Proceedings of the International Conference on Gender Research ICGR 2018 Hosted by ISCAP, P.Porto Porto, Portugal
12 - 13 April 2018
Edited by Dr Ana Azevedo ISCAP/ Polytechnic of Porto, Portugal Dr Anabela Mesquita Porto Business and School / Polytechnic of Porto, Portugal
Copyright The Authors, 2018. All Rights Reserved. No reproduction, copy or transmission may be made without written permission from the individual authors. Review Process Papers submitted to this conference have been double-blind peer reviewed before final acceptance to the conference. Initially, abstracts were reviewed for relevance and accessibility and successful authors were invited to submit full papers. Many thanks to the reviewers who helped ensure the quality of all the submissions. Ethics and Publication Malpractice Policy ACPIL adheres to a strict ethics and publication malpractice policy for all publications – details of which can be found here: http://www.academic-conferences.org/policies/ethics-policy-for-publishing-in-the-conferenceproceedings-of-academic-conferences-and-publishing-international-limited/ Conference Proceedings The Conference Proceedings is a book published with an ISBN and ISSN. The proceedings have been submitted to a number of accreditation, citation and indexing bodies including Thomson ISI Web of Science and Elsevier Scopus. Author affiliation details in these proceedings have been reproduced as supplied by the authors themselves. The Electronic version of the Conference Proceedings is available to download from DROPBOX http://tinyurl.com/ICGR2018 Select Download and then Direct Download to access the Pdf file. Free download is available for conference participants for a period of 2 weeks after the conference. The Conference Proceedings for this year and previous years can be purchased from http://academic-bookshop.com E-Book ISBN: 978-1-911218-78-4 E-Book ISSN: 2516-2810 Book version ISBN: 978-1-911218-77-7 Book Version ISSN: 2516-2802 Published by Academic Conferences and Publishing International Limited Reading UK Tel: +44-118-972-4148 www.academic-conferences.org
Contents Paper Title
Author(s)
Page No
Preface
vi
Committee
vii
Biographies
viii
Research papers Gender Equality in Tertiary Education and Research Institutions: An Evaluation Proposal
Tindara Addabbo, Claudia Canali, Gisella Facchinetti, Alessandro Grandi and Tommaso Pirotti
1
Entrepreneurship in China, an Overview of Women Practice
Laurice Alexandre–Lecalir and Cui Zhao
10
Are Attitudes Changing? Female and Male Millennials on Contemporary Gender Issues in Europe
Manuel Au-Yong-Oliveira, Fernando Moreira, Ramiro Gonçalves, and Carlos Costa
20
Discrimination Against Women in the Russian Labor Market: Background and Consequences
Ekaterina Avduyevskaia and Y.Y. Kuporov
28
Khandan and Talluqat as Social Capital for Women’s Career Advancement in Pakistan: A Study of NGO Sector in Islamabad
Nausheen Azam and Rashida Qureshi
38
Wharton’s Socially Entrapped Women: Ethan Frome, Summer and The House of Mirth
Olgahan Bakşi Yalçın
46
Attacking the Gender gap in Technology: A Triple Helix Case Study
Rodrigo Bartels, Gabriela Marín and Raquel Fonseca
52
A Glass Cliff or a Challenge? Women Managing Local Funds
Ewa Bogacz-Wojtanowska, Katarzyna Peter-Bombik and Sylwia Wrona
61
A Methodology for Participatory Gender Audit in ICT/IST Research Institutions
Claudia Canali, Tindara Addabbo and Maria Sangiuliano
70
What Could be Done? Tourism, Gender (In)Equality and Women Managers’ Views of What Should Change
Inês Carvalho, Carlos Costa, Nina Lykke and Anália Torres
80
Gender Stereotypes in Leadership Construction Within Family Business
Francesca Maria Cesaroni, Maria Gabriella Pediconi and Annalisa Sentuti
89
Embodiment and Control: An Autoethnographic Account of Menarche and Menstruation
Krystina Colbeck
99
When Should I Have a Baby?
Mary Corcoran and Mary Noonan
105
Women's Access to Research: Mexico
Yuli Estefany Correa Vera and Juan Nicólas Montoya Monsalve
113
The Influence of Teachers’ Immediacy Behaviors in Relation to Students’ Perceptions and Evaluations in Thailand
June Bernadette D’souza
120
Unemployment Gender Inequality in Regions of Slovakia
Marina Faďoš and Mária Bohdalová
128
i
Paper Title
Author(s)
Gender Differences in Employees’ Evaluations of the Toxic HRM Practices
Alena Fedorova, Mauro Gatti, Maria Menshikova and Olga Koropets
136
Gender Identity and Learning Behavior
Pia Susanne Frederiksen
144
Wisibilízalas: Promoting the Role of Women in ICT Among Secondary School Students
Ana Freire, Aurelio Ruiz-Garcia and Verónica Moreno Oliver
151
Research in Information Systems and Technologies: An Empirical Study About Gender Issues
Márcia Gama and Ana Azevedo
161
The Experience of Battered Women at Intervention Centers
Edita Gelbūdienė
168
Elderly Women Between Ageing and Gender Discrimination
Irina Grigoryeva and Irina Sizova
174
Exploring the Relationship Between Gender Diversity and Earnings Management: Does Critical Mass Matter?
