Wetland
Crisis and Options
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The Editor Goutam Kumar Saha passed B.Sc. (Honours in Zoology) from Burdwan University securing first class first position in the year 1981. In M.Sc. examination too, he stood first amongst the successful candidates in Zoology and received University gold medal. He was awarded his Ph.D degree from Calcutta School of Tropical Medicine and The University of Burdwan. He has published 160 research papers in different journals of International repute and authored 7 books/technical monographs in his credit. He has actively participated in 44 National and 14 International seminars and symposia and extensively visited different countries like Germany, France, Netherlands, Belgium, Italy, China, Singapore, Thailand, Australia, Korea and Canada in connection with his research work. He has successfully carried out a good number of major research and development projects sponsored by national and international funding agencies. He started his professional carrier as a Lecturer in Zoology at Post Graduate Department of Zoology, Darjeeling Govt. College, Darjeeling and at present working as a Professor of Zoology, University of Calcutta. He is an honorary fellow of Indian College of Allergy and Applied Immunology and The Zoological Society, Kolkata. Besides his excellence in the academic field, he is a good sportsman and represented the University as its blue and participated several National games.
Wetland
Crisis and Options
— Editor —
Goutam Kumar Saha Professor of Zoology University of Calcutta -
2016
Associated Publishing Company® A Division of
Astral International Pvt. Ltd. New Delhi – 110 002
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© 2016 eDITOR Publisher’s Note: Every possible effort has been made to ensure that the information contained in this book is accurate at the time of going to press, and the publisher and author cannot accept responsibility for any errors or omissions, however caused. No responsibility for loss or damage occasioned to any person acting, or refraining from action, as a result of the material in this publication can be accepted by the editor, the publisher or the author. The Publisher is not associated with any product or vendor mentioned in the book. The contents of this work are intended to further general scientific research, understanding and discussion only. Readers should consult with a specialist where appropriate. Every effort has been made to trace the owners of copyright material used in this book, if any. The author and the publisher will be grateful for any omission brought to their notice for acknowledgement in the future editions of the book. All Rights reserved under International Copyright Conventions. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise without the prior written consent of the publisher and the copyright owner. -
Cataloging in Publication Data--DK Courtesy: D.K. Agencies (P) Ltd.
Wetland : crisis and options / editor, Goutam Kumar Saha. pages cm Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-81-85211-98-5 (Hardbound) ISBN 978-93-86071-03-3 (International Edition)
1. Wetlands--India. 2. Wetland biodiversity--India. 3. Ecosystem services--India. 4. Wetland conservation--India. I. Saha, Goutam Kumar, editor. QH541.5.M3W48 2016
DDC 577.680954
23
Published by : Associated Publishing Company® A Division of Astral International Pvt. Ltd. – ISO 9001:2008 Certified Company – 4760-61/23, Ansari Road, Darya Ganj New Delhi-110 002 Ph. 011-43549197, 23278134 E-mail:
[email protected] Website: www.astralint.com This copy is for sale in Indian Sub-Continent.
Respectfully dedicated to the sweet memory of my beloved father
Late Sri Gopinath Saha -
who inspired me in every step of my career
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Foreword
Wetlands are among the important habitats for a variety of organisms and have a profound impact on mankind directly or indirectly. As the part of greater human desire for utilizing every possible resource, the wetlands too are not spared. The human interference knowingly or unknowingly in many instances have interrupted the natural cycles occurring in wetlands. Consequently, significant portion of the global biodiversity is at stake. Thus, precise knowledge on proper understanding, optimum harvest, systematic research, proper community outreach with regard to wetlands are the utmost need of the moment for sustainable development and conservation. In this context, the book entitled “Wetland : Crisis and Options” by Prof. Goutam Kumar Saha, a senior Professor, Department of Zoology, University of Calcutta perfectly fills the void and is expected to enrich our understanding on the wetlands and its importance in maintaining global biodiversity. -
The book is robustly conceived and is well-organized. The initial chapters introduce the readers to the rich faunal wealth of Indian wetlands followed by the chapters describing a broad range of services provided by the wetlands. The final chapters critically elaborate the concerns and challenges existing in wetlands and the initiatives undertaken to combat those issues. As the book is written in simple language, the general readers are expected to gain better information on the dynamics and importance of wetlands. The elaborate research work incorporated in this book can be a feast for scholars around the globe and is believed to provide a window for understanding prospects and challenges in the Indian wetlands. I would like to congratulate Prof. Saha for his extensive work in achieving the present form of the book. The hard work of all the contributing authors also deserves appreciations. I am hopeful that this book will receive a huge public attention and be successful in conveying the message pertaining to the roles of wetlands in sustainable resource development and global biodiversity conservation. Prof. Sugata Marjit Vice-Chancellor University of Calcutta Kolkata
