Writing 4

Assiut University College of Education Curriculum & Instruction Dept.

For

Compiled & Prepared By

Dr. Mahmoud M. S. Abdallah

Writing 4 ___________________________________________________

Table of Contents Table of Contents Table of Contents .......................................................................1 CHAPTER ONE ...........................................................................3 EXPOSITORY WRITING .............................................................3 1.1 Introduction .....................................................................3 1.2 Main Characteristics and Features of Expository Writing ...................................................................................5 1.3 Why to Teach Expository Writing? ................................6 1.4 Guidelines for Writing Expository Essays .....................7 definition| example| compare and contrast| cause and effect | classification | process analysis .............................12 1.5 Examples of Expository Writing ..................................14 1.6 Real Samples ..................................................................19 Mosharafa.................................................................................29 1.7 Reflections and Ideas for Workshops ..........................36 CHAPTER TWO ........................................................................38 ACADEMIC WRITING ..............................................................38 2.1 Introduction ...................................................................38 2.2 Academic Document Types ..........................................39 2.3 Features of Academic Writing ......................................40 2.4 The Process of Academic Writing: Writing an Academic Essay ...................................................................48 2.5 Real Samples ..................................................................54 2.6 Reflections and Ideas for Workshops ..........................66 CHAPTER THREE: FUNCTIONAL-PRAGMATIC WRITING ...68 3.1 Introduction .....................................................................68 3.2 Why and How Do We Write Functionally and Pragmatically? .......................................................................69 3.3 Types of Functional-Pragmatic Writing Products ..........72 3.4 What Are the Key Requirements of Functional Writing? ...............................................................................................73 CHAPTER FOUR .......................................................................76 FUNCTIONAL-WRITING PRODUCTS .....................................76 4.1 Introduction .....................................................................76 4.2 Letters/E-mails (Formal and Informal) ...........................77 1

Dr Mahmoud M. S. Abdallah ___________________________________________________ 4.3 Reports ............................................................................84 4.4 Diary Entries ...................................................................87 4.5 Memorandum (memo) ....................................................92 4.6 Note Taking ....................................................................96 4.7 Curriculum Vitae (CV) .................................................100 4.8 Written Explanations ....................................................102

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Writing 4 ___________________________________________________

CHAPTER ONE EXPOSITORY WRITING

1.1 Introduction There are five main types of writing: expository, descriptive, narrative, persuasive, and creative. There are many other sub-types that fall under these titles.

Expository writing is where the author intends to inform, explain, describe, or define their subject to you. This is the most common type of writing you will find in text books and online. As the author is mostly trying to tell you all about the subject, their opinions are left out leaving you with facts and figures instead of trying to defend or support an opinion. An example of expository writing is

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Dr Mahmoud M. S. Abdallah ___________________________________________________

"How-to" articles, where the author is explaining how

to

build

or

do

something

yourself

(http://www.teachnology.com/themes/lang_arts/typesofwriting) .

The creator of an expository text cannot assume that the reader or listener has prior knowledge or prior understanding of the topic that is being discussed. One important point to keep in mind for the author is to try to use words that clearly show what they are talking about rather then deliberately telling the reader what is being discussed. Since clarity requires strong organisation, one of the most important mechanisms that can be used to improve our skills in exposition is to provide directions to improve the organisation of the text.

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Writing 4 ___________________________________________________

1.2 Main Characteristics and Features of Expository Writing A well-written exposition remains focused on its topic and lists events in chronological order.

Expository essays should not reveal the opinion of the writer, and therefore, the use of first-person pronouns should be avoided.

Since clarity requires strong organisation, one of the most important mechanisms that can be used to improve the writer's skills in exposition is to provide directions to improve the organisation of the text.

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1.3 Why to Teach Expository Writing? Let's think about the type of writing that most of us encounter in our daily lives. When you pick up and read a non-fiction book, magazines, or newspaper article, the author uses expository writing to inform you, the reader, about the topic. Here you are supposed to receive facts and be informed about something. In other words, the author here tells you about something without trying to orient you or influence your personal thinking.

Since expository text

is meant to deposit

information, it is the most frequently used type of writing by students in colleges, high schools, middle schools, elementary schools, and universities. At school, students are required to submit school exams and research papers as a means for their teachers to grade their progress. Moreover, at work, people are required to produce business reports and

memorandums to inform their

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Writing 4 ___________________________________________________

superiors and co-workers about the occurrences that take place at other levels of the company.

In addition, oral exposition is primarily observed in oral academic presentations, business talks, and speeches that are delivered to a group of people. As each of these different cases illustrate, expository writing and speech surround us in our everyday lives. Therefore, the primary intent of any Expository Writing training should be to help with moving students closer to mastering the how’s, when’s, and where’s to select different oral and written expository styles for a variety of real world contexts

(see:

http://www.stanford.edu/~arnetha/expowrite/info.html).

1.4 Guidelines for Writing Expository Essays (Available http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/685/02).

at:

The expository essay is a genre of essay that requires the student to investigate an idea, evaluate 7


evidence, expound on the idea, and set forth an argument concerning that idea in a clear and concise manner. This can be accomplished through comparison and contrast, definition, example, the analysis of cause and effect, etc.

Please note: This genre is commonly assigned as a tool for classroom evaluation and is often found in various exam formats. The structure of the expository essay is held together by the following: -A clear, concise, and defined thesis statement that occurs in the first paragraph of the essay. It is essential that this thesis statement be appropriately narrowed to follow the guidelines set forth in the assignment. If the student does not master this portion of the essay, it will be quite difficult to compose an effective or persuasive essay. -Clear and logical transitions introduction, body, and conclusion.

8

between

the

Writing 4 ___________________________________________________

Transitions are the mortar that holds the foundation of the essay together. Without logical progression of thought, the reader is unable to follow the essay’s argument, and the structure will collapse. -Body paragraphs that include evidential support. Each paragraph should be limited to the exposition of one general idea. This will allow for clarity and direction throughout the essay. What is more, such conciseness creates an ease of readability for one’s audience. It is important to note that each paragraph in the body of the essay must have some logical connection to the thesis statement in the opening paragraph. -Evidential support (whether statistical, or anecdotal).

factual,

logical,

Often times, students are required to write expository essays with little or no preparation; therefore, such essays do not typically allow for a great deal of statistical or factual evidence. -A bit of creativity! 9


Though creativity and artfulness are not always associated with essay writing, it is an art form nonetheless. Try not to get stuck on the formulaic nature of expository writing at the expense of writing something interesting. Remember, though you may not be crafting the next great novel, you are attempting to leave a lasting impression on the people evaluating your essay. -A conclusion that does not simply restate the thesis, but readdresses it in light of the evidence provided. It is at this point of the essay that students will inevitably begin to struggle. This is the portion of the essay that will leave the most immediate impression on the mind of the reader. Therefore, it must be effective and logical. Do not introduce any new information into the conclusion; rather, synthesize and come to a conclusion concerning the information presented in the body of the essay. -A Complete Argument Perhaps it is helpful to think of an essay in terms of a conversation or debate with a classmate. If I were

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Writing 4 ___________________________________________________

to discuss the cause of the Great Depression and its current effect on those who lived through the tumultuous time, there would be a beginning, middle, and end to the conversation. In fact, if I were to end the exposition in the middle of my second point, questions would arise concerning the current effects on those who lived through the Depression. Therefore, the expository essay must be complete, and logically so, leaving no doubt as to its intent or argument. -The Five-Paragraph Essay

A common method for writing an expository essay is the five-paragraph approach. This is, however, by no means the only formula for writing such essays. If it sounds straightforward, that is because it is; in fact, the method consists of: 1. an introductory paragraph 2. three evidentiary body paragraphs 3. a conclusion

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When writing your expository essay, follow these eight

basic

steps:

(Available

at:

http://www.studygs.net/wrtstr3.htm) Select a topic: Be sure the topic is narrow enough to make it manageable within the space of an essay. Write a thesis sentence: Be sure the thesis statement controlling

(or

sentence)

idea

that

expresses

is

neither

a too

broad nor too specific to be developed effectively. Select a method of development: Check through all the methods before you finally settle

on

the

one

which will best serve your thesis: definition| example| compare and contrast| cause and effect | classification | process analysis Organise the essay: Begin by listing the major divisions which the body paragraphs in your essay will discuss; then fill in the primary

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Writing 4 ___________________________________________________

supports that each body paragraph of the essay will contain.

Write topic sentences for the body paragraphs of the essay: For each body paragraph, furnish a topic sentence that directly relates to the thesis sentence.

Write the body paragraphs of the essay: Each body paragraph should develop the primary support covered in that paragraph's topic sentence.

Furnish a paragraph of introduction: An introductory paragraph should state the thesis of the essay, introduce the divisions in the body paragraphs of the essay, and gain the interest of the reader.

Write a paragraph of conclusion:

Restate the thesis and divisions of the essay 13


Bring the essay to an appropriate and effective close Avoid digressing into new issues

1.5 Examples of Expository Writing The

example

below

(available

at:

http://web.gccaz.edu/~mdinchak/ENG101/exposi tory_writing.htm)

illustrates

some

different

patterns that Expository Writing might include (i.e., Descriptive

Writing,

Sequential

Writing,

Compare/Contrast Writing, Cause/Effect Writing, and Problem/Solution Writing).

Pattern

Written and Graphic Example

Name

of the Pattern

Description The author describes a topic by listing characteristics, features, and examples. It provides details about how something looks,

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Writing 4 ___________________________________________________

Pattern


Name

of the Pattern

feels, tastes, smells, makes one feel, or sounds

Example of Descriptive Writing

Cue Words for example, the characteristics are...