Maria João Guedes, Cristina Gaio and Nuno Soares
181
Transcending Gendered Norms of Leadership in Higher Education: How Women do it
Cherisse Hoyte
189
Traditional African Male Dominance in Leadership, Cologenderism: The Need for Gender Balancing
Ephraim Ahamefula Ikegbu
197
Gender Disparity in Mathematics Classrooms
Madelyn Johnson and Lisa Kasmer
206
Smart Cities for Women: New Scenarios for Equal Opportunities. A Pedagogical Perspective
Francesca Marone and Anna Cucca
209
Young Graduates, Gender and Entrepreneurship
Ana Paula Marques, Ana Maria Brandão and Rita Lamela
216
Financial Literacy and Gender Issues in Students From the University: Comparative Results From Portugal and Brazil
Anabela Mesquita, Thiago Nascimento, Paulino Silva, Paula Sauer, Cláudia Donega, and Cláudia Forte
226
Masculinity, Femininity and Androgyny in Fairy Tales and Their Film Adaptations
Dorota Michułka and Mirosława Wawrzak-Chodaczek
235
Women’s Studies in Asia Series: An Example of Developing an African Studies Opportunity for African Women’s Studies
Lize Moldenhauer, Cindy Londt, Jason le Grange and Greg Beyer
242
It is Getting Better, a Little Better: Female Application to Higher Education Programmes on Informatics and System Science
Peter Mozelius
249
Implications of Financial Literacy on Women Entrepreneurship in Turkey
Nilufer Narli and Zeynep Hale Keifer Oner
255
Clustering the Portuguese Employee Population Regarding Gender: A NUTIII Cluster Analysis
Alcina Nunes, Sofia Cardim and Carlos Balsa
262
Gender Differences and Digital Learning Games: One Size Does not fit all
Joseph Osunde, Liz Bacon and Lachlan Mackinnon
271
Women and Social Networking Websites Usage Patterns in Small Societies
Nuran Öze
278
ii
Page No
Paper Title
Author(s)
Family Business and Performance: The Power of Women
Inna Sousa Paiva and Luísa Cagica Carvalho
286
Competitiveness and Relational Capital: Women in Management in the Sector of Immigrants Reception in Italy
Paola Paoloni and Marco Valeri
295
Female Board Appointments and Stock Price Reactions in the Italian Market
Patrizia Pastore, Silvia Tommaso and Antonio Ricciardi
305
Career Strategies for Russian Women
Evelina Pavlovna Pecherskaya, Vladimir Aleksandrovich Piskunov, Tatiana Mihailovna Tarasova, Lydmila Viktorovna Poliynova and Elena Akeksandrovna Karaseva
316
The Evolution of Gender Gaps in the Labour Market in Developed Economies
Elisabeth Pereira
325
The X(X) Factor: Social Entrepreneurship and Gender gap. A Survey on Italian Social Cooperatives
Francesca Picciaia
333
UNLOVE: A Digital Game for Gender-Based Violence Prevention and Awareness
Ana Margarida Pisco Almeida, Joana Lima, Maria Joana Pereira and Manuela Silva
342
The Influence of Maternity on Women Novelists Fiction and Literary Careers: A Critical Perspective
Cesare Pozzuoli
351
Empowering Women in Waste Management Work Setting Through Community Recycling-Upcycling Project: Cases of Malaysia and Indonesia
Rohaiza Rokis and Putri Silaturrahmi
357
Running the Household: Gender Perspectives From the Past
Gina Rossi and Angelo Piccini
364
Mexico and Colombia: Women Researchers, a Gender gap in the 21st Century
Grisdania Sánchez Gómez and Juan Nicólas Montoya Monsalve
371
Negotiating Gender Equality Policies in IST-ICT Research Institutions: Reflections from the Participatory Audit to Design of Gender Equality Plans in the EQUAL-IST Project
Maria Sangiuliano, Claudia Canali and Vasiliki Madesi
380
Heroine's Journey in a Broken World: Constructing Narrative and Identity Using Digital Storytelling
Maria Saridaki
390
Donald Trump, Sick Women’s Bodies, and the Wizardry of (Dr.) Oz
Roy Schwartzman and Jenni Simon
399
Women in Family Firms: A Structured Literature Review
Annalisa Sentuti, Francesca Maria Cesaroni and Serena Cubico
407
Emerging new Thai Hybridised Masculinities: A Negotiation Between the Global and Local Domains
Jhitsayarat Siripai
417
Gender Aspects in Using Digital Technologies by Population in Russia
Viacheslav Sirotin and Marina Arkhipova
425
International Mobility Experiences of Portuguese Women: A Qualitative Study
Paula Sousa, Regina Leite and Emília Fernandes
432
iii
Page No
Paper Title
Author(s)
Why Swipe Right? Women’s Motivation for Using Mobile Dating Applications Such as Tinder
Maureen Tanner and Michelle Huggins
440
Gender Diversity in the University System: The impact on Performance
Raffaele Trequattrini, Simone Manfredi, Alessandra Lardo and Benedetta Cuozzo
448
Succession Planning in Family Firms: Emotional Struggles and Gender Differences
Ine Umans, Nadine Lybaert, Tensie Steijvers and Wim Voordeckers
455
Gender-Specific Negotiation Competences and Their Effects on Reimbursement and Promotion Negotiations
Martina Voigt and Andrea Ruppert
462
Local leadership of Women in Local Government in Rural Areas in Poland
Justyna Wasil
469
Gender Difference Toward Wearable Technology
Tsung-Han Yang and Liang-Chuan Wu
476
Gender and Democracy
Mpu Yolanda
483
A Critique of the “Myth of Protection” of Women in UNSC Resolution 1325
Iker Zirion Landaluze
491
Phd Research Papers
Page No
499
