Originally, it was a two volume compilation of eighteen different history books such as Shima Qian's (145-ca. 86 BCE) Shiji (史記, Records of the Great Historian), ...
What Is Literature? (Munhak iran hao) 1 by Yi Kwang-su Translated by Jooyeon Rhee
The Difference between Old and New Literature There are innumerable occasions where the meaning of a certain term is conceived differently across time and space. For instance, in ancient times words like “chim” (朕) and “kyŏng” (卿) were employed interchangeably with “o” (吾) and “i” (爾), which literally mean “I” and “you.” Yet, in later years, chim and kyŏng were used only between kings and emperors and their vassals.2 In such ways does the usage of a term change over time. Similarly, in Chosŏn, the Chinese character “sa” (士) referred to literati, whereas in old Japan it referred to warriors. In other words, the character’s meaning is understood differently from one place to another. It is easy for us to dismiss this difference because both countries used the same Chinese character for two different groups of people. This pattern means that in Korea today people are frequently confused by the meanings of many terms. To make the matter even more complicated, the changing nature of language is not subject to time and space alone; the meaning of a term is rendered differently according to the specialized area of study in which it is used. The term “pŏmnyul,” (法律) for instance, has been used for 1. Originally published in Maeil sinbo, 10-23 November 1916, reprinted in Yi Kwang-su Chŏnjip, vol. 1 (Seoul: Samjungdang, 1963), 506-519. 2. The former was strictly limited to a king or an emperor when he referred to himself while the latter was used when the king or the emperor addressed his vassals.
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many generations, yet its meaning is radically different in the field of jurisprudence. Although its usage differs somewhat from one country to another, generally speaking, pŏmnyul means a set of Azalea
coercive regulations established and enforced by state authority. However, within the juridical system, pŏmnyul means a set of laws
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promulgated by the state after having been approved by members
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of the parliamentary cabinet who have incorporated reasonable
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opinions from sovereign subjects. In short, the meaning of the
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term differs depending on whether it is used in a specialized field or in everyday situations. By the same token, the meaning of munhak (literature) also changes. The definition of munhak, as used today, is based on our understanding of the English term, “literature.” In other words, we can accurately say that munhak is a direct translation of “literature.” This fact leads us to inquire about the constitution of literature and how its definition differs from that of the past. As I have pointed out, we should be cautious about terms whose written forms remain the same throughout history but whose meanings may differ depending on the social and cultural context. The Definition of Literature Compared to the general sciences, literature is extremely difficult to define—its scope is vast and its boundaries are limitless. Indeed, it might be accurate to say that it is an almost impossible task. Certainly, literature is commonly called a field of study. Thus, some literary critics would generalize that literature is a mode of expression that embodies human emotions and thoughts in specific forms. In this generalized definition, “specific forms” can be divided in two. First, literature refers to written texts; thus, we cannot consider oral literature (kubi munhak) literature since it is not recorded in written language. Second, literature refers to already established literary genres such as poetry, fiction, playwriting, and literary criticism. If one scribbles something whose compositional structure does not fit into any of these genres, 294
we cannot call it literature. The content of literature is human emotions and thoughts; therefore, we cannot call the knowledge embedded in physics, natural history, geography, history, law, and ethics—even if they are recorded— “literature.” In other words, only written expressions of human emotions and thoughts can be considered literature. It may be difficult to definitely distinguish science from literature. Yet, if we compare physics with poetry, the difference seems clearer. In science, we objectively examine the material aspect of things, but literature evokes feelings of beauty, ugliness, happiness, and sadness, all of which make us feel that we are reading the depths of our own minds. It is this range of feelings that characterizes literature. In fact, literature is not a field of study. Objects of study can be certain events and animate and inanimate things, whose structure, characteristics, origin, and evolution are examined and investigated by observers or researchers. In literature, we do not study things; rather, we feel them. Therefore, authors cannot teach us the knowledge of things; rather, their writings evoke feelings of beauty and pleasure in our minds. Science addresses our intellects, whereas literature fulfills our emotions. Literature and Human Emotion As I mentioned earlier, human emotions are the very foundation of literature. The significance of literature derives from human emotions and human relations. In the past in every country in the world, human emotions were trivialized while knowledge was prioritized, which demonstrates that people had no clear notion of individuality back then. In this modern age, we have come to realize that our mind is governed by three main cognitive principles—i.e., knowledge (chi, 知), emotion (chŏng, 情), and will (ŭi, 義). We also recognize that
