CHAPTER - I Introduction

CHAPTER - I Introduction OVERVIEW This chapter provides a background of the study as to how under Higher Education Commission of Pakistan (HEC), the higher education in Pakistan is progressing at fast pace. In the given scenario, the need to produce quality research work is felt for disseminating information, sharing and interchanging scholarly knowledge from across the world. To ensure and produce quality research in conformity to international standards, academic writing proficiency across disciplines has become essential. The preliminary section of this chapter unfolds L2 learners’ difficulties in various educational settings concerning academic writing and general writing issues. In addition to conventional framework of the study such as ‘Problem Statement, Context of the Study, Justification, present study focuses on diction (vocabulary) and syntax (word order) to improve expression as language style. Chapter one is the most significant as it emphasizes the need to develop academic writing at higher education level in Pakistan. Swales, (1990; 2004) states that English is the most important language, powerful and effective, in disseminating research findings. The basic aims of writing research articles should be “to attract as large number of readers as possible to read, comprehend them and get influenced by them” Lindsay, (2011, p.5). 1.1

BACKGROUND Since UGC (University Grants Commission), established in 1947 and revised

1974; finally emerged, in its modern form, as HEC (Higher Education Commission) through a constitutional amendment in 2002, it has played a leading role towards building a knowledge based economy by awarding hundreds of doctoral scholarships for education every year. Dr Javaid (2009). More than 50 new universities and degree awarding institutes with 18 campuses of the newly established universities from 20032008 is an educational milestone by HEC in Pakistan. The DAWN newspaper (2012) 1

Research-oriented development serves as the backbone of a nation’s economy and it demands faculties to innovate ways to encourage students for self-paced learning using ICT tools for pedagogical purpose. Higher Education system of Pakistan, despite many difficulties, has produced magnificent results, contributing to huge expansion of international publications in Pakistan from only 600 research papers/yr in (2003) to 4300 research papers in (2008). HEC Annual Report: (2012-13 pp.) In the above context, it is estimated that the pace of research activities has intensified more than one could have imagined in the past, but, since the inception of HEC (Higher Education Commission) it has produced more than 150 Ph. Ds per year as compared to around 12 to 15 PhD scholars per year. Enhancing English language competency, particularly, academic writing skills at post-graduation level is the prerequisite to promote and develop research culture in the universities of Pakistan. Since English language has become a more widespread international language, for business and higher education, there is a need to focus on more specialized teaching methods and techniques as Britain has made tremendous progress in tailoring and designing EAP (English for Academic Purpose) on modern lines. Journal of English for Academic English (2002 pp. 69-72 It is observed that majority students, even at post-graduate level, do not indicate encouraging sign when it comes to their writing ability, especially, academic writing skills needed to promote research work in Pakistan. Traditional writing methods and techniques derived from general English language; do not help students to encourage for research activity. Contrary to this, a critical pragmatic approach to academic English language enables the novice writers to enhance writing conventions and develop critical thinking about the conventions. Writing critically demands writing at the higher education level, therefore, in most academic writing, it is more important to analyze and evaluate than to give a simple description, Woodward-Kron, (2002). English language - acknowledged as a global communication - is a link language among the peoples dwelling in different parts of the world to various places, for pursuing their higher education, trade contacts and better living, Saraithong &

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Chancharoenchai, (2012) a proficiency in this language has gained a paramount importance. The universities of advanced countries constitute a richer and more diverse research culture, contributing to development of knowledge-based economy by employing the scholarly results in various fields of life than the universities in the developing countries, showing impotent research culture, (Salazar Clemeña & Almonte-Acosta, 2007). The task force report (2002) for the improvement of higher education in Pakistan, revealed the mains factors for the declining standards of education in public sector universities in Pakistan such as inefficient administration, incapacity of academics staff to contributing to research and lack of research facilities. In the light of the task force proposal, the Higher Education Commission (HEC) was established in Sep.11, 2002. Since its inception, numerous short, medium and long term reforms were introduced to uplift the standards of higher education in promoting research in Pakistan. For this purpose, HEC has lunched various schemes to develop the research capacity of academics on one hand, and ensure to implement new criteria for the selection and promotion of academic staff on other hand. The academicians’ scholarly quality is gauged on the bases of their numbers of research publications in renowned national and international journals. simultaneously, HEC has also supported public universities by providing a range of facilities such as research grant, high speed internet access to modern research literature Akbari & Naqvi, (2008). The magazine of HEC (2008) has also reported that there is a significant increase in the number of research publications in impact factor journals from 815 to 2495 during the period of 2002 to 2008 as a result of HEC’s investment in public universities (p.5). Furthermore, the number of PhDs produced by the stateowned universities continues to increase gradually since 2002 Anonymous, (2008, p.5). Still there is a dire need to accelerate the pace of teaching and learning that supports research-oriented knowledge by focusing on the development taking place in the areas of genre-based teaching and learning, especially, with reference to academic writing skills, considered to be tools for research writing. 1.2