Researching Personal the Professional Development of Women in Senior Leadership Roles in Saudi Arabia
Azhar Ali Mohammed Gawarir
501
Gender and Management in Higher Education: Women’s Participation in Universities in Portugal and in Brazil
Adriana dos Santos Marmori Lima, Maria Teresa Geraldo Carvalho, Suely Aldir Messeder and Sara Diogo
510
Gender Equity in Financial Planning for Retirement
Ash McAuliffe
518
Sexual and Gender-Based Violence in Refugee Camps
Tatiana Morais
522
Armed Conflict Within National Equality Policies in Colombia
Rakel Oion Encina
526
Typology of Theatregoers by Gender in an International Context
Katarína Rebrošová
533
Masculine Gender Role Adherence as a Predictor of Suicidal Behaviour
Charlotte Starkey
541
Designing a Competence Development Recommender for Equal Career-Development Opportunities for Women in the STEM Field
Freya Willicks, Valerie Stehling, Max Haberstroh and Ingrid Isenhardt
547
Masters Research Papers
557
Proposals for Gender Mainstreaming in the Technical University of Madrid
Paula Pérez Briones and Celia Fernández Aller
559
Female Entrepreneurship and Internationalisation: A Qualitative Approach
Joana Moreira, Alexandra Braga, Carla Susana Marques and Vítor Braga
568
Non Academic Paper
579
Women’s Empowerment and Leadership in Academia: A Case Study
Antonella Veltri, Sonia Vivona and Paola Sdao
Work In Progress Papers
581 591
iv
Paper Title
Author(s)
African Female Migrants in Informal Hairdressing Industry and the Challenges They Face
Zizipho Gobile and Gabriel Tati
593
The Demographic Interpretation of Call Centres in Africa: Age and Gender
Nisha Harry
602
How Design Shapes Gender in Baby Toys
Jéssica Lane da Silva Oliveira and Dianne Magalhães Viana
609
Gendered Research Knowledge Creation in Teacher Universities
Maria Lourdes Santiago-Agustin
612
Late Submission
Page No
617
Power and Gender: Female Perspective
Zahra Khasmeh University of Minho, Braga,Portugal
v
619
Women and Social Networking Websites Usage Patterns in Small Societies Nuran Öze Department of Public Relations and Advertising, Faculty of Communication, Near East University, Nicosia, Cyprus
[email protected] Abstract: The application of the internet to mobile phones has led to a significant increase in the use of social media worldwide. In this study, it was attempted to understand the degree of gendering effect on women in using and sharing on social media. The roles of women in the society have been influenced by the history of that country, its cultural structure, its economic strength, its political stance. It’s not possible to compare; societies who live in developed countries with societies who live in developing or underdeveloped countries on the same scale; societies with densely populated societies, those with low populations; the societies that live in countries with large geographical areas to the societies that live in small geographical regions with each other. A field research was conducted on women living in a small country like Northern Cyprus to understand the effect of gendering on women. Translation errorSurvey forms contain open ended questions and semistructured interview method has applied in order to get detailed information in the research.Translation error Within the scope of the study, 137 women attended to the research. Despite the fact that North Cyprus is a small country, the diversity of answers towards gendering on social media survey of women living in a mixed population structure in Northern Cyprus have been observed. Women's nationality, education status and age ranges have differentiate women's attitudes in the social media. It has identified that, gender issues have lower social pressure on younger Turkish Cypriot women than the older aged Turkish Cypriot women in Northern Cyprus in this study. Turkey born young adult women don't behave as free as Turkish Cypriot young adult women in social media usages. Also women with higher levels of education are more comfortable in social media than women with lower levels of education despite social norms. In Northern Cyprus, women are more likely to comply with technological norms rather than social norms. Keywords: women, social media, gendering, freedom, small society
1. Introduction Technology mediated improvements have a capacity to change and transform the way people perceive lives and even their daily life practices. In particular, the social media applications that have become widespread with the adaptation of the internet to the mobile phones have affected the entire social life cycle. Social media has not only affected developed societies, it has also affected every society that has a sufficient infrastructure, internet access rights and adequate financial strength. “In recent years, social media has become a big part of social life; this is related with sociology and social psychology. Social media has necessitated a new way of thinking about relationships in the world” (Öze, 2017b). In addition to sociology and social psychology, psychology and communication sciences have to add to these components as well. Communication ways and relationship styles are differentiating among societies. Culture, culture based norms, life styles, opportunities, laws, religion, geographic situation, political issues, technological opportunities, economical power affects the way in which life is perceived. This study aims to understand how women are affected from gendering in using social media in small societies. Culture and normative rules have much more influences in small societies. On the other hand everything is changing, in everyday life practices with the expansion of technology around the world. This study tries to explore ‘does gendering influence the way women and men use social media in Northern Cyprus?’ in order to answer the overall research question. Gender and sex concepts have different meanings and these subjects have been discussed (Bem, 1981; Biddle, 1986; Fausto-Sterling, 1993; Fausto-Sterling, 2005; Samp, Wittenberg and Gillett, 2009) for many times among scholars. The differentiation of social media usage practices by gender in developing or underdeveloped communities compared to developed societies is predictable. In addition to being a developing small society, this study examines the social media usage patterns of women living in Northern Cyprus within the unique political and economic structure since decleration of Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus in 1983. “Cyprus is an island in the middle of the Mediterranean Sea which has been divided into two parts as south and north after the war in 1974. In the south side, Greek Cypriots and in the north side Turkish Cypriot live. Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus was declared in 1983. Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus is not recognized by any country except Turkey. This results in the isolation of Northern Cyprus economically and politically all over the world” (Öze, 2017a). Mostly researches are focusing on
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Nuran Öze developed countries and their societies. However there are other societies that live in proper conditions and unique features like people who are living in Northern Cyprus. In this study, the purpose is to investigate the effects of gendering on women who live in Northern Cyprus on the basis of social media usage patterns. In this research, social media usage habits of women in different age categories, with different nationalities and educational status have been analysed by using field research and semi-structured interview methods. In the second part of the study, the meaning of gendering; theories related with gendering; ideology and gendering relations will be examined. In the third part the expanded usage of social media and its relation with differentiation of communication culture; societies and its boundaries, and effects of technology on these boundaries have been discussed. Then hypothecation of the study has been created and methodology explanation which has been used is done. Fifth part includes findings and discussion and then the conclusion comes up in the sixth part.
2. The reproduction of relations by gendering Gender, expresses the meanings and anticipations that the society and the culture imposes on being a woman or a man; it also meets a cultural construct and often includes the psychological characteristics associated with the individual's psychological structure. Many theories have been developed in the field of psychology related with gender; such as social learning theory (Bandura, 1977; McLeod, 2016); social cognitive theory (Bandura 1986; Bandura 2001; Bandura, 2002), gender scheme theory (Bem, 1981, Bem, 1983) and Eagly's social role theory (Eagly, 1997). According to Bandura's (1977) social learning theory “most human behaviour is learned observationally through modelling: from observing others, one forms an idea of how new behaviours are performed, and on later occasions this coded information serves as a guide for action”. Then Bandura (1986), creates social Cognitive Theory. Social cognitive theory provides an agentic conceptual framework within which to examine the determinants and mechanisms of such effects. Human behaviour has often been explained in terms of unidirectional causation, in which behaviour is shaped and controlled either by environmental influences or by internal dispositions. Social cognitive theory explains psychosocial functioning in terms of triadic reciprocal causation (Bandura, 1986). In this transactional view of self and society, personal factors in the form of cognitive, affective, and biological events, behavioural patterns, and environmental events all operate as interacting determinants that influence each other bidirectional. Gender Schema Theory introduced by Bem (1981) as a cognitive theory. “Gender schema theory proposes that the phenomenon of sex typing derives, in part, from gender-based schematic processing, from a generalised readiness to process information on the basis of the sex-linked associations that constitute the genders schema. In particular, the theory proposes that the sex typing results from the fact that the self-concept itself gets