Women and Minority Faculty Job Satisfaction ...

Women and Minority Faculty Job Satisfaction: Professional Role Interests, Professional Satisfactions, and Institutional Fit Author(s): Deborah Olsen, Sue A. Maple and Frances K. Stage Source: The Journal of Higher Education, Vol. 66, No. 3 (May - Jun., 1995), pp. 267-293 Published by: Ohio State University Press Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2943892 Accessed: 05-08-2015 15:39 UTC

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Deborah Olsen J-E Sue A. Maple FrancesK. Stage

Womenand MinorityFaculty Job Satisfaction ProfessionalRole Interests, ProfessionalSatisfactions, Fit and Institutional

Introduction Demographic predictions ofan increasingly femaleand minority-based workforcehave reinvigorated interest withinthe academyin recruiting membersintoits qualifiedwomenand minority the ranks. to Hudson Institute professional According [27], as manyas 80 percentofthenewentrantsintothelaborforceoverthenextdecade Such statistics willbe womenand minorities. haveparticularrelevance forhighereducation,wherethepool offacultyapplicantsappearsto be whilethedemandfornew facultygrows[7]. Not sincethe shrinking 1960shave collegesand universities focusedso muchattentionon esof our nationalpoputablishinga facultythatreflectsthe "diversity" lation. By and large,however,enthusiasmfor increasingthe numberof womenand minoritieson our campuseshas outstrippedour underofthesetraditionally standingoftheexperience underrepresented groups in academe. Demographicdata indicatethatthe majorityof women and minorityfacultyare concentratedat less prestigious, two- and four-yearcollegesand at the lowerend of the facultyranks (or in nontenure-track inforpositions)[1, 15, 18,32, 36, 41]. Unfortunately, We wouldliketo thankCorrinaEthington forhelpfulcommentson an earlierdraft of thisarticle. Deborah Olsenis assistantdean in theOffice forAcademicAffairsand Dean ofthe Facultiesat Indiana University Bloomington;Sue A. Maple is an assistantscientistin FamilyMedicineat IndianapolisUniversity Purdue University at Indianapolis;and FrancesK. Stage is an associateprofessorin theDepartmentof EducationalLeadershipand PolicyStudiesat Indiana University Bloomington. Journalof HigherEducation,Vol. 66, No. 3 (May/June1995) Press Copyright1995bytheOhio State University


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Journalof HigherEducation

thedemographic mationthatmighthelpus to understand patternswe have foundis incomplete.We need to knowmoreabout the institutional factors,as well as the personaland professionalproclivities, thatdetermine women'sand minorities' needs,and interests, participatheirsuccessin and satisfactionin highereducation- and ultimately tionwiththe academicworld.In particular,assumptionsabout how and wishto function, womenand minority facultyfunction, mayprove as damagingto theirprofessional withinthe growthand development as presentdiscrimination and insensitivity. The academiccommunity studypresentedin thisarticleexamineswomenand minority faculty's professional roleinterests and valuesand assesseshowwelltheyfitwith thenormsoftheinstitutions theyserve. and FacultyRole Interests, Satisfactions, Allocationof WorkTime To theextentthattheexistingliterature beginsto sketcha coherent the picturethatemergesis portrayalof womenand minority faculty, not necessarilythe mostpromisingone. Data suggestlowerresearch a heavyteachingorientation, and substantial productivity, commitment to institutional service[9, 11,20, 30, 34, 45, 46]. Female and especially in servicehas been explained academics'greaterinvolvement minority as a productof a mutualdesireon thepartof theuniversity and these individualsto further thegoals ofdivertraditionally underrepresented sityon campus[5, 18]. Moreover,becauseof theircommitment to the and to theintellectual and social development values of community of theirstudents, femaleand minority facultyare reportedto investmore timeand energyin theirteachingand to derivemoresatisfaction from it [5, 20, 30]. Finally,it has been arguedthatwomen'sand minority's researchproductivity fromtheircommitment to teachingand suffers serviceand fromthemoreacuteworkand family/community conflicts experiencedby these groups [30, 40, 52]. Given what Bowen and Schuster[7, p. 147]describeas thecurrent"publishingobsession,"the iftrue, emergingprofessional profileof womenand minority faculty, suggeststhattheyareless attunedto, and lesslikelyto receive,institutionalrewardsand recognition based on scholarlyproductivity. ProblemswithCurrentPortrayalsof Women and MinorityFaculty One problemin interpreting muchof the availabledata is the confoundbetweengender/racial statusand institutional affiliation/academicrankmentionedearlier.As Finkelstein [20, p. 199] notedin his reviewof the facultydevelopmentliterature, "overall comprehensive This content downloaded from 128.122.226.249 on Wed, 05 Aug 2015 15:39:27 UTC All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

FacultyJob Satisfaction

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male-femaleworkactivitydisparitymay be a functionof the higher concentration offemalesin theless research-oriented universities and comprehensive colleges."Womenand minorities are morelikelyto be employedat institutions and in positionsthatemphasizeteachingand service whetherthroughpredilection, discrimination, or both. One way to beginto disentanglethe effectsof institutional typeand rank fromthosemoredirectly attributable to genderand race is to examine the experienceof facultyin a morehomogeneousacademicenvironment,in particular,a doctoral-degree thatselects grantinginstitution in research. facultybased largelyon theirinterestand performance based on sucha samplewouldbe limitedin naThoughgeneralizations ture,differences foundamongwhitemale,whitefemaleand minority aboutrace-and gender-based shouldprovideusefulinformation faculty similar differences demands. amongfacultygroupsfacing professional The limitedempiricalinformation facabout womenand minority ultyat researchuniversitiesis mixed. Some researchsuggeststhat For genderand race discrepanciesare mostacuteat suchinstitutions. betweenthepresexample,studieshavefoundan inverserelationship and thenumberand rankof women,substantial tigeoftheuniversity inequitiesin salary,lowerresearchproductivity amongwomenfaculty, and involuntary greatervoluntary turnover, and lowerlevelsofjob satisfaction[20, 32, 40]. Minorityfacultyat predominantly whiteinstitutions exhibita similarpattern,althoughsalary levels are generally wouldseem comparableto whitemalefaculty's [20]. As such,findings failureto subscribeto the to provideevidenceofwomenand minority's - evenwhenthatethospervadesthe researchethosof theuniversity at whichtheyareemployed.On the valuesand normsoftheinstitution otherhand,at leastone studyof minority facultyat a majorresearch and majority foundthatminority university faculty spendapproximately thesame amountoftimeon researchand are equallyproductive [14]. These findingssuggestthatwomenand minoritieswill moreclosely male" modelwhenthe institution's approximatea "traditionally missionis clearand thehiringprocessis highlyselective. A secondissuein assessingcurrentaccountsofwomenand minority to thestereotypes facultyis theirsusceptibility closelyassociatedwith thesegroups.Etaugh[16] has shownthatpeople perceivewomenas lesscompetent thanmendespiteinformation thatworkqualindicating ificationsand backgroundare identical.Furthermore, thisgenderbias is exacerbatedwhen women are employedin a traditionally maledominatedfield.In more"real world"settings, studiesof femaleand and academicsdocumentmuchthesamephenomminority professionals are so strongthatcontrarydata about workperforena: stereotypes This content downloaded from 128.122.226.249 on Wed, 05 Aug 2015 15:39:27 UTC All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