each functions independently and without hierarchy in our mind; each one contributes to our spiritual growth. In other words, unlike in the past when emotions were subject to knowledge 295
and will, today emotions function independently. As knowledge finds its place in science, emotions come to seek their place in literature, music, and the visual arts as a way of seeking to realize Azalea
their purposes. While it is true that art existed in the past, its value was judged only in terms of its functionality, as a subsidiary
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resource to help the development of intellectual, ethical, and
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religious behavior. However, this situation changed after the
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great spiritual revolution, the Renaissance, which occurred about
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five hundred years ago. The Renaissance helped emotions stand independently, on an equal footing with knowledge and will. In fact, today our desire to realize our emotions is greater than our desire to pursue knowledge and will. Literary arts are destined to fulfill those emotions, from which our fondness for wine, Eros, and natural beauty arise. Literary Materials As I have said, literature fulfills human emotions. This fulfillment is based on interest, and what interests people most are things about themselves. The reason we are drawn to love stories is because we have an innate desire to love. Similarly, we feel empathy for the poor and their pain only if we have experienced a similar situation. Therefore, if a certain literary work deals with matters that are too removed from the realities of humankind, or if it speaks about things that are not related to readers’ lives, it fails to attract people’s interest. Literature must take all of its material from life. These materials are, namely, the conditions of daily existence and the thoughts and emotions of life; a piece of writing becomes literature if these elements are embedded in it. Certainly, there are innumerable materials, ranging from good to bad, things that contain righteousness (chŏng, 正) and impiety (puchŏng, 不正), or purity/refinement (chŏng, 精) and corruption (puchŏng, 不精). Thus, good literature uses materials that are as righteous and refined as possible, things that are extraordinary and meaningful. For example, eating and excretion are a part of our everyday lives, but they carry 296
no significant meaning. Love, sorrow, evil, hope, and courage, on the other hand, possess a special flavor. We feel entertained when reading about the love affair between the courtesan Ch’unhyang and Yi Mongnyong, 3 the anger of Lu Zhishen,4 and the suffering of Lady Sa. 5 Righteousness can be discovered in its most truthful form when a reader experiences its expression in a realistic way. The most refined description of a certain event grasps the reader’s interest through its detail, as if one is witnessing it right before one’s eyes. In this way, a literary work engages its readers most effectively when it depicts life as realistically as possible. A splendid work leads its readers—no matter what their backgrounds are—to understand and empathize with its content. For instance, a literary work will grip its readers if it depicts as realistically as possible a love affair of a beautiful and gifted person who belongs to an educated upper-class family, whose love for his or her partner has failed to be accepted by his or her parents. Literature and Morality Emotions are no longer subordinate to knowledge and will; they function as an autonomous principle of the mind. Similarly, literature, which derives from emotions, should not be subordinated to politics, morality, or science; rather, it is an autonomous entity connected to our lives on a deeper level than knowledge and will. During the Chosŏn period, literature was conceived of as something to inspire Confucian-based moral values and didactic principles such as “encourage good and punish evil” (kwŏnsŏn chingak). When a work of literature deviated from the Confucian moral code, it was considered abhorrent. This, in fact, is the very cause for the delay in the development of Korean literature. Even when people read poems in the Chinese style like 3. Song of Spring Fragrance (Ch’unhyang ka), one of five surviving p’ansori, is a representative Korean oral narrative that has been celebrated throughout the ages. 4. 魯智深, also nicknamed “Flowery Monk,” one of the main characters of Water Margin (水滸傳, Shuĭhŭ Zhuàn, 14th c), is one of Four Great Classical Narratives of Chinese literature. 5. The heroine of a fiction, Record of Lady Sa’s Journey South (Sassinamjŏnggi) (謝氏南征記), written by Kim Manjung (1637-1692).
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The Classics of Poetry (sigyŏng)6 or yulsi,7 their narrow perspective led them to seek moral values alone. How could one possibly expect to find the true meaning of poetry when he or she ignores Azalea
the beautiful light of pure emotion? For this reason, literature in the past, whether prose or poetry,
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remained strictly within the boundaries of Confucian morality.
