work \ life policies

WORK \ LIFE POLICIES Centre for Ethical Leadership A Review of the Evidence

cel.edu.au

JULY 2013

A REVIEW OF THE EVIDENCE REGARDING WORK-LIFE POLICIES

Professor Robert Wood Director, Centre for Ethical Leadership

Dr Victor Sojo Post-Doctoral Research Fellow, Centre for Ethical Leadership

With particular thanks to Helena Cartwright and Kieron Morris, Centre for Ethical Leadership

©2013, Centre for Ethical Leadership. Additional owners of copy are acknowledged on page credit. Every effort has been made to trace and acknowledge copyrighted material and CEL apologises should any infringement have occurred.

CONTENTS

Executive Summary 5 Introduction 6 Work-life Policies 7 Method 8 Results 10 Recommendations 12 Appendix A | Meta-analysis summaries

13

Appendix B | Case studies

15

Appendix C | Policies covered in each research area

25

Appendix D | References

26

Appendix E | Sample sizes

29

Appendix F | Polices offered by employers

30

Appendix G | Polices employees report using

31

Appendix H | Percentage of employers offering individual work-life policies

32

Appendix I | Percentage of employees utilising individual work-life policies

34

Appendix J | Industry and government report reference list for appendices E-I

35

4

Centre for Ethical Leadership

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Interest in work-life policies and flexible working arrangements has dramatically increased over the last two decades, in large part due to the rise in dual career families with children and the increasing number of workers with career responsibilities.

of flexible working and the negative attitudes of peers towards those who work flexibly may be a product of poor implementation.

This report includes a summary of research from seven meta-analyses and 10 reports prepared by government and industry that examine the impacts of work-life policies on work-family conflict levels and on a range of individual and organisational outcomes including job satisfaction, attendance, retention and productivity. A series of case studies that include evaluations of the impacts of programs are also provided.

The introduction of any flexible working arrangements be based on a diagnosis of the suitability of the particular arrangements for the work setting, as well as the preferences of the individual workers

The evidence is clear that a large proportion of workers want flexible work arrangements and that flexible working can have a wide range of benefits, if the programs are implemented well. It is surmised that the lack of acceptance

That implementation of flexible work arrangements include pilot testing, training, review and follow up plus a set of guidelines regarding control, appraisal, security, technology, OH&S and other considerations.

We recommend that:

That peers be involved in the diagnosis and design of flexible work arrangements

A review of the evidence regarding work-life policies

5

“Work-life policies have received increasing attention both nationally and internationally1”

INTRODUCTION Work-life policies, including workplace flexibility, include a wide range of policies and strategies (see Figure 1) designed to enable employees to more effectively balance work and personal concerns and with the potential to enable organisations to recruit, retain and better utilise staff. Work-life policies have received increasing attention both nationally and internationally1, 2 over the past decade, largely as a result of the rising number of dual-earner couples with children, single working parents and workers with caring responsibilities for elders 3, 4, 5, and the increasing demand and decreasing supply of experienced workers in many industries. Such policies have become increasingly prevalent and are widespread practice in many organisations 6, 7, 8. Surveys of employees in the US and UK show that between 30% and 80% report actively seeking flexibility when choosing a workplace 9, 10, 11, 12. Work-life policies, when implemented effectively, can play a vital role in reducing work-family conflict for employees and in increasing individual work performance and other organisational outcomes. Workfamily conflict is defined as inter-role conflict in which the responsibilities in the work and family domains are mutually incompatible13. Simply put, participation in the family role is made

6


more difficult by participation in the work role, and vice versa. In this report, both categories are referred to as work-family conflict. Since work-family conflict has a negative impact on the organisation and the individual14,15, work-life policies are important as they improve individual and organisational outcomes, both directly and via reducing workfamily conflict16, 17, 18. This report presents a summary of the latest evidence from both meta-analytic academic research and industry and government reports about the impact of work-life policies on individuals and organisational outcomes. It also examines the different mechanisms that could explain the effectiveness of these policies. Recommendations for the implementation of work-life policies in organisations and areas for further research are provided.

WORK-LIFE POLICIES Work-life policies cover a wide range of activities relating to when, where and how employees complete their assigned work and the numbers of hours or days they work in a given period. As shown in Figure 1, work-life policies can be grouped into two broad categories based on whether they provide support specifically for employees with family duties and responsibilities (family-friendly policies) or whether they represent flexible work practices that apply to all employees, irrespective of their personal arrangements outside of work (flexible work arrangement policies). Family-friendly initiatives provide support in the form of financial, time or service benefits to aid care of family and dependents, and are therefore beneficial only for those with dependents. Conversely, flexible work arrangement policies are those that give employees the right to vary the timing, location and methods of work around personal needs, and are potentially beneficial for all employees.

