and encouragement, training and development), work pressures (e.g. hours worked, work-family conflict), and work outcomes such as career and job satisfaction ...
Stand. J. Mgmt, Vol. 13, No. 2, pp. 209-218, 1997 © 1997 Elsevier Science Ltd All rights reserved. Printed in Great Britain 0956-5221/97 $17.00 + 0.00
Pergamon PII: @956-5221(96)00038-3
WORK EXPERIENCES AND CAREER AND JOB SATISFACTION AMONG
PROFESSIONAL
AND MANAGERIAL NORWAY
WOMEN
IN
ASTRID M. RICHARDSEN,* ASLAUG MIKKELSEN# and RONALD J. BURKE$ *University of TromsO, Norway, tRogaland Research Institute, Norway, and ~York University, Canada (First received April 1996; accepted in revised form July 1996) Abstract - - Research suggests that women may be underrepresented in top management positions because of organizational policies and practices that subtly influence their career paths. This survey of 191 professional and managerial women in Norway investigated the relationships among organizational supports (e.g. support and encouragement, training and development), work pressures (e.g. hours worked, work-family conflict), and work outcomes such as career and job satisfaction. Results indicated that work pressures were significantly related to satisfaction, but not to perceived opportunities for career progress. The organizational supports were positively correlated with all the work outcomes, indicating that women were more satisfied with both career and job when organizational supports were present. When combined with individual characteristics and work pressures in regression analyses, organizational supports still made positive contributions to satisfaction at work. The findings were generally consistent with results of a Canadian study of managerial women. © 1997 Elsevier Science Ltd
Key words: Managers, work pressures, organizational supports, advancement, career success, job satisfaction, work-family conflict, women.
INTRODUCTION The number of women in executive, administrative, and managerial occupations has increased considerably since 1970, but the proportion of women employed as top level managers is still small (Billing and Alvesson, 1989; Blum and Smith, 1988; Morrison, White and van Velsor, 1992). Yet women compose nearly half the workforce (Morrison et al., 1992), and demographic estimates in the U.S. indicate that in the next decade, more than 60% of all net additions to the workforce will be women (Cox and Harquail, 1991). Other countries will likely see the same trend. It is therefore important to understand why women are underrepresented in top management positions, and how to successfully integrate more women into managerial ranks of organizations. Gender inequalities at the management level of organizations have been explained in various ways. Some researchers have focused on differences between women and men, suggesting that women have less education, seniority, training, and experience (Cox and Harquail, 1991; Morrison and von Glinow, 1990). Others have focused on sex-role socialization which may lead to feminine personality traits that are at odds with corporate values and accepted management styles (Blum and Smith, 1988; Childress, 1986). There is some evidence to suggest that women tend to explore and enter a restricted range of occupations (Brooks, 1988; Cassidy and Warren, 209
210
A.M. RICHARDSEN et al.
1991), and that they tend to acquire higher education or accept positions in areas which seldom lead to top managerial positions (Billing and Alvesson, 1989; Cox and Harquail, 1991). For example, in terms of education, women are overrepresented in the humanities and underrepresented in business and engineering. However, several studies indicate that these factors cannot explain all of the variance in career progression and upward mobility (Cox and Harquail, 1991; Cannings, 1991). Some studies have indicated that women managers are confronted with certain structural barriers which inhibit career advancement (Burke and McKeen, 1995; McKeen and Burke, 1991; Morrison and von Glinow, 1990; Russell and Rush, 1987). These barriers may be the result of organizational policies and practices that involuntarily or subtly influence the career paths of men and women. Such policies and practices may be related to the structure of opportunity, the structure of power, and the proportion of people in different job categories (Billing and Alvesson, 1989). It is believed that women are limited because of lack of opportunity, lack of power, lack of mentors and sponsors, and being denied developmental opportunities such as challenging assignments (Burke and McKeen, 1995; Cox and Harquail, 1989; McKeen and Burke, 1991). There is evidence that these types of barriers may constitute a "glass ceiling", a subtle and almost invisible but strong barrier that prevents women from moving up to senior management levels (Morrison et al., 1992). The reasons why women do not move into the higher echelons of executive positions may also be related to the pressures inherent in the job situation. Morrison et al. (1992) outline three major sources of pressure that are unique to women managers' experiences. First, there are the pressures of the job itself, e.g. long work hours, frantic work pace, responsibilities, demands, and the burden of making important decisions. Second, there are the pressures associated with the pioneer role of being a woman in a managerial position, e.g. as a role model for other women, being a minority responsible for representing women as a group. And third, there is the pressure of family obligations in addition to the pressures on the job, e.g. managing demands in life outside work, work-family dual roles, and work-nonwork role conflicts. These pressures may discourage women from taking management positions. However, there are several ways in which organizations can encourage and facilitate women's career progress. Researchers have identified