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No matter how many literary works were produced, all were dull
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and monotonous. The complexity of human emotions can be
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compared with the myriad forms of all things under heaven. How then was it possible to regulate emotions using a limited moral code? Throughout the Koryŏ and Chosŏn periods, Koreans had no opportunity to freely express their thoughts and emotions because they were enslaved by such a strict standard of morality. Had the culture of the Chosŏn been allowed to blossom freely, the spirit of Koreans could have been nurtured, and we could have been provided with literary materials that were refined and pleasurable. . . . Looking at how literature has flourished in other countries, I cannot help feeling envious and sad at the same time. Just as physics explains all existing physical phenomena in a liberated scholarly atmosphere, the same kind of freedom must be given to literature. In fact, literature today transcends religion and ethics; it now reflects our thoughts and emotions, and portrays our everyday lives without restraint. And this freedom is the driving force behind the emergence of great literature that has been produced in other modern civilized nations. If one intends to build a new literature in Korea, one has to locate oneself in the broad field of thoughts and emotions and then freely select one’s literary materials. I feel compelled to add a few more words to avoid any misunderstanding. When I say “transcend morality,” I do not mean that one should take materials that are sensual and erotic. Rather, one should free oneself from social norms and rules, and depict human affairs as one sees them. In other words, do not 6. 詩經, translated as The Classic of Poetry, The Book of Poems, or The Book of Odes. 7. 律詩, rhythmic poetry that is normally written in eight syllables.
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attempt to write something that is intended to promote a certain moral behavior. And do not try to shape people’s moral conduct by deliberately constructing didactic formulas such as “encourage good and punish evil.” Try not to measure and judge norms, rules and morality; instead, evoke the real world of thought, emotion, and everyday life as truthfully as possible for your readers. What, then, is the efficacy of literature? Why do authors produce literary works and why do people read them? I will attempt to answer these questions in the next section. The Efficacy of Literature As I mentioned earlier, literature aims to fulfill our emotions. I know I have raised this point a few times already, but I hope you will allow me to expand on it further so that I can explain what the fulfillment of emotions implies. Our mind follows three main cognitive principles: knowledge, will, and emotion. Knowledge enables us to find truth while the will encourages us to seek virtue and righteousness. Then where do emotions lead us? To put it simply, they lead us to discover beauty, which gives us pleasure. Virtue and truthfulness are necessary to fulfill our desire to live spiritually, but beauty is just as essential. If one is spiritually fulfilled, then, we can say that one possesses those three qualities in balance. Our desire to know makes us love knowledge. And if one behaves badly by ignoring virtue, one will undoubtedly be criticized by society. By the same token, we can say that one’s mind is deformed if one has love for knowledge and will, but no desire to seek beauty. Of course, there are people whose primary interest lies in science. A passion for virtue would lead others to become devoted to religion and ethics. And those who seek beauty may become writers and artists. Such people are specialists. However, it is necessary for average people to embrace all three elements in a balanced way to discover how to perfect and refine their character. Certainly, literature serves purposes apart from the cultivation of personal character. By portraying life, it enables 299
us to understand the subtleties of human affairs. It helps a lowly man understand the thoughts and emotions of a noble man; it helps a rich person understand the living conditions of the poor; Azalea
it helps people in the cities understand the lives of farmers, and an evil person see the thoughts and emotions of a righteous man.
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This communicability of literature helps us understand foreigners
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and ancient people as well. Similarly, we gain knowledge by
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reading literature, which is necessary for education and helps us
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adapt to society. Furthermore, the supreme virtue of literature is that it helps us examine the lives and interactions of people from all kinds of backgrounds. The sympathy it induces becomes a driving force behind virtuous acts. Thus, the rich will sympathize with the poor, the noble with the lowly, and the good with the bad. Third, by portraying how men commit sin, literature helps us uphold virtue. By delineating the ups and downs of a person’s psychology, it teaches us all how to make progress in our own lives. Fourth, we discover pure pleasure from literature in this world of suffering, which frees our minds from injustice. Thus, in literature we can wander imaginatively through an ideal world, experiencing the lives and thoughts of others. If a person has a deep affection for literature, we can say that he or she possesses the spiritual assets of mankind that have been accumulated over time. Fifth, the reason people have developed harmful addictions to sex and alcohol is that they lack a refined taste. If a person develops her or his interest in literature, she or he will be able to overcome such addictions. Sixth, although a good literary work does not necessarily aim to teach us to act morally, it still provides certain important lessons. Literature unknowingly shapes our character and develops our intellectual abilities. I cannot say that I have mentioned all the possible benefits of reading literature here, but I expect that one may understand the importance of literature by reflecting on the points I have enumerated. In the next section, I would like to focus on the particular benefits that literature offers. 300