Expository essays are written by students to demonstrate their knowledge and understanding of a particular topic. For example, a student might use a descriptive pattern to emphasize the features and characteristics of a topic. Sequential writing emphasizes the order of events, listing items in numerical or chronological order. A writer might use a comparison or contrast pattern to emphasize the similarities or differences between two topics. A cause and/or effect pattern shows the relationship between events, while a problem/solution pattern shows a different kind of relationship that discusses a problem and suggests solutions. Variations of these patterns are sometimes used, as well as a combination of patterns to create an expository essay.

Sequence or Process The author lists items or events in numerical or chronological order. Cue Words first, second, third; next; then; finally

Example of Sequential Writing Expository writing is intended to convey the writer's knowledge about a topic. While different patterns may be employed to create the essay, every essay contains the same features: the introduction, the thesis, the body paragraphs, and the conclusion. The introduction is the first paragraph in the essay.

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Pattern


Name

of the Pattern The introduction contains the thesis statement, one sentence that summarizes the main idea of the essay. The body paragraphs follow the introduction and explain the main topics. Lastly, the conclusion is the final paragraph that restates the main topics and and the thesis. Every expository essay contains these features, in this order.

Comparison The author explains how two or more things are alike and/or how they are different. A compar ison essay usually discusses the similarities between two things, while the contrast essay discusses the differences.

Cue Words different; in contrast; alike; same as; on the other hand

Example of Compare/Contrast Writing Expository writing has distinct features that distinguish it from creative writing. The content of an expository essay is factual and straightforward while the content of a creative story is imaginative and symbolic. Expository essays are written for a general audience but creative stories are designed for a specific audience. The writing style of an expository essay is formal, standard and academic, while a creative story uses an informal and artistic

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Writing 4 ___________________________________________________

Pattern


Name

of the Pattern style. The organization of an expository essay is systematic and deliberate; on the other hand, the organization of a creative story is more arbitrary and artistic. Finally, the most important difference between the two types of writing is the purpose of the text. An expository essay is written to inform and instruct, while a creative story is written to entertain and captivate.

Cause / Effect The author focuses on the relationship between two or more events or experiences. The essay could discuss both causes and ef fects, or it could simply address one or the other. A cause essay usually discusses the reasons why something happened. An effect essay discusses what happens after a specific event or circumstance. Cue Words reasons why; if...then; as a result; therefore; because

Example of Cause/Effect Writing There are several reasons why so many people attend the Olympic games or watch them on television. One reason is tradition. The name Olympics and the torch and flame remind people of the ancient games. People can escape the ordinariness of daily life by attending or watching the Olympics. They like to identify with someone else's individual sacrifice and accomplishment. National pride is another reason, and an athlete's or a team's hard earned victory becomes a nation's victory. There are national medal counts and people keep track of how many medals their country's athletes have won.

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Pattern


Name

of the Pattern

Problem / Solution The author states a problem and lists one or more solutions for the problem. A variation of this pattern is the questionandanswer format in which the author poses a question and then answers it. Cue Words the problem is; the dilemma is; puzzle is solved; question... answer

Example of Problem/Solution Writing One problem with the modern Olympics is that it has become very big and expensive to operate. The city or country that hosts the games often loses a lot of money. A stadium, pools, and playing fields must be built for the athletic events and housing is needed for the athletes who come from around the world. And all of these facilities are used for only 2 weeks! In 1984, Los Angeles solved these problems by charging a fee for companies who wanted to be official sponsors of the games. Companies like McDonald's paid a lot of money to be part of the Olympics. Many buildings that were already built in the Los Angeles area were also used. The Coliseum where the 1932 games were held was used again and many colleges and universities in the area became playing and living sites.

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Writing 4 ___________________________________________________

1.6 Real Samples Sample 1: Dear Colleague, The International Research Journals (IRJ) is currently accepting manuscripts for publication. IRJ publishes high-quality solicited and unsolicited articles, in English, in all areas of Education. All articles published in IRJ will be peer-reviewed. Our objective is to inform authors of the decision on their manuscript within five weeks of submission. Following acceptance, a paper will normally be published in the next available issue. One key request of researchers across the world is open access to research publications. The International Research Journals is fully committed to providing free access to all articles as soon as they are published. We ask you to support this initiative by publishing your papers in this journal. Instruction for authors and other details are available on our website http://resjournals.com. Prospective authors should send their manuscript(s) to [email protected] Best regards, Dr. M……………… Editor Education Research Journal International Research Journals Email:[email protected] http://www.resjournals.com

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Sample 2: The Evolution of Birds Birds Began as Feathered Reptiles Birds evolved during the great reptilian radiation of the Mesozoic era. Amniotic eggs and scales on the legs are just two of the reptilian features we see in birds. But modern birds look quite different from modern reptiles because of their feathers and other distinctive flight equipment. Characteristics of Birds Almost every part of a typical bird's anatomy is modified in some way that enhances flight. The bones have an internal structure that is honeycombed, making them strong but light. The skeleton of a frigate bird, for instance, has a wingspan of more than 2 meters but weighs only about 113 grams. Another adaptation reducing the weight of birds is the absence of some organs. Females, for instance, have only one ovary. Also, modern birds are toothless, an adaptation that trims the weight of the head. Food is not chewed in the mouth but ground in the gizzard, a digestive organ near the stomach. (Crocodiles also have gizzards, as did some dinosaurs.) The bird's beak, made of keratin, has proven to be very adaptable during avian evolution, taking on a great variety of shapes suitable for different diets. Flying requires a great expenditure of energy from an active metabolism. Birds are endothermic; they use their own metabolic heat to maintain a warm, constant body temperature. Feathers and, in some species, layers of fat provide insulation that enables birds to retain their metabolically generated heat. An efficient respiratory system and a circulatory system with a four-chambered heart keep tissues well supplied with oxygen and nutrients, supporting a high rate of metabolism. The lungs have tiny tubes leading to and from elastic air sacs that help dissipate heat and reduce the density of the body. For safe flight, senses, especially vision, must be acute. Birds have excellent eyes, perhaps the best of all the vertebrates. The

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Writing 4 ___________________________________________________ visual areas of the brains are well developed, as are the motor areas; flight also requires excellent coordination. With brains proportionately larger than those of reptiles and amphibians, birds generally display very complex behaviour. Avian behaviour is particularly intricate during breeding season, when birds engage in elaborate rituals of courtship. Because eggs are shelled when laid, fertilization must be internal. Copulation involves contact between the mates' vents, the openings to their cloacae. After eggs are laid, the avian embryo must be kept warm through brooding by the mother, father, or both, depending on the species. A bird's most obvious adaptation for flight is its wings. Birds' wings are airfoils that illustrate the same principles of aerodynamics as the wings of an airplane. Providing power for flight, birds flap their wings by contractions of large pectoral (breast) muscles anchored to a keel on the sternum (breastbone). Some birds, such as eagles and hawks, have wings adapted for soaring on air currents and flap their wings only occasionally; other birds, including hummingbirds, must flap continuously to stay aloft. In either case, it is the shape and arrangement of the feathers that form the wings into an airfoil. The fastest birds are the appropriately named swifts, which can fly 170 km/hr. In being both extremely light and strong, feathers are among the most remarkable of vertebrate adaptations. Feathers are made of keratin, the same protein that forms our hair and fingernails and the scales of reptiles. Feathers may have functioned first as insulation during the evolution of endothermy, only later being co-opted as flight equipment.

Sample 3: (E-mail message) ECLL 2014 - The Second European Conference on Language Learning 9th to 13th July 2014 Brighton, United Kingdom 2014 Conference Theme: "Individual, Community, Society: Connecting, Learning and Growing"

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Dr Mahmoud M. S. Abdallah ___________________________________________________ Enquiries: [email protected] Web address: http://iafor.org/iafor/conferences/the-european-conference-onlanguage-learning-2014/ Sponsored by: IAFOR - The International Academic Forum The International Academic Forum in conjunction with its global university partners is proud to announce the Second European Conference on Language Learning, to be held from July 9-13, 2014, at the Thistle Hotel Brighton, in the United Kingdom. Hear the latest research, publish before a global audience, present in a supportive environment, network, engage in new relationships, experience the UK, explore Brighton, London and the South-East of England, join a global academic community... The 2013 event was a great celebration of language learning and teaching with 300 registrants from over 40 countries sharing their ideas, research and experiences, and we look forward to building on the conversations and partnerships that have developed over the past year. What better place than an IAFOR conference to connect with likeminded teachers and researchers, to learn about current trends and cutting edge developments, and to grow as a teacher, as a researcher, as a member of the profession? ECLL 2014 is the place to hear about best practices as they are implemented in language classrooms around the world, and with IAFOR conferences regularly attracting participants from 40 countries, this year's event promises to offer exceptional opportunities for networking, whether it is during sessions, over coffee during a break, or at the conference dinner. As always, we invite language educators, administrators, policy makers, and others to join us at ECLL 2014 as we share what we are doing individually and as a community of teachers making our mark on society. The aim of this International Conference is to encourage academics, scholars and practitioners representing a exciting diversity of countries, cultures, and religion to meet and exchange ideas and views in a forum encouraging respectful dialogue. By bringing

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Writing 4 ___________________________________________________ together a number of university scholars working throughout Europe and beyond to share ideas, ECLL 2014 will afford the opportunity for renewing old acquaintances, making new contacts, and networking across higher education and beyond. We look forward to seeing you in Brighton in 2014! Professor Steve Cornwell ECLL 2014 Conference Chair Professor, Department of International and English Interdisciplinary Studies, Osaka Women's University, Japan Director of Programs, and Member of the Board of Directors, Japan Association of Language Teachers (JALT) Professor Barbara Lockee ECLL 2014 Conference Co-Chair Professor of Instructional Design and Technology. Associate Director of Educational Research and Outreach in the School of Education, Virginia Tech, USA IAFOR Global University and Institutional Alliance â€“ Working Together IAFOR works with our university partners to nurture and encourage the best in international, intercultural and interdisciplinary research. We work with senior administrators and professors in our partner institutions to develop programs which are timely, thought-provoking and academically rigorous. The global partnership alliance means that our interdisciplinary conferences are backed by some of the worldâ€™s foremost institutions of learning. Publishing Opportunities: Authors of Accepted Abstracts will have the opportunity of publishing their associated paper in the official conference proceedings, and a selection of papers will be considered for inclusion in the internationally reviewed IAFOR journals associated with the conference. For more information about the IAFOR Journal of Language Learning and other journals, please visit the journal pages under "Research". The conference theme is "Individual, Community, Society: Connecting, Learning and Growing", and the organizers encourage submissions