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mance and abilityare oftenignoredin the selectionand promotion process[18, 19,35, 42]. Whilethereis mountingdata in theorganizamanagersresemto suggestthatwomenand minority tionalliterature ble theirwhitemale colleaguesin termsof aspirations,values,skills, theyfailto be employedin thesamenumbersorto be and productivity, promotedto the highestlevelsof management.Thereis a persistent traits,behaviors,and attito ascribeto womenand minorities tendency as managers whether ordeficient tudesthatmaketheminappropriate life conflictbetweenworkand family/community it be an enervating or an irrational "fearof success"[forexample,see 33, 43]. "To theexand practicesfollowmodelsbased tentthatorganizationalstructures are disadvansolelyon howwhitemendevelop,womenand minorities taged"[35 p. 203]. Withinhighereducationthe effectof racial and genderstereotypes ofviewingindivid"The phenomenon has beennotedifnoteliminated: oftheirsocialcategoual femaleand minority facultyas representatives riesis a familiarpatternin academe"[20, p. 216]. Indeed,givenwider ofgenderand race,theserviceand teachingoriensocial constructions tationascribedto women and minoritiesin highereducationseems and practicalnaThe nurturing, interpersonal, morethancoincidental. tureofteachingand servicemay,in fact,conformmostcloselyto the faculty.However,thereis also role interestsof womenand minority in these participation evidenceto suggestthatwomen'sand minorities' requestsas peractivitiesmay be as much a productof institutional sonal proclivities [forexample,34]. Womenand Minoritiesand Social Control To date, therehas been considerablespeculationthatwomenand facultymaybe less successfulwithinacademebecauseof less minority socializationexperiences earlysocialization,butespecially effective theprofessional socializationof a top-tiergraduateschooland a close witha mentorwho guidesand promotes[19, 20, workingrelationship 30, 46]. Furthermore, workby Clark and Corcoran[12] on the "acbyfemaleacademicsand by Jacobs cumulateddisadvantage"suffered withintheworkplace suggestthatsomeform [26] on sex segregation in perforof social controlmustbe ongoingto maintaindifferences and rewards.In theirresearch,Clarkand Corcomance,opportunities ran [12, p. 25] describea "Salierieffect," wherebywomenare assessed bya dominantinnercircleofmenand failto "measureup" becauseof theirsocial status.In theend,the Salierieffectis perhapsmoreinsidious thanovertdiscrimination, becauseit allowswomento enteracaforadvancement.Similarly, demewhileseverely limiting opportunities This content downloaded from 128.122.226.249 on Wed, 05 Aug 2015 15:39:27 UTC All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions


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investigators describea kindof "symbolicracism"towardminorities, whichdenouncesovertformsof prejudicewhiledenyingaccess to resources,information, and sourcesof support(manyof whichare informal)essentialto success[52, see also 18]. The literature thussuggeststhata closerexaminationoftheprofesofwomenand minorsionalinterests, timeallocation,and satisfactions ityfacultyis warranted.In particular,we need a betterunderstanding ofwhichrolesand tasksare trulysoughtand valuedin a contextwhere institutional priorities are bothclearand different fromthosetraditionallyassociatedwithwomenand minorities. Organizational"Fit"and Womenand Minority FacultyJob Satisfaction Having establishedhow femaleand minorityacademics perceive themselvesprofessionally, we can go on to ask how welltheirvalues, of abilitiesand goals "fit"the values,needs,and goals of institutions fit highereducationthatemploythem.The conceptofperson-situation as has beenwidelyappliedin organizational settings, definedgenerally the "congruencebetweennormsand values of organizationsand the values of persons"[10, p. 339]. Accordingto thisdefinition: Individualvaluesare . . . enduringbeliefsthroughwhicha specificmode of conductor end stateis personallypreferable to its opposite(Rokeach, 1973).Valuesare a typeofsocial cognitionthatfacilitate a person'sadaptationto his or herenvironment and values have implicationsforhis or her behavior(cf.Fishbeinand Ajzen,1975;Weiner,1988).On theorganization both side,value systemsprovidean elaborateand generalized justification forappropriate of behaviorsofthemembersand foractivities and functions the system(Enz, 1988; Katz and Kahn, 1978; McCoy, 1985). Normsare closelyrelatedto values in thattheymakeexplicitthe formsof behavior that are appropriatefor membersof that system(Kilman, Saxton and Serpa, 1985)[10, p. 339].

