Widening and Increasing Participation Challenges and opportunities for psychology departments Lucy Zinkiewicz and Annie Trapp University of York
Report and EvaluationReport Series and No 5 Evaluation Series No 2 April 2004 March 2003
Acknowledgments Thanks to the following, for their invaluable comments on the content and design of this report: Nick Hammond Sue Palmerth All URLs are as of 9/3/04.
Contents Section 1: Executive summary
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Section 2: Introduction
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Section 3: The national context 3.1 Government priorities and policies 3.1.1 The situation in England and Northern Ireland 3.1.2 The situation in Scotland and Wales 3.2 Terminology to be used
7 7 7 8 8
Section 4: The psychology context
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Section 5: Issues for psychology departments and schools 5.1 The student life cycle and widening participation 5.1.1 Aspiration raising and pre-entry support (undergraduate) 5.1.2 Aspiration raising and pre-entry support (postgraduate) 5.1.3 First term or semester 5.1.4 Moving through the course: teaching to meet the needs of all students Curriculum design Teaching practice Teaching methodologies Experimental participation Assessment Skills training Staff member assumptions Providing emotional and psychological support 5.1.5 Employment
10 10 10 13 15 16 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 22 23
5.2
Students with particular needs 5.2.1 Students with disabilities 5.2.2 International students 5.2.3 Students from ethnic minorities 5.2.4 Lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender students
24 24 24 24 26
5.3
Staffing issues 5.3.1 Staff recruitment 5.3.2 Staff development
26 26 27
5.4
Diversifying the curriculum 5.4.1 Enriching the curriculum 5.4.2 Training students to work with diverse groups
28 28 32
Section 6: Conclusion
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Section 7: References
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Section 1: Executive summary • This publication is intended to help UK psychology departments reflect on their response to the demands, challenges and opportunities presented by the government’s agenda of widening and increasing student participation in higher education. Illustrative examples of guidelines and evidence-based practice are included, alongside recommendations from both generic and psychology-specific sources. • Psychology departments are teaching more students and these students vary in the type and degree of skills that they bring with them. Understanding how well a department is responding to the individual needs of these students will enable departments to define their own widening and increasing participation strategy. • Development of a departmental strategy necessitates consideration of pre-entry programmes, admissions, induction, curriculum design, teaching practice, teaching methods, experimental participation, assessment, skills, student support and staffing issues. • The introduction of diversity issues into the curriculum, and a diverse range of people into the psychology community at HE level, can be both beneficial for all students and for the discipline as a whole. Through the text, readers are invited to reflect on the following issues: Policy issues •
Does your department have a plan for promoting diversity?
•
In what ways does your department encourage applications from minority groups?
•
How fair is your departmental policy towards admitting students?
Auditing current practice •
Could your department improve the support it offers students in their first term or semester?
•
Could the curricula in your department be improved through conducting a developmental audit looking at issues of diversity in relation to curriculum design?
•
Could teaching practice in your department be improved through conducting a developmental audit looking at issues of diversity?
•
Could teaching methodologies in your department be improved through conducting a developmental audit looking at issues of diversity?
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Meeting the needs of students •
Are there ways in which experimental participation in your department could be considered unfair by students?
•
How well does your department explain assessment requirements and criteria to students?
•
Does your department provide a variety of assessment methods for students?
•
How do you know what skills training students in your department would benefit from?
•
Are staff in your department given training relating to stereotyping and prejudice?
•
Is it clear to students where they can get help if course content is disturbing to them?
•
In what ways does your department support students in achieving the necessary skills for employment?
•
Would a developmental audit looking at cross-cultural issues and diversity improve the curriculum offered to students?
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Section 2: Introduction This report is intended for members of UK psychology departments who wish to reflect on their department’s response to the demands, challenges and opportunities presented by the government’s agenda of widening and increasing student participation in higher education (HE). Although governmental priorities and policies vary across the four countries making up the UK, widening (and, in some countries, increasing) participation is a priority for all of them. Illustrative examples of guidelines and evidence-based good practice in widening participation are included, alongside recommendations from both generic and psychologyspecific sources.
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Section 3: The national context 3.1
Government priorities and policies
While widening participation in and access to HE is a priority across the four countries that make up the UK, there are differences in government priorities and programmes.
3.1.1 The situation in England and Northern Ireland In September 2000 the UK Government announced plans for widening the participation of young people in higher education in England, in its Excellence Challenge programme (now known as the Aimhigher programme1). As part of this, the Higher Education Funding Council for England (HEFCE) has developed a strategy to enhance and extend their own and higher education institutions’ (HEIs’) current activities to widen participation, and this has been extended to the two universities in Northern Ireland. The aims of this strategy are: • To encourage institutions to widen participation in higher education by under-represented groups, • To raise the aspirations of all to attend the institution that is best able to match their abilities, interests and needs, and • To ensure that all students have the best possible chance of succeeding in their studies (HEFCE, 2000). The government has set a target of 50% of those aged between 18 and 30 having some experience of HE by 2010, and emphasises the need to increase participation by traditionally under-represented students: those with no family history of HE experience or from low participation neighbourhoods, socio-economically disadvantaged students (social classes IIIM, IV, and V), students from ethnic minorities, and students with disabilities. Funding is the principal incentive for such change at an institutional level, with an increased level of funding being made available through the so-called ‘postcode premium’, whereby a student’s location at the point of application is used as an indicator of socio-economic status (HEFCE, 2003). Each HEI has been required to develop a widening participation strategy, which is expected to be integrated with their teaching and learning strategy, and to specify targets on different performance indicators. Several HEFCE documents (HEFCE, 2001, 2002b) provide a number of case studies of current practice in supporting widening participation, the latter including two psychology-related cases.
1
http://www.dfes.gov.uk/aimhigherprogramme/
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The extent to which institutional strategies and targets will impact upon psychology departments and schools will depend upon the individual HEI. Some institutions, for example, are giving departments numerical targets for the recruitment of under-represented students, while others do not. HEIs and their departments may also differ in the extent to which under-represented students are specifically targeted.
3.1.2 The situation in Scotland and Wales Within Scotland, by contrast, the Scottish Executive has no plans to further expand government-funded places in HE, as in Scotland over 50% of young people already participate in HE, although the participation of socio-economically disadvantaged groups is still low. Instead, the Scottish Executive, through the Scottish Higher Education Funding Council (SHEFC)2, is working with HEIs to make the best use of existing capacity, with equal opportunity of access to high quality higher education a key aim of SHEFC, and some funding has been made available to improve access. “Delivering wider participation and access in support of social inclusion and economic upskilling” is also a priority of the Higher Education Funding Council for Wales3, though no new funding for related projects and programmes is being made available.
3.2
Terminology to be used
Whilst ‘widening participation’ and ‘improving access’ are currently the terms most used in the UK HE policy arena when describing the diversification of the student body, this report will tend to use the term ‘diversity’, as this more accurately represents our focus on the broad range of student individual differences, a focus that is wider than the current governmental focus on groups traditionally under-represented in HE. Iijima-Hall (1997) provides a working definition of diversity that encompasses difference in age, colour, ethnicity, gender, national origin, physical and mental ability, emotional ability, race, religion, language, sexual orientation, socio-economic status, and individual unique style. As the website of the Center for Instructional Development and Research at the University of Washington4 puts it, diversity is a fact, is desirable, is not something new, includes diversity of options, is not always comfortable, and is complex. This concept of diversity is also consistent with the philosophy of inclusive teaching, teaching in ways that do not exclude students, accidentally or intentionally, from opportunities to learn. This definition of diversity serves to remind us that the increased diversity of students entering psychology departments cannot be addressed merely by clustering groups of students into categories. The solution lies in providing the highest level of teaching and support to respect diversity and to promote inclusivity. This is supported by the seventh principle of good practice in undergraduate education developed by the American Association of Higher Education (Chickering & Gamson, 1987), which states that good practice in undergraduate education “respects diverse talents and ways of learning”.