AN OVERVIEW ON ACADEMIC WRITING Teaching and learning ‘academic writing’ has enormously drawn special

attention of academicians and researchers at tertiary level education in the world for 3

the certain reasons: teaching academic writing at universities develops expertise in approaches to writing both for tutors and learners, argumentation, intertexuality, and strategies for stimulating novice writer to be motivated. It presents an overview of issues relating to design and delivery of academic writing instruction provides students with a repertoire on the challenges encountered by postgraduates, academics and other professionals, both with native and non-native English language backgrounds, throughout the process of publication. The main purpose of developing academic writing is to create an increased awareness of the writing and publishing experience of novice writers. For this purpose, in UK universities, a special modular course at the Master’s Degree in Academic Writing Theory and Practice was initiated, offering a new type of qualification aimed at graduates and professionals interested in studying, researching and teaching writing. The course focuses on writing, rhetoric and literacies research and on the ways this research updates the teaching of writing. The program is based upon Coventry University’s international reputation in the teaching of academic writing at the Centre for Academic Writing. Some of the most important aspects covering in a modular course outlines specified to enhance academic writing skills of the graduate and postgraduate students include: Supporting Academics, Postgraduates and Professionals in Writing for Publication, Forms and Practices of Disciplinary Writing, Writing Program Development and Management, Researching Academic and Professional Writing: Text Focus, Practices and Processes, Academic Writing and the Trans-nationalization of Knowledge, Rhetorical Theory, Dissertation Research and Writing and Professional Portfolio in Supporting Academic Writing. The discursive formations and practices of disciplinary writing are considered to be significant ingredients of writing research and refinement of writing pedagogies. On this notion, a specific module is designed to articulate the relationship between forms and practices of disciplinary genres and its likely implications for teaching, learning and researching academic writing. The context of this debate aims at assisting to formulate an international perspective on academic writing, encouraging novice writers to contribute their experiences of teaching, learning and producing writing in/across various disciplines. More importantly, questions relating nonstandardization and the production of master genres, such as the essay or the report, are addressed in tandem with issues concerning writerly and readerly discursive 4

projections, inter-texts and the use of sources, and argument/problem constructions in the disciplines. Research into forms of academic writing and publishing, being at the core of academic enterprise, has generated a variety of approaches into studying texts, writers, and contexts. In these approaches, writing must be seen in its context, but, with the scale of the different appropriate contexts, for example, in the complementary module, Research Academic and Professional Writing: Practices and Processes, students have to investigate the process of writing and academic writing in its wider context. They are introduced to a variety of ways of examining texts through close reading systematic analysis to aggregating texts to develop an insight about the patterns of language use and text formation. Research into professional academic writing has entered into a new phase by examining the publishing and writing imperatives in transnational contexts. It implies that the production and dissemination of scientific knowledge through writing and publishing is supposed to take place at once inside, outside and across national boundaries. This is a fresh and exciting strand of enquiry, covering both the discursive and non-discursive/material dimensions of writing within new modes of knowledge production and distribution. Writing and knowledge production are seen to work simultaneously as they are constituted through interpretative communities and a wellestablished publishing system. Since, both the communities and the publishing apparatus operate socio-economically, politically, culturally, spatially etc, therefore, there is a need to investigate how academic writing is grounded in embedded theories of knowledge and discourse production in various perspectives, especially in Karachi, Pakistan. From 1870 to 1900, as the American college system turned from small schools to a diverse set of universities with distinct academic disciplines, the field of composition studies flourished from traditional rhetorical studies. As pioneers in the field of composition studies, Harvard University, initiated a new program in their English department, demonstrating its ‘total commitment to writing’ for the first time though the initial focus was on personal writing and did not include rhetoric or literary analysis. However, with modern university system developed the field of composition studies soon became paired with the field of rhetoric because scholars began to realize 5

that elements of rhetoric and not “systematic grammatical study” were essential to improve writing and composition abilities. Whereas rhetoric traditionally concerned matters related to verbal orations or speeches, so, both rhetoric and composition are related to the expression of ideas, often in an attempt to influence one’s audience. Besides, composition is also concerned with the principles of invention, arrangement, style, and delivery traditionally associated with rhetoric; even memory can become an element of composition while one is writing a speech or a scholarly paper to be delivered orally. Thus, rhetoric and composition— colloquially termed “comp/rhet” or “rhet/comp”— emerged as an independent field and still remains a burgeoning discipline in universities today. Exploring rhetorical theory from a variety of perspectives from ancient to modern is prerequisite to developing greater and deeper understanding of the various rhetorical traditions that influence modern forms of communication including academic writing. Based upon various most effective and modern theories and practices, a certain course outline needs to be developed to enhance academic writing skills for graduate, especially, postgraduate students, escorting them to embark upon journey of dissertation writing, claiming as authoritative piece of writing. 1.3

PRELIMINARY WORK In the contexts of Europe, pace of development in academic English reading

writing under EAP (English for Academic Purposes) at higher education level from K-12 to university level has enormously increased. However, Britain is only one of the many countries around the world where the demand and need for EAP has increased immensely over the last few decades. Since English has become an even more widespread international language, for I.T, business and higher education, so the need for more specialized teaching has expanded. One of precedent illustrates is Sultan Qaboos University, Muscat, Oman, founded in 1982. A Language Centre established in 1986 has attracted more than 3000 students a year to benefit from EAP courses. In March 2001, it organized 1st annual national conference on the theme ‘‘Excellence in Academic English’’. Birmingham University appeared to have been to be seriously concerned about the needs of overseas students. In 1962, Vera Adamson was delegated with the task analyzing students’ language issues and developing some teaching materials as well as devising analytical test to resolve the 6