several organizational experiences and conditions which seem associated with the career success of managerial and professional women (Morrison et al., 1992; Morrison and von Glinow, 1990). These are: support and encouragement by the organization; receiving training and development opportunities; feeling accepted by the organization; and being given challenging and visible jobs. These are organizational supports that may facilitate women's move up the corporate ladder, increase women's career and job satisfaction, as well as reduce the impact of various pressures. While there is a great deal of research evidence concerning job satisfaction, studies looking at career satisfaction are relatively scarce. McKeen and Burke (1991) used both job and career satisfaction in studying the importance of training and development activities for women managers. They found that women who participated in many training and development activities, and who rated these training and development activities as very useful, were more career satisfied and committed, and were more optimistic about future career progress than other women. The study also indicated that both career and job satisfaction were related to other organizational supports, i.e. acceptance, support and encouragement, and challenging and visible work assignments. The present study was designed to investigate the relationships among pressures that women managers may experience; organizational supports such as those proposed by Morrison et al. (1992); and work outcomes such as career and job satisfaction as well as opportunities for career
WORK EXPERIENCES AND CAREER SATISFACTION
211
progress in the organization. Job pressures included work-family conflict and overload, the number of hours worked, and amount of overtime. We predicted that job pressures would be negatively related to career and job satisfaction and perceived opportunities for advancement; whereas organizational supports would be positively related to these work outcomes. The study focused on professional and managerial women in Northern Norway. There are few large corporations in Norway, however, many women are employed in middle and top management positions in various government agencies, such as social services, education, and health services. Thus, most of the women participating in this study worked in public service organizations. While Norway is considered fairly progressive in terms of equal opportunities legislation and practices in hiring, little is known about the career progress of women within such organizations, and how these women actually think about their own career success. One might expect Norwegian women to be less career-oriented than North-American women based on cultural differences as well as institutional differences such as the ones described above. This study provided an opportunity to investigate how certain work experiences and career and job attitudes are related in a Norwegian context.
METHOD
Participants The participants were 191 professional and managerial women in Northern Norway. The average age was 43 years with a range of 24-66. Most of the women were married (78.5%) and had children (88%), and most of them had been married for a considerable length of time (M = 17 years). A great majority (77%) were university graduates; however, a high proportion of the women indicated traditional female specialties, such as nursing, social work or education (48%), and relatively few had degrees in business (15 %). The average annual income for the women was around $40,000, and 75% earned salaries in the $30-49,000 range. Almost all the women were employed full time (98%), and over 80% has been employed continuously since graduation. Most of the women worked in the public sector, either local government (35%), health services (21%), or education (16%). Thirty-two percent of the women who responded indicated that they were in senior management positions, 53% were in middle management, 10% were in junior management, and the rest (5%) were in non-management positions. The majority of women (64%) indicated that they had been less than 5 years in their present position, and 50% had been working for their present employer less than 10 years. The size of the organizations were small, over 80% of the women worked in organizations with less than 500 employees. The average size of the unit or department in which the women worked was 57 employees. The mean number of persons who reported directly to the women managers was 16. The women worked on the average between 41-45 hours per week, and over 60% indicated that they worked more than the regular work week. However, the majority of women (70%) did not take work home on a regular basis, and only occasionally worked in the evenings and at weekends. The women indicated that on average, they did 20 hours of household duties per week.
Procedure The names and addresses of 345 professional and managerial women in Northern Norway were obtained from company and government listings in the telephone directory. Each of the women received a 10 page questionnaire at their home address. The questionnaires were
212
A.M. RICHARDSEN et al.
completed anonymously and returned in a stamped, self-addressed envelope. A total of 194 questionnaires were returned. Three questionnaires were excluded because the women had retired from work. The final data set of 191 questionnaires represents a response rate of 55%, which compares favourably with other studies that have used questionnaires of approximately the same length (e.g. McKeen and Burke, 1991).
Measures The measures that will be reported here have been used previously in Canadian research (McKeen and Burke, 1991). The questionnaire was translated to Norwegian and then back to English to check the quality of the translation. Wording was changed in a few places to suit the Norwegian context. These changes were minor.
