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C O G N IT I O N A N D E M O T I O N , 1999, 13 (1), 119±124

BRIEF REPORT Don’t Wait for the Monsters to Get You: A Video Game Task to Manipulate Appraisals in Real Time A rvid K ap p a s an d A n n a Pecchin en d a Universite Laval, Que bec, Canada

A pa cm a n t yp e vid eo -ga m e p a ra digm is in tr od u ced fo r th e m a nip u la tio n o f a pp r aisa ls in a n o ng oin g a ctive-cop in g ta sk . D ifferences in cu r r en t ap p r a isa l co n cep tion s a n d th eir im p licat io n s fo r experim ent al app ro ach es t o th e m a n ip u lat io n o f ap p ra isa ls ar e discu ssed . F u rt h erm or e, t he a dvan ta ges of u sin g co ncu r rent p hysio logical m ea su r es ar e ou tlined . T h e fea tu r es o f th e ga m e aM AZE a n d a sh ell pro gr a m ca lled PL AYGA M E ar e d escrib ed . T h e pro gr a m s ar e ava ilable a t n o co st fo r r esea r ch ers int erest ed in usin g th e p a r a digm .

O u r resea r ch investigat es t h e in fo r m at ion p ro cessing r esp o n sible fo r t h e elicita t io n o f em o t io n , t h at is, ch a n ges in th e co m p o nen t s o f t h e em o tio n a l r esp o n se (p hysio lo gica l, exp ressive, su b jective) a n d t h e p repa r at io n o f t h e in d ividu al fo r ad ap t ive a ct io n . M a ny resea rch er s refer t o t h ese em o t io n -elicitin g p ro cesses as ap p r a isals, wh ich a r e, a cco rd in g t o A r n o ld (1960) o r L a za r u s (1968), d irect, au t o m a t ic, a n d la r gely w ith o u t involving co n sciou s re¯ ect io n. I n t h e la st t wo d eca d es, severa l resea rch er s (e.g. F r ijda , 1986; Ro sem a n , 1991; Sch er er, 1984; Sm ith & E llswo r t h , 1985; Sm ith & L a za ru s, 1993) h ave elab o r at ed o n t h e ap p r a isal p ro cess. A lth o u gh t h e in d ividu a l t heo r ies d iffer w ith rega rd t o d et a ils, t hey sh a r e a su r pr ising num b er o f feat ur es (see Sch erer, 1988). T h e m o st cr u cia l b ein g t h at em o t io n a l resp o n ses a r e co n sider ed t h e r esu lt of a dyn a m ic t r a n sa ctio n b et ween t h e in d ividu a l, h is/her n eed s, b eliefs, go a ls a n d co n cer n s, a n d t h e enviro n m en t al d em a n d s. I n th is view, em o t io n a l resp o n ses ar e elicited wh en t h e eva lu a tio n o f t h e in d ividu a l-enviro n m en t a l r elat io n h a s im p licat io n s fo r t h e in d ividu a l’s well-bein g. I t is t h ro u gh th e ap p r a isal p ro cess t h a t t h e p er so n a l m ea n in g o f a p a r t icu la r p er so n -enviro n m en t rela t io n sh ip is d et er m in ed . H en ce, it is n o t t h e o b jective cha r a ct eristic o f a n even t R eq uests fo r r ep r in ts sh o u ld b e sen t to D r A r vid K app a s, EÂco le d e p sych o logie, U n iversite L ava l, P avillon F.A . Sava r d , Q u e b ec, Q u e bec, G 1K 7P 4, C a n ad a ; em a il: a r vid @ psy.u lava l.ca ; www: ht tp ://www.p sy.u lava l.ca /~a r vid . T h is wo r k wa s su p p or ted b y a gr a n t o f th e C a n a d ia n So cia l Sciences a nd H um an it ies R esea rch C o un cil (SSH R C) t o A rv id K ap p as a n d in p a r t by a po st -d octo r a l fello wsh ip fro m ``L a Sa p ien za’ ’ U n iversity a n d fro m th e F a cu lteÂd es Sciences So cia les at U n iversiteÂL ava l to A nn a P ecch in end a .