problems of context of L2 learners. Later on, when Jim Johns joined Birmingham University in October 1971, he developed and implemented a diagnostic assessment for overseas postgraduates, and then organized pre-sessional courses and in-sessional classes to assist develop academic language competence of the students. With a large increase of international students, many of them needed required English language competence; more EAP pre-sessional courses designed on new materials, methods and technology were developed. A remarkable change in more recent years has been the more focus on academic culture, i.e. the higher education system, subject specialist conventions concerning student relationships and expectations and writing conventions. Awareness about cultural conventions and learning styles such as the need for students to be able to read and reason critically, not just to acknowledge what is printed in a search articles or books, has been raised. This can be noted in the way academic writing has moved on from simply considering register analysis and learning and R.R. Jordan/Journal of English for Academic Purposes 1 (2002) 69–78 73 practicing vocabulary with focus on academic writing purpose, its readership, its structure, appropriacy and style. Another significant change took place since the late 1970s as team-teaching – the joint teaching or sharing of teaching (English faculty and the subject specialist) has been an area of progress. Johns and Dudley-Evans, both the EAP teachers and researchers, have been the fore in this movement e.g. Dudley-Evans & Johns, (1981); Johns & Dudley-Evans, (1980) In case team-teaching is not possible for various reasons, then, other forms of co-operation may be beneficial, for instance, in the provision of text specimens and reading lists, recorded audio-video lectures for language practice, giving guest lectures, and even co-operating in the writing of practice material e.g. Jordan & Nixson, (1986). This demonstrates that the students and their departments take seriously their attempts to improve their English by combing with language practice relating to their relevant subject, thus, leading to increase the students’ motivation e.g. Jordan, (1984). Lynn Errey, (2001) agrees on the need analysis for a specialized teacher training, involving principles and approaches appropriate for EAP and ESP. This is, in fact, now beginning to initiate with an MA ESP developed by Chris Candlin and Vijay Bhatia at City University in Hong Kong taking its 1st batch of the students in 7

1997 and Oxford Brookes University offering an MA (post-graduation) in Teaching EAP/ESP beginning in 2000. According to Liz Hamp-Lyons (2000), ‘‘Needs analysis is fundamental to an EAP approach to course design and teaching,’’ emphasizing on various ways of collecting the necessary data for analyzing students’ needs such as: language tests, questionnaire surveys, monitoring in class, self-assessment and interviews Jordan, (1997); West, (1994). A thorough investigation into overseas students’ linguistic difficulties in activities related to their studies at Cambridge University during their 1st term in 1980 was carried out by Geoghegan, (1983) based on questionnaires from 555 NNS students, she then interviewed 65 of them; she identified the most difficult areas in her finding were the students participation in seminars, and academic writing. These findings were broadly matched by Jordan’s (1993); questionnaire surveys conducted among students attending pre-sessional EAP courses at Manchester University between 1986 and 1990. The students’ experience of studying in their native country was also surveyed and compared with their expectations of studying in Britain. What the findings revealed was that the majority students faced serious challenges because their expectations could not match the realities of the study situations, for 74 R.R. Jordan Journal of English for Academic Purposes 1 (2002) 69– 78 for instance, anticipating to be guided precisely about what to read by their subject teachers, who they also expected to correct any mistakes they might have made with English. This underscored the question of understanding the differences in academic cultures - a fruitful area for research. In African perspective, a research in the Libyan context was conducted to explore Libyan postgraduates’ academic writing difficulties in the light their views and attitudes towards tutors’ written feedback. The students were required to respond to the questionnaires to report the type of difficulties they encountered while writing and the strategies they used to adopt to overcome their problems. They also had to give views on their tutor’s written feedback regarding any improvement in their academic writing styles. Similarly, tutors were asked about the purpose of their feedback and the weaknesses noticed in Libyan postgraduates’ academic writing. Feedback samples were analyzed and compared with other data in order to conclude the results.

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The study indicates that the students confront with the problems of critical analysis, lack of relevant ideas, poor skills in organizing and using references to shun plagiarism. However, teachers noticed the problems of coherence in planning stage, cohesion and repetition and circularity. The causes given by the students included: lack of input, L1 influence, lack of experience, poor grammatical skills, lack of vocabulary, spelling and punctuations. Data also indicated that Libyan postgraduates gave importance to teachers’ written feedback that helped them improve in their academic writing. However, the strategies the students reported were as usual as possible such as attending pre-sessional and in-sessionsal courses, reading relevant materials from books and journals and seeking tutor’s assistance when needed. The findings demand in the Libyan context to adopt and follow existing approaches and practices to develop academic writing skills of the post-graduate students, preparing them for academic performance. A study carried out in the Algerian context, Batna University, 3rd year students of English Department is of similar nature, showing mediocre performances concerning their general English writing problem. According to the data that consisted of 100 copies of students’ examinations papers, majority students displayed too many mistakes related to grammar, punctuations, capitalization, spellings, vocabulary (poor diction) and sentence-construction. The study conducted in Zimbabwe context is more significant than any other study in African setting for two distinct reasons: firstly, it focused on academic writing rather than general writing and, secondly, its sample consisted of the students from different disciplines such as (faculties of Education, Arts, Commerce and sciences and the lecturers were from Social Sciences, Management Sciences, and Natural Sciences. Eleven hundred essays written by five hundred fifty students’ 1st and 2nd assignments were analyzed by four English language lecturers who had to examine students’ academic writing weaknesses. In the study showed numerous aberrations found in students’ essays in their academic writing.