Demographic variables and work characteristics. Personal demographic variables included age, marital status, years married, number of children, years and type of education, and income. A series of single items on work characteristics included length of employment, job title, tenure in present position, level of management, hours worked, and work habits. The women were also asked questions about their work organization, e.g. size, number of direct reports, and gender ratios in the organization as well as among management.
Work pressures. Perceptions of role conflict and work-family pressures were measured by four items, rated on a five-point scale ranging from strongly disagree (1) to strongly agree (5), including "I get clear guidance about what is expected of me" (R); "I often feel conflict between my work and my family or other personal commitments". These items were developed by McKeen and Burke (1991) for the study of Canadian women managers. The reliability of the scale (coefficient alpha) was 0.66. Organizational supports. A series of questions were also developed by McKeen and Burke (1991) to assess particular organizational experiences and conditions associated with career success of managerial women. These were acceptance; support and encouragement; training and development; and challenging and visible jobs. All four scales were included in the present study, and the items were rated on a five-point scale ranging from strongly disagree (1) to strongly agree (5). Acceptance was assessed using six items that concerned the degree to which the women felt accepted as a member of the management group and the organization as a whole. Sample items included: "I feel completely accepted as a full-fledged member by the senior management in my organization"; "I often feel alone and lonely in my organization" (R). Support and encouragement was measured by seven items which included, "I get enough positive encouragement in my organization"; "I have received a high level of support and encouragement in my career aspirations". Four items measured the extent to which women felt they received training and development opportunities in their organization. Sample items were, "I have good opportunities for training and development"; "My organization has provided formal training and education programs inside and outside - - to help me develop". The extent to which the women felt they were given challenging and visible job assignments were assessed by five items which included, "I have not been given enough high profile assignments to earn the respect of senior management" (R); "My organization has offered me challenging work assignments to develop my skills". For each scale internal consistency coefficients were calculated, and the results were: acceptance, 0.62; support and encouragement, 0.89; training and development, 0.81; and challenging and visible jobs, 0.76. -
-
WORK EXPERIENCES AND CAREER SATISFACTION
213
Work outcomes. Three self-report measures were included in the work outcomes: Satisfaction with career success, job satisfaction, and possibilities for future career progress. The satisfaction with career success scale consisted of five items developed by Greenhaus et al. (1990). Examples were, "I am satisfied with the success I have achieved in my career"; "I am satisfied with the progress I have made toward meeting my overall career goals." Job satisfaction was measured by a five-item scale developed by Quinn and Shephard (1974). Items included "All in all, how satisfied would you say you are with your job?"; "Does your job measure up to your expectations?". A scale measuring opportunities f or future career progress, developed by Greenhaus et al. (1990), had four items, e.g. "I expect to advance in this company as far as my abilities permit"; "1 have very good prospects for promotion in this company". The reliability coefficients of these measures were: career satisfaction, 0.82;job satisfaction, 0.79; and career progress, 0.34.
RESULTS The psychometric properties of the measures included in the questionnaire were comparable to those reported in the Canadian study (Burke and McKeen, 1995), although internal consistency coefficients (Chronbach's alphas) were somewhat lower in the Norwegian sample, probably due to smaller sample size. However, all the measures of organizational supports and work outcomes had acceptable internal consistency reliabilities except the four-item measure of future career progress by Greenhaus et al. (1990). The low internal consistency of that scale may be due to the fact that one item in this scale ("my career progress has been slow compared to my peers") is very different from the other three, which directly ask the respondents to estimate their prospects for promotion in the company. However, internal consistency did not improve greatly with that item taken out of the scale. More work needs to be done to establish what aspects of the work environment this scale actually measures. lntercorrelations among measures The intercorrelations among the organizational supports measures were all significant, and the correlations ranged from 0.52 to 0.75. Given these high correlations, we investigated the factor structure of the total item pool to see if some of the factors overlapped. A principal component factor analysis with varimax rotation was performed, but no clear factor structure emerged. We therefore decided to use the measure as intended in this study, but in future studies the psychometric properties need to be investigated more thoroughly. The intercorrelations among the work outcomes were moderate. The results showed that opportunities for career progress was not significantly related to satisfaction with career success, however, it was significantly associated with job satisfaction (r = 0.27, p < 0.001), i.e. the women who perceived opportunities for advancement in the organization had high job satisfaction. Career satisfaction and job satisfaction were also significantly correlated (r = 0.34, p < 0.001). Similar results were obtained in the Canadian study. Relationships among work characteristics and work outcomes Correlations between personal and work characteristics, work pressures, organizational supports and the work outcomes were conducted (see Table 1). In terms of personal characteristics, age was significantly related to all three work outcomes, indicating that older women were more career and job satisfied than young women, but perceived their opportunities to advance as less likely. Annual income was positively related to career satisfaction, but unrelated to the other