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t h a t d eter m in es t h e na tu re o f t h e em o t io n a l resp o n ses, bu t r at h er, it is t h e p er so n a l eva lu at io n of t h e even t in relat io n t o t he in d ividu a l co n cer n s. Sever a l a u t h or s h ave r ep o r t ed d at a from th e a n a lyses o f self-rep o r t s wh ich a re co n sisten t w ith ap p ra isal t h eo r y (e.g. F rijda , K u ip er s, & ter Schu re, 1989; M a n stead & Tet lo ck , 1989; Ro sem an , W iest, & Swa r t z, 1994; Sch erer, 1993; Sm ith & E llswo r t h , 1985; Sm ith , H ayn es, L a zar u s, & Po p e, 1993). H owever, in t estin g t h eir hyp o t h eses few resea rch er s h ave a ct u a lly tr ied t o m a n ip u lat e a pp r a isa ls exp erim en t a lly a n d t o m ea su r e n o t o n ly ch a n ges in su bjective exp er ien ce bu t a lso p hysio lo gical o r exp r essive r esp o n ses. T h u s, it is n ot su r p r ising t h at resear ch co n d u ct ed wit h in a p p ra isal t h eo r y ha s b een cr iticised o n m et h o d o lo gica l o r con cep t u a l gro u n d s (L a za r u s & Sm ith , 1988; P a rk in so n 1997; Pa r k in so n & M a n stea d , 1993). O n e o f t h e m a jo r cr itiq u es co n cer n in g t h e stu d y o f t h e em o t io n a l p ro cess u sin g r et rosp ect ive t ech n iq u es is th a t cu r ren t evid en ce m igh t re¯ ect m o r e p a r t icipa n t s’ in t uitive t h eo r ies o n em o t io n , r at h er t h a n in fo r m at io n direct ly rela t ed to t h e ap p r a isal p ro cess. F u r t h er m o re, it h a s b een su ggested , t h at ret ro sp ect ive self-rep o r t s o f p hysiolo gical ch a n ges o ccu r in g d u r in g em o t io n ar e stro n gly in ¯ u en ced b y ster eo t yp es (R im e , P h ilipp o t , & C isam o lo, 1990), a n d t h at in d ividu a ls h ave d if® cu lties in ju d gin g ret ro sp ect ively t h eir o wn (facia l) exp r essive react io n s (e.g. Ba r r & K leck , 1995). T h u s, t o co u n t er t h e p ro blem o f r eco n str u ct ive b ia s, o n e co u ld stu dy t h e a pp r a isa l p ro cess o f in d ividu a ls wh o ar e en ga ged in a n o n go in g situ at io n , p rovid ed t h e situ at io n is well co n t ro lled an d is r elevan t fo r t h e in d ividu a l. I n t h is co n t ext , t h e r elian ce o n self-rep o r t sho u ld b e lim ited co n sid er in g t h at m u ch o f t h e ap p r aisal p ro cess is n o t co nsciou s (e.g. Sch erer, 1993) an d t h at co n cu r ren t self-rep o r t s m igh t in t er fere wit h t h e o n go in g situ a tio n . H en ce, we su ggest a str at egy fo r stu d yin g t h e ap p r a isal pro cess, invo lving system a t ic m a nip u lat io n s o f ind ividu a ls’ ap p r a isals by va r yin g a sp ect s o f t h e exp er im en t a l situ atio n in wh ich in d ividu a ls a re invo lved wh ile m o n ito r in g m u ltip le d ep en d en t va riab les, r a th er t h a n m ea su r in g self-rep o r t s a lo n e (see a lso C a cio p po & Tassinar y, 1990; C a m p o s, M u m m e, K er m o ia n , & C a m po