Among the most common and frequent weaknesses observed in

their essays included: spelling, homophones, grammar, subject-verb agreement, poor punctuation, use of

prepositions, diction, referencing, lack of cohesion, cohesion

through inability to use connectives, poor tense-sequence, wordiness, loose sentence9

construction that often results in tautology or redundancy, weak paragraphing and ambiguous text. Keeping in view the recurring weaknesses displayed in students writing at Great Zimbabwe University (GZU), the findings suggested the students to take the writing process for granted, hence a myriad of weaknesses seen in their academic writing. The researchers recommended that the universities needed two semesters specified for developing academic writing skills, rejecting the view of writing as academic socialization in which writing disappears; that is, students are supposed to get engaged in studying different disciplines, without it (writing) being taught Dysthe, (2001). Moreover, it required that, apart from Communication Skills lecturers, all lecturers across the university curriculum need to make concerted efforts towards improving students writings skills. Dysthe, (2001) recommended a new crop of lecturers with good proficiency in their relevant disciplines and teaching ‘writing skills’ are the need of hour. The researchers agree that, at present, the demand and tendency to integrate academic writing ability in teaching any discipline is important part of university education, setting new trends in teaching and learning activities. They recommend that the novice writers (the students) need to strive for overcoming common errors found in their assignments and must develop academic writing skills to promote their research writing activities. The students need to conceptualize writing as a process Nunan, (1991), undergoing through the certain stages e.g. prewriting, drafting redrafting, revising and proof reading/editing Clanchy and Ballard, (1981); Tyner, (1985); Hilton and Hyder, (1992); Barker and Westrup, (2002). Editing is very significant activity that can be enhanced through collaborative writing in peers. The researchers noticed a paradigm shift to the teaching of writing at GZU and other universities in Zimbabwe, from an autonomous model of literacy Street, (2003) or study skills orientation Dysthe, (2001) to an ideological model Street, (2003) or academic literacies orientation Dysthe, (2001). The latter view of writing is more recent thinking, focusing on students’ socio-cultural backgrounds as well as their disciplines. A more recent study conducted in Vietnam setting under the title: a movebased structure of the maters thesis review chapters by Vietnamese TESOL 10

postgraduates, probing the rhetorical structure of 24 literature review chapters of TESOL masters’ theses by Vietnamese students. Despite the similarities and differences concerning move-step structures of the chapters written by native and non-native writers, the study found that non-native English writers were familiar with the overall structure of the chapters, but lack essential rhetorical functions of the moves and steps, thus their literature review chapters were ineffective. The findings stressed the need for concentrating genre-based instruction in academic writing courses for novice L2 writers. The Ministry of Education and Training (MoET) has launched the project ‘The Vietnam’s National Foreign Languages 2020 Project,’ trying to ensure English language proficiency of all young Vietnamese, particularly, at all levels in their educational settings. In order to successfully achieve the results, seven Vietnamese universities have been permitted to offer maters’ programs in English for teacher language development. Though the thesis writing in English is a challenging task for second language students Shaw, (1991) yet the Vietnamese postgraduate students, who were not taught writing a paragraph and essay at school, college and university level until 2008, would manage to write their theses by consulting available guidelines from published books on thesis writing. They would get engrossed in reading published work and distinguish vocabulary based upon the genre-related disciplines, for instance, the guidelines for Literature Review (LR) chapter, finding a critical review and analysis of the literature relevant to a particular topic under inquiry. Vietnamese agricultural researchers write for publications by Zhang, Bui, and Pramoolsook, (2012) do not indicate in any of the studies as to how this group of second language novice authors has managed to write a lengthy text such as a thesis. This ongoing research may serve as the first study on the writing of this particular genre produced by Vietnamese TESOL postgraduate students. Among the host of studies on research articles (RA) Literature Review Kanoksilapatham, (2005, 2007); Swales, (1981, 1990, 2004), some doctoral dissertations Bunton (2002, 2005); Dong, (1998); Kwan, (2006); Swales, (2004); Thompson, (1999, 2005), very few studies have spotlighted on the structure of the masters’ thesis.

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Among some of the studies aiming at probing the organization of certain sections e.g. Acknowledgements J.Zhang, (2012), Introductions across three disciplines Samraj, (2008), Introduction and Discussion sections Dudley-Evans, (1986) and Conclusions Hewings, (1993) and the overall organization of the thesis of interdisciplinary nature Paltridge, (2002), the only study of all the chapters of 20 postgraduate theses relating to Applied Linguistics taken from ProQuest Dissertations and Theses Database (ProQuest) was conducted by Chen and Kuo (2012). In fact, all these studies have focused on the generic structure of Masters’ thesis, examining texts produced by international and native English writers. However, Pramoolsook, (2008) applied a genre-based approach to study the whole macro-structure of M.A theses in the Asian setting and their changes while transferring to research articles. Though the results of the study give valuable information for Asian novice writers to construct the moves and steps to achieve the communicative purpose in each chapter but it is limited to the texts of produced by postgraduate students in the fields of Biotechnology and Environmental Engineering at a university in Thailand. However, there is a wide gap noticed at this point, more research studies on the rhetorical structure of LR chapters at postgraduate level need to be carried out by non-native English writers. In the Arab settings, a seemingly detailed account of the study carried out, investigating the academic writing issues faced by Arab postgraduate students of the College of Business at University Utara Malaysia attempting to find remedies to a host of problems as indicated in the findings were: vocabulary, grammar, organization of ideas, spelling, and referencing. Baskaran, (1983) highlights the role of English language, especially, academic writing in postgraduate studies in Malaysia since it supports students to take initiative into academic community in acquiring both the required language proficiency as well as specific genres pertaining to these communities. The study is qualitative based upon semi-structured interviews, exploring students’ views and beliefs pertaining to certain topics through interactive communication. Use of semi-structured interviews, according to Lynch, (1996), enhances the understanding of the data and makes its collection more systematic than the informal conversational approach. 12