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Prelude
Wetland - an interface between terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems are the most precious life-sustaining water resources and play crucial role as ecosystem service provider. They provide food, filter water and offer a unique habitat for many different species. India has a rich variety of wetland habitats due to varied topography and eco-climatic regimes across the country and each of them is ecologically unique, with its own faunal wealth. Although wetlands occupy only two percent of the surface area of earth, yet they are the most productive ecosystems of the world, providing drinking water, fish, fodder, fuel, wildlife habitat, play vital role in global cycling of nutrients, a potential source of carbon sequestration, regulate groundwater replenishment and the quality and quantity of water table, stabilize and protect shoreline from the devastating effects of natural calamities such as hurricanes, cyclones and tsunamis. They also play a vital role in the sustenance of different life forms and overall a safe and resourceful reservoir of biodiversity and often harbors many endemic as well as endangered species. Wetlands offer a welcome pit-stop, offering protection and food before the migratory birds on their way to final destination. Wetlands often provide livelihood for numerous people living around them. Many species of wetland flora and fauna are often harvested by the local communities for personal and commercial use. Above all, significantly influences the religious, historical or archeological value to many cultural reformations around the world. Thus, wetlands contribute in no small way to our quality of life-indeed, to our very survival. Inspite of their multifaceted use and importance, they are still undervalued, naturally less attended. However, the concern is that over half of the wetlands in the world have been lost in the last century and the remaining wetlands have been degraded to varying degrees because of the adverse influence of human activities and continually subjected to various anthropogenic disturbances. Many wetlands have been drained and transformed by various anthropogenic activities, viz. unplanned urbanization, agricultural extension, industrial development, road construction, impoundment, over extraction of resources, etc. Wetlands are thus invaluable as well as a finite natural resource to man’s varied activities. As a result -
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of increased human demand for water, the wetland habitats are being subjected to increased levels of human disturbance around the world. Moreover, the value of wetland waters gets increased as ecosystems become more stressed and their goods and services are declined. As a matter of fact, conservation aspects of wetland ecosystem and its biodiversity deserve special attention. Considering their vital role as ecosystem service provider, the present compilation has been initiated to highlight different aspects of wetland ecosystem and to generate awareness among students, stakeholders and common people for their proper management as well as sustenance of this unique habitat. The present compilation is enriched with 27 lead articles contributed by the authorities in their respective field and is meant to serve as a resource material for both undergraduate and postgraduate students, researchers, academicians, ecologists and environmentalists, nature lovers as well as common people. The present compilation provides diversified information ranging from microscopic zooplankton to charismatic mega forms including water hyacinth, macrophytes, aberrant groups, aquatic insects, molluscs, both migratory and resident birds, mammals associated with wetland habitats. The book also highlights the role of wetlands as potential ecosystem service provider. At the same time discusses the problems and crisis in and around functioning of this unique ecosystem in greater details and suggest conservation measures. I express my deep sense of gratitude to the contributors for their whole hearted cooperation in this endeavour. I am extremely grateful to prof. Sagata Marjit, Vice-chancellor, University of Calcutta, Kolkata for providing the foreword of the book. I am indebted to my beloved teacher Professor Subrata Roy, Former Professor of Zoology and Dean, Faculty of Science, University of Burdwan for critically going through all the manuscripts and providing valuable suggestions. Special thanks are also due to Dr. Gautam Aditya, Ms. Swarnali Mukherjee and Dr. Avisek Basu for their editorial assistance. I am thankful to Mr. Prateek Mittal of Astral International Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi for timely publication of the volume. -
Goutam Kumar Saha
Contents
Foreword
vii
Prelude
ix
xv
List of Contributors
Part I: Wetland: Faunal Wealth -
1.
Indian Wetlands: Problems, Prospects and Potentials
Goutam Kumar Saha
2.
Insect Diversity in Wetland Ecosystem of West Bengal
Asok Kanti Sanyal
3.
Brachyuran Crab Diversity, Distribution, Behaviour and Adaptation in Sundarban Delta
Malay Kanti Dev Roy and Nepal Chandra Nandi
4.