Giventhisgeneraltheoreticalframework, the conceptof "fit"would appearto be usefullyappliedto groupssuchas womenand minorities whoseprofessional values(as expressedin theirinterests, satisfactions, of time)are supposedto varyfromthetradiand relativeexpenditure tionalwhitemale modelin consistent and predictable ways. Moreover,the level of supportand recognition an institution providesis itselfan indicatoroffit.Thatis,rationally, organizations should rewardand supportthose interestsand activitiesthat are consistent withtheirown values and goals ("norms"in the termsabove). Acawhichpridesitselfon itsmeritocratic deme,inparticular, values,should to such a model. If, however,phenomenalike the certainlyadhere This content downloaded from 128.122.226.249 on Wed, 05 Aug 2015 15:39:27 UTC All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

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Salierieffector symbolicracismare operational, theremaybe a failure to supportadequatelyindividualswhoseworkvaluesand efforts are,in themain,congruent withtheuniversity's mission. A poor fitbetweena personand theworkenvironment has consistentlybeen associatedwithlowerjob satisfaction and higherratesof turnover [forexample,8, 10,29]. Recently,Chatman[10] has argued thatit is thedegreeof fitwiththeorganization thatmediatestherelationshipbetweensocializationexperiencesand outcomevariableslike productivity and job satisfaction. Clearlya misfitbetweenan individual and an institution can resultfroma failureof accommodationon eitherside.As indicatedbythediscussionabove,however, thesituation mayalso be morecomplexthana simplemismatchof goals and interests and,in particular, maybe confoundedbymisperceptions ofthe individual'sprofessionalvalues and strengths.Furthermore, within academetheimportanceof thedepartment as well as theoveralluniversityas a contextforfacultydevelopmentmakes a breakdownof sharedvaluespossibleat morethanone level. IntrinsicRewards,Sense of Controlover Career, and Job Satisfaction and satisfactions Althoughroleinterests maybe important determinantsof institutional fitand, in turn,ofjob satisfaction, theliterature ofwomen'sand suggeststwootherdimensionsas important predictors as well.The firstdimensionis self-efficacy minority's job satisfaction or senseof personalcontroloverone'scareer.Givenhigherratesof turnoverand lowerlevelsofjob satisfaction amongwomenand minorities, it has beenproposedthatthesegroupshave a higherneedforrecognitionand supportand, inversely, a lowersense of self-efficacy or personalcontrolovertheircareer[44,53]. Ethington, Smart,and Zeltman [17],forexample,foundgreater job satisfaction amongfemaleacademics at ResearchI institutions than at lower-level researchuniversities. Based on a suggestion thatwomendemonstrate a lowersenseof selfwithregardto research[44], Ethington et al. hypothesize efficacy that a university's abilityto bothattractand supporttheresearchcapabilities of femalefacultymaybe crucialto theirprofessional satisfaction and success.Rauschet al. [40] also suggesteda linkbetweena lack of institutional supportand a higherrate of voluntaryturnoveramong womenfaculty.However,theirstudyarguesagainstthe notionthat researchinstitutions higher-level providegreatersupport.Finally,Exum et al.'s [19] work offersyet a thirdperspective,suggestingthat the womenwho are successfulat selectiveresearchinstitutions are preciselythosewho viewtheircareeras theproductoftheirowndetermi-



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- eschewingthe importance nationand effort of "local" comraderie and support.Thesefindings in suggestthat additionto interest and relin research,teaching,and service,faculty's ativetimeinvestment sense of personalcontrolovertheircareershouldbe assessedto helpdeterminehow dependentfacultysatisfaction is upon externalvalidationof accomplishments. A relatedissue is how much intrinsicrewardfacultyderivefrom theirwork.To theextentthatwomenand minority faculty claimsignificantintrinsic satisfaction fromtheiracademicwork(regardlessof its nature-for exanmple, researchor teachingor service)theyshouldbe moresatisfiedwiththeirpositionoverall.Numerousstudiesoffaculty job satisfaction haveshowntheintrinsic rewardsof academicworkto be themostcloselyassociatedwithglobaljob satisfaction [forexample, 2, 4, 38]. In addition,intrinsicand extrinsicrewardstendto be inverselyrelated[13, 31]. Thus highlevelsof intrinsicrewardsshould diminishrelianceon externalsupportand recognition.

Summaryof ResearchQuestions The following researchquestionswereaddressed: 1. How do womenand minority facultyat a ResearchI university definetheirfacultyrole,thatis,in termsofthetimeand personal interesttheyinvestin teaching,researchand service,and the satisfaction theyderivefromeach of theseareas? Assessingfaand energiesin thisway,do womenand minorities cultyinterests demonstrate a professional profilefavoringteachingand service overresearch,as is widelysuggested? 2. To what extentis identification withresearch/teaching/service rolespredictive ofperceivedinstitutional and support, recognition and satisfaction withpromotion withone'sdeagreement criteria, partment as indicesof congruenceor fitwithinstitutional values? 3. Do indicesof person-institution fitdetermine job satisfaction? 4. Does genderorminority statusaffectmeasuresofinstitutional fit orjob satisfaction ofprofessional independently roleinterests? 5. Do theintrinsic rewardsof an academiccareerand thesenseof personalcontroloverthatcareercontribute or indirectly directly to job satisfaction? The ProposedModel The presentstudyuses LISREL, a structural equationstechnique similarto pathanalysis,to examine:(1) therelationship betweengender


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(Carnegie and minoritystatusof facultyat a ResearchI institution worksatisfactions, and Classification)and professional roleinterests, betweenthe professional allocationof worktime;(2) the relationship exhibitedbywomenand miprofileof interests, energiesand attitudes priorities; and (3) therelanoritiesand perceivedfitwithinstitutional fitto job satisfactionshipofgender,minority status,and institutional tion[28]. As Stage [48] pointsout,a markedadvantageof LISREL is amongsets thatit allowsexaminationof complexsetsof relationships ofvariablesas a whole(forexample,as specifiedby a testablemodel). of multiin "fit"as botha productand determinant Giventheinterest ple variablesin the presentstudy,LISREL appearedto be the most and informative appropriate techniqueavailable. ofthevariablesexamined Figure1 providesa schematicdescription in thisstudyusingLISREL and the causal pathsinvestigated among variables.The present modelwas operationalized usingfourbackground status,and disciplinary group variables:gender,facultyrank,minority dimension.The coded on 3-pointscale adaptedfromBiglan'shard-soft satisfacroleinterests, firstblockofvariables,representing professional tions,and perceivedcontrolovercareer,included:percentageof time spenton research,percentageoftimespenton teaching,percentageof timespenton service,overallsatisfaction withteaching,overallsatisroleinterests, perceivedcontrolover factionwithresearch,professional withintrinsic career,and satisfaction aspectsoffacultywork.The secfitbetweenpersonaland instituond block of variables,representing includedfourvariables:perceived tionalstandardsand expectations, betweenindividuals' forachievingtenure,discrepancy clarityofcriteria ratingsof "real" and "ideal" importanceof variouscriteriafortenure, and support,and overallsatiswithperceivedrecognition satisfaction The dependentvariable,faculty factionwiththeacademicdepartment. job satisfaction,was identifiedusing four latentconstructswidely literature in thejob satisfaction [39]: overallsatisfaction acknowledged withtheposition,willingness to choose thesame positionagain,willto others, ingnessto recommenda similarpositionat the university and degreeto whichthe positionmeasuredup to the individual'sexpectations. themodelpostulateddirectcausal pathsbetweenthebackInitially, varigroundvariablesand the firstblock of interestand satisfaction ables and betweenthisblockofvariablesand theblockoffitvariables. indicessubsequently suggestedrevisionof this Althoughmodification model (discussedbelow underAnalysis),directcausal linksbetween causally orderedblocks of variablesseemed an appropriatestarting