Figure 1 Two categories for work-life policies

Flexible Work Arrangement Policies flexi-time: employees choose the time they arrive and leave from work within limits set by management. Typically employers set core hours when all employees must be present

compressed work schedule: employees work fewer than five days per week by increasing the hours they work each day

Family-Friendly Policies on-site child care or voucher schemes: for local child care places

information and referral services: to local child care providers and/or local elder care assistance

financial assistance: for dependent care annualised hours: employees work a set number of hours per year instead of per day or per week

paid family leave

telework: employees may work at home all or part of the time and are often linked electronically to the office, for instance via computers or telephones

term-time working: working only during the school term to allow parents to spend time with children

job sharing: two part-time employees voluntarily share a single full-time position

phased return: a gradual return to work after childbirth or adoption

voluntary reduced time: employees voluntarily reduce their work hours with a corresponding salary reduction for a set time period. Benefits are generally maintained

career break: authorised time away from work either paid or unpaid, with no loss of employment rights

part-time: voluntarily working fewer than 40 hours per week with salary and job benefits pro-rated for the actual number of hours worked

A review of the evidence regarding work-life policies

7

METHOD

Data were obtained from two sources. First, from the academic research literature we identified seven metaanalyses of studies of work-life policies and their effects. A meta-analysis is a statistical procedure in which the sample is comprised of existing studies and the results are a summary of the current state of knowledge about the relationship being studied. The seven meta-analyses contained 154,222 participants from 475 independent studies. This large number of studies and participants makes the results reported particularly robust. The meta-analyses reported on one or more of the following relationships: (a) the relationship between work-life policies and individual and organisational outcomes, (b) the relationship between work-family conflict and outcomes, and (c) the relationship between work-life policies and work-family conflict.

8


The second source of information was 10 recent industry and government reports from five different countries (Australia, UK, North America, Singapore, and New Zealand) covering 11,221 employees and employers. The industry and government reports clearly show that the number and type of policies offered by organisations varies greatly, as displayed in Figures 2 and 3. There was also a disparity between the number of policies employers reported offering their employees, and the number of policies that employees reported utilising.

Figure 2 Percentage of specific work-life policies offered by employers from North America (NA), the United Kingdom (UK), Singapore (SG) and New Zealand (NZ) in industry and government reports

Control over breaks OTFC Flexi-‐;me Part-‐;me Phased return Teleworking TTV

NA

Compressed work schedule

UK

Control over over;me

NZ

TBPF

SG

ShiE ﬂexibility Phased re;rement Career breaks Job-‐sharing Term-‐;me working Annualised hours 0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

OTFC = Occasional time off for family commitments, TTV = Time off to volunteer, TBPF = Transitions between part-time and full-time

Figure 3 Percentage of specific work-life policies being utilised by employees from New Zealand (NZ), the United Kingdom (UK), or Australia (AU) in the industry and government reports.

Control over breaks OTFC Flexi-‐;me Part-‐;me Teleworking TTV

NZ UK


AU

TBPF Career breaks Job-‐sharing Term-‐;me working Annualised hours 0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

OTFC = Occasional time off for family commitments, TTV = Time off to volunteer, TBPF = Transitions between part-time and full-time A review of the evidence regarding work-life policies

9

RESULTS Meta-analyses have shown that reducing work-family conflict is a key mechanism through which work-life policies have a positive impact on both individuals and organisations. The negative impact of work-family conflict on individual and organisational outcomes is pervasive; work-family conflict has a damaging effect on the organisation, leading to increased absenteeism and turnover, and decreased job performance and involvement 19, 20. Moreover, work-family conflict is detrimental to the individual, with risks to physical and mental health (e.g. depression, psychological strain), poor parental and job performance, low morale, and low job, family and life satisfaction 17, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24.

Whilst many specific outcomes have been investigated within both academic research and industry reports, these outcomes can be collapsed into four key outcome areas:

Performance Performance includes outcomes such as employee productivity, organisation and employee performance, organisational citizen behaviour, customer service quality, and customer retention.

Hiring and retention

organisational attractiveness within the labour market, workplace diversity, absenteeism, and hiring and retention cost reduction.

Health and Well-being Health and Well-being includes both physical and psychological health.

Satisfaction Satisfaction consists of employee satisfaction, life satisfaction, family satisfaction, satisfaction with work-life balance, and schedule satisfaction.

Hiring and Retention comprises both eponymous outcomes, as well as

Figure 4 The relationship between work-family conflict and the four key outcomes

Well implemented

Will reduce

Which increases

Flexible work arrangements

Work-family conflict

Productivity

Family-friendly policies

Workplace productivity Work and family performance Organisational citizenship behaviour Retention Satisfaction Job Family Life Health and Wellbeing Physical Psycological

10


“Customer retention was 10% higher than the industry average, to which they attributed an additional $106 million profit over two years 29”.

Both the academic research and industry reports showed flexible work arrangements and family-friendly policies improved the four key outcome areas 9, 10, 11, 12, 14, 15, 16, 18, 25, 36, 27, 28 . Where information about the effects of specific worklife policies is available, the academic research indicates that flex-time and teleworking improve productivity, satisfaction, and retention 14, 15, 18. Additionally, productivity and satisfaction are also improved by compressed work schedules 14. Only one industry report investigates the effect of any specific work-life policy and this report indicates that teleworking improves productivity, retention and health. Deloitte found that 88% of its staff who made use of work-life policies either matched or outperformed their counterparts on customer service quality, and saved an estimated $41.5 million in a single year directly as a result of staff retention 12. First Tennessee Bank trialled a number of work-life policies and found that employee retention increased by 50%. Additionally, customer retention was 10% higher than the industry average, to which they attributed an additional $106 million profit over two years 29.

