Journal of Environmental Protection and Ecology 18, No 3, 1193–1201 (2017) Environmental management
CALCULATION OF SEDIMENT YIELD USING THE ‘RIVER BASIN’ AND ‘SURFACE AND DISTANCE’ MODELS: A CASE STUDY OF THE SHEREMETSKI POTOK WATERSHED, MONTENEGRO D. VUJACICa, G. BAROVICa, V. DJEKOVICb, A. ANDJELKOVICb, A. KHALEDIDARVISHANc, L. GHOLAMId, M. JOVANOVICe, V. SPALEVICa* Department of Geography, Faculty of Philosophy, University of Montenegro, Niksic, Montenegro b Faculty of Forestry, Belgrade University, 1 Kneza Viseslava Street, Belgrade, Serbia c Watershed Management Department, Faculty of Natural Resources, Tarbiat Modares University, Noor, Iran d College of Natural Resources, Sari University of Agriculture Sciences and Natural Resources, Sari, Iran e Department of Geography, Faculty of Science, University of Novi Sad, D. Obradovic Square, Nis, Serbia E-mail:
[email protected] a
Abstract. Sediment is a final result of erosion playing an important role in sustainable development of water resource system, controlling riverine hydrology, morphology, ecology, and water quality. A comprehensive approach estimating sediment yield from a watershed is needed to develop proper measures for mitigating sediment disasters and assessing downstream impacts. The researchers are using qualitative and quantitative methods for describing erosion through field observations and laboratory experiments. Indirect valuations of the erosion processes have been carried out using suspended sediment yield data of rivers or by assessing the sediments deposited in reservoirs. Modelling in ungauged basins has been considered as one of the main challenges in hydrological sciences. The objective of this research was to simulate responses of erosion processes in the Sheremetski Potok calculating sediment yield by using the models ‘River Basin’ and ‘Surface and Distance’. Our findings pointed out a low potential of soil erosion risk, although in the river basin prevails very steep slopes (average river basin decline, Isr, 43.42%). With 2058 m3 yr−1 of sediment yield, and an area-specific sediment yield of 298 m3 km–2 yr−1, the studied basin belongs to the Montenegrin basins with low sediment discharge. The model outcomes were validated through measurements at the Potpec reservoir. Keywords: sediment yield, river basin model, surface and distance model, watershed.
*
For correspondence.
1193
AIMS AND BACKGROUND Over the last several decades various scientistsstudied the river basins of the Black Sea Watershed discussing different environmental problems.A lot of them linked in their research the soil erosion processes and its impacts on water quality, pollution, problems with torrential watersheds; including human-induced environmental changes together with long dry periods followed by intensive and erosive rainfall drives the landscapes towards a stage of irreversible perturbations1–4. Here comes at the spotlight the issue of sediment, the end product of land surface erosion, having an important role in sustainable development of water resource system because it controls riverine hydrology, river channel morphology, water quality and aquatic ecology1,5–9. The important issue is to quantify the sediments and to estimate sediment yield at the watershed scale. In their studies, scientists are using qualitative and quantitative monitoring methods for calculation of sediment yield indicatingat the same time where resource problems may occur. The analysis based on gauging data cannot identify the effects of land use changes to soil erosion and sediment dynamics. Thus, quantification of the responses of soil erosion and sediment yield on land use variations can only be achieved by numerical simulation of soil erosion processes10. Hydrological modelling in ungauged basins has been regarded as one of the main challenges in hydrological sciences1,11. The objectiveof this study was to calculatesedimen yield in the river basin of Sheremetski Potok, the small tributary of the river Lim in Montenegro, by using the computer graphic models ‘River Basin’12 and ‘Surface and Distance’13, at the same time looking for the answers as to how these findings could be used for future watershed management options in the wider region of Montenegro and for the other watersheds of the Balkan Peninsula. EXPERIMENTAL The river basin of the Sheremetski Potok is the left-hand tributary of the river Lim in the North Montenegro. The studied basin is with the surface area of about 6.9 km2, and is located 2.5 km north-west of Murino; 8 km south-west of Sekular; 9 km south-east of Andrijevica, in Montenegro. The slopes of the studied rver basin are of about 2 km, coming from the Southern peaks (Hmax, 2126 m) to the north, where is the inflow of the Sheremetski Potok (Hmin, 810 m) to the Lim river (42°40'34.1" N, 19°51'43.5" E). Natural length of the main watercourse is 1.3 km. The shortest distance between the source and the mouth is 1.2 km. Average altitude of the catchment area is 1322 m, and the average height difference is 512 m. For the analysis of the density of erosion rills and the depth of the erosion base, but also for the specific lengths such as the natural length of the main watercourse and tributaries of 1st and 2nd class, the length of the watershed and the 1194