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place givenliterature suggesting thatgender,race,discipline,and careerstagedirectlyinfluencecareerinterests and satisfactions and that these,in turn,ofteninfluencefitwithinstitutional norms.Failure to confirm thecausal pathsspecifiedorto finddirectlinksbetweenbackgroundvariablesand fitvariableswouldalso provideimportant information,forexample,thatfitis determined by statuscharacteristics as and behavior. wellas attitudes Finally,a directcausal pathwas specifiedbetweenintrinsic satisfactionand senseof controland job satisfaction and betweentheinstitutionalfitvariablesand job satisfaction. These predictions weredrawn fromtheresearchreviewedaboveand helpdemonstrate directly a critical consequenceof poor person-work environment fitin a university setting.In theworkcarriedout here,threedifferent setsof outcomes seemedpossible:(1) womenand minority facultycould exhibita subdifferent roleinterests, stantially patternofprofessional derivedifferent and allocatetheirworktimedifferently thanwhitemale satisfactions, confaculty(thatis,emphasizing teachingand serviceresponsibilities); criteria sequently, theycouldshowgreaterdissonancewithinstitutional and priorities and receiveless university supportand recognition. (2) Or, women and minority facultycould closelyresembletheirwhite male colleagues,fitwellwiththevalues and orientation of a research and be recognizedas doingso. (3) Finally,in a thirdsceuniversity, nario,womenand minority facultycould exhibita substantialcomno greatercommitment mitment to research,demonstrate to teaching and servicethan whitemale faculty,but feel a lack of supportand fromtheuniversity. recognition Whereasintrinsic rewardsand a sense ofcontrolshouldexercisepositive(direct)effects onjob satisfaction, an or explicitclash ofvalueswiththeuniversity, a perceivedlack of support(despitea congruenceofgoals and values),are likelyto negatively affectsatisfaction witha facultyposition. Method Sample tenure-track One hundredforty-six faculty(11 percentof all tenurea caand administered trackfacultyat theuniversity) wereinterviewed The sampleincluded70 (48 percent) reerdevelopment questionnaire. male and 76 (52 percent)femalefaculty;99 (68 percent)whiteand 47 hererefersto faculty (32 percent)minority faculty.The termminority fromunderrepresented minority groups Afro-American, Hispanic, and NativeAmerican.In orderto establisha largeenoughsample,all minority facultyon campus thatsemesterwere asked to participate.



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in the Afro-American facultycomprised66 percentof the minorities sampleand Hispanicfaculty32 percent.The responserateforthesample was about90 percent. By disciplinary groupings, therewere52 faculty(36 percent)in the artsand humanities, 74 (51 percent)in thesocial sciencesand professionaldisciplinesand 20 (14 percent)in thehardsciences.Table 1 provides a breakdownof the sample by sex, ethnicity, and disciplinary grouping.

39 perThirty-two percentof the samplewereassistantprofessors, centassociateprofessors and 29 percentfullprofessors. Because uniissuein theliterature on minority faculty, versity serviceis a significant itseemedimportant to determine in advancewhether theminority subpositions(for sampleweremorelikelyto hold formaladministrative example,director, chair,dean,and so on). Inspectionofthedata indiand whitesubcated thatapproximately 25 percentof both minority position.Thus the sampleswereinvolvedin a formaladministrative in servicedemandswerenotpresent mostobvioussubgroupdifferences a priori. Analysisand Measures inwereadministered an extensiveface-to-face Facultyparticipants terviewand a penciland paperquestionnaire. The interview protocol

TABLE 1 Statusand by Disciplinary Numberof Male and Female Facultyby Minorityand Nonminority Group Race and Ethnicity White