Given the clear benefits of work-life policies, why are work-life policies underused and sometimes unavailable? One answer is that people may associate using work-life policies with negative outcomes, such as reducing career prospects and impairing relationships with supervisors or co-workers. Industry and government report findings, for example, suggest that around 32% of employees believed that those using work-life policies were less likely to be promoted, while 35% believed that these employees create additional work for their colleagues 9, 30. The academic evidence for such claims is, however, both limited and equivocal. Although individual studies have shown employees who take parental leave are perceived as less committed to their job than those who did not take leave 31, a recent meta-analysis showed teleworkers often do not perceive reduced career prospects relative to those in traditional work arrangements 18.

shows they have no effect on co-worker relationships, and in fact have been shown to improve relationships with supervisors 18, 32. Indeed, the relationship with supervisors is reciprocal; a supportive supervisor is important as he or she can prevent negative repercussions of using work-life policies. Having an unsupportive supervisor can undermine a positive work-family culture. However, this research is limited in scope, with little assessment of the effect of family-friendly policies on supervisor relationships, and vice versa. Thus it is clear that further research is necessary to provide robust assessments which address all factors relevant to work-life policies. Below we make recommendations both for further research, which we intend to carry out at the CEL, and for organisations regarding how best to implement and assess work-life policies.

Evidence for claims of work-life policies impairing workplace relationships is similarly limited and equivocal. Although some research shows flexible work arrangements weaken interpersonal bonds with co-workers, other research A review of the evidence regarding work-life policies 11

RECOMMENDATIONS

The research reported here presents an unequivocal set of findings but these findings are at odds with the adoption of flexible work practices in many of our industry partner organisations. In summary, significant numbers of people report wanting access to flexible work arrangements in their current jobs. Work place flexibility policies are often mentioned as a criterion that is taken into account when people are seeking jobs. Furthermore, workplace flexibility works. Meta-analyses and case studies provide strong evidence that any of a number of flexible work arrangements, including teleworking, compressed work weeks, flexible schedules and part-time work can all increase productivity and job satisfaction, reduce absenteeism and sick leave, aid in the retention of staff and improve customer service. So, why don’t more people do it? In many organisations, the utilisation of flexible work arrangements is viewed as an imposition by other staff, as evidence of a lack of commitment or of not being serious about one’s career. Some managers also do not understand how to organise and manage flexible workers. Many of the problems with gaining acceptance and effective utilisation of flexible work practices seem to come down to poor implementation. We recommend an implementation strategy to include the following steps.

Diagnosis of the work and related opportunities for using flexible work arrangements. This should include but

12


not be limited to assessments of staff needs and preferences. Preferences may change with experience. Selection from the range of possible flexible work arrangements shown in the report should be based on the intial diagnosis of the work and the individual preferences.

Implementation of flexible working may be best treated as a work restructure or as a cultural change program in order to capture the full benefits of working flexibly. A successful implementation plan should include:

selection of a pilot site for initial diagnosis and testing before full roll-out

training of supervisors and staff in the knowledge and skills to be used in negotiating and managing flexible work arrangements

involvement of all staff, including those who do not use flexible work arrangements, in discussions of the impacts on other staff, their attitudes and reactions and how conflicts and problems will be managed

agreement and documentation of the procedures to ensure effective control, appraisal, security and OH&S

agreement of procedures for maintaining the work-based social networks of staff who work flexibly

review and adjustment of the technology and other infrastructure required to work effectively in a flexible work arrangement

development of procedures for the periodic review of flexible work arrangements and for stakeholders to make change requests.

APPENDIX A META-ANALYSIS SUMMARIES

Mesmer-Magnus, J. R., & Viswesvaran, C. (2006). How Family-Friendly Work Environments Affect Work/Family Conflict: A Meta-Analytic Examination. Journal of Labour Research, 27, 555-574. This meta-analysis investigated whether five facets of familyfriendly work environments (flexibility of work location and schedule, dependent care availability and satisfaction, work/ family culture, supervisor support and co-worker support) reduced work-family conflict. The evidence suggested that facets of family-friendly work environment alone fail to explain much variance in work-family conflict. A family-friendly work culture seemed the most influential in reducing workfamily conflict. Amstad, F. T., Meier, L. L., Fasel, U., Elfering, A., & Semmer, N. K. (2011). A Meta-Analysis of Work-Family Conflict and Various Outcomes with a Special Emphasis on Cross-Domain Versus Matching-Domain Relations. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 16, 151-169. This meta-analysis investigated the consequences of workfamily conflict. Work-family conflict was consistently related to work-related outcomes, family-related outcomes and domainunspecific outcomes (e.g. mental and physical health).