other physico-geographical characteristics, we used satellite imagery available from the Google Earth and Google Maps, but also standard morphometric methods. We drew on the previous geological14 and pedological research15, which analysed all geological formations and soils of Montenegro including the studied area. Furthermore, we collected some soil samples for chemical and physical analysis. The granulometrical composition of the soil was determined by the pipette method. The soil samples were air-dried at 105°C sifted through 2 mm sieve and dispersed using sodium pyrophosphate. Total carbonates were determined by the volumetric Scheibler method; the soil reaction (pH in H2O and n KCl) was determined with a potentiometer; the content of the total organic matter was determined by the Kotzman method; easily accessible phosphorous and potassium were determined by the Al-method, and the adsorptive complex (y1???, S, T, V) was determined by the Kappen method1. We used the ‘Surface and Distance’ and the ‘River Basin’ models (www. agricultforest.ac.me/Spalevic/River and www.agricultforest.ac.me/Spalevic/Surface), based on Erosion Potential Method (EPM) (Ref. 16), for calculation of the sediment yield and the assessment of the eroson proceses. It is well known fact that the EPM is a preferred local model for calculation of soil erosion intensity for the territory of Ex-Yugoslavia, but is also used for calculations of sediment yield of some rivers basins in Italy17 and in Iran18–20. The use of EPM, including the the River Basin model, has been used widelyin Montenegro, especially in the Region of Polimlje21,22.
Fig. 1. Software ‘River Basin’12 and ‘Surface and Distance’13
In order to carry out model verification for the subject area, sediment yields were calculated for all the tributaries of the Lim river basins which include the Sheremetski Potok basin;and after compared with the measurements obtained at the Potpec accumulation. The correspondence (model: 347 273 m3 year–1; measurements: 350 000 m3 year–1) suggests that the assessment results for actual sedi1195
ment yield obtained by model are eligible for the study area of the river basin of Sheremetski Potok. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Climatic characteristics. Various authors acknowledged the effects of climate on land degradation outlining the high impacts of precipitations and temperature on soil erosion processes. According to the available data and our analysis, the studied area is with continental climate: cold winters, rainy autumns and springs; and with the absolute air temperatures ranging from the minimum of –29.8 up to 35oC in the summer time. Climate graph of the studied area of Sheremetski Potok is presented in Fig. 2.
Fig. 2. Climate graph of the studied area of Sheremetski Potok, Murino, Andrijevica
According to our analysis, the average annual air temperature, t0, is 9°C. The average annual precipitation is 1183 mm. The temperature coefficient for the region, T, is calculated as 1.0. Geological structure and soils of the area. Montenegro is part of the Dinaric Alps. Wider territory around the studied area consists of various types of sediment, magmatic and metamorphic rocks generated in the period from Palaeozoic to Quaternary. Most of the terrain is built from Mesozoic formations of carbonate composition, while magmatic and clastic silicate rocks are significantly less present. Palaeozoic geological formations belong to sedimentary and metamorphic, clastic silicate rocks, with Cainozoic rocks of carbonate and clastic composition 1196
occurring sporadically1. From the Geological map of Montenegro14 we defined permeability of the rocks of the studied area of the Sheremetski Potok. The coefficient of the region permeability, S1, is calculated to be 0.76. The area with the rocks of poor permeability (class fo) covering 51% of the studied river basin; the area with outcropping limestone is very permeable (class fp, 33%), the area with the semipermeable rocks (class fpp) is covering 16%. Soils of the area. The most common soil types in the studied river basin are: Dystric Cambisols (54%), Kalkomelanosols (37%), Eutric Cambisols (8%), and traces of Fluvisols and Colluvial Fluvisols (1%). Vegetation. The Sheremetski Potok is located in the Dinaridi Province of the Middle-Southern-East European mountainous biogegraphical region23. Forests of degraded beech forests (Fagetum montanum) dominate this river basin, accounting for 68% of the total vegetation cover. During the filed visit, we recorded also sub-association Fagetum montanum typicumwith dense canopy and some hydrophilic forest (Alnetea glutinosae, Salicetea herbacea) in the lower part near the river bad; and finally we noted some Betula verrucosa, Quercus cerris, Quercus petraea and Prunus avium. According to the analysis of available data, meadows, pastures and orchards cover around 30% of the studied river basin; arable and cultivated land 2%. The coefficient of vegetation cover, S2, was calculated to be 0.67; the coefficient of the river basin planning, Xa, as 0.26.