Minority

RowTotal

11 17 28

15 9 24

26 26 52

Social Sciencesand Professional Males 22 Females 32 Column Total 54

10 10 20

32 42 74

3

12 8 20

Sex

Artsand Humanities Males Females ColumnTotal

Hard Sciences Males Females ColumnTotal

9 8 17

-

3


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includedbothclosedand open-endedquestionsaboutcareerpath,professionalrolesand responsibilities, tenurereviewand criteria,career commitment, thebalance of workand nonworklife,and job satisfaction.The careerdevelopment questionnaire containedquestionsabout satisfaction withspecificaspectsofa facultyposition(forexample,autonomy,colleagues,supportforteaching,supportforresearch)as well as measuringglobaljob satisfaction, issuesof balance and conflictbetweenworkand nonworklife,and careerneeds[47]. Measuresused in thepresentstudywereconstructed froma subsetof thedata collected (appendixA), withresultsof quantitativemeasuresassessed against themesthatemergedfromopen-endedfacultyresponses. A covariancestructureanalysiswas carriedout using LISREL. LISREL is oftenused to employlatentconstructswithintheframeworkofan analysisto obtainmorereliableestimatesofconstructs than withordinaryleastsquares[48]. However,one ofthesimplesttypesof LISREL analysisemploysonlysingleindicators.LISREL is oftenpreferredas a structural analysistechniqueregardlessof whethersingle indicatorsor latentconstructsare employed,because it offersa more comprehensive testof a model'sempiricaladequacythando ordinary leastsquaresanalyses,providing, forexample,estimatesof thesignificance of possiblemodifications to a set of linearstructural equations In [28]. thecurrent study,thebackground(or exogenous)variablesand the two blocks of fit(or endogenous)variablesweresingleindicators createdfrommultiple-item scaleswithhighlevelsofinternalreliability. The dependentvariablejob satisfaction was measuredas a latentconstructusingfourwidelyused indicatorsofjob satisfaction. Using LISREL, chi-squarestatisticsforthe fitof theentiremodel and modification to the indicesallow theoretically sound adjustments modelto improvefit.Incremental changesto themodelare easilyevaluatedto determine on theoverallcausal structure. effects Furthermore, it is possibleto specifycorrelationsamongvariablesthatmaybe related,butnotrelatedcausally[48]. Althoughstructural equationtechniquesoffernumerousadvantages, Pertheiruse also posesa numberofuniqueissuesfortheinvestigator. haps the most problematicof theseissues is sample size. Structural equationsare asymptotic. Thatis,unlikemorefamiliarunivariatemodels (forexample,ANOVA orregression), statisticsare notadjustedfor samplesize. Rather,thefundamental assumptionis thatas totalsample size increases,thestandarderrorsforparameter estimatesdecrease, and confidence ingoodnessoffitstatistics increases[51]. Giventhisasthequestionremains,howlargea sampleis largeenough?The sumption,



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issueis complicated byevidencethatlargesamplesmayalso makemodels susceptible to errorsthatwilllead to invalidconclusions[51,p. 135]. Based on a seriesofMonteCarlo studies,Boomsma[6] suggeststhat a samplesize of 100represents a stronglowerboundand recommends samplesof 200 or more.Gebringand Anderson[22] similarlysuggest thatsamplesof 100-200 are acceptable.Againbased on MonteCarlo techniques,Baldwinfurther arguesthat"thereseemsto be a general "rule of thumb"thatmodelswhichfitwell and are relatively easy to estimatecan be estimatedwellwhetherthesamplesize is 100 or 200" [3, p. 16]. Regardlessofsamplesize,however,thereis consensusin the literature thatstructural equationtechniquesalwaysbe interpreted in lightof a well-defined, a priorimodel[48]. The samplein thecurrent study(N= 146),fallswithintheboundsof establishedpractice.Given concernsabout sample size, however,we decideda priorithat:(1) statisticalindicesoffitwouldhave to exceed the suggestedchi square to degreeof freedomratio,(2) basic effects (forexample,withregardto rankand discipline)wouldneed to replicate establishedtrendsin the literature, and (3) quantitativefindings wouldbe supported bytheopen-ended responsesoffaculty participants. The initialmodel specifieddirectcasual paths betweenthe three blocksof variablesand betweenthelast block ofvariablesand theinindicessuggestedthatthe dependentvariable.However,modification oftwoexogenousvariables,genderand minority effects status,on instiroleintutionalfitwerenotlimitedto thosemediatedby professional terestsand satisfactions. Four modifications weremadeto improvethe modeluntilthe resultsreportedherewerereached:pathswerefreed betweentwo exogenousvariables,genderand minority status,and the institutional fitvariable,perceivedrecognition and support;and,paths were freedbetweentwo institutional fitvariables,perceivedcontrol overcareerdevelopment and satisfaction withintrinsic aspectsoffacultywork,and thedependentvariable. Results thatresearchers Joreskogand Sorbom[28] recommend acceptmodels whenthe x2 to degreesof freedomratiois less than2.5 to 1. The modelas specified(figure1), resultedin a good fitwitha chi-squareto degreesoffreedomratioof2.35 (X2 220.66,df 94). Explainedvarwas 64.9 percent.Tables 2 and 3 providea full iance injob satisfaction forthe model. There was a listingof standardizedpath coefficients betweengenderand timespenton reborderline (negative)relationship


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searchand a highlysignificant (negative)relationship betweengender and perceivedrecognition and support,femalesperceiving less institutionalsupport.Minoritystatuswas a highlysignificant (positive)predictorofidentification withtheteachingrole,satisfaction withteaching, and institutional recognition and support.Of theexogenousvariables in themodel,rankwas mostinfluential, beinga significant (negative) predictorof thepercentageof timespenton researchand teachingas wellas a significant (positive)predictor ofthepercentage oftimespent on service,overallsatisfactionwithteaching,perceivedcontrolover one's career,and satisfactionwithintrinsicaspects of facultywork. Disciplinarygrouphad a highlysignificant (positive)relationship with timespenton research(physicalsciencesspendingthemosttime)and a modestlysignificant withtimespentteaching. (negative)relationship None of theexogenousvariableshad a significant directeffecton the finaldependentvariable. Withinthe firstblock of endogenousvariables,perceivedcontrol over one's career,satisfaction withintrinsicaspectsof facultywork, and overallsatisfaction withresearchweremostinfluential inthemodel. Satisfactionwithintrinsicaspects of facultywork was a significant ofsatisfaction (positive)predictor withtheacademicdepartment, satisfactionwithrecognition and support,perceptionsthattenurecriteria wereclear,and thedependentvariablejob satisfaction.'Overallsatisfactionwithresearchwas a significant (positive)predictorof satisfactionwiththeacademicdepartment and a modestly significant (positive) predictorof perceptions thattenurecriteriawereclear.Perceivedcontroloverthecareerwas a significant ofsatisfaction (positive)predictor withrecognitionand supportand job satisfaction.Satisfactionwith teachinghad a highlysignificant withpercep(negative)relationship tionsof recognition and support.Time spenton research,teaching,or servicewas not a significant predictorof any of theotherendogenous variablesin themodel. Two variablesin theblock of personaland institutional fitvariables werehighlysignificant ofjob satisfaction: (positive)predictors perceived recognitionand supportand overallsatisfactionwiththe academic department. Summaryand Discussion The presentstudyexaminedtheprofessional roleinterests and satisfactionsofwomenand minority how facultyat a ResearchI university, welltheirinterests and satisfactions "fit"institutional valuesand expectations,and the effectson job satisfaction. Overallthe model postulated provedhighlypredictive, with65 percentof the variancein job This content downloaded from 128.122.226.249 on Wed, 05 Aug 2015 15:39:27 UTC All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions


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satisfaction explained.Giventheexplanatorypowerof themodel,the factthatwomenand minority academicsfailedto demonstrate theexpectedbias towardserviceactivitiesand less personalcommitment to researchwas noteworthy. Women,in particular,appeared to share withtheuniversity valuesemphasizingresearchscholarshipand publication.The onlydirecteffectofgenderon roleinterests and timeallocationwas a borderlineeffect,suggesting thatwomenspend slightly less timein researchthan otherfaculty.Because expenditure of time maybe a productofexternalconstraints as wellas internal interest, itis important to notethatwomen,liketheirwhitemalecolleagues,tendto definethemselvesprofessionally in termsof theirresearch,deriveas muchintrinsicrewardfromtheiracademicwork,and are as satisfied withtheirresearchactivities.Therewas nothingin thedata to indicate thatfemalefacultyapportionsignificantly moretimeor demonstrate thanwhitemale facultyin teachingor service. greaterinterest The patternof role interestswas somewhatdifferent forminority whoevidencedgreater faculty, identification with,and satisfaction from, teachingthan othergroupsof faculty.Minoritiesdid not, however, a greaterinspend moretimeon teaching,nor did theydemonstrate in service.Research-related vestmentin timeor interest variablesalso indicatedcomparability amongthegroups. For minorities, in particular,the issue of serviceis significant. A burdensomeserviceload has oftenbeen reportedforthisgroupdue to a morediverseacademy. theirhighlevelofresponsibility forestablishing The findings heremaythusappearsomewhatsurprising. However,two in percentotherstudiesalso failedto findexpectedracial differences is thatminority age of timeon service[14, 36]. One possibility faculty have learnedthatdemandsforserviceoutweighrewards(particularly in a researchinstitution) limitthetimetheyspend and self-consciously - nevertheless on suchactivities feelingthepressofextensive requests. In sum, the findingsof the presentstudysuggestthatcurrentassessmentsof womenand minority faculty'sroleinterests maybe a less thanaccuratecharacterization, at leastforfacultyat a research-oriented rolemeasuresused (identification institution. Further,of thedifferent satiswithteaching/research roles,timeallocation,and satisfaction), ofimportant factionwithteachingand researchprovedmostpredictive fit."Satisfactionwithresearch"influencedthe aspectsof institutional withone's academicdepartand satisfaction of criteria tenure clarity ment."Satisfactionwithteaching,"in contrast,exerciseda negative and support.Data also indicated,however,that impacton recognition ofthethreegroupsoffacultyappearedmore althoughtheroleinterests of "fit" similarthannot,in general,rolevariableswereless predictive This content downloaded from 128.122.226.249 on Wed, 05 Aug 2015 15:39:27 UTC All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

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and job satisfaction than werea sense of personalcontroloverone's careerand intrinsic rewards.Resultsthusunderscored theimportance of a sense of autonomyand intrinsicsatisfactions to motivationand successin theacademicdomain.2 The one directeffectofgenderor minority statuson indicesofinstitutionalfitwas as a significant predictorof university recognition and ofjob satisfacsupport a variablethat,in turn,was highlypredictive tion.Data thusshowthatrace and genderaffectthe supportfaculty of whetheror not theirpersonal perceivetheyreceiveindependently professional goals are consonantwithinstitutional values and norms. Surprisingly, however,genderand race effects operatedin oppositedirections, withwomenreporting significantly lessrecognition and support and minority more.These findingsare perplexingin facultyreporting lightofthefactthattheroleindicesmostpredictive of institutional fit were"timespenton"and,especially, "satisfaction with"research, whereof a "misfit"were"timespenton,"and "satas thosemostpredictive isfactionwith"teaching.Givenminority faculty's greateridentification withteaching,and thehigherlevelof satisfaction theyreportfromit, one would expectminority statusratherthangenderto be associated witha disparity withinstitutional goals and values and to garnerless supportand rewardratherthanmore. Therewouldappearto be severalpossibleexplanationsforthisseeminglyanomaloussetoffindings. One possibility is thatminority faculty fromtheuniversity, requiredlesssupportand recognition whilewomen requiredmore.If,forexample,femaleacademicsfeelless efficacious thanmales,theymayrelymoreheavilyon externalvalidationoftheir academiccontributions. Research,in fact,has foundthatfemalegraduatestudentsare moresensitiveto supportfeaturesoftheenvironment thanmales [25, 49]. This need maypersistoverthecourseof an academiccareer.However,womenin thepresentstudyfeltas in controlof theircareersand as able to achievetheirprofessional goals as malefacliketheirmalecounterparts, femalefaculty, ulty.Furthermore, enjoyed a highlevelof intrinsic rewardfromtheiracademicwork.Because intrinsicrewardsoftendiminishthe importanceof extrinsicones,these findingsargueagainstan unusuallyhighneed forrecognition among women.Moreover,data on minorities in predominantly whiteorganizationssuggestthattheyarefarfromobliviousto issuesofsupportand recognition and theirimportance forprofessional success(forexample, recognizingthe need to "promoteoneself,"to be visiblein important afteryearsof campuspositions[45]),thoughitwouldnotbe surprising iftheexpectations discrimination of minority memberswerelower. in perceived A second possibleexplanationis thatthe differential This content downloaded from 128.122.226.249 on Wed, 05 Aug 2015 15:39:27 UTC All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions


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in researchproducrecognition and supportreflectsactualdifferences oftimespenton research"and notactualprotivity. Since "percentage of thepossibility ductivity was measuredin the presentinvestigation, cannotbe dismissed.However, differences significant between-group measurecan help as partof thesame interview two areas investigated Facultywereasked about currentserviceas guide our interpretation. To theextentthatthese grantreviewers, journaleditors,and referees. (receiptofa research activities reflect specificresearchaccomplishments grantbya majorfundingagency,acceptanceofone ormorearticlesby a journal) theymaybe roughindicatorsof researchstature.An equal ofmale and femalefaculty(75 percent)wereinvolvedin reproportion viewingarticlesand editingjournals,withsomewhatfewerminorities 50 percentofmalefacultyand 40 percent (60 percent).Approximately had grantreviewresponsibilities. of womenand minorities currently Also, a campus-basedsalarychartindicatesthateven withindistinfeguishedrank (academic honorsbased on researchachievement), malefaculty receive,on average,$27,000lessthantheirmalecolleagues. Combinedwiththeresearchorientation expressedby womenfaculty, a somescholarly productivity inequities in findingsmakesubstantial and whatlessprobableexplanationforgroupdifferences in recognition support. in theintroduction to thisarticle,itmaybe that Finally,as suggested thedegreeof fitwithuniversity values and goals is as mucha product offit(influencedbyfactorslikegenderand race) as itis ofperceptions and individualgoals and values.Some of ofinstitutional a convergence situationsin which theanecdotestoldbywomenfacultyhelpillustrate their male colleagues been treated from feel have differently they they In particular, twoanecdespiteequivalentabilitiesand responsibilities. With withfemalefaculty. dotesoccurredagainand againin interviews onlyslightvariations,one wentsomethinglike this:"I was the only woman on the committee.I proposedmyidea and it was as if I had the discussioncontinuedon unabated.Then, a neversaid anything, I did. All whilelaterone ofthemale facultymadethesame suggestion ofa suddentheidea was heardand couldbe discussed."Whatwas particularlytroublingto womenabout vignettessuch as the one above, was not so much thattheirproposalhad been discounted,but that whenthesame idea was presentedby a male facultyit was recognized and valued. A numberoffacultyalso indicatedthatas a woman,itwas "dangerto teaching, ous" to appeartoo committed becauseitwouldbe assumed that teachingwould preemptresearch.For example,one pretenure book and overa dozenrewomanreportedthatdespitea well-received This content downloaded from 128.122.226.249 on Wed, 05 Aug 2015 15:39:27 UTC All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

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journalsshe was viewedby herdepartment searcharticlesin refereed as marginalin researchand strongin teaching.As partofherteaching credentialsshe had publisheda numberof articleson thepedagogyof her field.During an annual review,she was told explicitlythat she would have been "betteroff"if she had not writtenthe articleson teaching,"becausetheyindicateyoucould havedone a wholelot more research."This facultywenton to say,"I have malecolleagueswithno publicationsheld up to me as a paradigm.I feeldevaluedas a junior facultyand devalued as a women.

. .

. I deserve more than the mar-

ginalfeedbackI havereceived."Anotherwoman,reporteda similarincident,"I won a teachingaward,whichthenmade people say she's a teachernot a researcher because theydidn'tknow my research. . . . Therewererumorsthat I would be firedexceptthatall of the was womencouldn'tleave at once(theotherwomanin thedepartment here and leaving).I heardthisthrougha candidatewho interviewed Unwilling to fightthe itwas totallyuntrue,so untrueitwas ridiculous." simply had ascribedto her,thisfaculty teachingpersonathedepartment leftto assumea positionat anotherresearchuniversity. The threadrunningthroughmanyof the storiesthatwomentold Frequentlyfemalefacultywerenot was a sense of disconnectedness. invitedto go out to lunchor drinksafterwork,or includedin other Withmanyof the inimportant venuesforinformalcommunication. in acquiring formalnetworksprecluded,womenhavegreaterdifficulty thedepartment about and informing information aboutthedepartment theirown activities, researchin particular.Withoutaccurateinformapolitics, tion,theindividualis likelyto be less attunedto departmental in turn,are needs, and goals, whilethe departmentand institution, likelyto makejudgmentsbased on limiteddata and to relymoreheavon preconceptions and stereotypes.3 ily(ifunconsciously) itstillarguesthatirreleofracewas moresalutary, Thoughtheeffect intodecisionsaboutrewardsand support. vantcriteriamaybe entering facperceivedbyminority Undoubtedly, someofthegreaterrecognition theheightened concernhighereducationhas demonstrated ultyreflects in thepast severalyearsto establisha moreraciallyand ethnicallydiof the value of a diversefacultymay verseacademy.A reaffirmation memberson fewminority oftherelatively haveenhancedappreciation campus (approximately4 percentof all faculty,or 54 individuals). marketfactorsand the Giventhe renaissanceof interestin diversity, facultyseekingpositionsat prerelativelysmall numberof minority whiteresearchuniversities maykeeprewardshigh.For exdominantly reviewoffacultysalariesindicatedthatwomen ample,an institutional less than whitemale facultywithcomparable werepaid consistently This content downloaded from 128.122.226.249 on Wed, 05 Aug 2015 15:39:27 UTC All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions


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facultywere paid as much or rank and background,and minority the contrastbetweenthegoals of diversity and the more.Ultimately, in facultyranksmay have encourrepresentation realityof minority of minorities as a wayof bothobfuscating aged greaterrecognition the currentgap betweenrhetoricand realityas well as encouraging in thefuture. greaterrepresentation appearto receivemoresupport,a secondfactor Becausemalefaculty faculty reportedby minority to the greaterrecognition contributing sample. may have been the numberof male facultyin the minority malesdo not indicateanybias in However,availabledata on minority theirfavor(such as mayoperateforwhitemales)[52]. Anotherfactor facultywerein the to be consideredis thatabout one thirdofminority Studiesand Spanish. In the present departmentsof Afro-American facultymayhavebeenin oftheminority case, a substantialproportion thattheyexperienced a workenvironment withenoughotherminorities members fewerof the social and professionalbarriersthatminority facewhentheyare clearly"tokens." typically role The findingsof thisstudyappear to indicatethatprofessional in thearea of research,are an important but satisfactions, particularly I fit in a Factors university. notfinalarbiterof institutional Research such as race and genderaffectimportantaspectsof how facultyare examinationofthelinkbetween perceivedand rewarded.Furthermore, thedifferent measuresoffitused in thepresentstudyandjob satisfactionsuggestthatinstitutional withone's supportand the relationship the workcontext,is morepredictiveof job satisfaction department, standards.In otherwords, than abstractagreement withinstitutional may share a similarset of values, but these facultyand university in a worksettingthatsupportsand provalues mustbe instantiated basis to engendersatismotesthemon a moreconcrete,interpersonal faction. Findingsalso indicatedthata sense of personalcontroloverone's careerand theintrinsic of academicworkexerciseda sigsatisfactions Data thusreplicatedthe nificantdirectinfluenceon job satisfaction. the importanceof indocumenting findingsof an extensiveliterature The presentworkadds to trinsicrewardsto facultyjob satisfaction. not simplyin thesense thisthesignificance of beingself-determining, of controlovera particularresearchprojector contentof a class, but sense of overthe courseof a facultycareer.Moreover,unexpectedly, rewardswereassociatedwithpositiveassessments controland intrinsic and ofdepartmental recognition colleaguesand chairand institutional support,which,again, werehighlypredictiveof overallsatisfaction. on senseofpersonalcontrolsuggeststhata The moregeneralliterature This content downloaded from 128.122.226.249 on Wed, 05 Aug 2015 15:39:27 UTC All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