Gajendran, R. S., & Harrison, D. A. (2007). The Good, the Bad, and the Unknown About Telecommuting: Meta-Analysis of Psychological Mediators and Individual Consequences. Journal of Applied Psychology, 92, 1524-1541. This meta-analysis explored the positive and negative consequences of teleworking and how these consequences come about. The results of the meta-analysis showed that teleworking has mainly positive outcomes, improving perceived autonomy, job satisfaction and performance, and reducing work-family conflict, turnover intent and role stress. Further, teleworking had no generally detrimental effects on workplace relationships. Martin, B. H., & MacDonnell, R. (2012). Is telework effective for organisations? A meta-analysis of empirical research on perceptions of telework and organisational outcomes. Management Research Review, 35, 602-616. This meta-analysis assessed the effects of telework on organisational outcomes. Evidence suggested a positive relationship between telework and the organisational outcomes of productivity, retention, commitment, and performance. Further, the relationship between telework and organisational commitment was moderated by age.

Ford, M. T., Heinen, B. A., & Langkamer, K. L. (2007). Work and Family Satisfaction and Conflict: A MetaAnalysis of Cross-Domain Relations. Journal of Applied Psychology, 92, 57-80. This meta-analysis investigated the relationship among stressors, involvement, and support in the work and family domains, and work-family conflict and satisfaction outside of those domains. The evidence suggested that work related variables explain a considerable amount of variability in family satisfaction, and family related variables explain a considerable amount of variability in job satisfaction. Job and family stress had the strongest influence on work-family conflict and crossdomain satisfaction. A review of the evidence regarding work-life policies 13

APPENDIX A META-ANALYSIS SUMMARIES

Baltes, B. B., Briggs, T. E., Huff, J. W., Wright, J. A., & Neuman, G. A. (1999). Flexible and Compressed Workweek Schedules: A Meta-Analysis of Their Effects on Work-Related Criteria. Journal of Applied Psychology, 84, 496-513. Meta-analytic techniques were used to estimate the effects of flexible and compressed workweek schedules on workrelated criteria (productivity, job satisfaction, absenteeism, and satisfaction with work schedule). Both flexible and compressed workweeks had positive effects on work-related criteria, although the pattern of positive effects was different across compressed versus flexible workweek schedules. Butts, M. M., Casper, W. J., & Yang T. S. (2013). How Important Are Work-Family Support Policies? A MetaAnalytic Investigation of Their Effects on Employee Outcomes. Journal of Applied Psychology, 98, 1-25. Meta-analytic techniques were used to investigate how the availability and use of family-friendly policies (e.g. on-site child care, financial support for those with dependents) influenced employee and organisational outcomes. The availability and use of family-friendly policies had positive relationships with job satisfaction, affective commitment, and intent to stay with the organisation, with policy availability having stronger positive relationships than policy use. Policy availability also influenced work attitudes via improving family-supportive organisation perceptions, and policy use improved work attitudes via reducing work-family conflict.

14 Centre for Ethical Leadership

APPENDIX B CASE STUDIES | PEOPLESCAPE

Background PeopleScape is a Melbourne-based consulting firm whose client, a large global biopharmaceutical company, wanted to introduce flexible work arrangements into its Australian operations. The Australian business was doing well financially and employee engagement surveys showed above average levels of employee engagement. An ‘innovation workshop’ was run which showed there was a strong desire for flexible work arrangements in the company.

Strategies Strategies were derived from information obtained through a four month consultation process and a ‘preferences survey’ which assessed technology, location and structure of work, hours and office layout.

New work practices included flexible schedules based on non-standard hours

telecommuting (i.e. regularly working from home or a 3rd location)

quiet spaces (i.e. creating designated quiet spaces in the office)

connect days (i.e. an agreed one day per week where everyone comes in to the office and lunch is provided)

project days (i.e. a dedicated day in the office where there are no meetings and people are allowed to work without unnecessary distractions).

compared to baseline data gathered at the beginning of the project.

Employees reported their work-life balance was being supported.

Employees felt less stressed.

Employees felt more engaged in their work.

Source - PeopleScape

www.peoplescape.com.au

Outcomes Guidelines and Flexible Workplace Agreements were created, including information based on legal advice relating to various risks for the company.

Outcomes were measured at three months and twelve months after implementation of the flexible work arrangement policies, and were

Training was provided for all staff prior to a “kick-off” day to launch the new flexible work practises.

Over 4 months new flexible work practices were implemented.

A review of the evidence regarding work-life policies 15

APPENDIX B CASE STUDIES | KRAFT FOODS

Background Kraft Foods is large USA-based food and beverage company. The company created a flexible work arrangements program called “Fast Adapts” for hourly employees and supervisors in order to address employee dissatisfaction within its 24/7 manufacturing facilities.