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Dr Mahmoud M. S. Abdallah ___________________________________________________ that approach this theme from a variety of perspectives. However, the submission of other topics for consideration is welcome and we also encourage sessions within and across a variety of disciplines and fields related to Language Learning and Teaching, including the following streams: Alternative Assessment Anxiety and Motivation Bilingualism Blended Learning Constructivist Approaches Conversation Analysis Cross-Cultural Communication Design First Language Acquisition Gaming and Simulation Individual Differences Innovative Language Teaching and Learning Methodologies Interactional Competence Inter-Group Relations Knowledge Management/LMS Language Education Learner and Teacher Autonomy Learning Environments Learning Strategies Learning Third Languages Life Long Learning Literacy Linguistics Methodology Open Learning Initiative (OLI) Phonetics and Phonology Pragmatics Sociolinguistics World Englishes Teacher Training Testing and Evaluation The Good Language Learner Translation and Interpretation

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Writing 4 ___________________________________________________

Sample 4: Dear Students A reminder that the Postgraduate Cafe will be operating in the Postgraduate Centre on the ground floor of Staff House from 3pm th until 4.45pm TODAY, Tuesday, 28 May, BEFORE the Research Seminar at 5 pm in BC114. The student led Postgraduate Cafe offers an informal opportunity to meet with other researchers, which is an important aspect of the researcher's lifestyle; as well as providing opportunity to discuss your work (both the successes and the challenges) such meetings provide much needed social contact…and fun! Refreshments are available in exchange for a small contribution towards costs (currently 50p). If you have any questions or would like more information, please contact Mark Brenchley ([email protected]), Sarah Cole ([email protected]), Jonathan Doney ([email protected]), Ana Douglas ([email protected]) or Pavithra Arvind ([email protected]). Best wishes, Tamara ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ Tamara Snell Research Office Graduate School of Education College of Social Sciences & International Studies University of Exeter St Luke’s Campus

Sample 5: From: G.M.>>>>>>>>>>>>> Sent: 10 December 2009 12:33 To: Abdallah, Mahmoud Subject: Free ERDP Events coming up in January/February Dear Mahmoud,

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The Effective Researcher Development Programme will be offering the following free Skills Training in January/February. If you haven’t already booked there are still places available and you are more than welcome to attend. For more information and to book a place please click on the link. 0904A: Ethical Issues & the Data Protection Act Tuesday 12 January, 2pm ?$ú 4pm STREATHAM CAMPUS http://tinyurl.com/yb5scer 0947A: Science and Spin: Communicating our Science to a wider audience Thursday 14 January, 2pm ?$ú 4pm - STREATHAM CAMPUS http://tinyurl.com/yf7uh2q 0906B: Visualising Data: How to present your data accurately in research Monday 18 January, 1pm ?$ú 4.30pm ?$ú STREATHAM CAMPUS http://tinyurl.com/yeeyah9 0918B: Better than Google: Getting the most from Science resources on-line Wednesday 20 January, 9.30am ?$ú 11.30am ?$ú STREATHAM CAMPUS http://tinyurl.com/yaawbld 0916B: Finding and Using Archives in Research Thursday 21 January, 10.30am ?$ú 12pm ?$ú STREATHAM CAMPUS http://tinyurl.com/yzj6j7s 0928B: Going Global: Presenting a conference paper Monday 25 January, 1pm ?$ú 5pm ?$ú STREATHAM CAMPUS http://tinyurl.com/yhzr3hf 0920B: Have I Got News for You: Online Access to full text newspapers Wednesday 27 January, 9.30am ?$ú 1.30pm ?$ú STREATHAM CAMPUS http://tinyurl.com/ylr7vsf

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Writing 4 ___________________________________________________ 0970A: Managing Your Career: The Application Process Thursday 28 January, 10am ?$ú 12pm ?$ú STREATHAM CAMPUS http://tinyurl.com/yh3emer 0926A: Getting on: Making the most of your Supervisor Monday 1 February. 2pm ?$ú 4pm ?$ú STREATHAM CAMPUS http://tinyurl.com/yfds3cq 0917B: An Introduction to Electronic Journals Tuesday 2 February, 9.30am ?$ú 11.30am ?$ú STREATHAM CAMPUS http://tinyurl.com/yhadf46 0971A: Managing your Career: Improving your Interview Technique Tuesday 2 February, 2pm ?$ú 4pm ?$ú STREATHAM CAMPUS http://tinyurl.com/ykdy43o 0983A: HUSS/Law Careers in Academia Event Wednesday 3 February, 12pm ?$ú 3.30pm ?$ú STREATHAM CAMPUS http://tinyurl.com/yjju9h3 0981B: Exploring Theory - Developed for students in HUSS, SALL and SELL Thursday 4 February, 9.30am ?$ú 12.30pm ?$ú STREATHAM CAMPUS http://tinyurl.com/y8weq2f 0968B: Finishing the PhD on time: Starting to write your science/engineering thesis Friday 5 February, 9.30am ?$ú 4.30pm ?$ú STREATHAM CAMPUS http://tinyurl.com/yk2pm5n 0933B: Effective writing skills for scientific research Monday 8 February, 9.30am ?$ú 4.30pm ?$ú STREATHAM CAMPUS http://tinyurl.com/yk3fufe 0978A: Tell the World About It: getting your research into the media Tuesday 9 February, 9am ?$ú 5pm ?$ú STREATHAM CAMPUS http://tinyurl.com/ye3la4d

With kind regards,

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Dr Mahmoud M. S. Abdallah ___________________________________________________ Gill Fairbrass on behalf of: Dr Chris Wood Director of Postgraduate Skills Training

Sample 6: Dear Student Please see this information below from the library concerning their facilities for the summer vacation period. Regards. Carole Miller Student Information Office - Graduate School of Education University of Exeter www.exeter.ac.uk/education

Dear all St Luke’s Library’s new 24/7 study facility will remain open during the summer vacation. Due to the success of recent trials, the First Floor Study Room and the First Floor Refreshment Area will now remain open on a 24/7 basis, providing St Luke’s Campus with a much needed and much sought after 24-hour quiet study facility. This compliments the existing 24/7 PC Cluster on the Ground Floor. Excellent wireless coverage provides network access for those who wish to use their own laptops for research and study purposes, and comfortable seating and desks are available for those who simply wish to read. Regular Security patrols will both aid personal safety and ensure that the area fulfils its primary purpose as a haven for study while the Library itself is closed – and don’t forget that you will need your University card to swipe in at both the Main Entrance and Library Entrance Gates.

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Writing 4 ___________________________________________________ If you have any feedback about this facility then please contact Stephen Mossop, Head of Library Customer Services, [email protected] Best wishes, Aeronwen Aeronwen Allison Academic Support Consultant for Education, Lifelong Learning and Modern Languages Main Library University of Exeter Stocker Road, Exeter, UK, EX4 4PT 01392 726140 / Internal: 6140

Sample 7: (A Wikipedia Account)

Mosharafa Dr Ali Moustafa Mosharafa Pasha (born 11 July 1898 – 16 January 1950) was an Egyptian theoretical physicist. He was professor of applied mathematics in the Faculty of Science at Cairo University, and also served as its first dean. He contributed to the development of the quantum theory as well as the theory of relativity and corresponded with Albert Einstein.

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He was the youngest student in his class, but the most knowledgeable. He obtained his primary certificate in 1910 ranking first nationwide. At the age of 16 he obtained his Baccalaureate in 1914 to become the youngest student at that time to be awarded such a certificate. He preferred to enrol in the Teachers' College rather than the faculties of Medicine or Engineering due to his deep interest in mathematics.

He graduated in 1917. Due to his excellence in mathematics, the Egyptian Ministry of Education sent him to England where he obtained BSc (Honours) from the University of Nottingham, 1920. The Egyptian University consented to grant Mosharafa another scholarship to complete his doctoral thesis. During his stay in London, many of his scientific research studies were published in prominent science magazines. He obtained a PhD in 1923 from King's College London in the shortest possible

time

permissible

according

to

the

regulations there. In 1924 Mosharafa was awarded

30

Writing 4 ___________________________________________________

the degree of Doctor of Science, the first Egyptian and 11th scientist in the entire world to obtain such a degree.

When he returned home, he became a teacher in the Higher Teachers' college. When the University of Cairo was opened in 1925, he became an associate professor of mathematics in the Faculty of Science because he was under the age of 30, the minimum age required for fulfilling the post of a professor. In 1926 his promotion to professor was raised in the Parliament, chaired by Saad Zaghloul at

that

time.

The

Parliament

lauded

his

qualifications and merits which surpassed those of the English dean of the faculty and he was promoted to professor.

He was the first Egyptian professor of applied mathematics in the Faculty of Science. He became dean of the faculty in 1936, at the age of 38. He remained in office as a dean of the Faculty of Science until he died in 1950.