2 3 4
http://www.shefc.ac.uk http://www.elwa.org.uk/elwaweb/elwa.aspx?pageid=458 http://depts.washington.edu/cidrweb/inclusive/
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Section 4: The psychology context Psychology is currently the second most popular degree choice in the UK (law being the first), and over 40,000 students are engaged in undergraduate psychology courses. The Quality Assurance Agency for HE subject overview report (QAA, 2000), based on their findings between 1998 and 2000, reported that there was an average ratio of 8.4 applicants for every undergraduate psychology place available, and a ratio of 4.9:1 for postgraduate programmes. Psychology is an attractive option for those with non-traditional entry qualifications. However, the proportion of non-traditional students varies greatly between departments. In some institutions up to 80% of students have not passed two GCE A-levels, whilst in other departments over 65% of students have studied A-levels including A-level psychology. One-third of psychology students enter as mature students, and there are significant numbers of ethnic minority students, ranging from 2% to 40% across UK departments. What implications does this student diversity have for the curriculum and teaching within a department? One area that departments will wish to consider is their responsibility to address issues of multiculturalism and diversity within the discipline of psychology and professional practice. As the American Psychological Association (APA) Task Force on Diversity reports: During the last two decades, new scholarship on gender, ethnicity, sexual orientation, and disability has called into question what was once the knowledge base in psychology. This scholarship, along with the changing demographics of our society, has created new challenges for the classroom instructor. Psychology’s growing awareness of this new scholarship has heightened the need to identify resources that address the important issues of diversity and educational equity. Course offerings that incorporate material on race, ethnicity, gender, sexual orientation, disability, and age create the opportunity for students to discuss and expand their understanding of human behavior (APA Diversity Taskforce, 1998c). Unfortunately, psychology has not always been proactive and positive in relation to diversity, with research revealing limitations in the training of culturally sensitive students in psychology (Allison et al., 1994; Bernal & Castro, 1994). Iijima-Hall (1997) urged psychology educators to focus more on diversity, so as to increase the recruitment and retention of diverse students by making class topics more relevant to them, and to foster the training of people from all backgrounds in the necessary competencies to treat a diverse clientele and conduct more generalisable research. As Swenson (1982) identified, psychology lecturers must learn to value diversity and use it as a learning tool in the classroom rather than a threat to traditional academic experience. Indeed, Ocampo et al. (2003) suggest, one might expect the discipline of psychology to be highly concerned with the quality of life of individuals with whom we teach, treat, and work, and so would be at the forefront of efforts to value and incorporate diversity, particularly since exposure to diversity fosters growth in intellectual engagement and skills, cognitive complexity, motivation, citizenship, and tolerance (Astin, 1993; Gurin, 1999; King & Shuford, 1996).
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Section 5: Issues for psychology departments and schools How then can departments improve their practice in dealing with issues of diversity? A starting point for departments is to develop their own departmental widening and increasing participation targets and strategies. Such a strategy would consider institutional strategies and targets, the department’s student profile, and current strengths and weaknesses in relation to diversity. For example, a department may decide to recruit more staff and students from ethnic minorities, students with disabilities, mature students, or even male students (in 2001, 21% of applicants wanting to study psychology were male; QAA, 2002). One way to develop such a strategy and associated targets may be to consider the student life cycle (as illustrated in Table 1 and discussed in the following section) and identify activities that support diversity at each point in the life cycle. Such an approach will require departments to consider their admissions procedures, the logistical problems raised by increased student numbers, accessibility issues including timetabling, the implications for the role of communication and information technologies (C&IT) in teaching, teaching methodologies, curriculum design and delivery, assessment methods and staffing issues, to name but a few. The disparate information needed to inform such a strategy can be collected through developmental audits, discussion documents and Reflective question: working groups.
5.1
The student life cycle and widening participation
Does your department have a plan for promoting diversity?
The Student Life Cycle model of the student experience (HEFCE, 2001; Layer et al., 2002) has been adopted by almost all UK HEIs as a framework for their widening participation activities (Action on Access, 2003). This model covers a range of activities from aspiration raising, pre-entry activities, admission, first semester or term, moving through the course and employment, and is presented in Table 1.
5.1.1 Aspiration raising and pre-entry support (undergraduate) Departments can play an important role in fostering aspirations of students from minority groups and poorer backgrounds to study psychology, as well as in preparing such students for the nature of HE. One option is to participate in summer schools, such as the national ones organised by The Sutton Trust FE2HE project5, which offers psychology summer schools in HEIs including Liverpool John Moores University and Lancaster University. Smaller scale, more local schools are another possibility, such as those run at the University of York and London Metropolitan University. Current psychology students too can play their part in raising the aspirations of school children, through student mentoring schemes such as the University of 5
http://www.suttontrust.com/fe2he/index.htm
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Table 1: The student life cycle and widening participation activities associated with each stage Stage in student life cycle
Widening participation activities
Aspiration raising
Aspiration and attainment raising activities amongst the target group, such as visits to schools, preparatory skills training, summer schools, taster events, open days.
Pre-entry support
Courses with progression agreements, provision of information, advice and guidance (including about finance), preparatory interviews, support through the application process, liaison with admissions officers.
First term/semester
The welcoming process, helping students to settle in and introducing them to learning and support styles within HE, provision of academic student support, monitoring and tracking of ‘at risk’ students and feedback as appropriate, skills diagnosis.
Moving through the course
Learning, teaching and curriculum and support arrangements designed to foster retention and achievement throughout the course of study, such as personal tutors, mentoring, additional learning support, language skill development, progression files and personal development planning.
Employability
Provision of careers advice and skills to equip students with the skills to work in a modern employment environment, such as placements, work based learning, mentoring, Job Shops, careers fairs, seminars, information.
York’s Students in Schools scheme6. Taster courses are another alternative, such as the Introduction to Psychology taster course held by the University of Bradford School of Lifelong Education and Development at Benton Park School7, which can be credited towards future qualifications. Other options include informational events targeted at specific groups, and advertised in appropriate services and media servicing the targeted group (e.g., community radio or in the local press). However, if members of minority ethnic and other groups do not see the relevance of psychology to their life experience, such short term activity may find limited success. Departments may need to consider broadening the nature and extent of their contact with colleges offering access courses, and other community organisations, in order to develop longer-term aspiration-raising strategies. Another possibility is to set up specific task forces or committees targeting the recruitment of non-traditional students, as the US experience has shown these to be very effective (Muñoz-Dunbar & Stanton, 1999). 6 7 8
http://www.york.ac.uk/student/ysis/about.html http://www.bradford.ac.uk/admin/conted/awp/tasters/rawdon.html http://www.admissions-review.org.uk/
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Mature students are major players in the current government’s initiative to increase participation in higher education amongst 18-30 year-olds to 50%. However, Ross et al. (2002) identify three problems related to the increasing numbers of mature students without previous experience of HE: • They are concentrated in a particular set of socio-economic groups, which have a tradition of not entering HE; • They have already entered adulthood, and have often acquired a range of adult responsibilities and commitments that may be difficult for them to sustain if they become students; and • Many of them have failed in their educational experiences in the past. Most do not have conventional A-level entry qualifications. Motivation for mature students to enter HE is reported to be a mixture of the desire for career advancement and higher earnings, the ability to juggle the complex realities of their lives, the degree of accessibility and flexibility offered by institutions combined with a risk assessment on costs and benefits of entering HE (Davies et al., 2002). It is important for departments to provide mature students at the admission stage with information on the degree of accessibility, flexibility and support available within the courses. In relation to admissions processes, at the time of writing, the UK government has commissioned an independent review and consultation on key issues relating to fair admissions to English HE8, with recommendations to be published in 2004. At present, psychology departments vary in the degree of control that they can exert within their institution on admissions policy and procedures, particularly in relation to applicants from non-traditional groups. There are also considerable differences between departments in their requirements for admission to undergraduate courses and procedures for accepting students, with many taking little other than A-level grades or equivalent into account. Increasingly departments are faced with a ceiling effect as more students obtain the highest of grades. In these situations the decision-making criteria become more idiosyncratic and obscure. Another problem facing admissions officers is the difficulty in judging equivalence between many of the academic qualifications offered by applicants. Ways of striving for fair selection that have been explored include: • Skills, knowledge, and relevant work experience obtained in the course of prior work; • Entrance tests (as used by Birbeck College9); • Entrance interviews; • Psychometric tests; • Completion of a piece of written work; • Supporting statements (e.g., the personal statement on the UCAS form); • Letter of recommendation; • Minority group status; and • Relevant factors which may have impacted upon performance in prior study (e.g., disability). 8 9
http://www.admissions-review.org.uk/ http://www.bbk.ac.uk/study/requirements.html#ug
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It is recommended that programmes which exercise flexibility in admissions criteria for diverse students keep detailed records to help determine the selection factors that predict such students’ success or failure to graduate, in order to make future selection more effective (McShane, 1991). If departments are concerned about varying admission criteria on an individual basis, some flexibility in admissions can be built in through the use of progression agreements with other institutions or units of the same HEI. For example, students successfully completing a relevant foundation degree at a specified FE or HE college may be guaranteed a place at a nearby HEI. At the University of Aston, for example, prospective psychology students who lack the usual entry requirements are encouraged to apply for the Human Psychology Foundation Year (Year Zero), which is taught at Matthew Boulton College. Successful completion of the foundation year guarantees automatic entry to the BSc Human Psychology degree programme at Aston University.