Strategies

Outcomes Improved employee satisfaction with work-life integration, as reported in the following year’s Employee Satisfaction Survey

Source - Georgetown University Law Center

Shift Swapping

Single-day vacations

Job Sharing

Utilisation of retirees to cover shifts for absent employees

16


http://scholarship.law. georgetown.edu/cgi/viewcontent. cgi?article=1007&context=legal

APPENDIX B CASE STUDIES | FIRST TENNESSEE BANK

Background First Tennessee Bank is a Memphis, Tennessee-based financial services company and one of the 30 largest banks in the USA. The National Association for Female Executives (NAFE) named the bank’s parent company, First Horizon National Corp., as one of the Top 50 Companies for Executive Women in 2009. The bank created a work/ life program to address costs and customer complaints associated with employee turnover.

Strategies Part-time work options

Localised responsibility for decisions about attendance and scheduling to the employees and managers in individual branches

A program which allowed parents to bring sick children to a local hospital where they would receive up to 12 hours of care subsidised by the company

Outcomes 60% of employees use some form of work-life policy

$3 million in turnover costs was saved

85% less turnover of employees who would have left the bank if flexible work arrangements were not available

Customer retention was 10% higher than the industry average

50% increase in customer quality responses

The accounts-reconcilement department was able to shorten the time required to reconcile accounts from 8 days to 4 days by adopting compressed week schedules at the beginning of each month in lieu of time off




APPENDIX B CASE STUDIES | TEXAS INSTRUMENTS

Background Texas Instruments is a global semiconductor design and manufacturing company. The company created an “ad-hoc” work-life policy due to employee demand as revealed during needs assessments.

Strategies Flexi-time

Outcomes Improved employee retention

Lower employee stress

More effective workers

Employee development of broader skillsets as a result of covering each other’s shifts

Compressed work schedules

Occasional teleworking

Better coordination with overseas operations and business partners

Job sharing

Exclusion of manufacturing employees from all but compressed work schedules due to job demands




APPENDIX B CASE STUDIES | KPMG

Background

Outcomes

The company made all work-life policies available to all employees in order to increase employee retention and to be an employer of choice.

50% of employees use some sort of flexible work arrangement

Strategies

Retention of valuable staff who would have otherwise been lost

Job sharing

Flexi-time


Teleworking



Requests primarily generated by the employees

Managers trained to approach requests with a “how can we make this work” attitude


APPENDIX B CASE STUDIES | KODAK

Background To meet employee desire for improved work-life balance all regular and conditional full-time and part-time employees are able to request any available arrangement.

Strategies

Outcomes Kodak reports the only negative outcome being some co-workers are jealous of those using the arrangements, although these employees could have applied to use the same arrangements and have chosen not to.

Part-time work

Job sharing


Flexi-time

Teleworking

Employees are required to receive permission from their immediate supervisor, as well as demonstrate that the arrangement will not have an adverse impact on the business

20




APPENDIX B CASE STUDIES | BRITISH TELECOM (BT)

Background BT created the “Workstyle Project” which aimed to increase both their employees’ and the organisation’s flexibility. This is now a product/service available from BT.

Outcomes I70% of employees utilise some form of flexible working

10% of employees are home-based

Strategies Teleworking policies and infrastructure to enable employees to work and meet from anywhere “at the touch of a button”.

Flexible workers have a 63% lower absenteeism rate and 99% retention rate following maternity leave

Home-based employees take 63% less sick leave

Home-based call centre operators are 20% more productive than office-based ones

€725 million a year saved on office real estate

€7.4 million a year saved in recruitment costs

Source - British Telecom

http://www2.bt.com/static/i/media/ pdf/flex_working_wp_07.pdf


APPENDIX B CASE STUDIES | ADDLESHAW GODDARD

Background

Outcomes

A UK law firm that has rolled out flexible working practices throughout the firm following a successful pilot group trial that consisted of partners, associates, trainees, secretarial and support staff.

Service standards have either been maintained or improved where flexible employees are involved.

Strategies

The proportion of female partners recruited externally has increased.

Teleworking to enable working from home and clients’ offices

Support for managers when they assess formal flexible working applications

Creation of a culture where flexible working is seen as a serious business tool


Source - Equality and Human Rights Commission

http://www.equalityhumanrights. com/advice-and-guidance/workingbetter/a-managers-guide-to-flexibleworking/

APPENDIX B CASE STUDIES | INTERWORK

Background A not-for-profit organisation that specialises in employment and training services for individuals who are disadvantaged in employment and community life. Interwork developed work-life policies to meet the needs of its employees and to reduce turnover.


Outcomes Improved quality of service and client satisfaction

99% rate of return from parental leave

Decreased staff turnover to below the industry average

80% job satisfaction rate

Compressed work schedules Source - Government of South Australia Teleworking

Career breaks

http://www.safework.sa.gov.au/ uploaded_files/cs_Interwork.pdf

Transitions to part-time work for employees returning from parental leave


APPENDIX B CASE STUDIES | ASC

Background An Australian-owned defence contractor. Work-life policies were developed to improve the recruitment and retention of female employees, as well as to increase employee career opportunities and development.