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Mosharafa

published

25

original

papers

in

distinguished scientific journals about quantum theory, the theory of relativity, and the relation between radiation and matter. He published around 12 scientific books about relativity and mathematics. His books, on the theory of relativity, were translated into English, French, German and Polish. He also translated 10 books of astronomy and mathematics into Arabic. When Einstein visited Egypt, he specifically asked to meet Mosharafa. Mosharafa was interested in the history of science, especially in studying the contributions of Arab scientists in the Middle Ages. He also was interested in the relation between music and mathematics and helped to establish the Egyptian society of music fans in 1945. ************************************************* Sample 8: (A List or Guide) List of TESOL/TEFL theses (MA and PhD) at Assiut University FOE

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Writing 4 ___________________________________________________ Elsayed, Rehab Abdallah (2009). The Effect of Using a Multiple Intelligence-Based Program on Overcoming EFL Learning Disabilities on 5th Grade Gifted Pupils. MA Thesis. College of Education, Assiut University.

Abdel-Halim, S. (2004). “The effect of using drama on developing English language speaking skill for primary school pupils.” MA Thesis. Faculty of Education, Helwan University

Ibrahim, S. (2000). “A study of some linguistic and cognitive factors that affect the oral fluency of first year students, English section,

Assiut university

and

suggesting some

remedial

activities.” MA Thesis. Faculty of Education. Assiut University

Abdallah, M. M. S. (2005) The Effect of Using a Multiple Intelligences-Based

Training

Programme

on

Developing

English Majors' Oral Communication Skills. MA Thesis. College of Education, Assiut University.

Fatma Farid Fakhry (2011). The Effectiveness of A Suggested Program Based on the Process Approach on Developing English Writing Skills to Prep School Hearing Impaired Pupils. PhD

Thesis. New

Valley Faculty

of

Education,

Assiut

University.

Hassanein, O. S. (2004) The Effect of Using a Suggested Training

Program

Based

on 33

Mnemonic

Strategies

on

Dr Mahmoud M. S. Abdallah ___________________________________________________ Developing Vocabulary Retention and Retrieval of EFL Majors at the Faculty of Education in the New Valley. PhD Thesis. Cairo University, Egypt.

Mekheimer, M. (2005) Effects of Internet-based instruction, using Webquesting and e-mail on developing some essay writing skills in prospective teachers at the Faculty of Education at Beni Suef. PhD dissertation. Beni Suef Faculty of Education, Egypt. Ibrahiem, Samiha Ali Mohamed (2006). The Effectiveness of a Literature-Based Program in Developing English Majors’ Language Proficiency Faculty of Education – Assiut University. PhD Thesis. College of Education, Assiut University.

Ahmed, Shereen Abdel-Mohsen Abbas (2008). The Effect of Using Reflective Teaching Approach on Developing some Classroom Competences among In-service Preparatory School Teachers of English. MA Thesis. College of Education, Assiut University.

Khalil, Wafaa Rashad (2003). The Effect of Using a Suggested Programme to Develop English Majors’ Ability to Use Some Grammar Skills Communicatively. MA Thesis. College of Education, Assiut University.

34

Writing 4 ___________________________________________________ Sayed, Anwar Mohammed Mahmoud (2002). The Effect of Using a Suggested English Program on the Development of Reading, Writing and Use of Special Terminology of the 3rd Year, Leadership Department Students at Al-Azhar University, Assiut. MA Thesis. College of Education, Assiut University.

Ahmed, Samah Hamdy (2002). The Effect of Using a Suggested Programme to Develop Question Formation Skills among Second Year Preparatory Stage Pupils. MA Thesis. College of Education, Assiut University.

Omar, Mohammad Reyad (2001). The Effect of Using a Suggested Programme on Improving the Pronunciation of Primary Education Student Teachers of English at the Faculty of Education, Assiut University. PhD Thesis. College of Education, Assiut University.

Ahmed, Mona Gaber (2001). An Analytical Study of the Common Oral Reading Errors Among Al-Azhar Students and Determining their Causes and Suggesting some Remedial Activities. MA Thesis. College of Education, Assiut University.

Abdel-Hafez, Hanan Ahmed (2001). The Effect of Using a Program of Essay Writing Strategies on Developing Fourth Year English Majors’ Acquisition of These Strategies and on their Performance in Essay Writing. PhD Thesis. College of Education, Assiut University. 35


Mohammad, Heba Hassan Hemdan (2010). The Effectiveness of a Suggested Program Based on Metacognitive Strategies on Developing Reading and Writing Skills of First Year English Majors at Faculty of Education, Assiut University. MA Thesis. College of Education, Assiut University.

1.7 Reflections and Ideas for Workshops Discuss with your instructor the samples above and try to infer the main features of EXPOSITORY WRITING that are evident there;

then,

work

in

groups

to

collaboratively write similar pieces on any topics of your choice. Discuss with your instructor the meaning of ‘Expository Writing’ and try (with the help of your instructor) to get samples (online, for example) that represent expository writing. Discuss these samples with your instructor.

Review with your instructor the section on ‘Expository Essay’ above, and then, making 36

Writing 4 ___________________________________________________

use of the guidelines stated above, work in groups for about 60 minutes to write an Expository Essay. While working in groups, choose a topic of interest, and then work cooperatively to finish the essay. Please remember to make things easy for yourselves by assigning roles for each member in the group.

37


CHAPTER TWO ACADEMIC WRITING 2.1 Introduction ‘Academic writing’ always refers to this serious, scholarly type of writing that is intended for academic purposes. Simply put, academic writing is writing done by scholars for other scholars—and that includes you. As a college student, you are engaged in activities that scholars have been engaged in for centuries: you will read about, think about, argue about, and write about great ideas. Of course, being a scholar requires that you read, think, argue, and write in certain ways. You will need to make and support your claims according to the expectations of the academic community.

38

Writing 4 ___________________________________________________

2.2 Academic Document Types There are many types of academic documents, which do not look like such informal and/or personal documents like newspaper, magazines, and personal diaries. These include: • Books, in many types and varieties. • Book reports. • Conference papers. • Dissertation; usually between 6,000 and 20,000 words in length. • Essay; usually short, between 1,500 and 6,000 words in length. • Explication; usually a short factual note explaining some obscure part of a particular work; e.g. its terminology, dialect, allusions or coded references. • Research Article. • Research Paper; longer essay involving library research, 3000 to 6000 words in length. • Technical report. 39


• Thesis; completed over a number of years, often in excess of 20,000 words in length. • Translation.

2.3 Features of Academic Writing Academic writing in English is linear, which means it has one central point or theme with every part contributing to the main line of argument, without digressions or repetitions. Its objective is to inform rather than entertain. As well as this it is in the standard written form of the language. There are eight main features of academic writing that are often discussed. Academic writing is to some extent: complex, formal, objective, explicit, hedged, and responsible. It uses language precisely and accurately.

40

Writing 4 ___________________________________________________

a) Complexity Written language is relatively more complex than spoken language. Written language has longer words, it is lexically more dense and it has a more varied vocabulary. It uses more noun-based phrases than verb-based phrases. Written texts are shorter and the language has more grammatical complexity, including more subordinate clauses and more passives.

b) Formality Academic writing is relatively formal. In general this means that in an essay you should avoid colloquial words and expressions. In general this means in an essay that you should avoid: 1. colloquial words and expressions: "stuff", "a lot of", "thing", "sort of". 2. abbreviated forms: "can't", "doesn't", "shouldn't"

3. two word verbs: "put off", "bring up" 4. sub-headings, numbering and bulletpoints in formal essays - but use them in reports. 5. asking questions.

41


c) Precision In academic writing, facts and figures are given precisely.

In academic writing you need to be

precise when you use information, dates or figures. Do not use "a lot of people" when you can say "50 million people".

d) Objectivity Written language is in general objective rather than personal. It therefore has fewer words that refer to the writer or the reader. This means that the main emphasis should be on the information that you want to give and the arguments you want to make, rather than you. For that reason, academic writing tends to use nouns (and adjectives), rather than verbs (and adverbs). This is related to the basic nature of academic study and academic writing, in particular. Nobody really wants to know what you "think" or "believe". They want to know what you have studied and learned and how this has led you to your various conclusions. The thoughts and

42

Writing 4 ___________________________________________________

beliefs should be based on your lectures, reading, discussion and research and it is important to make this clear. -Compare these two paragraphs: The question of what constitutes "language proficiency" and the nature of its cross-lingual dimensions is also at the core of many hotly debated issues in the areas of bilingual education and second language pedagogy and testing. Researchers have suggested ways of making second language teaching and testing more "communicative" (e.g., Canale and Swain, 1980; Oller, 1979b) on the grounds that a communicative approach better reflects the nature of language proficiency than one which emphasizes the acquisition of discrete language skills. We don't really know what language proficiency is but many people have talked about it for a long time. Some researchers have tried to find ways for us to make teaching and testing more communicative because that is how language works. I think that language is something we use for communicating, not an object for us to study and we remember that when we teach and test it.

Which is the most objective? -In general, avoid words like "I", "me", "myself". A reader will normally assume that any idea not referenced is your own. It is therefore unnecessary to make this explicit.

43

Dr Mahmoud M. S. Abdallah ___________________________________________________ Don't write: "In my opinion, this a very interesting study." Write: "This is a very interesting study."

Avoid "you" to refer to the reader or people in general. Don't write: "You can easily forget how different life was 50 years ago." Write: "It is easy to forget how difficult life was 50 years ago."

e) Explicitness Academic writing is explicit in several ways: 1. It is explicit in its signposting of the organisation of the ideas in the text. As a writer of academic English, it is your responsibility to make it clear to your reader how various parts of the text are related. These connections can be made explicit by the use of different signalling words.

44

Writing 4 ___________________________________________________

For example, if you want to tell your reader that your line of argument is going to change, make it clear. The Bristol 167 was to be Britain's great new advance on American types such as the Lockheed Constellation and Douglas DC-6, which did not have the range to fly the Atlantic non-stop. It was also to be the largest aircraft ever built in Britain. However, even by the end of the war, the design had run into serious difficulties.