Literature and Nationhood A generation’s devotion to study, discipline, and refinement is crystallized in the progress it has made in its ideas, passions, and modes of living, all of which are the fruits of their laborious effort. It would be a great loss for a national community—not to mention the entirety of mankind—if these achievements were to disappear after that generation. It is extremely difficult to recover ideas, emotions, and modes of living once they are lost. Therefore, each generation’s achievement should be passed down to the next generation to help them benefit from the previous generation’s achievements. The next generation, in turn, contributes its own achievements, and bequeaths this growing spiritual wealth to the many successive generations. During this process, the content of spiritual achievement is enriched and secured, its quality improved and refined. These accumulated achievements constitute a country’s spiritual civilization, and underpin the nationhood of its people. Certainly, the most effective means to transmit this spiritual civilization is the literature of the people. If the people of a country lack literature, or if they merely transmit their cultural achievements orally, then no matter how lengthy their history, their culture will lack richness, and they will be stuck in a barbaric and primitive state. Over the past four thousand years in Korea, there have been thriving dynasties such as Silla, Paekche, and Koguryŏ. Naturally then, Korea should possess its own unique spiritual civilization. Sadly, however, our ancestors’ great achievement— their literature—is lost to us, due to their indolence; indeed, our regret is mixed with anger that their inability and idleness led them to fail to preserve their spiritual civilization for future generations. Of course, the blame for the failure should not be laid upon them entirely; the intrusion of Chinese ways of thinking into Korea also weakened Korean culture. The brutal force of Chinese thought destroyed a great deal of valuable Korean thought. Our feebleminded ancestors became slaves to Chinese 301
thought, thereby weakening their own culture. Today, Koreans are still raised and educated under the influence of Chinese culture and Chinese morality. Therefore, Chosŏn, a country of Koreans, Azalea
remains an empty substance, a mere imitation of China. How sad that Koreans still admire the Chinese script and Chinese classics
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without trying to escape from Chinese influence. Recently, a new
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Western culture is flooding our land. It is beyond dispute that
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Koreans must shed their old clothes for new, and wash away the
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accumulated dirt. We must bathe in the light of the new, and be ready to freely build a new spiritual civilization. After the annexation, our cultural domain has been completely renewed by a new civilization. Yet, our thoughts and passions, and their application to our everyday lives, are still in an immature state. From now on, we must create our first-ever legacy to bequeath to the next generation, by building a new and experimental literature that embodies Korean thoughts and emotions. The Categories of Literature Literature can be categorized by either form or content. Of course, it is not really necessary to classify literature, since classification does not truly help people who try to pursue careers in literature. Nonetheless, we can categorize literature by content according to regional specificities and the types of literary materials. Regional boundaries translate as national, native, urban, or pastoral literatures; while the nature of materials characterize literature as historical, religious, romantic, and contemporary. Of course, there are no strict rules or set limits when categorizing literature. In fact, this open-ended aspect is a unique feature of literature, which allows for a literary genius to break the mold. When literature is categorized by form, it can be divided into two: prose and poetry. Prose can be further divided into essays, fiction, playwriting, etc. It is also possible to categorize poetry according to categories, but I will skip this since I do not think it is necessary. 302
1. Essays Essays do not refer to political or scientific papers; rather, they are writings authored by novelists and poets who express themselves as if “talking” to us outside the conventions of literary forms. For example, literary works such as Tao Yuan-ming’s8 Returning Home,9 Su Shi’s10 Red Cliff Rhapsody,11 and Qu Yuan’s12 Encountering Sorrow (Li Sao)13 can be compared to essays produced by Thomas Carlyle (1795-1881) and Ralph Waldo Emerson (1803-1882) in the West. In modern times, we also have a new form of literature, so-called critical essays or essays of literary criticism. After one understands the main points in novels, poetry, or plays, one can discuss them in one’s own words in essay form, a type of writing which has become one of the categories of modern literature. 2. Novels In Korea, people call oral stories novels, and storytellers novelists; however, this only illustrates their ignorance. Novels cannot be defined in such simple, ambiguous, and value-free terms. A novel portrays an aspect of life in a refined and righteous manner. It depicts its author’s imaginative world as clearly as possible so that its readers can perceive the world realistically. While the essay aims to indirectly explain the imaginative world of a literary work to readers through interpretation, readers of the novel engage with the world, experiencing it directly. It is evident that novels occupy a crucial part of modern literature: it is common to see them on people’s desks, while each newspaper or magazine carries at least one or two serialized novels. 8. 陶淵明, also known as Tao Chien or Tao Quin, was an early Taoist poet (365427) who lived during the Eastern Chin (316-420) and Liu Sung (420-479) dynasties. 9. 歸去來辭, one of Tao’s most famous poems which depicts his life in seclusion. 10. 蘇軾, also known as 蘇東坡 (Su Dongpo, 1036-1101). A poet who lived in the Song dynasty (960-1279). 11. 赤壁賦 is Su’s poetic essay about his personal affairs. 12. 屈原 (340-278 BCE), a scholar and minister to the king from the southern Chu during the Warring States period (476-221 BCE). 13. 離騷, Qu’s poetic essay that depicts his desire to remain pure and his lamentation for the decline of the state of Chu.