Outcomes Increased customer service levels

Improved employee retention and satisfaction

Decreased absenteeism

Improved employee health

Additional parental leave for employees with at least 12 months of continuous service

Greater ability for employees to manage their workload

Part-time work arrangements for all employees

Source - Government of South Australia

Academic examination leave

http://www.safework.sa.gov.au/ uploaded_files/cs_ASC.pdf

24


APPENDIX C POLICIES COVERED IN EACH RESEARCH AREA Table 1 Summary of policies covered in each of the research areas

Work-life Policies

Meta-analyses

Reports

Case Studies

Flexi-time

P P

P P P P P P P

P P

Compressed work schedule Annualised hours Telework

P

Part-time Transitions between part- and full-time Job sharing Shift swapping

P P P P

Voluntary reduced time

P P P P P

Control over breaks Control over overtime Career breaks Phased retirement Annualised hours On-site child care Dependent care information & referral services Financial assistance for dependent care Paid family leave

P P P P

Term-time working Phased return

Paid parental leave

P

P P P P

P

P P P P


APPENDIX D REFERENCES

[1] Guynn, J. (2013).

[8] Galinsky, E., Bond, J. T., & Sakai, K. (2008).

Mayer feels heat over telecommuting ban. The Age. Retrieved from: http://www.theage.com.au/it-pro/business-it/mayerfeels-heat-over-telecommuting-ban-20130227-2f4rj.html

The 2008 National Study of Employers. New York, NY: Families and Work Institute.

[2] Whelan, P. (2012, November).

[9] Tipping, S., Chanfreau, J., Perry, J., & Tait, C. (2012, July).

Flexible working best way to help employees? The Times. Retrieved from: http://www.thetimes.co.uk/tto/law/ article3598882.ece

Department for Business Innovation & Skills: The Fourth WorkLife Balance Employee Survey. Retrieved from http://www. esds.ac.uk/doc/7112/mrdoc/pdf/7112_employee_survey.pdf

[3] Duxbury, L., & Higgins, C. (1984).

[10] Work-Life and Human Capital Solutions (2007).

Gender Differences in Work-Family Conflict. Journal of Applied Psychology, 76, 60-74.

Flexibility Toolkit. Retrieved from: http://www.uky.edu/HR/ WorkLife/documents/FlexibilityToolkit.pdf

[4] American Bureau of Labor Statistics. (2010).

[11] Matos, K. & Galinsky, E. (2012).

Employment characteristics of families. Retrieved from http:// www.bls.gov/news.release/archives/famee_03242011.pdf

2012 National Study of Employers. Retrieved from http:// familiesandwork.org/site/research/reports/NSE_2012.pdf

[5] Aumann, K., Galinsky, E., Sakai, K., Brown, M., & Bond, J. T. (2010).

[12] Richman, A., Johnson, A., & Noble, K. (2011, February).

The elder care study: Everyday realities and wishes for change. New York, NY: Families and Work Institute.

Business Impacts of Flexibility: An Imperative for Expansion. Retrieved from http://www.cvworkingfamilies.org/system/files/ BizImpactFlex_March11_draftB.pdf

[6] AT&T. (2004).

[13] Greenhaus, J. H., & Beutell, N. J. (1985).

The remote working revolution. Retrieved November 8, 2005, from http://www.business.att.com/resource. jsp?&rtype=Whitepaper&rvalue=the_remote_working_ revolution.

Sources of conflict between work and family roles. Academy of Management Review, 10, 76-88.

[7] Davis, D. D., & Polonko, K. A. (2003, April). Distributed work in the virtual office: A national study of telework and work outcomes. Paper presented at the meeting of the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology, Orlando, FL.

* Meta-analyses used to inform the report 26 Centre for Ethical Leadership


[14] * Baltes, B. B., Briggs, T. E., Huff, J. W., Wright, J. A., & Neuman, G. A. (1999). Flexible and Compressed Workweek Schedules: A MetaAnalysis of Their Effects on Work-Related Criteria. Journal of Applied Psychology, 84, 496-513.

[21] Aryee, S. (1992). Antecedents and Outcomes of Work-Family Conflict among Married Professional Women: Evidence from Singapore. Human Relations, 45, 813-837.

[15] * Martin, B. H., & MacDonnell, R. (2012).

[22] * Amstad, F. T., Meier, L. L., Fasel, U., Elfering, A., & Semmer, N. K. (2011).

Is telework effective for organisations? A meta-analysis of empirical research on perceptions of telework and organisational outcomes. Management Research Review, 35, 602-616.

A Meta-Analysis of Work-Family Conflict and Various Outcomes with a Special Emphasis on Cross-Domain Versus MatchingDomain Relations. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 16, 151-169.

[16] * Butts, M. M., Casper, W. J., & Yang T. S. (2013).

[23] Frone, M. R., Russell, M., & Cooper, M. L. (1992).

How Important Are Work-Family Support Policies? A MetaAnalytic Investigation of Their Effects on Employee Outcomes. Journal of Applied Psychology, 98, 1-25.

Antecedents and outcomes of work-family conflict: testing a model of the work-family interface. Journal of Applied Psychology, 77, 65-78.

[17] * Ford, M. T., Heinen, B. A., & Langkamer, K. L. (2007).

[24] Leiter, M., & Durup, M. (1996).

Work and Family Satisfaction and Conflict: A Meta-Analysis of Cross-Domain Relations. Journal of Applied Psychology, 92, 57-80.