If you think that one sentence gives reasons for something in another sentence, make it explicit. While an earlier generation of writers had noted this feature of the period, it was not until the recent work of Cairncross that the significance of this outflow was realized. Partly this was because the current account deficit appears much smaller in current (1980s) data than it was thought to be by contemporaries.

If you think two ideas are almost the same, say so. Marx referred throughout his work to other systems than the capitalist system, especially those which he knew from the history of Europe to have preceded capitalism; systems such as feudalism, where the relation of production was characterized by the personal relation of the feudal lord and his serf and a relation of subordination which came from the lord's control of the land. Similarly, Marx was interested in slavery and in the classical Indian and Chinese social systems, or in those systems where the ties of local community are all important.

45


If you intend your sentence to give extra information, make it clear. He is born into a family, he marries into a family, and he becomes the husband and father of his own family. In addition, he has a definite place of origin and more relatives than he knows what to do with, and he receives a rudimentary education at the Canadian Mission School.

If you are giving examples, do it explicitly. This has sometimes led to disputes between religious and secular clergy, between orders and bishops. For example, in the Northern context, the previous bishop of Down and Connor, Dr Philbin, refused for most of his period of leadership in Belfast to have Jesuits visiting or residing in his diocese.

2. It is explicit in its acknowledgment of the sources of the ideas in the text. If you know the source of the ideas you are presenting, acknowledge it. Do THIS in academic writing McGreil (1977: 363-408) has shown that though Dubliners find the English more acceptable than the Northern Irish, Dubliners still seek a solution to the Northern problem within an allIreland state.

NOT 46

Writing 4 ___________________________________________________ Although Dubliners find the English more acceptable than the Northern Irish, Dubliners still seek a solution to the Northern problem within an all-Ireland state.

NOT Researchers have shown that though Dubliners find the English more acceptable than the Northern Irish, Dubliners still seek a solution to the Northern problem within an all-Ireland state.

e) Accuracy In academic writing you need to be accurate in your use of vocabulary. Do not confuse, for example,

"phonetics"

and

"phonology"

or

"grammar" with "syntax". Choose the correct word, for example, "meeting", "assembly", "gathering" or "conference". Or from: "money", "cash", "currency", "capital" or "funds".

47


2.4 The Process of Academic Writing: Writing an Academic Essay Writing down an academic article/essay is a common practice which you, as a university student, always do at the undergraduate stage. As an English major, you are always required to produce your answers to essay questions in most English and literature courses (e.g. Novel, Drama, and Poetry) in the form of coherent academic essays that reflect your understanding. Regardless of the accuracy of any information/ideas you include in this essay, the way you plan, write, organize, and signpost what you are writing is extremely

important.

After

all,

the

course

instructor would expect you to produce an academic piece of writing.

Some students do not get high scores in these courses, not mainly because they are not wellinformed in the subject or do not have much knowledge, but simply because they are not able to 48

Writing 4 ___________________________________________________

compose an academic essay! An academic essay, as the table below indicates, should be characterized by: 1. being centred around one main topic that should involve some minor topics;

2. having: (1) an introduction (in which the learner/writer should introduce the topic at hand). This includes setting the scene and stating the main topic/thesis/claims that the writer wants to defend; (2) a body, which is composed of some paragraphs (usually three or more), that usually develop an idea with some details, examples, illustrations, etc. This involves arguing about something, and supporting the main argument logically and coherently; (3) a conclusion that usually summarises the main argument and gives a final note to the reader. This might include mentioning briefly the main ideas;

49


3. going

through

a

provisional

process

developmental

of:

and

mapping,

brainstorming, planning, drafting, re-drafting, revising, editing, and writing a final draft;

4. requiring

many

skills,

such

as:

(1)

Composition & linguistic skills: These include things like: how to utilize vocabulary and grammatical competence to produce accurate words, phrases, sentences, and paragraphs; the ability to properly express oneself; the ability to develop an idea using supporting examples and details; the ability to create shifts and transitions between ideas/points; the ability to summarize a section

by,

for

example,

removing

unnecessary details; the ability to use punctuation

marks

accurately

and

functionally; the ability to move certain sentences back and forward as required; (2) Research skills: These skills involve: how to choose and search for a topic; how to identify

50

Writing 4 ___________________________________________________

the appropriate resources and references needed for getting information about the topic (e.g. books, articles, websites, and research papers); (3) Organizational skills: These relate to organizing ideas, taking notes, suggesting a time frame, and employing time and resources efficiently; (4) Reading skills: These include things like reviewing academic and relevant resources and skimming and/or scanning some texts (both online and offline); (5) Computer and electronic skills: These include the skills of employing computer and the Internet for composing the essay (e.g. using keyboard for composing the essay, copying and pasting texts, editing and saving the document, and sharing the document online with others).

The following procedure is useful when writing an extended

essay

or

assignment:

Available:

http://www.uefap.com/writing/writfram.htm

51


Task

Skills Needed

Product

1.

Read the question or brief and understand what you are required to do. Think about the subject, the purpose and the audience.

thinking academically

Subject.

2.

Think about what you know about the subject. Write it down in some way.

Brainstorming

Diagrams or notes.

3.

Go to the library and find relevant books or articles.

library/research skills

Reading list.

4.

Find the books on your reading list - if you have one - and study them.

reading skills: skimming and scanning

List of materials studied.

5.

Make notes on these books and articles.

reading in detail

Notes.

selecting & note-taking

6.

Record full details of the materials you use.

paraphrasing/summarising

Organise your piece of work.

Planning

Plan.

Organisation 7.

Type or write your first draft.

writing from notes synthesis writing paragraphs typing/word-processing

52

First draft.

Writing 4 ___________________________________________________ 8.

Discuss your first draft informally with friends, other members of your class and your lecturer if possible.

speaking skills

List of revisions/changes.

listening skills discussion skills

9.

Revise your first draft, bearing in mind any comments that were made in your discussions.

use of dictionaries reference books

&

writing introduction conclusion

&

quoting/writing references

of

Second draft.

Go back to 2. if necessary Produce your second draft. 10.

Proofread your draft.

checking mistakes checking grammar

a

for

list

spelling

punctuation

Writing with changes marked.

and

checking vocabulary use checking style checking references etc.

organisation,

checking for plagiarism 11.

Produce version.

a

final

typed

typing/word-processing

Final work.

piece

writing title/contents page 12.

Check everything.

final check

53

Hand in.

of


2.5 Real Samples Sample 1: Excerpt from my PhD study: Abdallah, M. M. S. (2011). Web-based new literacies and EFL curriculum design in teacher education: A design study for expanding EFL student teachers’ language-related literacy practices in an Egyptian pre-service teacher education programme. PhD Thesis. Graduate School of Education, College of Social Sciences and International Studies, University of Exeter, England, UK. Globally speaking, current advances in modern technologies have created a need for reconceptualising old notions of literacy centred on the ability to read, write, and comprehend printed texts,

especially

within

language

learning

contexts

(Buckingham, 2007; Pahl & Rowsell, 2005). The Internet or the Web, in particular, calls for new forms of reading, writing, and communication (Leu et al, 2005: p2) in this information age which, as Jewitt (2006: p13) notes, marks a shift from page to screen. More specifically, the development of Web 2.0, a new generation of the Web that has been enabling new functions and possibilities for learning such as social networking, easy publishing online, and collaborative construction of knowledge (Alexander, 2006; Parker & Chao, 2007), imposes a new reality for language learning and practice.

Today, literate individuals should know how to gather, analyse, and use information resources to solve problems and

54

Writing 4 ___________________________________________________ accomplish certain goals (Kasper, 2000). This has become crucial within English language learning (ELL) contexts where learners are required to use English for a variety of communicative and functional purposes. As language learners are increasingly involved in electronic environments, they need new strategies because the ability to communicate through information

resources

necessitates

new

literacy

skills

(Karchmer, 2001). As a result, education and language learning demand a major restructuring based on these new literacies and curricula (Kellner, 2002) to understand the new competencies required by the Web (especially Web 2.0 technologies) along with a wide range of functional, cultural, critical, and technological aspects deemed vital for language learning.

As far as language teacher education is concerned, new literacies have become of great concern in educational institutions (Kellner, 2002; Leu et al., 2004). Internationally, there is a growing trend towards equipping prospective teachers in

general

and

language

teachers

in

particular

with

competencies to cope with new developments and innovations that necessitate expanding the concept of literacy itself to encompass current changes. This necessitates always reviewing and updating teacher education programmes themselves to be able to develop strategies that help prospective teachers to understand the new forms of literacy and be prepared to use technology for their professional growth and teach in ways that connect to students' lives (Kellner, 2002). 55


At the onset of their undergraduate preparation programme, EFL student teachers experience a transitional stage that involves some psychological tensions caused by new academic requirements (Roberts, 1998: p72). This applies to the Egyptian context, especially AUCOE, where EFL student teachers spend some time struggling with new academic demands such as independent study, using the library, and coming to grips with the English language as both the content and means of instruction (Undergraduate Study, 2008). They should master the required knowledge base that involves some general educational competencies, lifelong learning skills, and specific academic skills related to English and literacy (Freeman, 1983; Johnston & Goettsch, 2000; Richards, 1998; Shulman, 1987).

The systematic pre-service EFL teacher education programmes provided by universities are, more than any time before, necessary and important. However, their components need to be updated to address the new literacy practices related to both the Web and EFL, which may foster lifelong learning skills and strategies

necessary

for

student

teachers’

continuous

professional development.

Nowadays, teachers in the field face many challenges related to technology and literacy. They are challenged not only to integrate technology into traditional aspects of literacy

56

Writing 4 ___________________________________________________ instruction (e.g., book reading), but also to engage students in emerging new literacies (e.g., online reading and writing) (Leu et al, 2005), which can be regarded as natural extensions of the traditional linguistic aspects. Research points to the pressing need for a strategic, organised instruction dealing with these new literacies along with a meaningful, effective integration of the Web in the learning context (e.g., Asselin & Moayeri, 2008; Coiro & Dobler, 2007).