The study encompasses business students’ several kinds of academic text: e.g. project papers, article reviews, summaries, reports, article critiques, proposals, comparative analyses, book reviews, essays, and case studies, and the related issues such as in vocabulary, grammar, organization of ideas, referencing and spellings. The study proposes more discipline-specific-reading courses to enhance vocabulary and academic writing ability. Furthermore, it suggests the curriculum developers and teachers to apply the results of need analysis (NA), focusing on projects and reports’ language courses. Almost all the previous studies undertaken in the Arab contexts, Zughoul and Taminian, (1984); Abbad, (1988); Rabab`ah, (2003); Hisham, (2008) equally agree that L1, mother tongue, interferes in acquiring L2 (English language proficiency). Rabab`ah (2003) holds that formal instruction of Arab teachers in native language is the main obstacle to acquiring English language competence. Another factor, Rabab`ah (2003) gave was the limited opportunities Arab learners have to learn English through natural interaction with native English speakers. In Asian perspective, most universities in China offer English language courses from general English textbooks, focusing more on grammar drilling than academic writing skills, Zhang & Luo, (2004). You, (2004, p. 255) states that large classes, disjunction between CET test and classroom instruction and test-oriented learning techniques have had adverse impacts on students’ academic writing capability. According to Xu, (2005), majority students either directly imitate the format of published articles or depend upon writing handbooks, scrounging language style and expressions while writing academic papers. Even though few universities offer academic writing courses, yet they are usually teacher-centered lectures teaching referencing styles and thesis format, while elaborations on moves (how to perform certain communicative or rhetorical function or steps and linguistics features in academic papers are often neglected, Swales, (1990). Almost all top universities in China require English language competency, especially, academic writing skills for assignments of writing research papers but the students demonstrate poor academic writing, Sun, (2004) because few courses of academic writing are offered. Sun, (2004) surveyed 147 English-major Master of Arts (MA) students from 52 colleges and universities. The survey reports that only around 13

16% of the institutions offered academic writing courses for English majors whereas 15% of undergraduates were unfamiliar with academic writing course and half of them had difficulties writing their Bachelor of Arts (BA) theses in proper academic writing styles. Major issues experienced by the students were inability to express ideas in academic English, the lack of guidance on searching for proper references, and even uncertainty about the thesis or research paper format. In order to gauge students’ difficulties in improving academic writing skills and identifying their needs to cope with their attitude towards their previous academic writing courses, Need Analysis (NA), an appropriate method is considered to be prerequisite step in developing a more specialized syllabus as acclaimed by the prominent researchers (e.g., Dudley- Evans & St. John, (1998); Hyland, (2006); Kavaliauskiene & Uzpaliene, (2003); West, (1994). Through NA, the course can specifically be designed to collect data, keeping in view students’ present situation analysis (PSA) and target situation analysis (TSA) Dudley-Evans & St. John, (1998). Hutchinson and Waters, (1987) developed TSA and PSA into a more manageable framework which is widely applied in the current research. The three components of target needs identified are: necessity (needs identified by the requirements of target situation), deficiency (the required proficiency for the target situation compared to their background knowledge), and wants (knowing students’ desire to learn). A few of large-scale empirical NA studies conducted at tertiary institutions in Asian or Chinese ELT settings, wither reference to Hong Kong contexts by Littlewood & Liu, (1996), Hyland (1997) and Evans & Green (2007) indicate similar language concerns of productive skills and acquiring contextualized vocabulary. Evans and Green emphasized on vocabulary issue, suggesting incorporating EAP (English for Academic Purposes) program with teaching and learning of ‘subjectspecific and common core lexis’ (p.14). In the above context, none of the studies quoted-above addresses the issues relating to academic writing skills as the surveys indicated general English language proficiency in all four macro skills of the students at tertiary level education. However, one of the more recent studies conducted in Hong Kong settings aims at investigating academic writing by attempting to explore students’ attitudes towards learning with respect to their concerns and opinions in comparison with their previous 14