5.1.2 Aspiration raising and pre-entry support (postgraduate) At the time of writing this report, the authors are unsure of the degree of diversity across postgraduate courses. In clinical psychology, however, 92% of students accepted onto postgraduate courses in 2002 in the UK were of white ethnic origin, and 81% were female, and students from ethnic minorities and with disabilities were under-represented. This imbalance has implications for professional practice. In the US, efforts to recruit ethnic minority applicants are discussed by Muñoz-Dunbar and Stanton (1999). In a survey of 78 US programmes in clinical psychology, they found 98% of programmes reported making specific efforts to recruit ethnic minority applicants, using strategies such as: • Targeted fellowships; • The Minority Student Locator Service of the Educational Testing Service; • Specific task forces or committees to target ethnic minority students, which seem to be particularly effective; • Advertisements and printed materials geared specifically toward recruiting ethnic minority students; • Involving current postgraduate students in the recruitment process and in follow-up with potential students (Echemendia & Congett, 1991); • Recruitment materials distributed through services and media serving the ethnic minority group; and • Networks of advisors located near ethnic minority group communities. Successful programmes generally use a comprehensive process including extensive follow-up with potential minority applicants, specific recruitment materials, and recruitment visits to schools and community groups (McShane, 1991).
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Reflective question: How fair is your departmental policy towards admitting students to study psychology?
The programmes surveyed in Muñoz-Dunbar and Stanton (1999) reported a number of factors affecting effectiveness in recruiting ethnic minority applicants, which included: • Characteristics of the community in which the programme was based (e.g., advantageous geographical location, size and diversity of the community, and existing community resources); • Financial support for minorities and in general (e.g., availability of fellowships, grants held by staff, funds specifically allocated for ethnic minority postgraduate students); • The presence of a critical mass of minority students already in the programme, and the success of minority graduates; and • Staffing factors, such as the proportion of minority staff in the programme and the proportion of staff conducting research on ethnic minority issues. However, there may be reciprocal causality in the relationship between ethnic minority student and departmental representation, as a postgraduate student body committed to diversity and diversity research may aid the recruitment of new staff with similar interests. However, significant correlates of ethnic minority student representation were restricted to the proportion of minority staff in the programme (also found in Jones, 1990, and emphasised in Stricker, 1990), the proportion of staff conducting research on ethnic minority issues, and the use of a task force to aid in recruitment efforts. The need for financial support is not surprising, given the high cost of completing a postgraduate degree. In addition, US evidence suggests that minority students are more likely than non-minority students to be dependent on their own financial resources (Guzman, 1991; Hammond & Yung, Reflective question: In what 1993; Myers, Echemendia et al., 1991). However, financial ways does your department incentives on their own may be insufficient if there is only encourage applications from funding to fund one minority-designated fellowship, as a critical mass of minority students is important. minority groups? In relation to the academic criteria for admission of nontraditional students, in the US, while the mean scores of minority students consistently fall about one standard deviation below those of the rest of the population on the Graduate Record Examination (Diaz, 1990) – the major examination used for entry into US postgraduate programmes – many ethnic minority students perform as well in graduate programmes as do non-minority students with higher GRE scores (Stricker, 1990). As a consequence, many programmes that have recruited a significant number of ethnically diverse students have re-evaluated their admissions criteria, and instituted the flexible use of factors in addition to standardised test scores and overall grade point average (Guzman, 1991; McShane, 1991; Muñoz-Dunbar & Stanton, 1999), such as research experience or commitment to research, letters of recommendation, statements of purpose and interviews.
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5.1.3 First term or semester With widening and increasing participation comes an increasing risk of students failing to complete their degrees. While peak withdrawal times are early in the first term and at the end of the first year of study, reasons for withdrawal vary by discipline studied, and by student age (Hall, 2001). Reasons for dropping out of courses include academic failure, wrong course of study, personal problems, inadequate study skills and advice, lack of student support and feelings of isolation and loneliness. Mature students tend to be more likely to leave because of external circumstances such as financial pressures, while younger students are more likely to cite programme choice, difficulty and quality of teaching, and their own lack of progress, as their reasons for withdrawal. Departments therefore need to be proactive in their socialisation of students into HE, the department and the discipline of psychology, and have in place systems that will allow early identification of those ‘at risk’. Strategies may include: • Orientation and induction events, covering departmental and institutional services including the availability of hardship funds; • Introduction to learning and support styles within HE; • Addressing student isolation via mentoring and academic advisors; • Skills diagnosis, feedback and remediation; • Attendance monitoring and student tracking; • Special induction events for mature students, and • Financial and other forms of counselling. The first few weeks at university can be a critical time for students, particularly given the potentially isolating nature of today’s large HEIs. In addition to attending social induction events within the university, students can also be encouraged to join psychology-specific organisations on Reflective question: Could campus (Allen, 2000), and in later years national student organisations such as the British Psychological Society your department improve Student Members’ Group10, or the Psychology the support it offers Postgraduate Affairs Group11. Current students can also students in their first term assist incoming ones, especially those from nonor semester? traditional backgrounds, to make a successful transition into their institutions and communities (Echemendia & Congett, 1991; Green et al., 1991; Guzman, 1991). Mature students can benefit from being ‘buddied’ with another mature student. Such peer support can be formalised and continue in the form of formal mentoring programmes, such as the use of mentoring by postgraduate students of their postgraduate peers in the University of Exeter School of Psychology12. A skills audit (Palmer, 2003) or diagnostic test for ‘at risk’ first-year students, such as that developed at Napier University13, can help a department pick up particular needs of individual students. 10 11 12 13
http://www.bps.org.uk/smg/index.htm http://www.psypag.co.uk/ http://www.exeter.ac.uk/Psychology/pg/book/procedures.htm#sp http://www.napier.ac.uk/qes/studentretentionproject/Studentexpereince2.htm (sic)
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Many students are worried during their first term or semester about the demands of the course. The increasing move towards student-centred learning with fewer contact hours can exacerbate their concerns. It is helpful therefore if departments provide clear guidance on what level of work and study is required and provide opportunities for students to get formative feedback on their progress early in the course.
5.1.4 Moving through the course: teaching to meet the needs of all students Larger class sizes and student-staff ratios not only present logistical problems for departments but can be threatening for departmental staff. Peer observation of teaching, training workshops, curriculum audits and sharing of practice can help to create a culture of openness that allows these issues to be tackled at a departmental rather than individual level. Benjamin (1991), Jenkins (1991), Gibbs and Jenkins (1992) and Slaughter (1998) all provide useful heuristics for teaching large groups and encouraging active learning. As students move through the psychology course, they are likely to encounter different problems from those met in the first few weeks of university, and a more diverse student body is likely to encounter an increasingly varied range of difficulties. Joyce et al. (2000) stress the importance of adopting a multiple models approach to teaching psychology students with a range of backgrounds, skills and needs. The extent to which departments and lecturers are able to adopt this advice depends on the resources available and the extent to which individuals are willing or able to change their teaching habits. The rest of this section provides recommendations for and examples of meeting the needs of the individual learner through curriculum design, teaching practice, teaching methodologies, experimental participation, assessment, skills training, modifying staff member assumptions, and providing emotional and psychological support, with recommendations taken from a number of sources including Allen (2000).