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3. Playwriting Theatrical writing can be divided roughly into poetic and prose styles, the latter being more influential in the modern day. Azalea
The purpose of playwriting is similar to that of the novel, but the difference between the two is that while the latter delivers the
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author’s imagination solely through the written word, the former
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is intended to depict the fictional world on stage. Therefore, plays
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impact viewers even more profoundly than novels. Playwriting is
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an independent form of art. The so-called scenario is written for theatrical dramas, where actors are masters of the stage. It is no longer necessary to belabor this, but, in our contemporary world, actors are artists who receive the same kind of respect from society that other artists and writers do. Certainly, they are different from those performers who were once called kwangdae.14 Nonetheless, writing plays is harder than writing fiction since there are so many rules which need to be followed. 4. Poetry If prose is meant to be “read,” poetry should be “recited.” A novel deals with a facet of life or expresses the imaginative world of its author, who leaves the judgment of things like beauty, ugliness, pleasure, and unhappiness to his readers. Poetry is also the poet’s depiction of his life or imaginative world, but the poet deals with those things that interest him most, and is particularly concerned with good rhythm, which, in turn, inspires readers to recite the words with cries of joy and woe. There are only a few rules which govern composition. First, compose using rhymes. Second, pay attention to meter, which creates a natural rhythm; this is the most effective way of delivering the poet’s emotions to his readers. Both Chinese and Western poetry are written using rhyme; however, it has been difficult to incorporate rhyme into Japanese poetry 14. The literal meaning of kwangdae is “masks,” and it refers to performers who specialized in various forms of art such as mask dance, puppet theater, acrobatics, and p’ansori singing during the Chosŏn period.
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due to the linguistic structure of the Japanese language. By the same token, it is inconvenient to incorporate rhyme into Korean poetry since our grammar is similar to that of Japanese. Generally speaking, it is possible to reverse the subject-predicate sequence in Chinese and Western languages. For instance, “a good person” can also be written as “a person who is good,” thus enhancing the rhyme. However, this is impossible in either Japanese or Korean. I believe that a new way of composing poetry will be discovered in Korea once a great poet is born. As anyone who composes three-verse Korean poems, sijo, knows, although we cannot utilize rhyme, our language includes both “pleasant and unpleasant sounds,” which are similar to rhymes. Even without rhymes, the sijo retains a natural flavor all its own. Meter can be compared to the shift between long and short sounds in Korean poetry. Literature and Belles Lettres Literature is a vessel that holds content. In Korea, Chinese classics alone were considered literature but nothing else. Back then, belles lettres (mun) were considered equivalent to literature (munhak), a major obstacle that delayed the development of Korean literature. Koreans generally hold the Analects and the writings of Mencius in high regard. This does not mean that the texts hold importance in themselves; rather, the important thing is the thoughts and ideas embedded in those writings. Thoughts and ideas can be conveyed through either English or Korean. For example, Sinified Korean, cha wal (子曰), can be translated in Korean as “the teacher says”: its meaning does not change even though we read it in pure Korean. I do not need to repeat the fact that Korean scholars have been wasting their time and energy studying difficult Chinese. Had they invested comparable time and energy in something else, our culture would have flourished further. Had they abandoned classical Chinese and used Korean script instead, they could have produced great Korean literature. People are using less and less pure 305
Chinese in recent years, yet the old habit persists: some still insist on using this esoteric script, composing their literature by adhering to Chinese styles and forms. The literary styles of published materials Azalea
and students’ compositions seem quite unnatural, as if one were reading a series of Korean suffixes affixed to Chinese words. This
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signifies that we are going through a transitional period, I believe,
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but we should break free from this bad habit as soon as possible.