s, 1994). T h e u se o f p hysio lo gica l p a r a m et er s a s m a rker s o f t h e va r io u s o u t co m es o f t h e ap p r a isal p ro cess is ju sti® ed t o t h e ext en t t o wh ich t h ey re¯ ect t h e p hysio logica l d em a n d s o f t h e sp eci® c a ct io n s o r t en d en cies th a t t h e o u t co m es o f t h e ap p r aisal p ro cess m o t iva t e. In fa ct , p ro p on en t s o f ap p ra isal t h eo r y em p h a sise t h e n o t io n t h at t h e d ifferen t co m p o n en ts o f th e em o t io n a l r esp o n ses a re o rga n ised a ro u n d t h e a d a p tive t ask t h ey serve (e.g. F r ijda , 1986; L aza ru s, 1968; Sch erer, 1984; Sm ith , 1989). Fo r in stan ce, ch a n ges in ca rd iova scu la r a ctivity a re co n sidered t o r e¯ ect t h e m et ab o lic d em a n d s asso cia ted wit h sp en d in g effor t in a tt em p t in g t o co p e a ctively wit h t h e situ a tio n (e.g. O br ist, 1976). C o n seq u en t ly, severa l r esea r ch er s h ave a sso cia t ed ch an ges in va r io u s p a ra m et er s o f car d iova scu la r a ct ivity w ith t h e a m o u n t o f effor t a p er so n is sp en d in g d u r in g p ro b lem -so lving t a sk s (e.g. To m a k a , Bla scovich , K elsey, & L eitt en , 1993; W r igh t , C o n t r a d a , & Pat a n e, 1986). H o wever, th ese stu d ies h ave b een co n ceived o u t side th e fra m ewo rk o f ap p r a isa l t h eo r y. T h u s, a lth o u gh so m e results a re co nsisten t wit h so m e o f t h e hyp ot h eses gen era t ed wit h in ap p r aisal t h eo ry, t h ese la tt er were n o t tested d irect ly.

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A lth o u gh t h er e a re cu r ren t ly n ot m an y stu d ies th a t h ave u sed p hysio logica l ch an ges a s in d icat o r s o f t h e a p p ra isal p ro cess, t h eir resu lts a re en co u r agin g. Fo r exa m p le, Sm ith , E llswo r t h , a n d Po p e (1990) u sed skin t em p er at u r e a s a m ea su re in t h e co n t ext o f a series o f m at h p ro b lem s, a n d Pecch in en d a a n d Sm ith (1996) u sed skin co n d u ct a n ce in a stu dy invo lving a n agr a m s. T h e resu lts o f t h ese stud ies a r e p ro m ising ® rst step s in m a n ip u lat ing in d ividu a ls’ ap p ra isals. Yet , t h eir p a r a d igm s a re som ewh at sta tic an d fa il t o r ep r esen t t h e r ich n ess o f a n o n go in g in t er a ct io n in wh ich su d d en even t s o ccu r. H ere, typ ica lly in d ividu a ls’ r eact io n s n eed t o b e q u ick a n d swift t o a d a p t t o a n d su cceed in a given t a sk . In co n tr a st, t yp ica l p a ssive lab o r at o ry t a sk s freq u en t ly a ct ively co un t er a ct an d d a m p en t h e n at u ra l a ct io n t en d en cies a sso ciat ed wit h sp eci® c ap p r a isal o u tco m es. In co n seq u en ce, t h e p hysio lo gica l m ea su res, wh ich a re ch o sen a s in d irect in d ica to r s o f p rep a r at o r y a ct io n s o r a ct io n t en d en cies, a re less likely to p rovid e t h e d iscrim in a to r y p o wer req u ired fo r