assimilated to the gender schema. Several studies are described which demonstrate that sex-typed individuals do, in-fact, have a greater readiness to process information – Including information about the self -- in terms of the gender schema. It is speculated that such gender-based schematic processing derives, in part, from the society’s ubiquitous insistence on the functional importance of the gender dichotomy. The political implications of gender schema theory are discussed, as is the relationship of the theory to the concept of androgyny” (Bem, 1981). Social learning theory (Bandura, 1977; Renzetti, Curran, and Maier 2012) can be explained as a theory of learning and social behaviour. According to social learning theory behaviours can be acquired by observing and imitating others. This theory states that learning is a cognitive process and social context is the place that can occur purely through observation or direct instruction, even in the absence of motor reproduction or direct reinforcement. Social learning theory argues that behaviour is learned not only through observation but also through reward and punishment, a process known as vicarious reinforcement. Particular behaviours are rewarded /accepted by the societies and particular behaviours are constantly punished / unaccepted (condemnation, exclusion from society) by the societies. Accepted behaviours will most likely persist by individual; conversely, unaccepted behaviours will most likely desist by individual. Its show that, social learning theory expands on traditional behavioural theories. Reinforcements cause to behavioural internalization and it can be defined as internal processes in the learning individual. In this study, gendering is evaluated under the framework of social learning theory, social cognitive theory and traditional behavioural theories. Gender is a psychosocial characteristic that characterizes the individual as masculine or feminine. True differences come from birth, they are not learned, they are not changeable and they are permanent differences; these are called biological characteristics (chromosome differences, hormonal differences, differences in reproductive functions, differences in body structure, voice differentiation). The others are not real differences (women are perceived as more sensitive, caring, concerned; men are perceived as more independent, strong,
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Nuran Öze reasonable), these differences created by society. While the debates about whether gender differences are social or biological, gender differences have begun to be used to show that these differences are more related to social processes than to biological processes. Expectations about these differences tend to shift to gender stereotypes and are widely accepted in society as beliefs and norms. Gender stereotypes give a great deal of direction to social behaviour. The behavioural characteristics that the society expects to be obeyed as a group of women and men are the gender stereotypes. Commonly accepted stereotype expectations may cause to prejudices and discrimination among different sexes; can exaggerate distinctions between different sexes; sometimes lead to being treated as 'self-fulfilling prophecies'. This may cause an increase in subjectivity and it can lead to the placement of business sense according to sex as well. At this point, the concept of ideology needs to be examined. The French Marxist philosopher Louis Althussers’ Theory of Ideology remains influential until now. Althusser (1971) argues that ideology is the product of the mind and that the way the mind works is the same throughout history. Therefore he claims that, 'ideology has no history'. Claiming that ideology is an imagination of peoples minds, Althusser (1971) says that ideology always exists in an apparatus and its practices. Ideology consists of a system of worldview, beliefs and values. The main point of the emergence of ideologies is to gain power. Culture and ideology are among the superstructures that emerged on the basis of the continuation of the hegemony in the infrastructure. Althusser defends that the Ideological State Apparatuses (ISA) are at work to make the ideology in the superstructure functional. According to Althusser the ISA belong to the private domain of society (Leitch, 2001). Religion, education, politics, media, cultural events are examples of ISAs. Instead of expressing and imposing order; through social repression, ISAs reinforce the rules of the dominant class, principally through ideology. Social ridicule and social pressure are using by ISAs as a tool of directory to make people to obey ideologically designed rules. People are raised within the framework of social rules from the moment people are born. This awareness-based consent and acceptance, rises in the family environment; in religious teachings; in educational institutions (through course content); with the publication contents of the media organs; artistic activities and cultural expectations in the direction of the male and female roles are shaped by.