Chironomids Associated with Rice Agroecosystem of West Bengal: A Review
Sailesh Chattopadhyay and Abhijit Mazumdar
5.
Less Known Invertebrate Community in Wetland Ecosystems of West Bengal
Santanu Mitra
6.
Indigenous Ornamental Fish Resources of West Bengal
Abhisek Basu
3 19
33
51
69 79
xii
7.
Fish Diversity of Riverine Systems along Eastern Himalayan Region
Munmun Chakraborty and Sumit Homechaudhuri
8.
Amphibians in Lentic Wetlands of West Bengal: Diversity, Behaviour and Adaptations
Kaushik Deuti
9.
Reptiles in Wetlands of West Bengal: Diversity, Behaviour and Adaptations
Kaushik Deuti
99
117
131
10. Mammals of Indian Wetlands with Special Reference to West Bengal 149
Rina Chakraborty
11. Indian Sundarban: Faunal Diversity and their Ecological Adjustment 165
Pranabes Sanyal
12. Bioresources and Socio-economic Developmental Plans (SDPs) in Wetland Ecosystem: A Case Study
171
Debnath Palit, Ambarish Mukherjee and Santanu Gupta
Part II: Wetlands: Ecosystem Service Provider 13. Biomonitoring Potential of Aquatic Insects in Freshwater Ecosystem: An Overview 189 -
Srimoyee Basu, K.A. Subramanian and Goutam Kumar Saha
14. A Narrative on the Theories and Empirical Evidences of Intraguild Predation
Shreya Brahma, Gautam Aditya and Goutam Kumar Saha
15. Plankton Mediated Carbon Cycling Process in Sewage-Fed Fisheries
265
Barnali Sarkar, Gautam Aditya and Goutam Kumar Saha
18. Wetlands as a Potential Mosquito Larval Habitat: Boon or Curse?
249
Subinooy Mondal and Apurba Ratan Ghosh
17. Water Hyacinth: Origin, Mode of Invasion and its Role as Ecosystem Service Provider
229
Parthiba Basu, Sarmistha Saha and Tapan Saha
16. Heavy Metal Accumulation in Zooplankton and Fish in a Sewage-Fed Wetland
213
Soumyajit Banerjee, Gautam Aditya and Goutam Kumar Saha
287
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19. Non-Fish Food Resources of Wetlands of West Bengal, India: Prospects for Food Security
Joy Chakraborty, Sk. Habibur Rahaman, Dibyendu Saha and Gautam Aditya
20. Macroinvertebrate and Macrophyte Assemblages in Wetlands of North Bengal: Benefit Sharing
335
Paulami Maiti and Samir Banerjee
22. Evaluating Wetland Services: Ecology to Economy
317
Dipendra Sharma, Gautam Aditya and Goutam Kumar Saha
21. Fish as Indicator of Metal Pollution in the Waste-Fed Ponds of East Kolkata Wetlands
305
355
Moumit Roy Goswami and Aniruddha Mukhopadhayay
Part III: Wetlands: Challenges and Conservation Initiatives 23. Wetland Conservation: Indian Perspective
Asish Kumar Ghosh
24. Wetlands in Urban Landscapes: Problems and Potentials
375 385
Subhendu Mazumdar and Goutam Kumar Saha
25. Population Trends of Waterbirds in an Urban Wetland in Response to Habitat Degradation -
Anirban Sinha, Prantik Hazra and Tarak Nath Khan
26. Ecotoxicological Threats of Agro and Geogenic Chemicals in the Freshwater Molluscs of India: A Review
401
423
Anindya Sundar Bhunia, Mitali Ray and Sajal Ray
27. High Altitude Lakes of Sikkim: Conservation Initiatives
Lak Tsheden Theengh, Priyadarshinee Shrestha and Partha Sarathi Ghose
Index
445 453
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List of Contributors
1. DR. ABHISEK BASU Assistant Professor, Department of Zoology, Victoria Institution (College), Kolkata 2. DR. AMBARISH MUKHERJEE Professor, Department of Botany, The University of Burdwan, Burdwan 3. MR. ANINDYA SUNDAR BHUNIA Research Scholar, Aquatic Toxicology Laboratory, Department of Zoology, University of Calcutta, Kolkata 4. DR. ANIRBAN SINHA Research Scholar, Ecology and Wildlife Biology Laboratory, Department of Zoology, Maulana Azad College, Kolkata 5. DR. ANIRUDDHA MUKHOPADHAYAY Professor, Department of Environmental Science, University of Calcutta, Kolkata 6. DR. APURBA RATAN GHOSH Professor, Department of Environmental Science, The University of Burdwan, Burdwan 7. DR. ASISH KUMAR GHOSH Former Director, Zoological Survey of India and Director, Centre for Environment and Development, Kolkata 8. DR. ASOK KANTI SANYAL Former Additional Director, Zoological Survey of India, Kolkata and Chairman, West Bengal Biodiversity Board, Kolkata -