t estin g t h e u n d erlying hyp o t h eses. Based o n t h ese n o t io n s we h ave d evelo p ed a vid eo ga m e t o fa cilitat e t h e stu dy o f ap p r a isals in o n go in g situ at io n s. O b viou sly, vid eo ga m es have freq u en tly b een u sed b efo r e, m o stly a s elicito r s o f ``stress’ ’ (e.g. Tu r n er, C a r ro ll, H a n so n , & Sim s, 1988; bu t see a lso M a cD owell & M an d ler, 1989). F req u en t ly, r esp o n ses t o p layin g a ga m e u n d er ar b itra ry ``str essful’ ’ co n d itio n s co u ld b e co m pa red w ith t h e resp o n ses t o o t h er co gn itive str esso r s, su ch a s a rith m et ic t a sk s, wit h o u t a ctu a lly m an ip u lat in g t a sk p a r am eter s. I n t h o se ca ses in wh ich t h e t a sk p a r a m et er s were m a n ip u la ted , it wa s m o stly t o ch a n ge th e o b jective t a sk d if® cu lty, r ega rd less o f h ow in d ividu a ls ap p r a ised t h e situ a tio n . We in t en d ed to crea t e a p a r a d igm t h at a llow s t o m a n ip u lat e different fa cet s o f t h e exp eriem en t a l situ at ion t h at wo u ld affect d ifferen t ap p r a isals in a va riety o f way s. T h e p ro gr a m aMA ZE is lo o sely b ased o n t h e vid eo gam e p a cm a n a n d is 1 b r ie¯ y d escrib ed b elow. aM AZE is a ga m e r u n n in g o n M S-D O S-co m p a tib le com p u t er s. I t s scen a r io is b a sed o n t h e p o p ula r p acm a n ga m e. T h e p layer is d irectin g a sym b o l in a m a ze u sing th e keyb o a rd o r a joystick . T h e m a ze ca n co n t a in little d o t s t h at ea r n p o int s a s t he p layer m oves over t h em ``eat in g’ ’ t h em in t h e p ro cess. T h ere ca n a lso be ``m o n sters’ ’ (co m p u t er -gener at ed o p p o n en ts) wh ich u su a lly t ry to ch ase a n d ca t ch t h e p layer -sym b o l. I f t h e m o n ster ca tch es t h e p layer-sym b o l t h e p layer lo o ses p o in t s. H o wever, t h ere ar e a lso special d o t s, t h e so -ca lled po wer p ills, wh ich , wh en t a ken , ea r n t h e p layer a b o nu s a nd allow h im /h er t o b e invu ln er able fo r a sho rt tim e. W hen p o wer ed u p, t h e p layer ca n ch a se a n d cat ch t h e m o n ster s in wh ich case h e/she ga in s a n ext ra b o nu s. M o st elem en t s o f t h e ga m e ca n b e co n t ro lled by th e exp er im en t er in a dva n ce, such a s: t h e nu m b er, t he sp eed , a n d t h e b eh avio u r /int elligence/str at egy of m o n ster s, t h e b o nu s/pen a lty fo r ca t ch in g a m o n ster o r fo r b ein g ca u gh t b y a m o n ster, t h e sp eed o f t h e p layer, th e nu m b er a n d p o sition o f p o wer p ills, t h e p o wer p ill b o nu s, t h e size a n d sh ap e o f t h e m a ze, a s well a s t h e d u r at io n o f t h e ep isod e. I d ea lly, va r yin g t h ese p a r a m et er s a llows m a n ip u lat in g a p p r a isals relat ed t o p erceived o b sta cles, n a m ely, 1 F ello w resea rch ers wh o ar e in terested in usin g th e p ro gr a m sh o u ld con ta ct th e a ut ho r s fo r a cop y.