and present experiences for future academic writing courses, Luna Jing Cai, (2013). The findings may assist EAP practitioners develop an effective English academic writing course for English majors in south China and offer an insight into the EAP agenda in the broader Asian EFL context. In Asian perspective, one of the studies concerning tertiary level under the title, ‘Bangladeshi Tertiary Level Students’ Common Errors in Academic Writing Thesis’ was carried out at BRAC University in Bangladesh, focusing on common errors found in students’ exams papers. Bilkis Fahmida, (2010) states that she has attempted to ascertain the factors behind students’ mistakes in their written assignments. Most of the errors pointed out in this study are common such as spelling, grammatical, punctuation and lexical errors which are related to general English writing. The study consisted of 50 undergraduates’ examination copies taken from couple of universities in Bangladesh mainly focused on common errors students face in exams writing and investigated the factors behind mistakes. The study is confined to general English language as it aims at basic writing skills and, thus, deflects with its topical words ‘Academic Writing Thesis’. Over the past decade in Pakistan, there is no significant research conducted in this field that may focus on postgraduates’ writing conventions to critically evaluate drawbacks/weaknesses found in their published or unpublished research articles. The writing conventions include: mechanics, usage, and sentence formation, vocabulary (diction), content and style. However, the research in the field of applied linguistics concerning students’ is related to general English language and business English probing English language issues at secondary, O level and K-12 level. The researcher viewpoint is corroborated with this published research article by Akhtar Ali, Riaz H. Tariq & Keith J. Topping, (2012) entitling “Perspectives of academic activities in universities in Pakistan,” - data comprising 290 teachers and 568 students to explore the perspectives on academic activities in seven state-owned universities – showed intimidating performance of the universities on the quality of curriculum, teaching and leadership development opportunities for the learners. A recent study accomplished in Malaysian perspective corroborates the researcher’s apprehension that academic writing (ESP), especially postgraduate thesis writing, is an intricate task for Non-Native Speaker (NNS) students. Grammaticality 15

is considered to be one of serious issues encountered by students who have attempted to use various strategies to overcome their insufficient grammar mastery. The study aims at identifying the effectiveness of the strategies across ‘Construction Contract Management, TESL, and Chemical Engineering disciplines in University Technology Malaysia and secondly to explore ‘grammatical accuracy, complexity and variety’ through qualitative analysis of a member of dissertations from these disciplines. The outcomes of the study demonstrated significant patterns across the disciplines, providing a method for measuring grammatical complexity. In addition to high standard aptitude required for writing, insufficient mastery of L2 grammar and vocabulary (diction) are recognized to be main factors for low quality of NNS theses writing.

The survey results, at first, revealed the major

difficulty of L2 novice writers such as structure and grammar (82%) rather than vocabulary (18%). Secondly, the majority of the students (78%) found the Introduction Chapter the most difficult in terms of writing skills. Furthermore, three main reasons identified are: Firstly, the writing style in the Introduction was too challenging one, implying that the students need to create ‘clear, original and brief text to ‘introduce and justify ideas’ in their theses. Secondly, in the Introduction Chapter, the students acknowledge that they were unable to apply most of the strategies used in other chapters to recompense for their insufficient L2 mastery; such as summarizing, paraphrasing or copying sentences. Thirdly, for many engineering disciplines, the Introduction Chapter requires the writing more text than any other chapters which need formulas and diagrams to be shown. This survey results are stimulus for the current study to understand (1) the strategies adopted by NNS postgraduate students during their thesis writing to address L2 difficulties; and the effectiveness of these strategies, (2) prevailing measurement methods. All of the studies carried out so far agree on insufficient L2 knowledge concerning language background among NNS students for academic writing even at PhD level. Hinkel referring to the high dropout rates NNS students more than twice that NS students, states that academic writing of even highly advanced NNS students continue to display numerous weaknesses and shortfalls’ and even if they provide acceptable theses (by overcoming grammatical errors) their theses are of lower quality than those of NS students. However, some of the positive aspects of this study are going to be highlighted in the Literature Chapter in order to provide certain strategies 16

as applied by NNS postgraduate students for developing an insight into academic writing practices as demanded in Pakistan’s higher educational setting In Pakistan’s context, a few of the studies regarding Applied Linguistics carried out on post-graduation level are related to general English, entitling: ‘Modalities in the Teaching of Writing in English in Pakistan’ by Riaz Hassan, (2000). Another study relating to EFL entitled as ‘Legal English: a case for ESP’ undertaken at PhD level by Naveed Ahmed, (2005) highlights English language issues confronted by law practitioners in courts’ settings in Pakistan. Similarly, some other studies regarding Applied Linguistics with emphasis on general English language problems at secondary and higher secondary level have been discussed, thus, leaving a manifest gap for novice writers and research scholars at post-graduation level where academic writing skills is considered to be one of the basic tools to propel the giant ship of researches associated with universities in Pakistan. More recently a study conducted at tertiary level writing under the title ‘Impact of Contextualized Text on Students’ Learning of Writing Skills of English as Second Language for Specific Purposes at Tertiary Level,’ is more concerned about focusing on contextualized writing text specified for undergraduate students’ business writing skills rather than academic writing techniques and strategies applied across disciplines. However, the study is essential to enhance undergraduates communicative skills required for the success in rapidly expanding corporate sector in the world where the employees need to communicate with the international community in this era of globalized economies to get engaged in diverse conversations both oral and written in different contexts and situations. Since genre-based academic writing into interdisciplinary studies that involves combining of two or more academic disciplines into a single activity (such as, a research project) – has emerged at higher education level in the world for more than a decade, there a dire need to undertake such studies in Pakistan’s perspective, attempting to adopt, especially, academic writing in all academic disciplines (i.e. natural sciences, management sciences, social sciences etc. Interdisciplinary field is an organizational unit that traverses traditional boundaries among academic disciplines with new emerging needs and professions. For instance, the subject of ‘English academic writing needs’ may appear differently when 17