Curriculum design •
Teach through learning objectives and outcomes. Explicitly communicated learning objectives and outcomes provide extra guidance to both staff and students when preparing for the subject.
• Consider the students’ perspective when designing each element of the subject. Select learning materials and objectives that challenge stereotypes and present multiple perspectives. Are assignments culturally relevant, fair and interesting? Do readings reflect a variety of perspectives and relevant research on diverse groups, and where bias is evident are students provided with opportunities to critique this? Do classroom activities and assessments allow students to tap into and reflect on their own life experiences (e.g., in developmental psychology, of child-rearing)? • In group work it is worthwhile mixing age groups to share experiences and skills, so that older students can help younger ones where life skills may be an issue, and younger students can help older ones where study skills are an issue.
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• Use a variety of ethnic names, and a balance of male and female ones, in examples, class materials and assessment. Ensure that authority figures and professionals vary in ethnicity and gender. Students should see opportunities for people like themselves. • Consider designing optional learning experiences or lessons and schedule them in the syllabus appropriately for students who lack the prerequisite knowledge and skills to succeed in the course. Returning students who took prerequisites in previous years may benefit from the opportunity to revise and refresh skills and information. • Consider those with previous experience of studying psychology. Should they study the same curriculum as those who have no previous experience? • Be aware of timetabling issues for students who have jobs or family commitments. Lindsay and PatonSaltzberg (1993, cited in Lindsay et al., 2002) found that full-time students at Oxford Brookes University who were undertaking paid employment gained marks that were significantly lower by an average of 2.69% than did students who were not, despite no difference in firstyear marks gained before the students found work. • Provide a range of models and perspectives when teaching about mental health (Cooke, 2003; see also the Enhancing Learning and Teaching about Mental Health in Higher Education website14) and other key topics.
Reflective question: Could the curricula in your department be improved through conducting a developmental audit looking at issues of diversity in relation to curriculum design?
Teaching practice • Model respect for and an interest in differences in opinions and perspectives, and correct misinformation and stereotypes relating to age, ethnicity, gender, disability, religion, sexual orientation, etc. Be prepared to cite relevant literature undermining stereotypes, or if relevant provide students with the opportunity to explore such literature as part of class activities or assessment. • Tell students exactly what is expected of them in relation to time commitment, reading, arriving on time, participating in class discussions, writing well, assessments or other activities, both orally and in writing, so students can refer back to instructions (Holland, 2003). • Use readings and assignments to expose students to course content before actual class time, giving all students more time to digest materials, and allowing class time to focus on consolidating learning through active learning and group activities. Journal assignments, quizzes, study questions, and integration of pre-assigned readings into class activities can motivate students to complete readings on time. • Slow the pace of class discussions, allowing students time to process your question and comment, collect their thoughts, and phrase them for public consumption. Consider asking students to write responses before the discussion begins, or use a ‘think-pairshare’ strategy, in which students share responses within dyads before going into whole-
14
http://www.mhhe.ltsn.ac.uk/
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class discussion. Speaking in public and challenging authority may violate culture norms for some students, and sensitivity to and encouragement of such behaviours may be necessary. • Show confidence in students’ abilities and potential for success, as non-traditional students (e.g., older students, first-generation HE students) may lack confidence and self-efficacy in relation to their academic skills. Celebrate students’ successes, even if they do not consist of getting a first in a subject; for many students a hard-earned pass or second may be a proud accomplishment.
Reflective question: Could teaching practice in your department be improved through conducting a developmental audit looking at issues of diversity ?
Teaching methodologies • Group work can boost student learning (see Bennett et al., 2002), and enrich the experiences of all students through enabling sharing of personal perspectives and experiences. However, students can develop negative attitudes to group work based on previous bad experiences and team training can be beneficial (Prichard et al., 2002, 2003). In multicultural classes, cooperative group work may produce superior learning outcomes to more traditional methods (George, 1994). • Allow class time for group assessment (e.g., group projects), as commuting and working students, and those with family obligations, may have difficulty accommodating group work into their schedule outside of class. • Encourage study groups (e.g., by distributing study questions that require deep learning), as learning is promoted when students share information and challenge their peers. • The use of communication and information technologies, for example, the web, email, and virtual learning environments, can provide greater flexibility for student learning. As Newlin and Wang (2002) point out, web-based instruction is democratising, allowing students whose personal circumstances prevent them commuting to campus to participate.
Reflective question: Could teaching methodologies in your department be improved through conducting a developmental audit looking at issues of diversity?
• Computer-mediated communication (CMC) allows students, especially those who less frequently communicate face-to-face in class, to carefully compose questions and receive personalised attention, from staff as well as other students, at a time that suits them. Other students who are reluctant to talk in a face-to-face classroom may be less intimidated, and participate more often. The merits of one’s contribution to an email or web discussion are evaluated solely on the basis of one’s arguments – there are no visible characteristics (e.g., race, gender, disability, ethnicity) that may bias attributions about an individual’s contribution. For example, Chester and Gwynne (1998) utilised CMC in an online psychology course which required
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students to collaborate on assessed tasks. They found that CMC increased the proportion of intercultural interaction and participation of those who rarely participated in class. Students in general reported higher participation and greater involvement in the class community. • Provide self-help material including web-based tutorials, such as the Internet Psychologist15 (an online tutorial on the use of the internet in psychology) and relevant study guides (e.g., The How-To-Guides: a help facility to aid students’ use of SPSS16).
Experimental participation There are a number of issues concerning experimental participation that relate to diversity. These include: • Participation in experiments can be discriminatory in relation to exclusion of those with disabilities. Where research considerations dictate the exclusion of certain sorts of students (e.g., non-native English speakers, those wearing glasses, those in wheelchairs), an alternative but equivalent experience should be provided. • Restricting experimental participation to working hours can disadvantage some students with family and work responsibilities. In some cases, printed surveys available online or in pigeonholes, or computer-controlled experiments delivered via the web, can allow a greater proportion and diversity of students to participate. • Print-focused studies can be more flexible in relation to time of participation but such surveys may be less accessible to visually-impaired students, unless they are provided in an alternative format (e.g., as electronic media). • Consider carefully the learning objectives of the activity when students must participate in demonstrations and experiments during class time (e.g., as part of a practical class). Is it necessary for a student to have the experience (e.g., perceive an optical illusion) to meet those objectives? Can alternative activities be used, or the same activity presented in an alternative format (e.g., as a tactile diagram, as a number of visual illusions still ‘work’ tactilely)?
15 16
http://www.vts.rdn.ac.uk/tutorial/psychologist http://www.statsguides.bham.ac.uk
19
Reflective question: Are there ways in which experimental participation in your department could be considered unfair by students?
Assessment Assessment serves a variety of purposes but it is important for staff and students to have a shared understanding of what the particular purpose may be (Newstead, in press). In addition diversity is best supported when different methods of assessment are offered.
Reflective question: How well does your department explain assessment requirements and criteria to students?
• Communicate your expectations and policies rather than assuming students understand what the appropriate standard for the discipline, year level, and type of assessment is. Examples of helping psychology students to understand assessment criteria have been developed by Norton et al. (2002). • Make sure students know the rewards and repercussions if they fail to meet your standards (Allen, 2000). Plagiarism is one concept that is not always well understood by students. Wilhoit (1994) argues that few students come to university understanding the rules of academic writing, and that the majority of students unintentionally fail to comply with regulations, with only a minority making a conscious decision to do so. As part of a general study or learning skills programme, or through a personal tutoring system, students can be provided with examples of plagiarism that highlight the difference between paraphrasing and plagiarism, suggest strategies for reducing unintentional plagiarism (e.g., making sure that quotation marks are put around any material copied verbatim into students’ notes) and make clear Reflective question: to students the consequences of submitting Does your department plagiarised material.
provide a variety of
• The use of classroom assessment techniques (CATs; assessment methods for Angelo & Cross, 1993) enable one to become more students? aware of each student’s attainment of learning objectives. In addition, they can be used to assess prerequisite knowledge and experiences and to provide topics for discussion. Common CATs include: •
Background knowledge probes (administered at the beginning of a new subject or topic);
•
Misconception or preconception checks (for an example relating to social psychology, see the website of the Pennsylvania State University Center for Excellence in Learning and Teaching17);
•
Minute papers (asking students to summarise the most important point just learnt; a variant is the muddiest point, asking students to describe what is confusing at the end of a class); and
•
Documented problems (asking students to show their work and the reasoning behind it).