Teacher education is the means through which new literacies can be integrated (Cornu, 1997: p321). As far as EFL teacher education is concerned, Cavanaugh (2005), Kamhi-Stein (2000), and McPherson et al (2007: p24) argue that EFL teacher education programmes should be updated to encompass new technological concepts and literacy practices, which have become essential for surviving in a digital networked environment, and which should therefore be part of any preservice teacher education programme (Leu, 2000c; Loethe, 1997). However, how best to help future teachers to learn about the Web and other ICTs has constantly been a challenge for teacher educators (Zhao, 2003), especially when it comes to TEFL or TESOL. Consequently, a revision of the programme contents, through redesigning its curricula to address such new aspects, is needed.

The Web and other new technologies should be perceived, not merely as products, but also as literacy tools (Coiro et al., 2008) 57

Dr Mahmoud M. S. Abdallah ___________________________________________________ and means towards improving educational practices. Hence, Van Braak (2001) proposes ‘technical innovativeness’ as a key component in influencing how individuals would enhance their practices based on technology use.

Sample 2: Excerpt from: How to write a standard research article. By Caroline Coffin and Rupert Wegerif What is an Introduction? Much work has already been published on the structure of the introduction sections of IMRD research articles. Swales (1990, 1994) in particular presents a comprehensive account. In this section we make use of his CARS (Create a Research Space) Model This model illustrates how an introduction is typically shaped by its purpose of 'creating a research space'. Swales uses an ecological metaphor to suggest that research articles are all competing for 'space'. Thus introductions have to start by establishing the significance of the research field ('establishing a territory'); then provide a rationale for their research in terms of that significance ('establishing a niche'); and finally show how the paper will occupy and defend the ecological niche that has been carved out ('occupying the niche').

Computers are becoming an established part of education in schools throughout the developed world (Plomp and Pelgrum, 1991; Crook, 1994, p 1). However, despite the growing

58

Writing 4 ___________________________________________________ expectation that computers will be available in classrooms, there remains considerable uncertainty and debate over how best to use them. Underwood and Underwood report that even in well-resourced schools computers are often underused because, apparently, teachers claim that they 'don't know what to with them' (1990, p 16). Crook's review of the evidence on the impact of computers in school education suggests that computers are often used in a way 'decoupled from the mainstream of classroom life' (1994, p 29). Crook and others (e.g. Fisher, 1993) argue that the limited use of computers in classrooms stems partly from the inadequate way their educational role is often conceptualised. This paper joins the debate about how best to integrate the use of computers into classroom education. A socio-cultural approach is adopted, based on the claim that education is essentially a discursive process (Edwards and Mercer 1997), and from this approach it is argued that computers can be used most effectively as a resource for group work and for the support of the teaching and learning of language skills. These arguments were made by Crook (1994) but this paper also argues that the educational implications of a socio-cultural analysis go further: to be used effectively, computers must be integrated into the curriculumbased culture of schooling.

The first part of the paper develops an educational strategy for the use of more directive `tutorial' software which can be incorporated by teachers into curriculum-based classroom 59

Dr Mahmoud M. S. Abdallah ___________________________________________________ activities. This strategy is based upon coaching 'exploratory talk' and then encouraging 'exploratory talk' in group work around computers within different curriculum subject areas. 'Exploratory talk' is defined, through the findings of a survey of research on collaborative learning, as that kind of interaction which best supports group problem-solving and group learning. The second part of the paper reports on the implementation and evaluation of an intervention programme which applied the proposed strategy in primary classroom. The intervention programme was designed to explore three research questions which arose from the educational strategy: • Can the quality of children's interactions when working together at computers be improved by coaching exploratory talk? • Can computers be used effectively to support the teaching and learning of exploratory talk? • Can computer supported collaborative learning integrate peer learning with directive teaching?

Sample 3: Excerpt from: Teaching with Wikis: Toward a Networked Pedagogy. By Rebecca Wilson Lundin Abstract Computers and writing scholarship is increasingly turning towards the network as a potential

60

Writing 4 ___________________________________________________

pedagogical model, one in which writing is intimately connected to its social contexts. The use of wikis in first-year composition classes can support

this

networked

pedagogy.

More

specifically, due to unique features such as editability and detailed page histories, wikis can challenge a number of traditional pedagogical assumptions about the teaching of writing. This article shows how wikis can challenge assumptions in four categories of interest to composition studies: new media composition, collaborative writing, critical interaction, and online authority. The analysis demonstrates that wikis, while not automatically

revolutionary

to

composition

pedagogy, hold significant potential to help facilitate pedagogical changes. © 2008 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

For the past decade, the field of computers and writing has focused on literal and metaphoric networks

as

possible

pedagogical

models.

Networks can socialize the writing process, readily

61


providing real audiences for student writing and emphasizing the situatedness of each piece of rhetoric among a constellation of others. By viewing writing as a networked activity, students focus on the connectivity and complexity of rhetorical situations rather than understanding writing as the de-contextualized product of a single, isolated worker. By viewing teaching as a networked activity, we focus on the collaborative nature of our professional work and on reciprocal relationships with our students. Given these apparent benefits, our hopes for composition are increasingly turning towards the network. Rice (2006) summarized this direction succinctly: Asking “What should college English be?” Rice answered, simply, “The network” (p. 133).

Our increasing focus on networks coincides with a growth in the pedagogical technologies that support such interactions. In growing numbers, rhetoric and composition teachers are using blogs, listservs,

discussion

boards,

62

and

web

sites.

Writing 4 ___________________________________________________

Simultaneously, we are providing critical rationales and frameworks for the incorporation of these technologies in teaching, explaining how and why to use networked technology in the composition classroom (see, for example, Barton, 2005; Lunsford, 2006; Wickliff & Yancey, 2001). Fundamentally, these pieces ask how, or whether, networked technologies can help us teach more effectively. A second approach to the study of technology in the classroom is to focus on the challenges that new technologies present to established pedagogical methods (see, for example, DeWitt & Dickson, 2003; Eldred & Toner, 2003; Moxley & Meehan, 2007). This type of work encourages teachers to reexamine and redefine their

goals

for

the

classroom,

asking

and

demonstrating how established teaching practices can be stretched and strained with the introduction of new technological practices. Though there is clear overlap between these two approaches to researching classroom technologies, this article primarily participates in the second. Like Eldred &

63


Toner (2003), DeWitt & Dickson (2003), and Moxley & Meehan (2007), I begin with the premise that

new

technologies

challenge,

often

in

productive ways, long-held assumptions in the field of

computers

and

writing.

The

increasing

perception of a “networked” pedagogy as a productive possibility can and should encourage us to re-examine the goals and beliefs under which we operate, even as we discuss how new technologies may help meet those goals.

Such re-examination gives us an opportunity to make visible, and subsequently re-evaluate, the received wisdom of our field concerning the definition of writing, models of authorship, classroom authority, and more.

Wikis are a particularly productive site for this examination for a number of reasons. First, as a web-based technology they clearly participate in network culture. Wikis have steeply increased in popularity since their initial application as spaces

64

Writing 4 ___________________________________________________

in

which

computer

programmers

could

collaboratively develop and share code. Now such web sites as Wikipedia and WikiHow have put the technology to a variety of literacy uses, developing massive, and popular, resources of collective information, aggregating copious amounts of text as well as a variety of multimedia elements. As Purdy (in press) observed, the online presence of Wikipedia is nearly inescapable (Wikipedia sites often appear first on Google searches for a wide range of issues) and serves as a testament to the growing

popularity

of

wikis.

Despite

this

popularity, academia often lags behind, both in its acceptance of resources such as Wikipedia and in its use of wiki software (see, for example, Cohen, 2007; Purdy, in press). Given the drastic break between popular network culture’s acceptance of these online writing environments and academia’s resistance to them, analyzing the challenges that wikis present to traditional methods of teaching promises to provide a constructive tension. This is particularly clear when we examine new modes of

65


composition, which can broaden significantly in the new media environment provided by wikis, and when we explore the critical interaction that can occur in wiki communication between students. _____________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________

2.6 Reflections and Ideas for Workshops Discuss with your instructor the samples above and try to infer the main features of ACADEMIC WRITING that are evident there; then, work in groups to collaboratively write similar pieces on any topics of your choice. Review with the Assistant this section: "2.2 Academic Document Types" above, and try to come out, through group discussions, with as many examples of those documents as you can,

stating

the

main

features

that

distinguish each type.

Discuss with the Assistant "The main features of academic writing" above, and

66

Writing 4 ___________________________________________________

try to give examples/illustrations of your own to clarify each of these features (Note: You might employ the Web, if available, to help you with this activity).

Review with the Assistant this section on "The process of academic writing and how to write an academic essay" , then start to work in groups to write down an academic essay (Note: You might employ the Web, if available, to help you with this activity, and continue working on the same activity in the next workshop).

67


CHAPTER THREE: FUNCTIONALPRAGMATIC WRITING 3.1 Introduction Generally, functional writing is writing that is meant to fulfil real-life purposes, such as: making a request or giving advice, inviting someone for a visit or to a function, applying for something. That is, the writing activities carried out resemble those done in real life for practical purposes.

Functional writing is different to personal writing in that you have far less freedom in the way you approach the task. There are certain standards and accepted ways of writing letters, reviews, reports etc.. You may have an opportunity to be somewhat creative, but you must abide by the rules. Creative writing is more for self-expression and pleasure.