Fig. 3. Land use at the Sheremetski Potok river basin
Erosion processes at the studied river basin. In this region water erosion is the most important erosion type and is caused by precipitation and consecutive runoff, but also by fluvial erosion in streams. Given the extreme precipitation values in some parts of Montenegro (the highest of Europe), the influence of this erosion type on the landscape is enormous24. In the study area we recorded some surface runoff that has taken place in all the soils on the slopes, which are not covered by 1197
the forest. The erosion causes some places to lose fertile land, but that process is not significant in this river basin, as the erosion process is very week overal. For calculation of sediment yield we used the ‘Surface and Distance’ and the ‘River Basin’ models. The report of the ‘River Basin’ model is presented as follows: The ‘River Basin’ report for the Sheremetski Potok watershed Inputs: River basin area F – 6.9 km²; The length of the watershed O – 11.5 km; Natural length of the main watercourse Lv – 1.27 km; The shortest distance between the fountainhead and mouth Lm – 1.18 km; The total length of the main watercourse with tributaries of I and II class ΣL – 1.27 km; The area of the bigger river basin part Fv – 3.76 km²; The area of the smaller river basin part Fm – 3.15 km²; Altitude of the first contour line h0 – 900 m; Equidistance Δh – 100 m; The lowest river basin elevation Hmin – 810 m; The highest river basin elevation Hmax – 2126 m; Part of the basin with very permeable products from rocks fp – 0.33; Part of the basin with very medium permeable rocks fpp – 0.16; Part of the basin with very poor water permeability rocks f0 – 0.51; Part of the river basin under forests fs – 0.68; Part of the river basin under grass and orchards ft – 0.3; Part of the river basin without grass vegetation fg – 0.02; Incidence Up – 100, years; Average annual air temperature t0 – 9°C; Average annual precipitation Hyr – 1183.7 mm; Types of soil products and related types Y – 1.1; River basin planning, coefficient of the river basin planning Xa – 0.31; Numeral equivalents of visible and clearly exposed erosion process φ – 0.27. Results: Coefficient of the river basin form A – 1.77; Coefficient of the watershed development m – 0.14; Average river basin width B – 1.36 km; (A) symmetry of the river basin a – 0.18; Density of the river network of the basin G – 0.18; Coefficient of the river basin tortuousness K – 1.08; Average river basin altitude Hsr – 1321.89 m; Average elevation difference of the river basin D – 511.89 m; Average river basin decline Isr – 43.42 %; The height of the local erosion base of the river basin Hleb – 1316 m; Coefficient of the erosion energy of the river basin relief Er – 258.42; Coefficient of the region’s permeability S1 – 0.76; Coefficient of the vegetation cover S2 – 0.67; Analytical presentation of the water retention in inflow W – 1.3952 m; Energetic potential of water flow during torrent rains 2gDF1/2 – 263.33 m km s; Maximal outflow from the river basin Qmax – 327.56 m³ s–1; Temperature coefficient of the region T – 1; Coefficient of the river basin erosion Z – 0.326; Production of erosion material in the river basin Wyr – 4780 m³ yr–1; Coefficient of the deposit retention Ru – 0.431; Real soil losses Gyr – 2058.87 m³ yr–1; Real soil losses per km2 Gyr/km² – 298.19 m³ km–2 yr–1. Real soil losses, Gyear, were calculated at 2058 m3 year–1 and the specific real soil losses (per km2) are 298 m3 km–2 year–1. The results of this research are comparable with the findings of the Jaroslav Cerni research Institute of Serbia25, where the sediment yield for the total Lim river basin is calculated at 350 m³ km–² per year. By using the ‘River Basin’ model we found value to be 298 m³ km–² per 1198