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ap p r a isals o f m o t iva tio n a l co n gr u en ce. Va r yin g t h e r eso u rces ava ilab le a ffects t h e p layer s’ ap p r a isal o f co p in g p o ten t ia l a n d t h eir exp ect at io n s o f su cceed in g. F u t h er m o r e, a va r iety of even ts ca n b e p r e-p rogr a m m ed t o o ccu r at sp eci® c t im es int o t h e ga m e o r a t cer ta in co n d itio n s. T h ese even t s ca n in clu d e ch an ges in ga m e p a r a m et ers, su ch a s sp eed in g u p o r slowin g d own m o n ster s o r t h e p layer sym b o l. M o re d r a stic even t s ca n a lso b e in tro d u ced , su ch a s p ro d u cin g er r at ic b eh avio u r o f t h e joystick , su d d en lo ss o f p o in t s, o r su d den ter m in at io n o f th e ga m e (K ap p a s, 1995b ). A ll p a r a m eter s a re pr e-set in a n A SC II ® le t h ey ca n a lso co n t a in in for m at io n co n cer n in g in str u ct io n s to b e given o n screen a s well as th e gen er al a pp ea r a n ce o f m iscellan eo u s elem en t s o f t h e ga m e in t erfa ce. aMAZE a lso in clu d es a su b ro u tin e t h a t a llow s t h e au t o m a t ic p resen t a tio n o f u p t o t wo in d ep en d en t q u estio n n a ires b efo re an d t wo q u estio n na ires a fter t h e ga m e. T h e p rogr a m creat es a n o u t p u t ® le t h a t co m p r ises a co p y o f t h e sett in gs o f t h e ga m e, t he self-rep o r t/q u estio n n a ire d a t a b efo re a n d a fter t h e ga m e, a p er fo r m an ce su m m ar y, a s well a s a ``tr a n scrip t’ ’ o f t h e ga m e with th e p o sitio n s o f t h e player a n d t h e m o n ster s in th e m aze reco rd ed severa l t imes p er seco n d . F ur t h er m o r e, t h e aMAZE p ro gra m co m m u n icat es va r io us in fo r m a tio n via t h e p a ra llel p o r t t o ext ern a l d evices, su ch a s p sych o p hysio lo gy eq u ip m en t , t o syn ch ro n ise reco r d in gs a n d even ts wit h t he gam e (K ap p a s, 1995a ). T h e fu n ct io n a lity o f t h e p rogr a m is a u gm en t ed u sing t h e sh ell p rogr a m PLAYGA ME, wh ich a llows to p scrip t a wh o le exp erim ent in clu d in g b a selines a n d a m u ltip le b lo ck str u ctu r e w ith r a n d o m isatio n o f t h e seq u en ce o f ga m es wit h in b lo ck s, a s well a s t h e in clu sion o f ext er n a l p ro gra m s. PLAYGAME a lso per m its t o co m p u t e aver age p er fo r m a n ce wit h in a blo ck a n d t o co m p u t e a u t o m at ica lly a go a l t h a t t h e p layer (o p t io n a lly) h a s t o rea ch fo r t h e n ext block . T h u s, it is p o ssible t o m an ip u lat e t h e o b jective d if® cu lty of t h e ga m e, ta k in g in t o a cco u n t t h e sk ill level o f t h e p layer. G iven t h e m a ny o p t io n s o f m a n ip ulat in g va r iab les wit h in a ga m e o r acro ss a ser ies o f ga m es u sing aM AZE a n d PLAYGA ME, it b eco m es o bvio u s th a t n o single stu dy ca n b e co n ceived o f t o va lidat e t h e u se of t h is p a r a d igm in m a n ip u lat in g ap p r a isals. We h ave sta r ted t o u se t h e pro gra m b y in t ro d u cin g sp eci® c ® xed even t s (K ap p a s, 1995b), m a n ip u la tin g t h e sp eed o f m on sters a n d t h e nu m b er o f p o in ts to a ch ieve (K ap p a s & Pecch in en d a , 1996; Pecchin en d a & K a p p a s, 1995) an d co m b in in g t he vid eo ga m e t a sk wit h a seco n d a r y fo rced -ch o ice rea ct io n t im e t a sk (Pecch in en d a , K a p p as, & Sm ith , 1997). O u r ® r st exp er ien ces wit h t h is p a r a d igm h ave b een en co u ra gin g a s we co u ld sh ow reliable effects o f o u r m a n ip u la tion s o n ap p ra isals o f co p in g p o t en t ia l. M a nuscrip t r eceived 30 Ju ne 1997 R evised m an uscrip t r eceived 11 M ay 1998

REFERENCES A r n old, M .B. (1960). Emotion and person ality (Vols. 1± 2). N ew Yo r k : C o lu m b ia U niversit y P r ess. Bar r, C.L ., & K leck , R .E . (1995). Self-ot her p ercept io n o f th e in tensity of fa cia l exp r essio n s o f em ot io n : D o we k n ow wh at we sh ow? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 68, 608±618.

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