• Assess fairly. Unless vocabulary is being tested, use simple, direct language in assessment, and allow students who may have English as a second language time to complete tests. • Use a variety of assessment formats so students can demonstrate their learning in different ways (Sternberg, 1996), and consider alternatives to exams. Examples of innovative assessment methods for psychology students are discussed by MacAndrew (in press; MacAndrew & Edwards, 2002). 17
http://www.psu.edu/celt/CATs.html#1
20
• Use a non-competitive grading system if possible, such as criterion-referenced assessment. Competitive systems (e.g., grading on a normal distribution) encourage students to compete, discourage them from working together and assisting each other, and may make students from non-competitive cultures uncomfortable.
Skills training The increasing diversity of students entering psychology departments means that one cannot assume that students share the same knowledge-base and skills (Holland, 2003).
Reflective question: How do you know what skills training students in your department would benefit from?
Breen et al. (2001) found that groups of students at Oxford Brookes, including international students, mature students, and part-time students, were apparently not receiving sufficient preparation or exposure to C&IT, and showed negative attitudes towards them. Such students may have feelings of inadequacy, disenfranchisement and hostility towards the university in relation to this assumption of pre-university training. Ideas for identifying and supporting the range of skills amongst students include: • Implement a student skills audit (Palmer, 2003). • Take into account different communication styles and preferences, learning styles and preferences. The effect of making psychology students aware of their learning styles is explored in the FDTL4 CLASS18 project.
• Help students develop their English skills. Expand vocabularies by defining abstract words (e.g., altruism, anomie) when you first use them, and explain the derivation of compound words (e.g., correlation, bivariate). Give students practice, feedback, and support to develop communication skills. Consider allowing students to iterate drafts of papers, with feedback from peers or staff on writing style. • Dyslexic students may benefit from support in mastering spellings of psychological terms as is being explored in the Dyslexicon project19. • Provide access to support for maths. Many students tune out when mathematical or statistical concepts are discussed, or when graphs are displayed. Help them develop mathematical and graphical literacy by explaining related concepts. Have students do relevant calculations or graphs in class, to allow students to be assisted by their peers. Be aware of mathematical support offered to students within the institution. • Encourage students to engage in critical thinking activities. Halonen (1986) includes activities from a network of psychology teachers who embedded critical thinking across the curriculum. Halonen (1998, 1999) also provides practical advice for teaching critical thinking in psychology. Zeedyk (2002) discusses the relationship between student confidence and critical thinking within a project exploring the effectiveness of techniques for teaching critical thinking, especially within the context of large lecture groups. Thinking psychologically (McGhee, 2001) provides students with general principles to support critical thinking. as well as applications taken from six key areas of the discipline.
18 19
http://www.uclan.ac.uk/facs/science/psychol/fdtl/index.htm http://www.lsbu.ac.uk/psycho/dyslexicon/
21
Staff member assumptions As Lorion (1991) puts it, examination of diversity necessitates examination of one’s own often unspoken assumptions about good and bad, about whom people are and how they live, and about differences and similarities among people from different backgrounds and worldviews. • Lecturers should be aware of their own stereotypes and prejudices. Avoid allowing them to affect your interactions with students and avoid making jokes based on stereotypes. Do not make assumptions about students’ backgrounds and competencies based on their Reflective question: Are appearance. If you do not make a positive first staff in your department impression of a student, nurture them, and they given training relating to may pleasantly surprise you.
stereotyping and prejudice?
• Take care not to patronise non-traditional students. Such students may be sensitive to subtle differences between genuine concern for their needs and assumptions that they are incompetent.
• Avoid tokenism, and the assumption that a student can speak for their group(s). Students may be uncomfortable to be singled out, and no-one can respond for all members of their group. • Avoid assumptions about life experiences, values and expectations, as such assumptions may reduce the impact of an example based on such assumptions, and in the process may alienate students. Students from different backgrounds from your own may have quite different reactions to your references to historical events or cultural allusions.
Providing emotional and psychological support It can reasonably be assumed that the increasing diversity of students will require institutions to provide more emotional and psychological support. Useful advice is given in the Guidelines on student mental health policies and procedures for higher education (Universities UK, 2000). The study of human behaviour will provide psychology students with a deeper insight into their own nature and pathology, and Meacham (1998) recommends academics to anticipate that some students may be troubled by Reflective question: Is it the implications readings and other course material clear to students where have for their own still-developing beliefs, values and they can get help if course identities. Allen (2000) suggests that students should content is disturbing to be encouraged to take advantage of lecturer or tutor consultation times, as non-traditional students may them? be more comfortable discussing in private personal issues as well as reactions to material brought up in class. Such informal advising may help them broaden their educational experiences and deal with barriers to their success. Recommendations for teaching a class on a sensitive topic are provided by Khan (1999).
22
As an example, Albrecht and Nelson (2001) describe some of the emotional reactions to class material of students in a psychology subject entitled The Holocaust, Social Prejudice, and Morality. Albrecht and Nelson present their subject matter with care, alerting students to forthcoming material that is particularly graphic or disturbing (and avoiding many of the more graphic pictures and narratives existing on the subject), and thoroughly discuss materials with students. They maintain an open-door policy so that students feel free to come and discuss issues, and if necessary provide professional counselling referrals. They attempt to be open, honest and caring, and not lay blame on the present generation. They suggest doing similar with related courses, or those covering similar concepts.
5.1.5 Employment One indicator of whether widening participation and increasing participation strategies are successful is the extent to which all students leave with the necessary skills to move into employment or postgraduate study.
Reflective question: In what ways does your department support students in achieving the necessary skills for employment?
The personal objectives of students are also likely to be more varied as a result of widening and increasing participation strategies. Opportunities for students to reflect upon their progress and to relate it to their personal goals are provided by personal development planning (PDP) schemes. A variety of approaches to PDP are described by Gosling (2003). As a result of PDP activities that include discussion between staff and students, departments will be able to identify students who are not meeting their personal objectives, and may be able to provide additional support or advice. Service learning in psychology (Duffy & Bringle, 1998), where students bring their experiences from working in the community into their coursework, is not practised much in the UK, although a number of departments are providing students with some kind of work placement or project in the outside community. Participants at an LTSN Psychology workshop on work placements20 agreed that, despite the effort required to implement workplacement opportunities, they were worth doing and had resulted in some evidence of improved performance, greater confidence in studying, many examples of positive student feedback and, in some cases, an opportunity for students to revise their career choice. These can provide valuable opportunities for all students to gain confidence and experience in the workplace. To increase the pool of postgraduate ethnic minority applicants, undergraduate programmes should actively involve minority undergraduates in research activities, and actively encourage them to pursue careers in psychology, for instance through mentoring programmes (Muñoz-Dunbar & Stanton, 1999) and providing role models.
20 21
http://www.psychology.ltsn.ac.uk/event_reports.html http://Ltsnpsy.york.ac.uk/ipdps/
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5.2
Students with particular needs
5.2.1 Students with disabilities In 2001, a survey of selected UK psychology departments suggested that approximately 7% of psychology students had some sort of disability21. Initial research by the HEFCE-funded project, Improving Provision for Disabled Psychology Students (IPDPS), found that these included those with a hearing impairment, dyslexia and mental health problems. These students reported particular problems with statistics (Gibson & Darron, 1999), laboratory practicals, group work and assessment procedures. At the time of writing this project is at an early stage, but a report based on their work will be forthcoming. In addition, a number of generic programmes focusing on disability within HE may provide useful advice for supporting students with disabilities. These include the National Disability Team22, who coordinate projects centred on improving provision for disabled students, and who have a comprehensive website on disability issues. Another useful resource is TechDis23, a useful first port of call for questions relating to technology and disability.