year for the studied Sheremetski Potok watershed. This suggests that the results of the assessment obtained are eligible for the study area and the wider region. CONCLUSIONS According to the calculations of the ‘River Basin’ model symmetry of the river basin, a, is 0.18 and there is a possibility for large flood waves to appear at the studied basin. The density of the river network of the basin, G, is calculated on 0.18, indicating low density of the hydrographic network. Average river basin altitude, Hsr, is calculated on 1321.89 m, and average elevation difference, D, on 511.89 m. The value of Isr of 43.42% indicates that in the river basin prevail very steep slopes. Maximum outflow from the river basin, Qmax, may come to 327 m3 s–1 once in the period of 100 years; and Qmax for the incidence of 5 years was calculated on 147 m3 s–1. Coefficient of the river basin erosion, Z, is calculated on 0.326 what indicates that the river basin belongs to IV destruction category (of five). The strength of the erosion process is weak. Real soil losses, Gyear, were calculated at 2058 m3 year–1 and the specific real soil losses (per km2) are 298 m3 km–2 year–1. The results of this research are comparable with the findings of the other similar studies in the neighbouring watresheds, where the sediment yield for the total Lim river basin is calculated at 350 m³ km–² per year. By using the ‘River Basin’ model we found value to be 298 m³ km–² per year for the studied Sheremetski Potok watershed. This suggests that the results of the assessment obtained are eligible for the study area and the wider region. Taking into consideration that there is no map of soil erosion in Montenegro, this specific results are modest contribution to the knowledge of soil erosion process in this region, providing new specific data in relation to the sediment yield and soil erosion intensity in the Sheremetski Potok, one of 300 small watersheds in this small country in the Balkan Peninsula. This study with using the ‘River Basin’ and ‘Surface and Distance’ models, based on the previously approved Erosion Potential Method of Gavrilovic, offers to the researcher relatively new approach for sediment yield and runoff calculation, providing innovative guidance for improving the watershed management practices in relation to the soil erosion phenomenon. This leads to the conclusion that the models applied may be a useful tool for such assessmentsfor the other river basins of the Black Sea Watershed, with similar climate, geological and physicogeographical characteristics.
1199
REFERENCES 1. V. SPALEVIC, G. BAROVIC, A. FIKFAK, S. KOSANOVIC, M. DJUROVIC, S. POPOVIC: Sediment Yield and Land Use Changes in the Northern Montenegrin Watersheds: Case Study of Seocki Potok of the Polimlje. J Environ Prot Ecol, 17 (3), 990 (2016). 2. M. MITITELU, F. NICOLESCU, C. A. IONITA, T. O. NICOLESCU: Study of Heavy Metals and Organic Pollutants in Some Fishes of the Danube River. J Environ Prot Ecol, 13 (2A), 869 (2012). 3. J. M. van der KNIJFF, R. J. A. JONES, L. MONTANARELLA: Soil Erosion Risk Assessment in Italy. European Soil Bureau EUR 19044 EN. Office for Official Publications of the European Communities, Luxembourg, 1999. 4. R. RISTIC, B. RADIC, N. VASILJEVIC: Characteristics of Maximum Discharges on Torrential Watersheds in Serbia. J Environ Prot Ecol, 12 (2), 471 (2011). 5. C. STOICA, I. LUCACIUA, M. NICOLAUA, F. VOSNIAKOS: Monitoring the Ecological Diversity of the Aquatic Danube Delta Systems in Terms of Spatial-temporal Relationship. J Environ Prot Ecol, 13 (2), 476 (2012). 6. J. A. BALLESTEROS-CÁNOVAS, C. CORONA, M. STOFFEL, A. LUCIA-VELA, J. M. BODOQUE: Combining Terrestrial Laser Scanner and Exposed Root for Erosion Rate Estimation. Plant Soil, 394 (1–2), 127 (2015) http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11104-015-2516-3. 