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We should use our living modern language when describing
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contemporary reality. For instance, it is not necessary to replace pure Korean kongbu (study) with Chinese words like hyŏngsŏl (螢 雪), t’angma (琢磨), or majŏ (磨杵), all of which are archaic. Also, we
do not need to strain ourselves finding Chinese words to express our feelings: we should just write them down as they come out of our mouths. I am very happy to see that han’gŭl is more widely used in the Korean language and literature than ever before. Yet, I hope to see our literary language grow even further so that it can develop diverse styles. If we need to use classical Chinese characters, we should find ways to fit them naturally into our colloquial language. Ever since Yamada Bimyō15 (1868-1910) launched the unification of the spoken and written language (genbun’ichi) movement about three decades ago, Japan has been using vernacular writing in literature, science, politics, essays, etc. This kind of development greatly influences a nation’s culture. Therefore, new literature must be written in the purely contemporary everyday vernacular, which can be understood and used by anyone. Literature and Writers The literary world consists of three different types of figures: writers, critics, and readers. Among these, I will talk about the qualifications and attitudes that are desirable in a writer, and what benefits a writer should garner from his work. 15. It seems that “Yamada” (山田) was misprinted as “由田” in the original article. Yamada Bimyō experimented with a colloquial style in fiction writing in the mid-1880s.
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Any field or profession requires some sort of talent, but one can still improve one’s relevant skills to better perform in a set profession. This principle does not apply to the literary arts, however, because writing is a career only for especially talented people. In other words, training does not create a writer. What I mean by “special talent” is the capacity to observe with a keen eye and imagine in an unbounded manner; the ability to draw from a rich language base; and the possession of a burning passion. A writer must be able to examine various aspects of human affairs and society, and spontaneously create an imagined world populated by diverse personalities. A writer feels delight when encountering beauty; he or she laments over sadness and shares a boundless empathy with the infinite number of forms in our universe. He or she must feel happiness and anger, sadness and pleasure with passion and sensitivity, and be able to express the world of his or her imagination through a fluent command of literary language so that readers can vividly experience that world. A literary genius must meet all these qualifications. Of course, a writer cannot produce literature with natural talent alone; writers must cultivate their minds for many years by reading and studying great literary works produced by others in order to refine their ability. Through this training, one will sharpen one’s observational power and learn how best to portray things. One must study history, society, language, and prose style in order to pioneer ways to incorporate literary materials that can improve one’s literary language and style. In short, a writer takes a very different path in cultivating himself from that of, for example, an engineer or a lawyer. It takes tremendous effort and pains to become a writer: only after one goes through these stages of training is one finally set to write. First, one must select materials, which can be compared to the construction of a building. For example, a master builder has to make numerous decisions, from the foundation to the overall structure to the aesthetic details of a building. These decisions 307
have to be prepared carefully in advance in order to build an outstanding piece of architecture that is strong, beautiful, original. Such a plan can be actualized only after the master has gone Azalea
through a painstaking process of construction and experiment. Similarly, writing requires financial resources, energy, time, and
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a process of trial and error from a gifted person, who must have
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ability and the desire to face a continuous string of challenges. We
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should distinguish between achievement and receiving favorable
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reviews from critics or attracting many readers: the success of a work, in other words, is subjective. One is fortunate if the value of his work is highly recognized as soon as it is launched: more likely, it will take many years and generations before its value is recognized. However, there is no doubt that one’s hard work will be acknowledged some day. A piece of literature produced through this laborious process is more than a great national treasure; it is a treasure for humankind. Think how The Tale of Ch’unhyang and The Tale of Sim Ch’ŏng have become a source of pleasure and well-being for many people. Yet, although these works are excellent, we cannot call them great. Undoubtedly, a truly great work will be even more fulfilling. Texts like Romance of Three Kingdoms16 and Water Margin17 are treasures of the Chinese people just as works by Homer and Shakespeare are treasures of mankind. It would be a calamity if we were deprived of the chance to appreciate the legacy of such classics. Experiencing the literary arts, in fact, can produce the finest moments in our lives. 16. 三國誌 Sānguó Zhì, here, means the Romance of the Three Kingdoms (三國志演義 sānguó yānyì), written by Luo Guanzhong in the fourteenth century; it is a Chinese historical novel based upon events in the turbulent years near the end of the Han dynasty and the Three Kingdoms era of China, starting in 169 and ending with the reunification of the land in 280. The book has been widely circulated in East Asia, as the most popular among the Four Masterworks of the Ming Novels of Chinese literature. 17. 水滸傳, Shuĭhŭ Zhuàn. Also known as Outlaws of the Marsh, All Men Are Brothers, or The Marshes of Mount Liang, it is one of the four great Chinese classical novels of Chinese literature. It is based on the historical figure, Song Jiang, and his 36 companions, outlaws who eventually surrendered to the Song government in 1121.