examined by different disciplines, such as writing for medical journals, social journals, trade & commerce research writing, IT journals etc. Researchers and academic writers, especially, those who are concerned with the field of applied linguistics and education from across the world have generally acknowledged through their studies that, among the four functional skills of English language, writing remains one of the most challenging tasks when the novice writers intend to embark upon their research journey at tertiary level studies. Almost all the research studies undertaken in all settings such as Africa, Europe, Asia, Australia and Arab world, more or less, indicate that students’ difficulties are of similar nature but, the studies have been conducted with various contexts, situations and methods, specifying the framework of general English language writing and academic writing problems. Studies carried out to investigate the issues of writing from students’ written assignments, essays for examinations purpose, writing a thesis on a specific genre etc. show weaknesses related to general writing such as grammar, subject-verb agreement, inconsistency in usage of tenses, surface structure and deep structure, spellings, diction, expression, punctuations, capitalization, poor sentence construction etc, and; few of the studies have grasped academic writing issues pertaining to academic rhetorical structure, conventions concentrating genre-based instructions in academic writing courses for novice non-native writers. A large number of postgraduate students at most universities in Pakistan, especially, with diversified academic background for example, with exception to elite class schools, colleges; public (government schools) some average schools, and most commonly found schools, established at every nook and corner with congested classrooms, lack of recreational activities etc, face serious problems in English language proficiency, especially, lack of writing skills. At postgraduate level, students are anticipated to have developed academic writing skills, showing mastery in use of linguistic competence so as to demonstrate in their article writing an insight to genre-based approaches. Much exciting and important work is yet to be undertaken in exploring the relationship of the modalities such as reading and writing in second language acquisition. It requires focusing and consulting on the annotated bibliography to learn more about the theory and practice of writing pedagogy in order to make better use of 18

it both in teaching as well as making the ideas and resources available for our future colleagues. Although research on writing in second language acquisition is a relatively new field, but still, sufficient thought-provoking and inspiring material makes it difficult to decide where adding to citations is going to end. 1.4

PROBLEM STATEMENT Majority of students are “inadequately equipped to engage successfully in the

academic discourse” van Dyk, Zybrands, Cillie, & Coetzee, (2009, p. 334) required in a particular discipline. Similar views expressed: “Poor writing skills in English language of instruction can affect academic achievement causing complexities,” Butler & van Dyk, (2004). Despite adopting modern means such as computer-assisted techniques and strategies of teaching writing skills to the students belonging to diverse social, geographical, economical and educational backgrounds, there exists little progress as majority students still lack the prerequisite academic writing ability needed both for their academic performance and future prospect. Among four functional skills, writing skill hardly taken seriously or it is taught by way of general writing rather than academic writing for professional settings. Most of the courses at higher educational level are conducted are based on traditional lines. Grammar related composition strategies and techniques. Hyland and Hamp-Lyon, (2002) found that the practitioners and researchers failed to conceptualize participants,

texts

and

knowledge

building

practices

which are contributing factors to a discourse community. Woordward-Kron, (2004) underscored that the teachers are taking risk to generalize the knowledge to students about the academic writing without conceptualization. Consequently, students’ writing can hardly meet the standard of specific disciplinary context. Both the lecturers’ state: ‘Students especially from Asian backgrounds, majority of them do not prepare for diversity of written genres they were required to engage in.’ Lecturer A & Lecturer B, interview (2010) University students, especially, postgraduate students are expected to demonstrate authoritative knowledge in their respective discipline as they are required 19

to undertake innovative task of research work for academic performance and prove worthy of their respective fields for their future prospects. Developing academic writing competence at higher education level, especially, for post-graduates, is prerequisite to accelerate the pace of learning and intensify research-oriented activities in Pakistan. 1.5

THE CONTEXT OF THE STUDY Pakistan, officially known as the Islamic Republic of Pakistan, lies in the

continent of Asia with the population nearly 175 million, with a vast higher education system that includes: the public, private, military and vocational universities accredited by the HEC (Higher Education Commission of Pakistan). In Pakistan, the growth of higher education institutions both, in public and private sector universities’ network - is competitively expanding at a rapid pace and, they are striving hard to promote excellence in education to maintain world class educational standard since institution of HEC emerged to oversee higher educational performance in Pakistan. Despite the fact, one of the serious challenges confronted Pakistan higher education system is ‘lack of English academic writing competency which obstructs not only the research-based activity but also badly affects institutional performance, thus impeding students personal and professional development required to pursue their career with triumph. It is observed that ineffective traditional and conventional teaching styles and out-dated course outline such as revising tenses in active and passive form, explaining narrations as an indirect speech, making difference of some school or college level essay writing, summarizing at low level texts or passages, changing word-order, transforming sentence patterns or structures, focusing on vocabulary exercises etc. still goes on at all educational levels. Syllabus and course outlines are more or less similar from secondary to higher education level are still maintained without any significant change at higher education level education. It seems that they are indifferent to modern pedagogical methods, techniques and practices being introduced and applied at higher educational teaching and learning demands. This study has focused on ‘post-graduates’ academic writing issues, analyzing most frequent grammatical errors, language style and diction found in their written 20

assignments, especially from their research articles and papers. It has further investigated the factors affecting students academic writing skills at higher education level and evaluated its adverse impacts on their academic performance which, consequently, affects on their career putting their socio-economic interests at stake. 1.6

JUSTIFICATION The framing of education for economic growth requires “wider participation”

in higher education Bradley, (2008); Department of Employment, Education and Training, (1990); Nelson, (2003); UK National Committee of Enquiry into Higher Education, (1997), and this planned expansion has intensified anxiety about students’ (lack of) preparedness for university study (e.g., Department of Education, Training and Youth Affairs DETYA, (2000). Over the last few decades, academic writing has internationally gained prominence at higher education level, offering sufficient literature as numerous studies have been undertaken and various research papers written in this field to address the challenges faced by the students. Few of the studies cited herewith are: Ballard and Clanchy, (1988, 1991 and 1997), Connor, (1996), Boughey, (1998), Steinman, (2003, 2005), Dysthe, (2001), Canagarajah, (2002), Holmes, (2004), and Tshotsho, (2006).