7. A. KHALEDI DARVISHAN, S. H. R. SADEGHI, M. HOMAEE, M. ARABKHEDRI: Measuring Sheet Erosion Using Synthetic Color-contrast Aggregates. Hydrol Process, 28 (15), 463 (2014) http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/hyp.9956. 8. V. DJEKOVIC, A. ANDJELKOVIC, N. MILOSEVIC, G. GAJIC, M. JANIC: Effect of Reservoir on Flood-wave Transformation. Carpath J Earth Environ Sci, 8 (2), 107 (2013). 9. A. M. MELESSE, S. AHMAD, M. E. McCLAIN, X. WANG, Y. H. LIM: Suspended Sediment Load Prediction of River Systems: an Artificial Neural Network Approach. Agr Water Manage, 98 (5), 855 (2011). 10. M. GLAVAN, M. PINTAR, M. VOLK: Land Use Change in a 200-year Period and Its Effect on Blue and Green Water Flow in Two Slovenian Mediterranean Catchments – Lessons for the Future. Hydrol Process, 27 (26), 3964 (2013). 11. A. H. SALIHA, S. B. AWULACHEW, J. CULLMANN, H. B. HORLACHER: Estimation of Flow in Ungauged Catchments by Coupling a Hydrological Model and Neural Networks: Case Study. Hydrol Res 42 (5), 386 (2011). http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/nh.2011.157. 12. V. SPALEVIC, A. DLABAC, Z. JOVOVIC, J. RAKOCEVIC, M. RADUNOVIC, B. SPALEVIC, B. FUSTIC: The ‘Surface and Distance Measuring’ Program. Acta Agriculture Serbica, 4 (8), 63 (1999). 13. V. SPALEVIC, A. DLABAC, B. SPALEVIC, B. FUSTIC, V. POPOVIC: Application of Computergraphic Methods in Studying the Discharge and Soil Erosion Intensity – I Programme ‘River Basins’. Agriculture and Forestry, 46 (1–2), 19 (2000). 14. M. ZIVALJEVIC: Geological Map of SR Montenegro, 1: 200.000. Special ed. Geological Gazette, Book VIII, Titograd, 1989. 15. B. FUSTIC, G. DJURETIC: Soils of Montenegro. Biotechnical Institute, University of Montenegro, 2000, 1–626. 16. S. GAVRILOVIC: Engineering of Torrential Flows and Erosion. Izgradnja, Beograd, 1972, p. 272. 17. A. TAZIOLI: Evaluation of Erosion in Equipped Basins: Preliminary Results of a Comparison between the Gavrilovic Model and Direct Measurements of Sediment Transport. Envir Geology, 56 (5), 825 (2009). 18. V. SPALEVIC, A. BEHZADFAR, A. S. TAVARES, M. MOTEVA, V. TANASKOVIK: Soil Loss Estimation of S7-2 Catchment of the Shirindareh Watershed, Iran Using the River Basin Model. AGROFOR, 1 (1). 113 (2016).
1200
19. G. BAROVIC, M. L. N. SILVA, P. V. G. BATISTA, D. VUJACIC, W. SOARES SOUZA, J. C. AVANZI, M. BEHZADFAR, V. SPALEVIC: Estimation of Sediment Yield Using the IntErO Model in the S1-5 Watershed of the Shirindareh River Basin, Iran. Agriculture and Forestry, 61 (3), 233 (2015). 20. M. BEHZADFAR, A. TAZIOLI, M. VUKLEIC-SHUTOSKA, I. SIMUNIC, V. SPALEVIC: Calculation of Sediment Yield in the S1-1 Watershed, Shirindareh Watershed, Iran. Agriculture and Forestry, 60 (4), 207 (2014). 21. D. VUJACIC, V. SPALEVIC: Assessment of Runoff and Soil Erosion in the Radulicka Rijeka Watershed, Polimlje, Montenegro. Agriculture and Forestry, 62 (2), 283 (2016). 22. D. VUJACIC, G. BAROVIC, V. TANASKOVIKJ, I. KISIC, X. SONG, M. L. N. SILVA, V. SPALEVIC: Calculation of Runoff and Sediment Yield in the Pisevska Rijeka Watershed, Polimlje, Montenegro. Agriculture and Forestry, 61 (2), 225 (2015). 23. M. DEES, M. ANDJELIC, A. FETIC et al.: The First National Forest Inventory of Montenegro. Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development, Government of Montenegro, 2013, 1–347. 24. S. KOSTADINOV, M. ZLATIC, N. DRAGOVIC, Z. GAVRILOVIC: Soil Erosion in Serbia and Montenegro. In: Soil Erosion in Europe (Eds J. Bordman, J. Poesen). John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., London, 2006, 271–277. 25. M. BABIC MLADENOVIC, Z. OBUSKOVIC, Z. KNEZEVIC: Siltation in Serbia – Problems and Directions of Solving. Vodoprivreda, 35, 387 (2003) (in Serbian). Received 27 July 2017 Revised 25 August 2017
1201