5.2.2 International students Cross-cultural research reveals that careful attention to ethnicity and other factors in the instructional setting enhances the possibilities for designing and implementing appropriate learning environments. When learners perceive that their individual differences in abilities, backgrounds, cultures and experiences are valued, respected and accommodated in learning tasks and contexts, levels of motivation and achievement are enhanced. One way of showing this attitude, and thereby enhancing student performance, is the use of educators drawn from students' own ethnic communities – ‘teaching their own’ is a common theme surfacing in case studies of multicultural learning (Podeschi, 1990). Another possibility is to encourage or even require students, in cooperative small group work, to form multicultural or otherwise diverse groups. Such group work can disconfirm stereotypes and reduce prejudice, encourage sharing of varied sources of information, and foster critical thinking (George, 1994). Cross-cultural issues in psychology teaching are focused on in Collingridge (1999), who discusses teaching international students, and suggests some solutions for overcoming various barriers; Gloria et al. (2000), who present pedagogical concerns and strategies for lecturers teaching ethnicity- or culture-based courses in psychology; and Hill (2000), who discusses ways to incorporate a cross-cultural perspective into psychology curricula. The challenges of teaching in another country, and strategies for adapting instruction to address the pedagogical obstacles, are specifically addressed in Sommer and Sommer (1991), Miserandino (1996), and Shatz (2000). Wheeler et al. (1999) discuss the challenges faced in devising and teaching a curriculum based on cross-cultural psychology, and provide specific strategies for creating and sustaining a diversity-sensitive classroom climate. They present a technique that involves the use of language and course content to model respect for several forms of diversity.
5.2.3 Students from ethnic minorities Research in the US shows that ethnic minorities are under-represented in the profession, on a national level, when compared to their proportion of the population as a whole (Muñoz-Dunbar & Stanton, 1999). The situation is similar in the UK, at least in relation to clinical training24. This 21 22 23 24
http://Ltsnpsy.york.ac.uk/ipdps/ http://www.natdisteam.ac.uk/ http://www.techdis.ac.uk/ http://www.leeds.ac.uk/chpccp/
24
suggests that UK psychology programmes must actively recruit and support ethnic minority students at postgraduate and earlier levels, so that future generations of ethnic minority academic staff, as well as psychology professionals are able to serve their own communities (Myers, Echemendia et al.,1991). Within the US, a number of institutions have set up psychology programmes specifically to support ethnic minorities, including native Americans (McShane, 1991; Muñoz, 1991), Hispanic students (Vasquez, 1991), and minority students in general (Green et al., 1991; Holroyd & Jacobs-Fisher, 1991). Such programmes generally focus on recruiting students and facilitating their completion of degrees (frequently at postgraduate, professional level) as well as certification or licensure as a psychologist in their home state. They also generally aim to encourage these graduates to work with members of their own communities, using culturally relevant techniques, resulting in benefits for both clients and students. Typical components of such programmes are included in Table 2. Table 2: Components of US programmes to support ethnic minorities Preparing students for programmes and boosting their confidence by bringing them in early or involving them in supervised independent studies before formal enrolment. Recruitment of more than one member of any ethnic minority group or community (and preferably four to six), to provide the basis of a viable social support system. Bilingual programmes. Specialised subjects focusing on the needs of their ethnic minority community (for example, Transcultural Assessment, Black Child Development). Recruitment of ethnic minority staff, or the provision of role models and mentors from the appropriate cultural community, fostering ethnic as well as professional identification. Education of staff and students on cultural differences and ways in which to adapt to these. Incorporation of relevant information on minority cultures into general courses, on an ongoing basis. Administrative support, such as through diversity committees or councils, with the visible support of highly visible, centrally located and high status non-minority academic staff or administrators. Specialised collections of relevant books and articles, with students contributing articles as they complete their own literature searches. Guest speakers and seminar opportunities with experts in the area. Placement opportunities working with members of their own ethnic group within their own community or institutional contexts. Providing research opportunities as part of training, but also to assess efficacy of techniques with and broader knowledge about the ethnic minorities focused on, and to encourage the retention of ethnic minorities in research institutions and academia. Opportunities to conduct research with members of their ethnic group or community Academic support, including workshops, structuring of work, one-on-one assistance, regular review meetings, remedial tutoring, and encouragement and facilitation, particularly where students are on placement away from the institution. Personal, emotional, social and financial support (e.g., through meetings including ethnic foods, and social events where people can bring their families), and flexibility in assessment deadlines to allow for special circumstances. Evaluation of the programme and its achievements. 25
However, these programmes, like all others, report a number of problems, including: • Insufficient financial support for students, as well as for support activities; • A greater likelihood of certain health problems within minority group members, which may be associated with social disadvantage; • Inadequate background in mathematics, leading to intimidation and poor performance in statistical and other courses; • Cultural differences in beliefs, values and behaviour, which may impact on staff understanding and acceptance of students, which then creates problems for the students; • Criticism that such programmes foster separateness, and • A scarcity of good supervisors, particularly when they are not compensated.
5.2.4 Lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender students Interviews with gay men on UK psychology courses reported by Hodges and Pearson (2003) reported feelings of exclusion, and experience of a curriculum that was sometimes described as homophobic and heterocentric, resulting in participants reporting a strategic approach to relationships with staff and other students. Hodges and Pearson’s findings are consistent with earlier ones of Pilkington and Cantor (1996), who surveyed 64 postgraduates in professional psychology programs (clinical, counselling or school psychology), most of whom were lesbian, gay or bisexual (LGB), regarding experiences of perceived heterosexism and discrimination in their graduate programmes. Bias, discrimination, or both were reported in textbooks and other course materials, instructor comments, research supervision, clinical practice and internships, interactions with programme administrators and other staff, teaching opportunities and course content. Biased course content and materials tended to relate to pathologising or diagnosing LGBT people or homosexuality, ridiculing LGBT people or homosexuality, curing homosexuality, transmitting empirically unsupported beliefs and stereotypes about homosexuality, or minimising or failing to address sexual orientation issues and nonheterosexual experiences. Discriminatory experiences included derogatory comments directed towards LGBT students or clients, and inappropriate emphasis on a student’s sexual orientation.
5.3
Staffing issues
5.3.1 Staff recruitment As Myers (1982) points out, recruitment and retention of a diverse teaching staff is beneficial to psychology programmes, and Guzman (1991) suggests that a critical mass of minority students and staff is advisable, if diversity is to be integrated into the overall operation of programmes. Given that the available pool of ethnic minority staff is small, postgraduate programmes must actively recruit and support ethnic minority students, to ensure future generations of minority academic staff.
26
The shortage of ethnic minority senior academics makes it imperative that ethnic majority academics serve as mentors for new ethnic minority staff — i.e., that there is cross-cultural mentoring (Atkinson et al., 1991; Brinson & Kottler, 1993). Brinson and Kottler suggest that such cross-cultural mentoring is most effective “when the mentor has devoted the time … to develop a working knowledge of the protégé’s worldview” (p. 247). Understanding the unique experience of such staff enables allies and mentors to be more effective in their support. Myers (1991) advocates developing an advanced postdoctoral research fellowship programme for ethnic minority staff and clinicians, to help them concentrate on their research and publications, or if they do not possess the requisite research skills and resources to conduct research on their programmes, to buy a percentage of their time and provide them with the necessary resources and support needed to develop innovative research for their institutions. Herek and Glunt (1993) found that knowing a gay man or lesbian personally was a stronger predictor of positive attitudes towards gay men than any other factor examined, including gender, age, religion, political party affiliation, race, education or geographic region, so one intervention for promoting gay-affirmative attitudes amongst psychology students may be to have an openly LGBT academic in the department. In addition, there seems to be an association between having an openly LGBT academic in a department and the existence of subjects placing any emphasis on LGBT issues (APA Committee for Lesbian, Gay and Bisexual Concerns, 1993, cited in Liddle et al., 1998), which may be similar with other minority groups.