Work, Home and In-Between: A Longitudinal Study of Spillover. Journal of Applied Behavioural Science, 32, 29-47.

[25] Grimsey, R., & Percival, M. (2011). [18] * Gajendran, R. S., & Harrison, D. A. (2007). The Good, the Bad, and the Unknown About Telecommuting: Meta-Analysis of Psychological Mediators and Individual Consequences. Journal of Applied Psychology, 92, 1524-1541.

[19] Galinsky, E., Bond, J., & Friedman, D. (1996). The Role of Employers in Addressing the Needs of Employed Parents. Journal of Social Issues, 52, 111-136.

Navigating Choppy Waters. CBI/ Harvey Nash employment trends survey 2011. Retrieved from http://www.cbi.org. uk/media/955608/2011.06-navigating_choppy_waters_-_ employment_trends_survey.pdf

[26] Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development. (2012, May). Flexible working provision and uptake. Retrieved from http:// www.cipd.co.uk/binaries/5790%20Flexible%20Working%20 SR%20%28WEB2%29.pdf

[20] * Mesmer-Magnus, J. R., & Viswesvaran, C. (2006). How Family-Friendly Work Environments Affect Work/Family Conflict: A Meta-Analytic Examination. Journal of Labour Research, 27, 555-574. * Meta-analyses used to inform the report A review of the evidence regarding work-life policies 27


[27] WorldatWork (2005, October). Flexible Work Schedules: A Survey of WorldatWork and AWLP. Retrieved from: http://www.worldatwork.org/pub/ E157963FWS05.pdf

[28] WorldatWork (2011, February). Survey on Workplace Flexibility. Retrieved from: http://www. worldatwork.org/waw/adimLink?id=48160

[29] McGuire J. F., & Brashler, P. (2006). Flexible Work Arrangements: Selected Case Studies. Retrieved from http://scholarship.law.georgetown.edu/cgi/viewcontent. cgi?article=1007&context=legal

[30] Burgmann, L. (2012, November). AIM Insights: Managing in a flexible work environment. Retrieved from http://www.aimqld.com.au/research/ documents/Managing_in_a_flexible_work_environment.pdf

[31] Allen, T. D., & Russell, J. E. A. (1999). Parental Leave of Absence: Some Not So Family-Friendly Implications. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 29, 166-191.

[32] Golden, T. D. (2006). The role of relationships in understanding telecommuter satisfaction. Journal of Organisational Behaviour, 27, 319-340.


APPENDIX E SAMPLE SIZES

Table 4 Industry and Government Report Employee and Employer Sample Sizes

Report Reference

Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development (2012)

Employer Sample Employee Sample Countries Size Size

818

Fursman and Zodgekar (2009)

1289

UK

692

NZ

Grimsey and Percival (2011)T

243

UK

Matos and Galinsky (2012)

729

US

Singaporean Ministry of Manpower (2012)

3500

SG 506

Pocock, Skinner, and Ichii (2009) Society for Human Resource Management (2009)

511

US 1874

Tipping, Chanfreau, Perry, and Tait (2012)

AUS

UK

WorldatWork (2005)

522

NA

WorldatWork (2011)

537

NA


APPENDIX F POLICIES OFFERED BY EMPLOYERS Table 2 Summary of industry and government report findings of polices offered by employers

Work-life policy supported

Number of reports

Sample Size

Countries*

Average of employers offering policy (%)

Annualised hours

3

2935

UK

20

Career breaks

5

2301

UK | US

45


8

5926

NA | NZ | UK

45

Control over breaks

2

1421

NZ | US

85

Control over overtime

1

729

US

44

Flexi-time

9

9426

NA | NZ | SG | UK

44

Job sharing

7

8005

NA | SG | UK

23

Occasional time off for family commitments

2

1421

NZ | US

87

Part-time

7

8005

NA | SG | UK

60

Phased retirement

3

1777

NA

26

Phased return

2

1266

NA

67

Shift flexibility

3

1777

US

35

Teleworking

9

9426

NA | NZ | SG | UK

32

Term-time working

6

4867

NZ | UK | US

35

Time off to volunteer

2

1547

UK | US

34

Transitions between parttime and full-time schedules

3

3114

UK | US

55

*NA = North America, SG = Singapore, UK = United Kingdom, US = United States of America, AU = Australia, NZ = New Zealand 30


APPENDIX G POLICIES EMPLOYEES REPORT UTILISING Table 3 Summary of industry and government report findings of polices utilised by employees

Work-life policy supported

Number of reports

Sample Size

Countries*

Average of employees offering policy (%)

Annualised hours

3

3669

AU | UK

4

Career breaks

1

1289

UK

2


4

4361

AU | NZ | UK

15

Control over breaks

1

692

NZ

77

Flexi-time

4

4361

AU | NZ | UK

30

OTFC

1

692

NZ

77

Part-time

3

3669

AU | UK

29

Term-time working

3

3855

NZ | UK

16

Time off to volunteer

1

1289

UK

3

TBPF

2

2380

AU | UK

11

Teleworking

4

4361

AU | NZ | UK

18

*NA = North America, SG = Singapore, UK = United Kingdom, US = United States of America, AU = Australia, NZ = New Zealand A review of the evidence regarding work-life policies 31

