combinations appropriate to various types of recycling. Managing risks to human health As explained above, pathogenic organisms represent the main risk to human health. Preventive measures to protect human health therefore focus on inactivating such organisms or reducing their numbers to levels that do not pose a risk. How to manage risks of water recycling for different water recycling systems will be covered in detail in the following 5 lectures. Managing risks to the environment Measures to deal with risks to the environment tend to focus on controlling the hazards entering the water that is to be recycled. For example, greywater systems may have a diverter switch to allow the householder to choose which stream of the greywater flow is put onto the garden, and how often. Similarly, sewage treatment plants may have an agreement with industries to prevent trade waste and other hazardous materials from entering the sewerage system. One preventive measure specific to protection of the environment is the use of ‘buffer strips’, which are spaces between the area where the water is used and areas where sensitive plants (or other environmental endpoints) are located. Buffer strips can help to protect plants that might be sensitive to chemicals remaining in recycled water. Monitoring Monitoring is an essential component of any water recycling scheme. It is important to undertake baseline measurements and then undertake monitoring to validate the system and verify that the approach is working. In short, monitoring helps to answer the following questions: •

Where are we now? (obtaining baseline data)

•

Will it work? (validating systems)

•

Is it working now? (obtaining operational data)

•

Did it work? (verifying that the processes used in recycling are effective).

While health assurance standards for treated wastewater have historically used factors, such as E. coli counts, to determine water quality, other indicators can also be monitored to assess water quality. As Hamlyn and Harris pointed out, Physico-chemical water quality indicators such as turbidity, suspended solids and pH, are not, in themselves, health concerns. However, they can be used as a measure of the water treatment process performance as their presence may indicate the presence of

54

Natural Resource Management Ministerial Council (NRMMC), Environment Protection and Heritage Council (EPHC), Australian Health Ministers Conference (AHMC) (2006) National Guidelines for Water Recycling: Managing Health and Environmental Risks. NRMMC, EPHC, AHMC. at http://www.ephc.gov.au/taxonomy/term/39 accessed 4 March 2010 Prepared by The Natural Edge Project 2010

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contaminants of concern or they may mask, or shield, contaminants of concern and inhibit disinfection processes 55. The World Health Organisation (WHO) in partnership with the United Nations Environment Program (UNEP) has published a range of documents outlining good water quality monitoring practice. 56 (See Further Reading) Communication and Community Engagement Effective communication is a key component of any successful water recycling scheme. Stakeholders and the broader community need to be made aware of not only the benefits of a scheme, but also the associated costs and potential risks. Engaging them is not a one-way activity. It is important that they are given an opportunity to develop trust in those who will build and operate the scheme, as well as the scheme itself. 57 The greater the transparency of a proposed scheme the greater the likelihood of its acceptance. Conversely, there are numerous local and international examples of schemes being rejected due to a lack of community support resulting from poor communication. An effective communication strategy will not only allow stakeholders and the community to be assured of the transparency of the decision making process, by clearly presenting evidence for them to base their own opinions on, it also, importantly, encourages the community to actively share responsibility for addressing its water related issues. 58

Further Reading General Introduction to Water Recycling SECITA (Senate Environment, Communications, Information Technology and the Arts References Committee) (2002). The Value of Water: Inquiry into Australia’s Management of Urban Water, The Parliament of the Commonwealth of Australia, Canberra. http://www.aph.gov.au/SENATE/committee/ecita_ctte/completed_inquiries/200204/water/report/contents.htm accessed 20 February 2010 Rathjen, D., Cullen, P., Ashbolt, N., Cunliffe, D., Langford, J., Listowski, A., McKay, J., Priestley, T., and Radcliffe, J. (2003) Recycling Water for our Cities, Prime Minister’s Science, Engineering and Innovation Council, Canberra. http://www.dest.gov.au/NR/rdonlyres/076C55AA-FB04-42A68794-B6760767ED5E/1997/Recyclingwaterforourcities.pdf accessed 20 February 2010 55

Hamlyn-Harris, D. (2001) Potable reuse – what are the real public health concerns? Australian Water Association 19th Convention, Canberra, paper 155, Australian Water Association, Sydney World Health Organisation (WHO) United Nations Environment Program (UNEP) (1996) Quality monitoring: a practical guide to the design and implementation of freshwater quality studies and monitoring programmes. WHO and UNEP WHO and UNEP (1996) Water quality assessments: a guide to the use of biota, sediments and water in environmental monitoring, 2nd edition. WHO and UNEP. WHO and UNEP (2000) Monitoring bathing waters: a practical guide to the design and implementation of assessments and monitoring programmes.WHO and UNEP. WHO (2003) Assessing Microbial Safety of Drinking Water: Improving Approaches and Methods. WHO Available at http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/dwq/en/9241546301_intro.pdf Accessed 21 September 2008 WHO/UNICEF (2006) Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation, at www.wssinfo.org/en/welcome.html Accessed 21 September 20 57 Hurlimann, A. (2008) Community Attitudes to Recycled Water Use: an Urban Australian Case Study – Part 2. Research Report No 56. The Cooperative Research Centre for Water Quality and Treatment at http://www.wqra.com.au/publications/report56_community_attitudes_recycled_water.pdf 58 Hurlimann, A. (2008) Community Attitudes to Recycled Water Use: an Urban Australian Case Study – Part 2. Research Report No 56. The Cooperative Research Centre for Water Quality and Treatment at http://www.wqra.com.au/publications/report56_community_attitudes_recycled_water.pdf 56