214
A.M. RICHARDSENet al. Table 1. Correlations among measures of work pressure, organizationalexperiences, and work outcomes Career satisfaction
Job satisfaction
Career progress
0.13" 0.04 0.36"** 0.01 -0.02 -0.11
0.21"* 0.02 0.09 -0.21"* 0.04 0.02
-0.14" 0.12 0.10 -0.13 0.18" -0.14"
0.09 0.09 0.08 0.21** -0.32***
0.00 0.00 0.09 0.16* -0.41"**
0.12 0.12 0.12 -0.06 -0.10
0.32*** 0.25*** 0.33*** 0.40***
0.40*** 0.43*** 0.40*** 0.36***
Personal and work characteristics
Age Years of education Annual income Size of organization Size of unit/department Years in present position Work pressures
Work hours Overtime work Hours of household duties Level of management Work-family conflict Organizational supports
Acceptance Support and encouragement Training and development Challenging and visiblejobs
0.32*** 0.30*** 0.29*** 0.31'**
Note: *p < 0.05; **p < 0.01; ***p < 0.001.
two work outcomes. The results also indicated that the larger the organization the women worked for, the less job satisfaction they reported. The correlations were moderate. Few other significant relationships between personal and work characteristics and work outcomes were found. The correlations among work pressures and work outcomes indicated no relationships between either work hours, amount of overtime or time spent on household duties, and the three work outcomes. The only pressures that were significantly associated with any of the work outcomes were level of management and conflict between work and family, which were significantly related to both career and job satisfaction, but not to opportunities for advancement. These results showed that the higher the level of management, the higher career and job satisfaction the women reported; and the more conflicts experienced by the women, the less satisfied they were. The correlations between both career and job satisfaction and work-family conflict were quite high. The organizational supports were all significantly related to the work outcomes. The correlations ranged from 0.25 to 0.40, indicating that women who experienced high levels of organizational support also reported being satisfied with both career and job, and experienced good opportunities for advancement in their work organization. Predicting work outcomes
In order to determine the combination of variables that contributed to both career and job satisfaction, hierarchical multiple regression analyses were conducted using personal and work characteristics, work pressures, and organizational supports as predictor variables. The predictor variables were selected on the basis of significant correlations with criterion variables. Thus, the personal and work characteristics included age and annual income. Work pressures comprised level of management and work/family conflict. All four organizational supports were included. The variables were entered in blocks corresponding to the three groupings of predictor variables.
WORK EXPERIENCES AND CAREER SATISFACTION
215
For satisfaction with career success, the results are presented in Table 2 and indicate that these three groups of variables combined accounted for 30% of the variance in career satisfaction. The personal and work characteristics contributed most (13%), and the work pressures and the organizational supports contributed about equal amounts. The increases in R 2 were significant at each step. The beta values indicated that annual income made a significant contribution to career satisfaction, as did training and development opportunities and being given challenging and visible job assignments. Table 3 shows that the personal and work characteristics predicted 5% of the variance in job satisfaction, whereas work pressures contributed 15% of the variance. Organizational supports accounted for an additional 10% of the variance. Together these variables combined to account for 30% of the total variance in job satisfaction. The percentage of variance accounted for is relatively high compared to other studies. However, the only variable that showed a significant beta value was work/family conflict, indicating that the more conflict women experience between work demands and family, the less job satisfaction they reported. A third regression analysis was conducted with future career progress as the criterion variable and the same predictor variables as above (see Table 4). The personal and work characteristics accounted for 4% of the variance in perceived opportunities for advancement, whereas work
Table 2. Multiple regression analysis of independent variables against career satisfaction Independent variables Personal and work characteristics Age
Annual income
B
SE B
~
0.03 0.85
0.03 0.24
~). 15 0.19
0.10 0.33
-0.12 0.04
0.22
0.23 0.25 0.05 0.09
0.11 0,10 0.11 0,08
0.22* 0.23* 0.04 -0.15
0.30
0.07 0.27**
R2
0.13
Work pressures
Work-family conflict Level of management Organizational supports
Training and development Challenging and visible jobs Acceptance Support and encouragement
Note: *p < 0.05; **p < 0.01; ***p < 0.001. Table 3. Multiple regression analysis of independent variables against job satisfaction Independent variables Personal and work characteristics Age
Annual income
B
SE B
~
R2
0.03 ~3.03
0.02 0.16
0.13 ~).02
0.05
~0.13 0.34
0.07 0.22
~). 17* M). 12
0.20
0.07 0.02 0.09 0.06
0.07 0.06 0.07 0.05
0.11 0.04 0.13 0.14
0.30
Work pressures
Work-family conflict Level of management Organizational supports
Training and development Challenging and visible jobs
Acceptance Support and encouragement
Note: *p < 0.05; **p < 0.01; ***p < 0.001.