APPENDIX H PERCENTAGE OF EMPLOYERS OFFERING INDIVIDUAL WORK-LIFE POLICIES Table 5 Percentage of employers who reported offering individual work-life policies by industry or government report

Work-life policy

Fursman and Zodgekar 09

Annualised hours

Tipping, Chantreau, Perry, and Tait 12

Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development 12

17

22

Career breaks CWS

69

Control over breaks

77

39

41

40.5

44

36 93

Control over overtime Flexi-time

44 75.5

Job sharing OTFC

Matos and Galinsky 12

48

50

43

49

88

Part-time

77

87 80

88

Phased retirement

53

Phased return

73

Shift flexibility

36

Teleworking

44

30

54

33

Term-time working

77

34

33

18

21

49

TTV TBPF

66

CWS = Compressed work schedule, OTFC = Occasional time off for family commitments, TTV = Time off to volunteer, TBPF = Transitions between part-time and full-time 32 Centre for Ethical Leadership

41

Grimsey and Percival 11

Singaporean Ministry of Manpower 12

Society for Human Resource Management 09

World at Work 05

World at Work 11

24 46

31

24

38

54

52

19

52

8.2

51

85

84

52

0.5

11

39

27

92

33.2

58

72

84

15

27 59

23 59 26

4

60

44 81

83

9

36


APPENDIX I PERCENTAGE OF EMPLOYEES UTILISING INDIVIDUAL WORK-LIFE POLICIES Table 6 Percentage of employers who reported utilising individual work-life policies by industry or government

Work-life policy

Chartered Institute of Personnel & Development 12

Tipping, Chantreau, Perry, and Tait 12

Annualised hours

3

5

Career breaks

2

CWS

5

10

Control over breaks

Fursman and Zodgekar 09

3

55

25

24

Job sharing

1

5

OTFC

63

7 2

77 10

Part-time

32

32

Teleworking

20

13

36

Term-time working

2

10

60

TTV

3 9

CWS = Compressed work schedule, OTFC = Occasional time off for family commitments, TTV = Time off to volunteer, TBPF = Transitions between part-time and full-time 34 Centre for Ethical Leadership

4

65

Flexi-time

TBPF

Pocock, Skinner, and Ichii 09

7

17

APPENDIX J INDUSTRY AND GOVERNMENT REPORT REFERENCE LIST FOR APPENDICES E-I Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development. (2012, May). Flexible working provision and uptake. Retrieved from http:// www.cipd.co.uk/binaries/5790%20Flexible%20Working%20 SR%20%28WEB2%29.pdf

Pocock, B., Skinner, N., & Ichii, R. (2009) The Australian Work and Life Index 2009: Work, Life and Work Workplace Flexibility. Retrieved from http://w3.unisa.edu.au/ hawkeinstitute/cwl/documents/AWALI-09-full.pdf

Society for Human Resource Management (2009). Fursman, L. & Zodgekar, N. (2009). Flexible Work Arrangements: New Zealand families and their experiences with flexible work. Family Matters, 81, 25-36.

Workplace Flexibility in the 21st Century: Meeting the Needs of the Changing Workforce. Retrieved from http://www.shrm. org/research/surveyfindings/articles/documents/09-0464_ workplace_flexibility_survey_report_inside_finalonline.pdf

Grimsey, R., & Percival, M. (2011). Navigating Choppy Waters CBI/ Harvey Nash employment trends survey 2011. Retrieved from http://www.cbi.org. uk/media/955608/2011.06-navigating_choppy_waters_-_ employment_trends_survey.pdf

Tipping, S., Chanfreau, J., Perry, J., & Tait, C. (2012, July). Department for Business Innovation & Skills: The Fourth WorkLife Balance Employee Survey. Retrieved from http://www. esds.ac.uk/doc/7112/mrdoc/pdf/7112_employee_survey.pdf

Hegewisch, A. (2009).

WorldatWork (2005, October).

Flexible working policies: a comparative review. Retrieved from http://www.equalityhumanrights.com/uploaded_files/ research/16_flexibleworking.pdf

Flexible Work Schedules: A Survey of WorldatWork and AWLP. Retrieved from: http://www.worldatwork.org/pub/ E157963FWS05.pdf

Matos, K. & Galinsky, E. (2012).

WorldatWork (2011, February).

2012 National Study of Employers. Retrieved from http:// familiesandwork.org/site/research/reports/NSE_2012.pdf

Survey on Workplace Flexibility. Retrieved from: http://www. worldatwork.org/waw/adimLink?id=48160

Singaporean Ministry of Manpower (2012, December). Conditions of Employment, 2012. Retrieved from http:// scholarship.law.georgetown.edu/cgi/viewcontent. cgi?article=1007&context=legal


FOR MORE INFORMATION Centre for Ethical Leadership, Ormond College University of Melbourne [email protected] | +61 3 9344 1403 cel.edu.au