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It goes without saying that writers must be spiritually and financially rewarded for their creative activity, given the respect we pay their works. Of course, I am not talking about material compensation alone, like the profit a merchant receives from selling his products. Our respect and praise for writers can be considered as a form of spiritual compensation. At the same time, writers are rewarded financially when we purchase their works, or bestow literary prizes upon them. The remuneration for literary work is the highest among the various forms of writing. Contemporary Japanese writers like Tsubouchi Shōyō, Natsume Sōseki, and Mori Ōgai, for example, get paid five wŏn per page on average. It is said that writers in France enjoy a prosperous life if they publish a single work of three hundred pages in length. Prominent writers may receive prizes such as the Nobel Prize for Literature, which awards eighty thousand wŏn to a single recipient each year. The Indian poet, Rabindranath Tagore, received the Nobel Prize in 1913 for his work, Gitanjali; he is the first recipient of the prize in the East. It is hardly a new discovery, but poverty has been a lifetime companion for writers since ancient times. Nevertheless, a writer should never expect instant success; instead, he should pour his sincere passion and energy into creating great works, which will eventually be recognized in the future. After all, in literature, time flows differently, and regional boundaries are irrelevant. Great writers’ feelings and emotions, embodied in their works, are preserved across time and space—readers’ response to literature illustrates this point acutely. An old classic is still beloved by people in the contemporary world; if something interests me, it also seems to interest many others. It seems great works share certain common features. Of course, there are differences among them; yet, these are relatively insignificant, and do not alter the basic foundation, which is the feelings and emotions preserved in the works. Great literature is important for its absolute value; it always interests people no matter where or when. To take two good examples, the Iliad written by the Greek poet Homer and some poems in the Book of Odes were 309
written a very long time ago, yet both retain a flavor that always feels new and refreshing. Popular literature, like so-called one-cent literature or seasonal literature,18 deals with unrefined feelings and Azalea
emotions, which do not move us in a profound way. Therefore, it is difficult for the serious writer who clings to the idea of success, and
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attempts to produce too much.
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Korean Literature
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By Korean literature I mean literary works written by Korean writers in the Korean script. It was during the Three Kingdoms period when Sŏl Ch’ong first invented the Korean writing system, idu.19 Although the idu script used Chinese characters, it should still be considered Korean. The literature of that period flourished but most literary works were later lost due to a number of social and historical upheavals. All that has been passed down to us are a few songs contained in the Samguk yusa (Memorabilia of the Three Kingdoms), which we do not really know how to read and understand. Perhaps if we discover how to decipher them, we may be able to gain a glimpse of the thoughts and ideas reflected in these works, and understand the condition of literature at that time. There were virtually no works worth identifying as Korean literature between the Koryŏ period and King Sejong’s reign in Chosŏn. An exception is the exchange of sijo said to have taken place between T’aejong (Yi Pang-wŏn 1367-1422), the fifth son of the founder of the Chosŏn dynasty, Yi Sŏnggye (1335-1408), and the Koryŏ loyalist, Chŏng Mongju.20 Although these poems were written in Chinese characters, their syntactical order is Korean. The true beginning of Korean literature can be found in The Songs 18. Changma pŏsŏt munhak: trendy literature that prospers only for a brief period, like sprouting mushrooms after the rainy season. 19. Idu script used Chinese characters and special symbols to indicate Korean verb endings and other grammatical markers. 20. King T’aejong sought Koryŏ loyalist Chŏng’s support for the foundation of the new Chosŏn dynasty, but Chŏng’s firm loyalty to Koryŏ did not change. It is said that they exchanged sijo as a way of conveying their political positions. See an English translation of these poems in David R. McCann’s Early Korean Literature (New York: Columbia University Press, 2000), 32.