3. The reproduction of relations by technology Castells (2000 and 2009) explains power as the ability to exercise violence and he divided violence in to two categories: Physical violence and symbolic violence. He believes that the symbolic violence is more powerful than physical one and the power of symbolic violence increases as the time passes. “Symbolic communication between humans, and the relationship between humans and nature through production/consumption, experience, and power, crystallize over history in specific territories, thus generating cultures which go on to live a life on their own. Individuals may adopt/adapt to cultures, so building their identities. Or else, they may construct their own, individual identities through the interaction between available cultures, and their own symbolic recombinant capacity, influenced by their specific experience. There is another layer that is folded in production/consumption, experience, power, and culture. This is technology. (…) Technology plays an essential role in framing the relationships of experience: for instance, human reproductive technology frames family relationships and sexuality. Therefore, we must integrate technology, on its own ground, as a specific layer of the social structure, following an old tradition in human ecology. I would like to use for conceptualizing technology as a layer of the social structure” (Castells, 2000). The spread of social media usage among people has become common in different parts of the world. The spread and evolution of social media usage cause to change in relationship styles and also provoke variation resulting from cultures and traditional socialization modes that prevalent in the countries. Oksman and Turtainen (2004) argued that “Internet-based communication channels are part of the new written communication culture of young” and they think mobile communication as a social stage. Similarly Humpreys (2010) argued “new technologies provide a new place for people to work out these problems and socialize in ways with which they are already familiar. Over time, these interactions create a whole new social landscape”. Srivastava (2005) said that, “Today's mobile phone is a pervasive tool. It has become such an important aspect of a user's daily life that it has moved from being a mere 'technological object' to a key 'social object'”. In this study, internet-based communication channels, especially social media and their effects on women have been discussed. It is thought that social media is not only cause to change in written culture among the young people, but also social media has an effect on the whole everyday life practices (culture, norms, gender, etc.) which has a general influence on the society. “Societies and cultures are not unities; they are hypothetical entities, which may have no definite
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Nuran Öze boundaries. Boundaries are drawn for heuristic reasons, and may vary with who is drawing them. Groups which may be classified as different, or are self-classifying as different, might be seen as similar in comparison with, or in interaction with, other groups” (Marshall, 2006). People behaviours are influencing from the expectations of the particular groups that the individual feels belong to. According to Thoits and Virshup (1997), presentation of behaviours can be named as being "public self". There is a need for physical appearance and language use in presentation of public-self in normal circumstances. Discursively and physically expectations of society can be count as boundaries that the society’s identified for women and men behavioural expectations on public-self presentation. On the other hand there isn't any requirement for physical appearance in a social media for presenting public-self. These also cause to change in context of relationship. Gergen (1991) believes that the self has become more fluid and malleable in computer-mediated world. As such, it may be likely that individuals may be less interested in managing the presentation of self via gender when communicating on social media. On the other side Samp, Wittenberg and Gillet (2003) have argued that, individual behaving similar to face-to-face contexts and individuals seek to manage their gender-related impression over internet. Rose et all (2012) assume that with the emergences of social media, new online platforms became widely usable for communication. They believe that, it is possible to virtually manage others’ impressions and to express gendered identities in cyberspace as well.
4. Purposes and hypothesis The present research was designed to explore how gender influenced women’s social media usage patterns are in small societies. This study tries to explore the social media usage freedom of women compared to men who live in Northern Cyprus in the eyes of women. Women attitudes towards social media, gender effects on postings and purposes of posting, societal gender pressure were examined. Based on the research debated above and the nature of being a woman in Northern Cyprus are examined, the following hypotheses have been developed. H1: Younger Turkish Cypriot women would be expected to be freer from social pressures on gendering than the older Turkish Cypriot women. H2: Young Turkey-born women would not be expected to be as free as young Turkish Cypriot women in social media usages. H3: Women with higher levels of education would expect to be more comfortable in social media than women with lower levels of education despite social norms. H4: Women would be expected not to prefer to share on political issues on social media.
5. Methodology 5.1 Sample Based on a one and half month-long study (11 September - 27 October 2017), the face-to-face field research and the semi-structured interview method have been applied upon participants. It is aimed to deepen the answers with semi-structured interview method by asking open-ended questions. “Semi-structured interviews are great for finding out Why rather than How many or How Much” (Miles and Gilbert, 2005). Predetermined standard questions were used and answers personalized with open-ended questions. This method helps to provide valuable information from context of participant’s experiences. Quantitative research methods were ignored because this study is focusing on gendering and its' effect on social media usage and it is related with communication, psychology and social psychology hence the need for qualitative data as well. The target respondents were all women living in North Cyprus. The research population constitutes at 137, and of the sample, 93.4% of the respondents use social media and only 6.6% of the respondents are non-social media users. The sample size represents 0.113 % of the total women population in Northern Cyprus. All potential participants were women living in Cyprus, selected at random by the researcher. The research has been conducted with names of participants. This way, participants were questioned when a more information was needed. Data was processed into the SPSS Statistic 24 analysis program.
5.2 Measure The research was conducted among four different age categories. 18-29 (young adults; 42.3%), 30-49 (adults; 43.8%), 50-64 (mature adults; 10.9%) and 65+ (elders; 2.9%) have been considered as separate age categories. Although there are studies on general economic and social indicators by the State Planning Organization in
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Nuran Öze Northern Cyprus, there is no official research on the use of social media. Pew Research Center (PEW) has been taken as a based during the age categorisation. Because PEW explains itself as an unbiased research center which informs the public about the issues, attitudes and trends shaping the world. PEW conduct public opinion polling, demographic research, content analysis and other data-driven social science research. The interview guide contained questions related to demographic profiles (age, nationality, education level) and social media usage patterns of respondents. Except two questions, the open ended question type has been used to measure the respondents’ social media activities. Two questions addressed social media usage frequency and usage of social media platforms. First question addressed the frequency of social media usage: How often do you use social media? On a 5 point scale (Frequently during the day ‘1’, 1-2 times during the day ‘2’, once in a several day ‘3’, once a week ‘4’, non-social media user ‘5’), respondents rated the closest social media usage frequency they had formed. The second question was ‘In which social media platforms are you active?’ Mostly used social media platforms in North Cyprus (Facebook, Instagram, Twitter, LinkedIn, Snapchat) put in a response scale and multi selection has been made in this question by the respondents. Purpose of social media usage; posting preferences on social media platforms; positing about private life on social media have been questioned from questions third to fifth. The rest of questions, respondents have been questioned, whether their attitudes towards social media sharing have been influenced by gender and social norms.