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9. DR. AVIJIT MAJUMDAR Associate Professor, Department of Zoology, The University of Burdwan, Burdwan 10. MS. BARNALI SARKAR Research Scholar, Entomology and Wildlife Biology Research Laboratory, Department of Zoology, University of Calcutta, Kolkata 11. DR. DEBNATH PALIT Assistant Professor, Department of Botany, Durgapur Government College, Durgapur 12. MR. DIPENDRA SHARMA Research Scholar, Entomology and Wildlife Biology Research Laboratory, Department of Zoology, University of Calcutta, Kolkata 13. MR. DIBYENDU SAHA Research Scholar, Department of Zoology, The University of Burdwan, Burdwan 14. DR. GAUTAM ADITYA Associate Professor, Ecology Laboratory, Department of Zoology, University of Calcutta, Kolkata 15. DR. GOUTAM KUMAR SAHA Professor of Zoology, Entomology and Wildlife Biology Research Laboratory, Department of Zoology, University of Calcutta, Kolkata 16. SK. HABIBUR RAHAMAN Research Scholar, Department of Zoology, The University of Burdwan, Burdwan 17. MR. JOY CHAKRABORTY Research Scholar, Department of Zoology, The University of Burdwan, Burdwan 18. DR. K. A. SUBRAMANIAN Scientist D, Zoological Survey of India, Kolkata 19. DR. KAUSHIK DEUTI Herpetology Division, Zoological Survey of India, Kolkata 20. MS. LAK TSHEDEN THEENGH WWF-India, Khangchendzonga Landscape Programme, Gangtok, Sikkim 21. DR. MALAY KANTI DEV ROY Crustacea Section, Zoological Survey of India, Kolkata 22. DR. MITALI RAY Scientist, Aquatic Toxicology Laboratory, Department of Zoology, University of Calcutta, Kolkata -
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23. DR. MOUMIT ROY GOSWAMI Assistant Professor, Department of Environmental science, Netaji Nagar College for Women, Kolkata 24. DR. MUNMUN CHAKRABORTY Research Scholar, Aquatic Bioresource Research Laboratory, Department of Zoology, University of Calcutta, Kolkata 25. DR. NEPAL CHANDRA NANDI Former Additional Director, Zoological Survey of India, Kolkata 26. DR. PRANABES SANYAL School of Oceanographic Studies, Jadavpur University, Kolkata. Former Field Director, Sunderban Tiger Reserve 27. DR. PARTHA SARATHI GHOSE WWF-India, Khangchendzonga Landscape Programme, Gangtok, Sikkim 28. DR. PARTHIBA BASU Associate Professor, Ecology Research Unit, Department of Zoology, University of Calcutta, Kolkata 29. DR. PAULAMI MAITY Assistant Professor, Department of Zoology, Lady Brabourne College, Kolkata 30. DR. PRANTIK HAZRA Research Scholar, Ecology and Wildlife Biology Laboratory, Department of Zoology, Maulana Azad College, Kolkata 31. MS. PRIYADARSHINEE SHRESTHA WWF-India, Khangchendzonga Landscape Programme, Gangtok, Sikkim 32. DR. RINA CHAKRABORTY Former Joint Director, Zoological Survey of India, Kolkata 33. DR. SAMIR BANERJEE Former Professor of Zoology, University of Calcutta, Kolkata 34. MR. SANTANU GUPTA Research Scholar, P. G. Department of Conservation Biology, Durgapur Govt. College, Durgapur 35. MR. SANTANU MITRA Crustacea Section, Zoological Survey of India, Kolkata 36. DR. SHREYA BRAHMA Research Scholar, Entomology and Wildlife Biology Research Laboratory, Department of Zoology, University of Calcutta, Kolkata 37. DR. SAILESH CHATTERJEE Professor, Department of Forest Entomology, Birsa Agricultural University, Ranchi, Jharkhand -
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38. DR. SAJAL RAY Professor of Zoology, Aquatic Toxicology Laboratory, Department of Zoology, University of Calcutta, Kolkata 39. MS. SARMISTHA SAHA Research Scholar, Ecology Research Unit, Department of Zoology, University of Calcutta, Kolkata 40. DR. SOUMYAJIT BANERJEE Research Scholar, Entomology and Wildlife Biology Research Laboratory, Department of Zoology, University of Calcutta, Kolkata 41. DR. SUBHENDU MAZUMDAR Assistant Professor, Shibpur Dinobundhoo Institution (College), Howrah 42. MR. SUBINOY MONDAL Research Scholar, Department of Environmental Science, The University of Burdwan, Burdwan 43. DR. SUMIT HOMECHAUDHURI Professor of Zoology, Aquatic Bioresouce Research Laboratory, Department of Zoology, University of Calcutta, Kolkata 44. MS. SRIMOYEE BASU Research Scholar, Entomology and Wildlife Biology Research Laboratory, Department of Zoology, University of Calcutta, Kolkata 45. MR. TAPAN SAHA Scientist, Institute for Environmental Studies and Wetland Management, Kolkata 46. DR. TARAK NATH KHAN Associate Professor, Ecology and Wildlife Biology Laboratory, Department of Zoology, Maulana Azad College, Kolkata -
Chapter 12