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Australian Academy of Technological Sciences and Engineering (ATSE) (2004) Water Recycling in Australia. Australian Academy of Technological Sciences and Engineering at http://www.atse.org.au/index.php?sectionid=600 accessed 28 January 2010 Hidden Economic Benefits of Water Recycling Rocky Mountain Institute (RMI) (2004) Valuing Decentralized Wastewater Technologies: A Catalogue of Benefits, Costs, and Economic Analysis Techniques. RMI Available at http://www.rmi.org/images/PDFs/Water/W04-21_ValuWstWtr.pdf Accessed 21 September 2009 Assessing and Addressing Health Risks Rahman, A. and Shanableh, A. (2001) Wastewater - An Essential Water Source for the Millenium: Risk-Based Assessment. In: Proceedings of the AWA 19th Convention, 1-5 April 2001. Hamlyn-Harris, D. (2001) Potable reuse – what are the real public health concerns? Australian Water Association 19th Convention, Canberra, paper 155, Australian Water Association, Sydney Assessing and Addressing Environmental and Human Health Risks from Chemicals The National Research Centre for Environmental Toxicology (ENTOX), Toxikos and UNSW (2008) A Guide to Determining, Monitoring and Achieving Safe Concentrations of Chemicals in Recycled Water. Environment Protection and Heritage Council. The National Water Commission and the Queensland Government at www.ephc.gov.au/sites/default/files/WQ_AGWR_RPT_Uniquest_Recycled_Water_Quality_Final_ 200806.pdf accessed March 4 2010 Assessing and Managing the Human Health and Environmental Risks from Water Recycling Natural Resource Management Ministerial Council (NRMMC), Environment Protection and Heritage Council (EPHC), Australian Health Ministers Conference (AHMC) (2006) National Guidelines for Water Recycling: Managing Health and Environmental Risks. NRMMC, EPHC, AHMC. http://www.ephc.gov.au/taxonomy/term/39 accessed March 3 2010 NRMMC, EPHC and AHMC. (2006) Australian Guidelines for Water Recycling: Managing Health and Environmental Risks (Phase 2): Augmentation of Drinking Water Supplies. NRMMC, EPHC and AHMC. http://www.ephc.gov.au/taxonomy/term/39 accessed March 3 2010 NRMMC, EPHC and AHMC. (2006) Australian Guidelines for Water Recycling: Managing Health and Environmental Risks (Phase 2): Stormwater Harvesting and Reuse. NRMMC, EPHC and AHMC. http://www.ephc.gov.au/taxonomy/term/39 accessed March 3 2010 NRMMC, EPHC and AHMC. (2006) Australian Guidelines for Water Recycling: Managing Health and Environmental Risks (Phase 2): Managed Aquifer Recharge. NRMMC, EPHC and AHMC. http://www.ephc.gov.au/taxonomy/term/39 accessed March 3 2010 Water Quality Monitoring World Health Organisation (WHO) United Nations Environment Program (UNEP) (1996) Quality monitoring: a practical guide to the design and implementation of freshwater quality studies and monitoring programmes. WHO and UNEP WHO and UNEP (1996) Water quality assessments: a guide to the use of biota, sediments and water in environmental monitoring, 2nd edition. WHO and UNEP.


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WHO and UNEP (2000) Monitoring bathing waters: a practical guide to the design and implementation of assessments and monitoring programmes. WHO and UNEP. WHO (2003) Assessing Microbial Safety of Drinking Water: Improving Approaches and Methods. WHO. Communication and Community Engagement Po, M., Kaercher, J., and Nancarrow, B. (2004) Australian Water Conservation and Reuse Research Program. Literature review of factors influencing public perceptions of water reuse. CSIRO Land and Water at http://www.clw.csiro.au/awcrrp/stage1files/AWCRRP_1A_Final_23June04.pdf accessed 1 March 2010 Hurlimann, A. (2008) Community Attitudes to Recycled Water Use: an Urban Australian Case Study – Part 2. Research Report No 56. The Cooperative Research Centre for Water Quality and Treatment Queensland Water Recycling Strategy (2001) Queensland water recycling strategy. Brisbane, Australia: Department of Natural Resources, Queensland State Government DPC (2003) Engaging Queenslanders: An introduction to community engagement, Department of the Premier and Cabinet, Brisbane. http://www.getinvolved.qld.gov.au/share_your_knowledge/resources/documents/pdf/guide_introdu ction.pdf


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