In essence, functional-pragmatic writing is so important for many social purposes like describing people to give an account of someone; for business purposes like writing a proposal or a report; and 68

Writing 4 ___________________________________________________

academic purposes like writing a dissertation, term papers or theses. ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ 3.2 Why and How Do We Write Functionally and Pragmatically? In daily life, you come across different situations wherein you need to write. More specifically, we may write describe people for various purposes. Sometimes you have to: • Introduce someone to another through a letter by describing the person; • Give an account about someone as an eyewitness about a robber or a person involved in a road accident; • Give a short account of a dead person in an obituary note in a newspaper or a journal; • Write a brief sketch of a celebrity, giving an account of life, his/her achievements or rewards (i.e. personal profile or a short biography).

69


At other times, you might be involved in electronic online social-networking activities that might require you to write down something to someone in order to: • Thank him/her for something (e.g. favour) s/he has already done for you; • Invite him/her to do something (e.g. play cards online or visit you at home); • Suggest something for him/her to do (e.g. visit a specific website, watch a certain movie, or read a book); • Apologise for something that went wrong (e.g. losing his/her file); • Console him/her in writing after the death of a close person; • Advise him/her on the best way of doing something (e.g. removing a mal-ware or adware programme out of a computer);

Sometimes we write in order to express ourselves (i.e. writing for self-expression). Thus, we write in order to:

70

Writing 4 ___________________________________________________

• Communicate to others our views about something

(e.g.

personal

accounts

and

explanations); • Express our understanding of something (e.g. writing a critical review); • Give a summary of something we have read; • Express our likes and dislikes; • Relate our way of thinking to others; • State in writing what one really feels towards someone or something; • Write some personal reflections as entries in a diary; • Provide a written feedback when prompted;

Sometimes we need to write for academic and recruitment purposes, such as: • Writing a curriculum vitae (CV) to present to a manager; • Filling in a job application form; • Taking notes while listening to or watching something (e.g. a lecture, short talk, etc.);

71


• Communicating in writing with a course instructor to ask for clarification;

At other times, we might write to report something: • Composing a report on an event; • Making a police statement; • Creating a report of a problem that has occurred while using a machine. ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ 3.3 Types of Functional-Pragmatic Writing Products Moreover, there are many products that we might be required to produce through writing. These include: • Letters and

e-mails (both

formal and

informal) • Memorandum (memo); • Explanations and personal accounts • Advertisement (ad); • Reports; • Shopping lists; 72

Writing 4 ___________________________________________________

• Brochure or Leaflet; • News article; • Instructions & Directions • Reviews • Diaries ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ 3.4 What Are the Key Requirements of Functional Writing? The six key requirements of Functional Writing are that you: 1. use

language

with

an

appropriate

register. This means that you must write in

an

appropriate

tone

and

wit

appropriate vocabulary for the specific task and audience; 2. have a clear sense of who you are writing for; 3. write with a strong sense of purpose; 4. give your writing a shape or layout that conforms to accepted standards (e.g. for a

73


letter, the placing of the address in the top right hand corner); 5. punctuate accurately and observe the rules of grammar; 6. keep your content relevant to the question;

In other words, you need to ask yourself the following questions:

Who am I writing for? [Audience] They could be the public, principal, teacher, friend, company manager, town council etc.

Why am I writing this? [Purpose] To give an account of something I witnessed, to complain about something, to explain, inform. instruct, convince and persuade, sell, etc.

How is this piece to be written? [Format] report, letter, account, article. statement, review. speech etc.

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Writing 4 ___________________________________________________

What is the tone I should use? [Language] formal,

informal,

persuasive,

argumentative etc.

75

informative,


CHAPTER FOUR FUNCTIONAL-WRITING PRODUCTS

4.1 Introduction The ultimate goal of any functional or pragmatic writing task is producing some documents. These documents should take specific formats that distinguish them from each other. Thus, a letter is different from an advertisement, and a formal letter is different from an informal letter.

Thus,

there

are

specific

components

that

distinguish each piece of writing. Some of these components fall under the general shape or format (i.e. how the documents look at the surface level). Other components relate to genre, style, how the content is displayed.

Learners/writer should be able to differntiate between different types of pragmatic-functional

76

Writing 4 ___________________________________________________

documents, and apply the appropriate format, tone, style, and vocabulary during the writing process.

In the previous chapter, we mentioned some types of functional writing products: ads, memos, reports, descriptions, CV. Here, we're going to deal with examples of these types. ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ 4.2 Letters/E-mails (Formal and Informal) On many occasions, You may be asked to write a formal or an informal letter. While formal letters are far more commonly used as a than informal letters as a standard language practice, it is worth knowing how to write both.

Formal letter The most commonly asked formal letters are for the following purposes:  Making a complaint.  Applying for a job.  Inviting someone to an event.

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 Writing to a newspaper, commenting on a topical issue.  Making a request.  Asking for information.

For more details on this, please check this link: http://sacenglish.files.wordpress.com/2010/05/fu nctional-writing.pdf

When you are writing to a newspaper for example, it is acceptable to begin with 'Sir' and end with 'Yours etc.' If you don't know the name of the person to whom you are writing, you may begin with 'Dear Sir/Madam' or 'Dear Sir or Madam'.

When you are learning the layout of a formal letter, it is best to be as correct as possible. Some textbooks say you can write the date 02/01/2009, for example, but others disagree. Therefore, it is wise to stick to a format that everybody will find acceptable. You cannot be too correct.

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Writing 4 ___________________________________________________

Sample Formal Letter

79


You need a reference letter from your Principal to secure a summer job. Write the letter you would like him or her to supply you with.

Letter – tells you the form the task must take. It will be a formal letter.

Reference .......to secure a summer job– tells you the purpose of the letter. A reference letter will need to highlight your good points – this tells you what the content should be.

80

Writing 4 ___________________________________________________

Informal Letter This is a common type in daily interactions. It is always written to close people (e.g. friends and relatives) on very personal matters. In an informal letter, the tone can be much more relaxed. You may use some slang but avoid text language and of course, bad language. If you must use exclamation marks, use them with caution and never use more than one at a time. 81


The content of an informal letter depends on the person to whom you are writing and the reason for your letter. Use personal stories and try to keep the tone lively and interesting.

How you sign off depends again on the person to whom you are writing. 'Love', is probably the most common way to sign off, other possibilities are, 'All the best', Regards, 'Thanks again' or 'Best wishes'.

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Writing 4 ___________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________

83


4.3 Reports When you are writing a report, ask yourself the following questions:  Who has asked me to write the report and why?  What is the problem or issue on which I am reporting?  What tone is appropriate for my audience/readers?  Do I need facts and figures?  What topics are to be covered?  What is supposed to happen as a result of the report?

Planning your report  Give your report a title. This can be a simple rewording of the question.  State the aim of the report in the introduction/title.  Say who commissioned (asked you to write) the report and what was examined as a result.  State what research was carried out. 84

Writing 4 ___________________________________________________

 Look at the facts, detail any problems and highlight any good points If you wish, you may use bullet points or numbers to organise your findings.  Draw a conclusion from what you have just outlined.  Make recommendations for remedying any problems.

Writing your report  You will be using the language of information, so be as objective, clear and concise as possible.  Avoid slang, it is too informal for this type of task.  Be factual and avoid any words which may imply judgement or subjectivity.  Do not use commercial jargon, it is out of date and appears slightly ridiculous now. For example, say 'I enclose' instead of 'Enclosed herewith'. Keep your style simple and straightforward.

Sample Report "Greater Freedom for Students"

85


Write a report to your school principal suggesting ways in which more freedom could be given to senior students in the school.

86

Writing 4 ___________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ 4.4 Diary Entries A diary is a personal account through which we see an individual's view of the world. The language is generally chatty and relaxed and would suit those students who find the structure of speeches and reports difficult. The diary entry seems to be one of the examiners' most popular tasks in many writing tests.

In your diary entry, you can:  Record events that have taken place or give details of a way of life.  Record travels. (This is called a journal.)  Entertain your readers.  Give your opinions.  Talk about your secret hopes and wishes.

Remember to choose the appropriate tone (formal or informal) and language for whichever type of diary you decide to write. If you are writing a

87


personal diary, or one which is intended to entertain your readers (the diary is commonly used in newspapers) then the tone can be informal, chatty and relaxed.

TEXT I THE RESCUE This true story is adapted from Michael Smith’s biography of Tom Crean, the Antarctic explorer. On 4 January, 1912, a three-man party ― Crean, Lashly and Evans ― set out on a punishing 750-mile journey across the South Pole. However, only 35 miles from base camp, disaster struck. Evans fell ill. Crean was forced to make the rest of the dangerous journey on his own. The survival of all three men depended on Crean’s success. 1. Crean now took the bravest decision of his life and volunteered to make the solo walk to Hut Point. Lashly had offered to go but Crean had told him to remain and look after the very frail Evans. Then Lashly stuffed Crean’s pockets with the only food they could find. Before he left, Crean ducked his head inside the tent to say goodbye to his two companions.

88

Writing 4 ___________________________________________________ They watched the courageous Irishman stagger forward in knee-deep snow, to begin his lonely march for survival.

2. Crean was bitterly cold, thirsty, starving and physically drained as he began his journey. The travelling was hazardous. His thighs frequently sank in the soft snow and there was the ever-present fear of crashing through a crevasse. The wind was blowing up the drifting snow and blinding Crean. A blizzard could be seen approaching in the distance. In his tiredness, Crean frequently slipped on the glassy ice. He scrambled down the hill as the wind picked up and made his way slowly towards the hut.

3. Then to his utter relief, Crean saw dogs and sledges in the distance out on the sea-ice. He somehow found enough strength to reach the camp. When Crean finally stumbled into the hut, he fell to his knees, almost delirious with hunger and exhaustion. Inside, he found the Russian dog-driver, Dimitri, and Atkinson, the one doctor within 400 miles of Hut Point. He blurted out the alarming news about his two companions and collapsed on the floor. A rescue party set off immediately to find Lashly and Evans.