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of Flying Dragons (Yongbi ŏch’ŏn’ga) written in han’gŭl during King Sejong’s reign (1418-1450). This piece is the first pure example of Korean literature. Unfortunately, however, later kings and their vassals worshipped classical Chinese learning. As a consequence, Korean literature ceased to develop further. In Japan, the situation was quite different. Chinese literature was imported to Japan during the Nara period, but although its influence was significant, the Japanese writing system, kana, was not affected too much. The preservation of the kana system led to the emergence of national literature such as the Manyōshu, the Konjaku Monogatari, and the Tale of Genji. Yet, although the influence of Chinese literature lasted until the Meiji period, Japanese literature did not disappear. Japan produced celebrated writers like Chikamatsu Shōkō (18761944), Ihara Saikaku (1642-1693), Arai Hakuseki (1657-1725), and Takizawa Bakin (1767-1848). Had Koreans been equally conscious of their own identity, King Sejong’s encouragement of the use of han’gŭl would have become the foundation for the establishment of a new Korean literature. I deplore Korean scholars like Yi Yulgok (1536-1584) and Yi T’oegye (1501-1570) who relied too much on Chinese culture. Korean literature could have flourished had Kyŏngsŏ (經書21), Saryak (史略22), and Sohak (小學23) been translated into Korean, but this did not happen because of the civil service exams system (kwagŏ). There are only a handful of things that we can call “Korean 21. Kyŏngsŏ 經書 refers to a series of Chinese classics, especially the Confucian Four Books and Five Classics (四書五經). 22. Shilüe 史略 in Chinese: It refers to Shiba shilüe (十八史略, Eighteen Histories in Brief) written by Zeng Xianzhi (date of birth and death not known) of the Yuan dynasty (1271-1368). Originally, it was a two volume compilation of eighteen different history books such as Shima Qian’s (145-ca. 86 BCE) Shiji (史記, Records of the Great Historian), Ouyang Xiu’s (1007-1072) Xin wudaishi (新五代史, The new history of the Five Dynasties) and Li Dao’s (1115- 1184) Xu zizhi tongjian changbian (續資治通鑑長編, The Sequel to Comprehensive Mirror for Aid in Government), but its number increased to seven due to the interpretations added by later historians during the Ming dynasty (1368-1644). 23. Xiaoxue 小學 in Chinese: it is a six volume Confucian florilegium edited by Liu Zicheng with a preface by Zhu Xi (1130-1200) in 1187. It was much used in Chosŏn (1392-1897) as a textbook for children. There are several ŏnmun editions, including one by Yi I (1536-1584) revised in 1666, and a royal edition, ŏje sohak ŏnhae, of 1744.
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literature”: The Tale of Ch’unhyang, The Tale of Sim Ch’ŏng, The Story of Hŭngbu and Nolbu, sijo, kasa, and Korean translations of Chinese fiction. There are also a number of fictional works written Azalea
in han’gŭl flourishing today, which should be included as well. Though written in han’gŭl, those works deal for the most part
What Is
with Confucian morality and take literary materials from Chinese
Literature?
sources. In other words, there is an absence of Korean thought and
by Yi
ideas in them. However, with Protestantism flooding into Korea,
Kwang-su
the Old and New Testaments and other Christian works have been translated into Korean recently, contributing to the wide use of han’gŭl and influencing the Korean literary world. About one hundred han’gŭl fiction works have been produced over the last ten years. Although a serious study of the literary value of han’gŭl fiction has not been carried out so far, these trends certainly lead us to anticipate the development of Korean literature. Another notable phenomenon in the world of contemporary Korean literature is the considerable number of fictional works found on bookstore shelves. The translator, Cho Chunghwan 24 (1863-1944), I believe, has contributed to this trend. I do not know whether he is sincerely trying to help Korean literature flourish, but I believe that his reputation will soar if he keeps experimenting with ways to produce good translations of foreign works, which will reach a wider readership. In short, Korean literature is born anew: it has no past, only a future. I believe that we will soon see the birth of many literary geniuses who will cultivate Korea’s field of literature, which as yet is unmarked by human traces. In civilized countries, various aspects of people’s social lives and human emotions have been explored so fully in literature that it is hard to anticipate the emergence of new materials. In Korea, however, these materials await great poets and great novelists just as the gold, silver, copper, and iron 24. A pioneer in the translation of modern Japanese domestic novels (katei shōsetsu) and Korean sinp’a movement in the early 1910s. He translated works written by Ozaki Kōyō, Kikuchi Yūhō, and Tokutomi Roka, to name a few.
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in the mountains are waiting to be excavated. Korean youths have a right to pursue this project, so that they can produce great literature and become great writers. We have such a wide range of things to explore: subjects like the lives of the Chosŏn elites, kisaeng, libertines, and modern families; the clash between old and new ideas; the lives and thought of Korean Christians; the lives of Koreans in Kando (Jiandao in China); the regional characteristics of Seoul, P’yŏngyang, and Kaesŏng; and the passions of enlightened Koreans. An honorable task awaits the youth who has the will to help build Korean literature, a career which will tax his or her talents to their full capacity. I have written this essay as things came to my mind, and I regret that I did not have a chance to edit it. Still, I hope it will be useful for students of literature, and if it—even a little—can help young people understand the concept of new literature, I will consider my goal to have been accomplished.
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