5.3 Findings and discussions According to this research, 137 women participants answered the questionnaire form. 5.3.1 RQ1: How often do you use social media? Over half of the respondents (67.9% of adult women) use social media frequently during the day; 22.6% of the respondents use social media 1-2 times during the day; 1.5% of the participant use social media once in a several day; 1.5% of the respondents use social media once a week; and only 6.6% of the respondents don’t use social media. Today, 93.4% of respondents (adult women) use social media in Northern Cyprus. 5.3.2 RQ2: In which social media platforms are you active on? Facebook is the most-used social media platform among women with 83.9%. “Facebook is a computer-mediated Social Networking System that has become one of the most popular means of communication in North Cyprus” (Öze, 2016). Taken together, these elements of Facebook combination allows its users to construct an image or identity to communicate to the greater online community (Hum and others, 2011). Three-fourth (73.7%) of women use Instagram, one-fourth (24.8%) use Snapchat, more than one-fifth (22.6%) use Twitter, approximately one out of then (8.8%) use LinkedIn. Young adult women (18-29 ages) are using multiple social media networks frequently. The mature adult women (50-64 ages) use social network less frequently and less in number of social media platform. Especially Instagram, then Snapchat and Twitter are much more popular for younger adult women. In comparison to other age categories, the younger adult women use multi social media channels at the same time. 5.3.3 RQ3: For what purposes do you use social media? Total of 137 respondent answers together make it possible to combine all answers under the nineteen common answers. First six high percentage answers are as follow. Firstly, one-fifth (19%) of women said that, they use social media to get information. Especially women in 30-39 and 50-64 age categories use social media to improve their awareness. Secondly, one-sixth (16.1%) of women use social media to get in contact with their family, relatives and friends; generally young adult women (18-19 age categories) said that their purpose is to communicate with others via social media. Thirdly, one-seventh (15.3%) of women said that they use social media for multi purposes; generally young adult women use social media multi-functionally. Fourthly, oneeighth (12.4%) of women spend their free time on social media. With a majority young adult women prefer to spend their free time on social media. Then, one out of ten (8,8%) women use social media to be aware of news; usually women in 30-39 age categories use social media to increase their awareness about what’s happening around the world more than other age categories. The other purpose of women in using social media is to observe other people. One women out of ten (8%) prefer to use social media as an observation tool. Women in 30-39 age categories mostly preferred to use social media to observe people around them.
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Nuran Öze 5.3.4 RQ4: What kind of things do you share on social media? With 137 women’s answers, twenty six different subject of posting kinds have been identified. Women social media posting preferences that live in Northern Cyprus are as follow: Firstly, one-fifth (21.2%) of women especially young adult women in Northern Cyprus share their own photos on social media. Secondly, one in nine (11.7%) of women, generally adult women (30-49) prefer to share special moment of their life. Thirdly one out of ten women likes to share everything about them-selves; mostly again young adults prefer to share posts in variant subjects. Fourthly, 8.8% of women share informative posts; 30-49 ages are in the first place on these kinds of posts. Then, sharing of family photos were in favour; especially mature adult women (50-64 ages) pointed out that they like to share their family’s photos. 8% of women said that they do not prefer to share something on social media. Especially over 65 aged women do not prefer to use social media at all. 5.3.5 RQ5: Do you share your private life issues on the social media? One-fifth (20.4%) of women said that they can freely share their private life issues on social media. Young adult women are feeling freer compare to other age categories in sharing their private lives on social media. One out of three women absolutely don’t prefer to share their private life issues on social media. According to the research after 30 years old, most of women more are conservative about private life. 42.3% of women said that they sometimes share tolerable posts about private life issues. 5.3.6 RQ6: In which subject don’t you prefer to share something on social media? Twenty different answers were given to this question by 137 women. One out of three (34.3%) women said that, they don't prefer to share anything about private life. Every one women out of five (19.7%) absolutely refuse to share posts about politics. One out of ten (9.5%) women said dining photos should not be shared on social media. Sexual contents, religious, unrespectfull issues, death, illness are the other issues which are not prefered to be shared in posts by women. 5.3.7 RQ7: Do you feel like sharing anything you want on social media? One-third (35%) of women implied that they feel free to share anything they want on social media. Younger adults; who have an undergraduate education; and nationality with Turkish Cypriot women show up freer compare to other women categories. On the other hand six out of ten (59.1%) women don’t feel free that they can share anything they want on social media. Mostly over 50 years old, junior college graduated, originally TR Turkey citizen women said that they feel uncomfortable in freely sharing their opinions. Over 50 years old; junior college graduated; originally TR Turkey citizen’s women don’t feel comfortable to freely share their opinions. 