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orientation, highlevelis associatedwitha moreactive,problem-solving morepositiveaffect, and bettercopingskills[forexample,21, 37, 50]. Intrinsicrewardsalso exercisebeneficialeffectson motivationand whether charproblem-solving. Furtherresearchis neededto determine acteristics associatedwiththesevariablesmaymaketheindividualmore accepproductive, morepersistent and/ormoreadaptable,facilitating level. tanceand recognition at thedepartment and university Statementof Limitations The presentstudyhas severallimitations: (1) Data are based on selfreport.(2) The sample is highlyselectiveand generalizesat best to otherResearch I universities. (3) The minorityfacultysample was at higherranks we werethusmorelikelyto be interoverrepresented viewingthe"survivors," facultywho had beenable to meetand exceed withthem.To confirmpresent university expectationsand to identify findings and exploresuggestions raisedin thediscussionhere,findings shouldbe replicatedwitha largersample,withmodelsrunseparately foreach ofthethreegroups. Despite these limitations, the presentstudysuggeststhat at least values somewomenand minority facultysubscribeto theprofessional and goals ofa researchinstitution and derivesubstantialintrinsic satisfactionfromtheiracademiccareerso defined.Moreresearchis needed to determinethe unique effectsof race and genderon institutional recognition, and to exploretheinstitutional and psychologicalfactors (forexample,senseofcontrol)thatmayhelpmoderatenegativeeffects of a lack ofrecognition and supportonjob satisfaction. APPENDIX A Definitionsof Variables Variable Gender

Rank Minoritystatus Disciplinarygroup Percentageoftimespenton research Percentageoftimespenton teaching Percentageoftimespenton service

Satisfactionwithteaching

Description 0 = male 1 = female

3 = full 2 = associateprofessor, 1 = assistantprofessor, professor 0 = white1 = minority Based on Biglan'shard/softdimension:1 = artsand humanities,2 = social sciencesand appliedfields,3 mathematicsand physicalsciences

On 1 to 5 pointscales: Your classroomteachingskills? Your knowledge,contentexperience? Your timemanagement (relatedto teaching)?



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APPENDIX A (Continued) Variable

Satisfactionwithresearch

Professionalroleinterests

Perceivedcontrolovercareer Satisfactionwithintrinsic aspectsoffacultywork

Perceivedclearnessoftenure Discrepancybetweenreal and ideal criteriafortenure

Recognitionand support

Satisfaction withdepartment

Jobsatisfaction

Description Your readinessforteachingassignments? Alpha = 0.69 On 1 to 5 pointscales: The directionand focusof yourresearch? The qualityofyourresearchpublications? The amountof researchyou can carryout? The amountof researchyou publish? Alpha = 0.79 1 = heavilytowardteaching 2 = both,lean to teaching 3 = equal and complimentary 4 = both,lean to research 5 = heavilytowardresearch I = notmuchat all to 5 = a greatdeal On I to 5 pointscales: Sense of personalautonomy? to use yourskillsand abilities? Opportunity Sense of accomplishment? forcontinuedlearning? Opportunity to havea significant Opportunity impacton others? Progresstowardyourownprofessional goals? Alpha = 0.87 1 = notat all clearto 4 = extremely clear Discrepancyscorebased on "real"and "ideal"importance fortenurewhere1 = notat all important and 5 extremely important. Gettingalongwithcolleagues Publications Gender Obtainingoutsidefunds Adequacyin teaching Personality Department/ university service Professional Instincts Lifestyle Ethnicity Alpha = 0.76 On 1 to 5 pointscales: foryourworkwithintheuniversity? Recognition Feedbackaboutyourwork? Jobsecurity? Supportfromtheadministration? Supportforscholarship? Supportforteaching/ advising? Alpha = 0.76 On 1 to 5 pointscales: The supportof yourdepartment chair? The qualityof yourcolleagues? The qualityofyour/ departmental graduatestudents? Alpha= 0.67 Four latentconstructs: = 1.0 Lambda Y weighting All thingsconsidered, how satisfiedare youwithyour position? I = notat all satisfiedto 5 = verysatisfied. = 0.66 Lambda Y weighting Knowingwhatyou knownow,ifyou had to decideall over againwhetherto choosethepositionyou nowhave,what wouldyoudecide?


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APPENDIX A (continued) Variable

Description I = I wouldnotchoosethesame position 2 = I wouldhavesomesecondthoughts 3 = I wouldchoosethesame position = 0.65 Lambda Y weighting If a studentor colleaguetoldyou thathe or she is interested in seekinga positionlikeyoursat thisuniversity, what wouldyou say? I = I wouldadviseagainstthisposition 2 = I wouldhavesomedoubts thisposition 3 = I wouldrecommend Lambda Y weighting=0.52 In general,how wellwouldyou saythatyourpositionmeasuresup to thesortof positionyou wantedwhenyou started it? I = It is notat all whatI wanted 2 = It is something likewhatI wanted,butnotcompletely 3 = It is verymuchwhatI wanted

APPENDIX B Direct,Indirect,and Total Effectson JobSatisfaction Direct Gender MinorityStatus Rank Discipline Time spenton research Time spenton teaching Time spenton service Satisfaction withteaching Satisfaction withresearch Professional roleinterests Perceivedcontrolovercareer Satisfaction withintrinsic aspectsofwork Perceivedclearnessoftenurecriteria Discrepancybetweenrealand ideal criteriafortenure Recognitionand support Satisfaction withacademicdepartment *p