4. Lashly had wisely torn up an old piece of clothing and attached it to a long piece of bamboo so that the recovery party would not miss the tiny green tent on the vast Barrier

89

Dr Mahmoud M. S. Abdallah ___________________________________________________ landscape. After hours on the Barrier, the two men had almost given up hope of being rescued. Suddenly the howling and yelping of Atkinson’s dogs which galloped right up to the tent door shattered the stillness and silence. One animal stuck his head through the little tent flap and licked the face and hands of the stricken Evans. To hide his emotions, Evans grabbed his ears and sank his face into the hairy mane of the grey Siberian dog. Then both men laughed uncontrollably. They never should have doubted the courage and determination of the Irishman. They couldn’t believe that they had been saved. It was as if a heavy weight had been lifted from their shoulders.

90

Writing 4 ___________________________________________________

91


___________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________

4.5 Memorandum (memo) A memo is intended to inform a group of people about a specific issue, such as an event, policy, or resource, and encourages them to take action. The word “memorandum” means something that should be remembered or kept in mind. Here’s a guide to writing readable, effective memos. For more

details,

please

visit

this

website:

http://www.wikihow.com/Write-a-Memo

Sample Memo to Customers To: Customers of Chloe’s Cupcakes From: Dan Lionel, Public Relations Liaison Date: May 12, 2012 Subject: Publication of Nutrition Facts Due to extensive customer feedback, we at Chloe’s Cupcakes would like to demonstrate our commitment to making healthy choices by publishing nutrition information for all of our baked goods. Although our stores would not be required by law to provide the nutrition facts of our products, we agree that customers should have access to as much information as they desire before making a purchase. We are confident that that you, the customer, will feel better about choosing Chloe’s Cupcakes once you are aware of these

92

Writing 4 ___________________________________________________ facts. We are committed to use the best locally grown ingredients in our baked goods, and we freshly prepare all of our desserts each morning. Moreover, we have a line of vegan treats that substitute some of the highest-calorie ingredients in non-vegan goods with healthier options—while still delivering great flavor. For those customers who are looking to splurge, we have an exquisite selection of decadent treats too, including our famous crème brûlée macaroon sundae. All of our nutrition information will be available online, along with a list of ingredients and possible substitutes for those with dietary restrictions. We will also provide pamphlets in stores with the same information, to be updated periodically. As it is cumbersome to obtain accurate nutritional analyses of handmade food products, we are unable to guarantee access to nutritional information for seasonal flavors and promotional items. Best, Dan Lionel

Notes on how to write a memo

1 Write the heading segment. Specify who the memo is for and who sent it. The heading segment should also include the complete and exact date the memo was written, and the subject matter (what the memo is about). A sample heading would look like: To: Name and job title of the recipient From: Your name and job title Date: Complete date when the memo was written Subject: (or RE:) What the memo is about (highlighted in some way) •

Always address readers by their correct name; do not use nicknames.

•

When constructing the heading, be sure to double space between sections and align the text. Ad

93


2 Consider who the audience should be. In order to get people to read and respond to the memo, it’s important to tailor the tone, length, and level of formality of the memo to the audience who will be reading it. Doing this effectively requires that you have a good idea of who the memo is intended for. •

Think about your audience’s priorities and concerns are, and try to imagine why the information you are presenting would be important to them.

•

Try to anticipate any questions your readers might have. Brainstorm some content for the memo, such as examples, evidence, or other information that will persuade them.

•

Considering the audience also allows you to be sensitive to including any information or sentiments that are inappropriate for your readers.

Introduce the problem or issue to your readers in the opening segment. Briefly give them the context behind the action you wish them to take. This is somewhat like a thesis statement, which introduces the topic and states why it matters. •

Include only as much information as is needed, while still being convincing that a real problem exists.

•

As a general guideline, the opening should take up about ¼ of the total length of the memo.

94

Writing 4 ___________________________________________________

4 Suggest ways to address the issue in the summary segment. What you are summarizing here are the key actions you would like your readers to take. •

This can also include some evidence to back up your recommendations.

•

In a very short memo, it might not be necessary to include a separate summary segment. Instead, this can be integrated into the next segment, the “discussion segment”.

5 Support your course of action in the discussion segment. Be persuasive. State how the readers will benefit from taking the action you recommend, or be disadvantaged through lack of action. •

Give evidence and logical reasons for the solutions you propose. Feel free to include graphics, lists, or charts, especially in longer memos. Just be sure they are truly relevant and persuasive.[4]

•

Start with the most important information, then move to specific or supporting facts.

•

The general guideline for length is that the summary and discussion segments combined should comprise about ½ of the memo.

6 95


Close the memo with a friendly ending that restates what actions you want the reader to take. You might want to include a statement like, "I will be glad to discuss these recommendations with you later on and follow through on any decisions you make." •

Give the reader a sense of solidarity and optimism if possible.

•

Emphasize a particular next step that they can take.

•

This should generally take about ⅛ of the total length of the memo.

7 Review and edit your memo to make sure that it is clear, concise, persuasive, and free of errors. Check that you are consistent in the type of language that you use, and eliminate unnecessary scholarly words or technical jargon. •

Review for spelling, grammar, and content errors. Pay particular attention to names, dates, or numbers.

•

Check that it is not excessively long, and cut out any extraneous material.

___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ 4.6 Note Taking For more details, please refer to this website:

96

Writing 4 ___________________________________________________

http://elc.polyu.edu.hk/elsc/material/Listening/n ote-taking.html Why take notes?

The purpose of taking notes during a lecture is to help you to concentrate on what the speaker is saying and to provide you with a summary in note form so that you can write up your notes in full later. Also, it may be that the notes provided by the lecturer are not sufficient - the lecturer may add new information during the lecture and your own notes will be needed to provide you with a complete record of the lecture. Taking your own notes will promote a deeper understanding of the content of the lecture.

How do I take notes?

The general principle in note-taking is to reduce the language by shortening words and sentences. The following advice will help you to take notes efficiently, leaving you free to listen to your lecturer.

Remember

that 97

these

notes

are


for you and as such you can use any method you like, so long as it enables you to reproduce the ideas contained in the notes and show how these ideas connect to each other later. However, there are certain principles you should bear in mind and certain conventions that are commonly used which you may find useful. First of all, you must be able to determine what you need to write down, what is important to you. How do I know what is important and what is not?

This is not an easy question to answer, but there are things you can look out for. The first piece of information you receive is the title of the lecture. This is perhaps the most important single piece of information of the whole lecture, so you should make sure that you write it down in full. Even better - find out what it is beforehand so that you can have time to think about what the lecture will be about.

98

Writing 4 ___________________________________________________

Secondly, listen for direct or indirect signals from the lecturer that tell you what is important, for example, he/she may say, "This is important, write it down," or "Make sure you get this down." Or, he/she may make indirect signals such as pausing before saying something important, or saying it slowly, loudly or with greater stress. Listen for repetition. When the lecturer repeats a point, go back to your first notes and add in any new details or information. •

Try to determine the lecturer's style or organisation of speaking - revise your notetaking accordingly.

•

Concentrate on the important words - listen for the words, called content words (usually nouns; sometimes verbs, adjectives or adverbs) that give the important information.

•

Omit unimportant words - such words are called form words and do not always have meanings in themselves, such as auxiliary verbs (e.g., be, have, do); determiners(e.g., a, the, some); pronouns (I, he, they, there, it, this, that, which, whom, etc); and prepositions (at, on, in, etc.).

99


___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ 4.7 Curriculum Vitae (CV) Please

also

refer

to

this

website:

http://www.kent.ac.uk/careers/cv.htm

Curriculum Vitae (which is commonly known as CV

or

résumé)

educational

and

an

outline

professional

of

a

history,

person's usually

prepared for job applications. In other words, it is a record of one’s main achievements, contributions and professional development, which is presented to a specific entity (e.g. academic institution, job centre, school, university, company, etc.).

A CV is the most flexible and convenient way to make applications. It conveys your personal details in the way that presents you in the best possible light. A CV is a marketing document in which you are marketing something: yourself! You need to "sell" your skills, abilities, qualifications and experience to employers. It can be used to make multiple applications to employers in a specific career area.

100

Writing 4 ___________________________________________________

In order to write a good-looking and convincing CV, one has to chop his/her CV up into easily digestible morsels (bullets, short paragraphs and note form) and give it a clear logical layout, with just the relevant information to make it easy for the selector to read. This should icrease one’s chances of getting the job.

An application form is designed to bring out the essential information and personal qualities that the employer requires and does not allow you to gloss over your weaker points as a CV does. In addition, the time needed to fill out these forms is seen as a reflection of your commitment to the career.

There is no "one best way" to construct a CV; it is your document and can be structured as you wish within a basic framework, such as: 1. Personal details 2. Education and qualifications 3. Work experience 4. Interests and achievements 5. Skills

101

Dr Mahmoud M. S. Abdallah ___________________________________________________ 6. References

What makes a good CV? There is no single "correct" way to write and present a CV, but the following general rules apply: It is targeted on the specific job or career area for which you are applying and brings out the relevant skills you have to offer It is carefully and clearly laid out: logically ordered, easy to read and not cramped It is informative but concise It is accurate in content, spelling and grammar. If you mention attention to detail as a skill, make sure your spelling and grammar is perfect!

___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ 4.8 Written Explanations See also: http://www.slideshare.net/westmereschool/expla nation-writing Generally, explanations tell us: 102

Writing 4 ___________________________________________________

• What something is; • How things work; • Why things happen.

Written explanations include many types such as: recipes, newspapers, instructional manuals, and guides.

103


Before writing down an explanatory account, we have to plan it well. This might include a brainstorming process in which the main ideas and key supporting details are organised. In other words, we need to think about a working title, headings, sub-headings, diagrams (if needed), and some other components.

Please see this diagram and try to figure out how to plan your own personal explanatory account.

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Writing 4 ___________________________________________________

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106

Writing 4 ___________________________________________________

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