5.3.8 RQ8: Do you think women are as free as men on social media sharing’s? Despite the fact that Cyprus is a small island and that it has many troubles, the Turkish Cypriots living in the island are always known with their moderate approach. As research results shows that, half (48.9%) of women believe that they are free as much as men on social media. Especially 30-39 ages; high educated; majority of Turkish Cypriot women think that, women living in Northern Cyprus are 'as free as men' to share their views on social media. As said before, nowadays there are people from different nations living in North Cyprus. 41.6% of women think that they are not as free as men on social media. 50-64 ages; low educated women; women from the other nations (Turkey citizen, Moldavian, Nigerian, Zimbabwean, and Turkmen) mostly believe that men are freer than women on social media. 3.6% women said they sometime feel free as men as on social media and there is 5.8% non-social media user women. 5.3.9 RQ9: Is there a difference between women and men on social media usage patterns? This question is related with kinds of posts that are shared on social media by men and by women. According to research results more than half (54.7%) of women think that there is a difference between men and women sharing’s' on social media. As education attainment increases women said that 'men are sharing different post than women on social media'. Turkey citizens and 18-29 (60.3%) and 50-64 (60%) age categories are especially agreed upon different gender posts are differentiated. Women said that gender is the main factor that influences post types. 37.2% of women think that there is no difference between women and men on social media usage patterns (Turkish Cypriots; 18-29 age categories and undergraduate women are higher degrees in this response). 2.2% stayed unresponsive to this question and 5.8% of women are not using social media.
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Nuran Öze 5.3.10 RQ10: How do you affected from the role that is crafted for you by the society? Almost half (48.9%) of the women said the roles that are crafted by society for them have an influence on their behaviours. They pointed out that, identified women roles cause for women to limit them-selves on social media as well. Mature women (50-64 age categories, 66.7%), undergraduate and Turkey citizens have higher degrees in this response compare to other groups. 36.5% women said that, they are not affected form the roles that crafted for themselves by the society. Young adult women, Turkish Cypriot women and women with higher education levels feel freer from gender based social pressure. 8.8% of women remained unresponsive; 5.8% women are not using social media.
6. Conclusion Social media usage frequency among women is high; Instagram is popular for young adult women and Facebook is most popular social media platform for all women in Northern Cyprus. Women usually use social media to increase their awareness and to get in contact with others via social media in Northern Cyprus. Self-presentation is more important for young adult women compare to other age groups; as their age is getting older and women roles are changing, it's leading to change in posting styles too. Private life is important for women and they are mostly behaving conservatively. Women do not prefer to share posts about politics and especially on negative issues on social media. Gender is still influencing posts on social media for women living in Northern Cyprus. However changes in conditions cause to gender becoming less effective on women. Younger Turkish Cypriot women are feeling freer from social pressures on gendering than the older Turkish Cypriot women. Young Turkey-born women aren’t feeling as free as young Turkish Cypriot women in social media usages. Women with higher levels of education are more comfortable in social media than women with lower levels of education despite social norms. "In one sense, of course, it is individual who "do" the gender. But it is situated doing, carried out in the virtual or real presence of others who are presumed to be oriented to its production. Rather than as a property of individuals, we conceive of gender as an emergent feature of social situations: Both as an outcome of and rationale for various social arrangements and as a means of legitimating one of the most fundamental divisions of society" (West and Zimmerman, 1987). Social media usage, as a continuous communication loop, is defined by technology and identified by virtual community as they interact while shaping evolving virtual world expectations regarding public-self. Goffman (1976) suppose that gender identity and gender roles are considerable part of everyday life and are actually formed through social interaction. On the other hand the ways of social interactions have changed with the adaptation of internet to everyday life. Despite the fact that gender oppression is still prevalent on women, with changing conditions, social pressure elements are switching from socially defined expectations to technology defined expectations. It is possible to call that: 'virtual world expectations'; it can be identified based on virtual norms and beliefs or based on virtual culture. It is possible to say that, gender roles, present in everyday interaction, are also enacted on social media like on the other media tools. However, nowadays being a permanent virtual individual on social media is much more important than gender pressure. Social media can be evaluated as a new ideological apparatus to manage and orient human beings and as time passes its' power is increasing. The impact of using Internet-based technology, on all humanity (not just society) should be investigated and the masses should be made aware of its proper use.
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