5.3.2 Staff development The work-life balance survey (Hurst & Richards, 2002) reports stress levels of academics to be soaring. Changes in teaching style to accommodate the increasing number and diversity of students can be difficult for lecturers within departments with strong cultures of traditional ‘talk and chalk’ teaching practice. For new staff, Certificate of Higher Education Teaching courses provide opportunities to learn about innovative teaching practice, although, at present, there are few discipline-specific training opportunities in this area. In terms of curriculum diversity and staff development, Whitten (1993) acknowledges that broadening the curriculum is difficult for some academic staff and suggests: • Special training sessions on presenting diversity-related material; • Ongoing informal discussions among academics in order to share ideas and strategies; and • The use of guest speakers and lecturers who are members of diverse communities, particularly on campuses lacking in diversity. Myers (1991) suggests developing intensive summer institutes or schools on minority issues for non-minority staff, a minority mental health seminar series, and a distinguished visiting professor programme for minority scholars, while Chin (1991) recommends the use of a staff exchange programme.
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5.4
Diversifying the curriculum
5.4.1 Enriching the curriculum If students from diverse populations are to engage with psychology as a discipline they need to experience a curriculum that will allow them to relate what they read and learn to their own experiences and backgrounds. However, there is widespread recognition that psychology has suffered from an ethnocentric perspective, as discussed in Owusu-Bempah and Howitt (2000), Patel (2000), Graham (1992) and Wing et al. (1999). In the US, the APA has done much to address this issue in terms of recruiting more ethnic minority psychologists and recommending academic staff introduce more discussion of multi-cultural and diversity issues into the psychology curriculum. It is recommended that in order to value diversity, a community must strengthen its ability to: • Continuously and effectively address racism, sexism, homophobia, and other forms of oppression; • Develop and implement strategies that publicly recognise the cultural traditions and practices of every major group; • Support processes that allow each group to address their own priorities, while at the same time, help the different groups find common ground to address shared concerns; • Understand the dynamics between a group’s characteristics and issues related to power, privilege, and oppression, and know how to integrate the knowledge into its valuing diversity strategies. Issues relating to diversity can enrich the whole psychological curriculum, from introductory psychology to postgraduate and professional training. Discussion of such issues demonstrates to students the power and importance of psychological research, and can also help students to think critically about their own beliefs and behaviour as well as those of others. For example, a number of studies find that diversity-related activities and courses can reduce prejudice and improve attitudes in psychology students (e.g., Angiullo et al., 1996; Ford et al., 1997; Hawkins, 1993; Hillman & Martin, 2002; Waterman et al., 2001). It can also help make students from more diverse backgrounds feel recognised and valued by the discipline, encouraging future students to enter the profession (Whitten, 1993). In addition, those experiencing the most diversity in classroom settings and in informal interactions with peers show the most growth in intellectual engagement, motivation, intellectual and academic skills; engagement in active thinking processes, citizenship, and with people from other cultures; and are the most likely to acknowledge that group differences are compatible with the interests of the broader community (Astin, 1993; Gurin, 1999; King & Shuford, 1996). Yet diversity issues are still under-represented in many areas of the psychology curriculum (Bernal & Padilla, 1982; MacPhee et al., 1994), and in teaching materials such as introductory psychology textbooks (Hogben & Waterman, 1997; Hurd & Brabeck, 1997; Whitten, 1993), while Whitbourne and Hulicka (1990) reported ageism to be common in textbooks. While there has been some progress at postgraduate level in introducing ethnic minority issues (MuñozDunbar & Stanton, 1999; Patel, 2000), it is occurring more slowly at undergraduate level, due to less tight accreditation controls in relation to curriculum, and more dependence on the interest and efforts of individual teaching staff (Gibson & Rey, 1999). However, even within postgraduate level courses more can be done, especially in areas such as sexuality (Betz, 1991; Buhrke, 1989a, 1989b; Buhrke & Douce, 1991; Fassinger, 1991; Myers, 1982). 28
Table 3: Enriching the psychology curriculum references Diversity Issue
Type of Innovation
References
Prejudice and stereotyping
Supplemental activities
APA Diversity Taskforce (1998f); Bond (1988); Bronstein (1988); Bronstein & Paludi (1988); Castro & Magaña (1988); Fairchild (1988); Goldstein (1997); Junn et al., (2001); King (1988); Landrine (1988); Lott, A. (1988); Mays (1988a); Plous (2000); Quina & Kulberg (1988); Stewart (2001); Tsai & Uemura (1988); Unger (1988); Villars (1988) Albrecht & Nelson (2001); Craig (1999); White (1994)
Specialised subject Disability
Supplemental activities Specialised subject
Ethnicity, race and racism
Supplemental activities
Specialised subject
Sexual orientation
Supplemental activities
Specialised subject Cross-cultural differences
Supplemental activities
Specialised subject Gender
Supplemental activities
Specialised subject Aging
Supplemental activities
Specialised subject
Non-traditional families Supplemental activities Specialised subject
APA Diversity Taskforce (1998a); Asch (1988); Bond (1988); Wurst & Wolford (1994) Asch (1988) APA Diversity Taskforce (1998b); Bond (1988); Bristow (1999); Bronstein (1988); Bronstein & Paludi (1988); Brown-Collins (1988); Castro & Magaña (1988); DeFour & Paludi (1991); Fairchild (1984), (1988); Ford et al. (1997); Landrine (1988); Lawrence (1998); Lott, A. (1988); Mays (1988a), (1988b); Quina & Kulberg (1988); Tsai & Uemura (1988); Villars (1988); Whitten (1993) Abernethy et al. (1988); Balls Organista et al., (2000); Castro & Magaña (1988); Khan (1999); Mosley-Howard & Harris (1993); Patel (2000); Romero (1988); Vasquez & Barón (1988) APA Diversity Taskforce (1998d); Bond (1988); Bristow (1999); Hillman & Martin (2002); King (1988); Madson (2001); Sheldon (1999); Simoni (1996); Villars (1988) Bohan (1997); King (1988); Waterman et al. (2001) APA Diversity Taskforce (1998g); Bond (1988); Boyatzis (1998); Bronstein (1988); Bronstein & Paludi (1988); Brown-Collins (1988); Castro & Magaña (1988); Cushner (1987); Enns (1994); Fairchild (1988); Landrine (1988); Lott, A. (1988); MacPhee et al. (1994); Mays (1988a); Myers, Wohlford et al. (1991); Patel (2000); Quina & Kulberg (1988); Smith & Eggleston (2003); Tomcho & Foels (2002); Tsai & Uemura (1988); Vasquez & Barón (1988) Castro & Magaña (1988); McCreary & Walker (2001) APA Diversity Taskforce (1998e); Bond (1988); Bristow (1999); Bronstein (1988); Bronstein & Paludi (1988); Collins (2000); Crawford (1994); Elliot (1993); Gaske & Hebl (2001); Hebl (1995); Kahn & Davis (2003); Landrine (1988); Lips (1990); Lott, B. (1988); Mays (1988b); McMinn & Foster (1991); Ortman (1993); Quina & Kulberg (1988); Rands (1988); Scarborough (1988); Sheldon (1999); Stevenson (1989); Villars (1988); Vozzola (1998) Brown-Collins (1988); Gibson (1992); Lott, B. (1988); Mays (1988a); Paludi (1986); Van Wallendael (2001) Blieszner (1999); Cavanaugh (1999); Fingerman & Bertrand (1999); Fried (1988); Hulicka (1992); McGuire & Zwahr (1999); Neysmith-Roy & Kleisinger (1997); Panek (1984); Pulos (1993); Sheldon (1998); Whitbourne & Cassidy (1994); Wight (1989) Angiullo et al. (1996); DeFour & Paludi (1991); Fingerman (2000); Hulicka & Whitbourne (1990); Parham et al. (1990); Whitbourne & Collins (1999) Blieszner (1999); King (1988) Mazur (1999)
29
Some academics have taken the route of developing specialised psychology subjects that focus on such issues (e.g., Mosley-Howard & Harris, 1993; White, 1994), which many psychologists agree are important (Simoni et al., 1999). Others (e.g., Bronstein & Quina, 1988; Whitten, 1993; Wurst & Wolford, 1994) have focused on what Gibson and Rey (1999) call “infusing new content into established classes” (p. 124), in terms of course content, discussion topics and questions, demonstrations, and other activities. Table 3 outlines a number of published papers describing both types of innovation. However, integrating diversity into the curriculum is more than merely adding-on materials or viewing diverse peoples as aberrations. Goldstein (1995) calls for the integrative use of cross-cultural (and presumably other diversity-related) materials to effect a true transformation of the psychology curriculum, one which questions the universality of psychological thought. In addition, students may not wholeheartedly accept diversity-related changes to course content. Meacham (1997) describes how he transformed his developmental psychology course to give greater attention to issues of race, gender, social class and religion, and then follows this up with a description of some students’ resistance to this course (Meacham, 1998). Similarly, Ford et al. (1997) reported about 25% of students criticised aspects of their introductory psychology subject relating to diversity, claiming it was biased, with similar reactions reported in Craig (1999) and Whitten (1993). Costin (1985) suggests that the problem of student resistance can be compounded for academics who want all of their students to like everything that goes on in the classroom and who feel that all students must like how the course is being taught. However, such disagreements can be valid learning experiences. Meacham recommends anticipating student resistance to diversity issues and materials when they are part of a subject that is not explicitly identified as a diversity one. He also suggests making it clear to students that the class is a place where issues relating to diversity can be discussed freely. However, he advocates holding back on immediately responding to resistance, and trusting other students to respond. Craig (1999) suggests that it is helpful to redirect the discussion to students’ own resistance, enabling students to see their biases and consider the impact of such on their observations, decisions and judgements. She suggests that students who see the lecturer as biased or subjective may however be less resistant to guest presenters, and therefore be more likely to consider their views after exposure to these. Recommendations for teaching a class on a sensitive topic, taken from a number of authors (Costin, 1985; Ford, 1997; Khan, 1999; and Seegmiller, 1995), are presented in Table 4.