Bioresources and Socio-economic Developmental Plans (SDPs) in Wetland Ecosystem: A Case Study Debnath Palit1, Ambarish Mukherjee2 and Santanu Gupta3 Department of Botany, Durgapur Government College, Durgapur 2 Department of Botany, Burdwan University, Burdwan 3 SRF, PG Department of Conservation Biology, Durgapur Government College, Durgapur
1
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Introduction Wetlands are diverse ecosystems that link people, wildlife and environment in special and interdependent ways through the essential life-support functions of water (Maltby and Barker, 2009).Wetlands include a variety of habitats such as marshes, swamps, river banks, river flood plains, lakes, ponds and so on (Keddy, 2010; Hassal and Anderson, 2015) and forms an important environment for aquatic, semi-aquatic and moisture loving floral and faunal associations (LaSalle et al., 1991; Diaz-Paniagua et al., 2010; Bagella et al., 2011). According to IUCN (2004) the total number of known species worldwide is about 1.5 million, while many more are yet to be discovered. Although most of the taxonomic groups of temperate zones have been fully recorded, the biodiversity data of rich tropical zones is far from complete. Macrophytes are referred to as water plants, as well as amphiphytes and/or amphibian plants, consisting mainly of aquatic and wetland vascular plant species (Hannus and Von Numers, 2008; QingLing et al., 2012; Prajeesh et al., 2014) belonging to Pteridophytes and Angiosperms and exclude filamentous algae. Macrophytes play an important role in aquatic ecosystems (Choi et al., 2014; O’Brien et al.,2014; Human et al., 2015) and contribute to the general fitness and diversity of a healthy
Wetland: Crisis and Options
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aquatic ecosystem by acting as indicators for water quality and aiding in nutrient cycling (Cvetkovic and Chow-Fraser, 2011; Beck, 2014; Achieng et al., 2014; Phillips, 2015). Thus studies on wetland macrophytes have started gaining importance (Takamura et al., 2003; Chambers et al., 2008; Nishihiro et al., 2014) as systematic stock taking of biodiversity is presently given top most priority at the same time these plants have implications with functional values of wetlands (Rahman and Hasegawa, 2011; Bornette and Puijalon, 2011; Jiang et al., 2014). A fairly good number of birds inhabit wetlands for nesting, feeding and roosting and are dependent on wetland for their very survival. However, wetlands in India, are facing tremendous anthropogenic pressures (Prasad et al., 2002) few studies have been carried out on the status and diversity of wetland birds in this eco region (Mukherjee and Gupta, 2012), study of wetland avifauna is also gaining importance. Fishes are one of the important elements in the economy of many nations as they have been a stable item in the diet of Indians. Study on fish fauna in India has been well investigated through some good and novel studies pioneered by Talwar and Jhingran (1991), Kar and Dey (2002). Wetland management generally involves activities that can be conducted with, in, and around wetlands, both natural and man-made, to protect, restore, manipulate, or provide importance for their functions and values. Effective wetland management requires knowledge on a range of wetland subjects and proper baseline information can only help a decision maker to evaluate wetland resources, to determine their functions, values, and services, to assess risks, and prioritize protection. There are several studies concerning the management of wetlands with special reference to socioeconomic development of the concerned area in various part of the globe (Turner, 1991; Maltby, 1991; Roggeri, 1995; Johnston et al., 2013;Gray et al., 2013;Namaalwaet al., 2013; Eppink et al., 2014 and Smardon, 2014). -
The present investigation was, therefore, undertaken to study the species composition of aquatic macrophytes, wetland birds and fishes along with the scope of wetland management in twenty different wetlands of Birbhum district, West Bengal as a model. Detail survey data and biological attributes were used to address two main objectives: i) to analyze the composition of aquatic life (macrophytes, wetland birds and fishes) in these freshwater wetlands and ii) to prepare a list of SDPs required in wetlands of Birbhum District for proper management and sustainable use.