216
A. M. RICHARDSENet al. Table 4. Multiple regression analysis of independent variables against future career prospects
Independent variables
B
SE B
~J
R2
-0.04 0.31
0.03 0.21
-0.13 0.13
0.04
0.15 -0.45
0.09 0.30
0.17 4). 13
0.06
0.10 0.13 0.14 0.06
0.09 0.09 0.09 0.07
0.13 0.16 0.16 0.11
0.20
Personal and work characteristics
Age Annual income Work pressures
Work-family conflict Level of management Organizational supports
Training and development Challenging and visible jobs Acceptance Support and encouragement
Note: *p < 0.05; **p < 0.01; ***p < 0.001.
pressures accounted for only 2%. Organizational supports accounted for 14%. The combined variance accounted for was somewhat lower than the other two work outcomes, suggesting that other factors may be involved in opportunities for advancement. None of the beta values for individual variables reached significance.
DISCUSSION The majority of the women who participated in the present study were in senior or middle management positions and worked more than their regular work week of 37.5 hours per week. It seemed that most of the women had been with their present employers for a relatively short time (less than 10 years) and had been even shorter time in their present positions. Given the mean age of the sample (M = 43), and the fact that the majority had been employed full time continuously, we speculated that these women may have entered into management relatively late in their careers. However, a one-way analysis of variance between level of management and age revealed no significant differences in age or age ranges between the four levels of management. Age was correlated with the work outcomes, suggesting that older women expressed more satisfaction with their careers and with their jobs than did younger women. This is consistent with findings from other studies of women managers (Ornstein and Isabella, 1991). The correlation between age and opportunities for career progress was negative, indicting that older women saw fewer opportunities for advancement than did younger women. Other studies have also found age differences in women' s attitudes about a management career. Promotion aspiration was lower in the 45-60 year age group than in all other age categories in a group of women managers (Ornstein and Isabella, 1991), and Russel and Rush (1987) found that older women were more concerned about their own suitability as a manager than younger women, whereas younger women expressed more concerns about conflicts in reconciling a management career with family demands than older women. It is likely that most women over 40 have older children and perhaps few family demands, and therefore potentially have more time and energy to invest in their careers than younger women. Conflicts between work demands and family responsibilities were a major pressure for women in this study. The negative association between conflicts and work outcomes clearly indicated that work/family conflicts are closely related to women's satisfaction with both their careers and their jobs. Although no causal inferences can be made from the present study, some studies have
WORK EXPERIENCES AND CAREER SATISFACTION
217
shown that role conflict and family demands have a direct impact on job burnout and satisfaction (Bacharach et al., 1991). Studies have also shown that work/family conflicts are reported to be a major stress factor more frequently by women than by men (McDonald and Korabik, 1991). The challenge for organizations will be to create and adjust work situations for women that will lessen such conflicts and still facilitate women's advancement to top management positions. Support from the organization in the form of acceptance, support and encouragement, opportunities for training and development, and being given challenging and visible job assignments, was strongly related to work outcomes. Women expressed greater satisfaction with their career success, more satisfaction with the job itself, and believed that they had chances of progressing in their careers if they worked in organizations that provided such experiences. When individual and work characteristics as well as work pressures are taken into account, which previous studies suggest contribute to work outcomes such as job satisfaction (Richardsen et al., 1992; Richardsen and Burke, 1991, 1993; Rosin and Korabik, 1991), organizational supports are clearly important for work outcomes over and above these variables. The present study showed that organizational supports contributed a considerable amount of the variance in both satisfaction with career success and job satisfaction, in addition to other characteristics of the work place. These findings are consistent with results from several other studies (Burke and McKeen, 1995; McKeen and Burke, 1991; Morrison et al., 1992). This study has pointed to some of the work characteristics and pressures that are related to satisfaction with career and the job. In addition, it seems clear that although career and job satisfaction are related, there is differentiation in terms of the individual