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Table 4: Recommendations for teaching a class on a sensitive issue At the first class, establish the goals and rules of conduct, including an atmosphere in which students can actively learn and comfortable exchange views. Encourage students to express their opinions in an appropriate and meaningful manner, with discussions remaining on an academic level and not resembling heated exchanges that may occur in informal settings (e.g., the cafeteria). Require correct usage of terminology and clear substantiation for examples. Students should also be told not to relate other students’ opinions to peers outside of the class, as this is when distortions of statements are most likely to occur. Informing students that disagreements with classmates or the lecturer are inevitable and even fruitful to learning increases the likelihood of open dialogue. Inform students that, to facilitate discussion, you may occasionally play the role of devil’s advocate, and encourage them to challenge your views without fearing retribution or feeling hostility towards you for expressing unpopular opinions for discussion purposes. When you disagree with a student’s opinions, remain neutral, responding only by providing additional information to challenge the student’s opinion. By posing the questions to the class as a whole, and treating the questions as material for group discussion, this tends to encourage students not to react negatively to these challenges. However, lecturers should not fear conflict and forgo opportunities to challenge students to evaluate information critically. Academics may at times feel uneasy about teaching a diversity-related course because of their own background and experiences, as students may question their qualifications for teaching this type of course given their lack of personal experience. Stressing the importance of approaching the material intellectually is one way of averting this situation. Academics should refrain from relating personal frustrations or political views in the classroom, as students are more likely to question the lecturer’s qualifications if their biases seem to influence the presentation of information. Furthermore, students may feel alienated or hesitate to voice their opinions if they oppose the lecturer’s stance on political and ethnic issues. If academics are concerned about how the diversity makeup of their class might influence classroom dynamics, be careful not to single out any particular racial or ethnic group when discussing social problems, perhaps by using examples from other countries or contexts, to demonstrate the global nature of such phenomena. Lecturers should be sensitive to majority group students’ potential feelings of guilt or defensive hostility when the primary depiction of their group is as oppressors. However, do not alienate minority students by, for example, asking them to become spokespersons for their group, or to share experiences of past discrimination unless they volunteer to do so. If you anticipate potential feelings of discomfort, acknowledge the sensitive nature of the topic, but emphasise the importance of the impending discussion to the learning process. Reassure minority students that certain topics are not avoided because of their presence. Introduce relevant psychological theories and concepts (e.g., the fundamental attribution error) as scaffolds to help students understand what is going on and respond intellectually as well as emotionally. Use a number of class periods to complete the topic, allowing for change and tempering of initial emotional reactions. Have students write their reactions before voicing them, helping them become more balanced and moderated. Write comments on the blackboard, whiteboard or OHT, allowing students to critique comments and not the individuals presenting them. Label emotions expressed by students, helping keep emotions directed to opinions and not to individuals. 31
5.4.2
Training students to work with diverse groups
If the ethnocentricity at the core of modern psychology is Reflective question: Would a ever to be corrected, then it is important not just to develop developmental audit specialised training programmes enabling minority looking at cross-cultural professionals to work with minority clients, as this perpetuates the mistaken notion that the needs and issues and diversity improve concerns of minority communities are the sole the curriculum offered to responsibility of minorities, and that non-minorities can opt students? not to assume any of these responsibilities (Myers, 1991). All psychologists should be prepared to meet the needs of clients regardless of their backgrounds, therefore the long-term solution to the problem of culturally or otherwise restricted training is that we impact on the knowledge base, attitudes and skills of minority and non-minority practitioners alike. Traditional diagnostic and intervention modalities must be critically re-examined for their salience to minority populations, and adjustments in their form, timing, presentation and expectations are often necessary (Lorion, 1991). Training psychologists to meet the needs of a diverse population requires training modules that reflect cultural sensitivity not only in curricula content (e.g., specific mental health problems and cultural patterns of various groups) but also in the assumptions used to define clinical practice (Chin, 1991; Patel, 2000). Existing clinical models of assessment, diagnosis, treatment and research tend to be narrowly and ethnocentrically biased (Myers, 1991), with issues of ethnicity, culture, social class and gender typically treated as exceptions to normative behaviour rather than as the basis for substantive differences that define the normal range of behaviour and mental health in a culturally diverse society. Chin (1991) recommends funding the development of clinical sourcebooks for specific ethnic minority groups and pertinent clinical issues, with clinical cases selected along thematic lines to refine theoretical issues relevant to minority populations. Exemplary cases could be selected for a videotaped discussion by experienced minority mental health professionals from both university and community settings, who would serve as consultants. Such sourcebooks would draw on the expertise of community providers as trainers and teachers, identify clinical practices relevant for diverse groups, use ethnic minority professionals as role models through videotapes, and illustrate therapeutic practices that are culturally appropriate and effective. A key adjunct to this sourcebook would be a training manual with questions focused on directing clinical inquiry toward culturally sensitive psychotherapeutic practice. These publications could be disseminated to training institutions as well as community settings. An example of such training material integrating the expertise of many ethnic minority professionals into the academic curriculum is the training manual edited by Patel (2000), which focuses on integrating ethnicity and culture into UK clinical psychology programmes. Training institutions aiming to meet the needs of a culturally diverse population should be reviewed against appropriate criteria, with site visits conducted to review policy goals, curricula, and practices of training programmes for their cultural competence. For example, emphasis on majority norms in diagnosis, and access to mainstream services are but two themes that ignore the validity and necessity for culturally differentiated services (Chin, 1991). Clinical and other practical training should incorporate culturally varied clientele and supervisors (Myers, 1991), and address the basic issues at the core of cross-ethnic, cross-class and cross-gender psychotherapy and supervision. Where it is not possible to recruit a critical mass of ethnic minority staff, a resource pool of ethnic minority consultants could be developed, with institutions able to contract with individuals from this pool for short-term training (Chin, 1991). Research training should also cover issues in conducting research with minority populations. 32
Section 6: Conclusion This report acknowledges the pressures facing psychology departments in UK higher education in relation to widening and increasing participation, and has sought to provide examples of how departments can best respond to these demands. Although the report has in places highlighted issues in minority group-specific sections, we hope that readers will see beyond the need to adjust their teaching as a reactive response to an individual or minority group. Most often such practice, good though it may be, cannot be planned for until the mix of a particular group is known, which may not be until the start of a term or semester. A more comprehensive solution is to encourage a culture of academic practice that respects diversity, and curricula designed to be inclusive. The opening up of HE psychology to a more diverse range of people, and the embedding of diversity issues into the curriculum, provide the opportunity for the enrichment of staff, students, and the discipline of psychology as a whole. We hope that this publication, in some small way, contributes to this achievement.
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