Materials and Methods Study Area Birbhum is one of the smallest districts in West Bengal representing the unique drought prone, dry regions of eastern India and is located between 23º32’30’’ and 24º35' 0'’ North latitude and 88º01' 40'’ and 87º05' 25'’ East. East longitude extending over an area of 4545.00 sq km. The district is well drained by a number of rain fed rivers and rivulets running in nearly every case from west to east with a slight southerly inclination. There are only two principal rivers, viz. the Mor and the Ajay, the latter forming the southern boundary. The geological formations represented
Bioresources and Socio-economic Developmental Plans (SDPs) in Wetland Ecosystem
173
in Birbhum are Archaean genesis, the Gondwana system, laterite and Gangetic alluvium. The predominant soil types are old-alluvium and red laterite. Soil is acidic with the pH varying from 5.0 to 6.5. The climate of the district is generally drought prone, dry, mild and healthy. The hot weather usually last from the middle of March to the middle of the June, the rainy season from the middle of June to the middle of October, and the winter from middle of October to the middle of March. As a rule, the wind is blown from south east in summer and from the north west in winter. This region is blessed with a good number of fresh water wetlands harboring a great variety of aquatic macrophytes. For the present study a total of twenty freshwater wetlands of Birbhum district (Figure 12.1) having unique geographical representativeness, pattern of aquatic life and multipurpose usages by local stakeholders were selected. Almost all parts (at block level) of Birbhum district were surveyed from 2010 to 2014.
Documentation of Wetland Bioresources Observations on the aquatic macrophytes, wetland birds and piscifaunal occurrence at 20 wetlands distributed over 19 Blocks in Birbhum District were carried out through frequent field surveys at seasonal intervals during pre-monsoon (April-May), monsoon (August-September) and post-monsoon (December-January). The annual assemblage (presence or absence) of macrophyte species were noted and plants were identified using standard literature by Cook (1996). The birds were photographed by CANON Power Shot (SX510HS) and identified using standard field book (Grimmett et al., 2011). Fishes were identified upto the species level, with the help of standard keys, books (Talwar and Jhingran, 1991) and online databases (Fish Base, 2014). Site specific relative abundance (here after will be noted as three categories: a) Most abundant: +++ (fish observed in >50 per cent of study sites); b) Less abundant: ++ (25-50 per cent) and c) Rare: + (3 per cent.
Bioresources and Socio-economic Developmental Plans (SDPs) in Wetland Ecosystem
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Table 12.1(b): List of Wetland Birds Species Documented from Wetlands of Birbhum district. Family Alcedinidae
Scientific Names of Wetland Birds Species
Alcedo atthisa, Halcyon smyrnensisa
Anatidae Anas creccab, Anas streperab, Aythya ferniac, Dendrocygna bicolora, Dendrocygna javanicaa, Nettapus coromandelianusb Ardeidae
Ardea purpureaa, Ardeola grayiia, Bubulcus ibisa, Egretta garzettaa
Charadriidae
Charadrius dubiusb, Charadrius alexandrinusb
Ciconiidae
Anastomus oscitansa
Jacanidae
Hydrophasianus chirurgusc, Metopidius indicusa
Motacillidae
Motacilla albaa, Motacilla flavaa, Motacilla citreolaa
Phalacrocoracidae
Phalacrocorax nigera
Rallidae Amaurornis phoenicurusb, Gallinula chloropusa, Porphyrio porphyriob, Fulica atrab Code used for site specific relative abundance (SSRA) of wetland bird species: a: Most abundant: +++ (>50- per cent); b: Less abundant: ++ (25-50 per cent), c: Rare: + (50- per cent); b: Less abundant: ++ (25-50 per cent), c: Rare: + (