and work variables that contribute to each. The importance of organizational support for women's managerial careers has also been emphasized. Support and acceptance by co-workers and superiors, opportunities for updating and furthering one's professional knowledge, as well as having work that is challenging, seem to be necessary conditions for women's satisfaction and upward mobility. The results were generally consistent with findings from previous Canadian work, in that organizational supports were related to both job and career satisfaction, and also to women's perceptions of future career progress. In comparing the present study to the Canadian study, it may seem that despite cultural and institutional differences, such as the size of organizations and the high proportion of public sector employees in our study, there are specific conditions and experiences at work that are important for women's job attitudes across the two cultures. Such a conclusion was supported by the similarities in psychometric properties of the measures used in both ours and the Canadian study. The research findings so far indicate that organizational supports contribute to satisfaction at work in a positive direction, whereas work pressures and role conflicts seem to have negative effects. In order to encourage gender equality at the management level of organizations, some of the demand characteristics inherent in the job creating role conflict and work pressures ought to be assessed and adapted to individual needs. The importance of organizational supports may also assist women in evaluating and selecting organizations for career pursuits and making job choices in the future. REFERENCES Bacharach, S. B., Bamberger, P. and Conley, S. (1991) Work-home conflict among nurses and engineers: Mediating the impact of role stress on burnout and satisfaction at work. Journal of Organizational Behavior 12, 39-53. Billing, Y. D. and Alvesson, M. (1989) Four ways of looking at women and leadership. Scandinavian Journal of Management 5, 63-80. Blum, L. and Smith, V. (1988) Women's mobility in the corporation: A critique of the politics of optimism. Signs 13, 528-545.
218
A.M. RICHARDSEN et al.
Brooks, L. (1988) Encouraging women's motivation for nontraditional career and lifestyle options: A model for assessment and intervention. Special Issue: Career interventions with women. Journal of Career Development 14, 223-241. Burke, R. J. and McKeen, C. A. (1995) Work experiences, career development, and career success of managerial and professional women. Journal of Social Behavior and Personality 10, 81-96. Cannings, K. (1991)An interdisciplinary approach to analyzing the managerial gender gap. Human Relations 44, 679-695. Cassidy, M. L. and Warren, B. O. (1991) Status consistency and work satisfaction among professional and managerial women and men. Gender and Society 5, 193-206. Childress, G. P. (1986) Myths and realities of women in management. Organization Development Journal 4, 44-48. Cox, T. H. and Harquail, C. V. (1991 ) Career paths and career success in the early career stages of male and female MBAs. Journal of Vocational Behavior 39, 54-75. Greenhaus, J. H., Parasurman, S. and Wormley, W. (1990) Organizational experiences and career success of black and white managers. Academy of Management Journal 33, 64-86. McDonald, L. M. and Korabik, K. (1991) Sources of stress and ways of coping among male and female managers. Journal of Social Behavior and Personality 6, 185-198. McKeen, C. A. and Burke, R. J. (1991) Work experiences and career success of professional women: Study design and preliminary findings. Canadian Journal of Administrative Sciences 8, 251-258. Morrison, A. M. and von Glinow, M. A. (1990) Women and minorities in management. Special Issue: Organizational psychology. American Psychologist 45, 200-208. Morrison, A. M., White, R. P. and van Velsor, E. (1992) Breaking the Glass Ceiling. Addison-Wesley, Reading, MA. Ornstein, S. and Isabella, L. (1990) Age vs stage models of career attitudes of women: A partial replication and extension. Journal of Vocational Behavior 36, 1-19. Quinn, R. P. and Shepard, L. J. (1974) Quality of Employment Survey. Institute for Social Research, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI. Richardsen, A. M. and Burke, R. J. (1991) Occupational stress and job satisfaction among Canadian physicians. Work and Stress 5, 301-313. Richardsen, A. M. and Burke, R. J. (1993) Occupational stress and job satisfaction among Canadian women physicians. Psychological Reports 72, 811-821. Richardsen, A. M., Burke, R. J. and Leiter, M. P. (1992) Occupational demands, psychological burnout and anxiety among hospital personnel in Norway. Anxiety, Stress and Coping 5, 55-68. Rosin, H. M. and Korabik, K. (1991) Workplace variables, affective responses, and intention to leave among women managers. Journal of Occupational Psychology 64, 317-330. Russell, J. E. and Rush, M. C. (1987) A comparative study of age-related variation in women's views of a career in management. Journal of Vocational Behavior 30, 280-294.