The studies encouraged researchers to probe into students

academic writing problems which, according to Dysthe, (2001), vary from country to country. Similarly, literacy is contextual and different from one culture to another Street, (2003), hence the researcher perceives the need to investigate post-graduates’ academic writing issues in Pakistan, applying (EA) error analysis technique comparing errors related to general English writing with issues of academic English writing weaknesses from their written articles and papers. Since English language is the medium of instruction at higher education in Pakistan, university students, irrespective of their disciplines, are expected to undergo discourse analysis to produce such a genuine work that they may acclaim to be their own. The quality of research lies in originality, innovation and comprehensiveness so that novice writers may further contribute to its excellence.

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1.7

THE HYPOTHESES Academic writing remains the most prominent but challenging issue for

students and teachers in Asian EFL contexts, particularly, at post-graduation level education in Pakistan as English language course-outlines are commonly tailored from general English language without taking into consideration the needs of academic writing that can counter their writing difficulties at postgraduate level, equipping them with modern needs to embark upon a journey of successful research writing. There seems to be little understanding concerning English for academic purposes’ teaching and learning approaches and practices as according to McLeod & Maimon, (2000), explain ‘what distinguishes between secondary to university level English language teaching are two complementary uses of writing in all subjects: “writing to learn” and “learning to write in the disciplines’, McLeod & Maimon, (2000). It is often hypothesized that the students at post-graduation level lack generic features and linguistic resources which are essential to enhance their academic writing skills needed for writing research articles, thesis, reports etc. In this study, the hypothesis underlying the problems of academic writing skills based on genre-specific for postgraduate students by examining their written work from published research articles (relating to diverse genre-specific such as medical and engineering disciplines, IT and management disciplines, disciplines of social sciences etc)

error analysis approach and writing deficiencies have been

highlighted, setting changing trends derived from existing NA (need analysis) theories and practices in terms of developing academic writing standards at higher education level in international perspectives. The researcher’s robust conviction is that this study would solemnly develop an insight into the concerned pedagogical professionals and educationists, on one hand, to adopt current practices in streamlining curriculum for postgraduate students and, on other hand, to take writing more seriously than the other aspects of functional English language as writing is one of challenging tasks for novice writers at both, educational setting as well as workplace demand. Since the one of important purposes of higher level education demands academia that is nationally and internationally recognized establishment of

22

professional intellectuals as well as students of universities engaged in research activity. (Outline of academia) UK Council for National Academic Awards (now defunct) highlighted the aims of higher education as: The development of students’ intellectual and imaginative powers; their comprehension and judgment; their problem-solving abilities; their ability to converse; their ability to correlate within what they have acquired and their ability to perceive their field of study in a broader perspective. It must aim to stimulate an enquiring, creative and analytical approach, encouraging independent judgment and critical self-awareness; University of Oxford Institute for the Advancement of University Learning. The above quoted aim of higher education calls for the urgent need of developing academic writing skills of university students so as to promote research work that may contribute genuinely to addressing the issues not only related to any specific discipline but, generally, to all disciplines leading to resolution of educational, social, cultural, economic, political etc matters both, at national and international level. 1.8

THE SCOPE OF THE STUDY Scope of the study in the field of Applied Linguistics with reference to

development of English for Academic Purposes (EAP) continues to expand over the last three decades in UK higher education system with particular emphasis on reading and writing skills for academic achievement in international settings as well. The increase in numbers of international students, having English as a second language (ESL) and studying in English-medium universities, has renewed the emphasis of English language development in higher education, particularly concerning academic writing. Research indicates that from international students’ perspectives, support from lecturers is cited as significant in assisting international students in their learning and participation in disciplinary practices Kingston & Forland, (2008); Tran, (2008). Since the inception of interdisciplinary ‘genre-based’ studies for the last two decades has been central concern of the researchers concerned with higher education in the world, in Pakistan where higher education level is conditioned with medium of English language, there is dire need to maintain and conform its educational standard with the new emerging trends of higher education pedagogical demands. Therefore, the scope of academic writing can be gauged by emerging trends in fast-changing 23

higher education landscape and rapidly increasing demand for quality research work in higher education institutions, (HEC, Annual Report 2012-13). At present, there is no research work conducted in the relevant field of study, however, need analysis through the frame work of error analysis is highly emphasized at higher education setting, especially, at post-graduation (masters) level that may further produce fruitful results in achieving academic success for students in MS/M.Phil and PhD level programs. The scope of the study is not confined to any of the specific discipline or only to post-graduation level, it covers all higher education level where research is the prime concern for post-graduates to PhDs’ candidates, desiring to produce a genuine piece of work in either of the discipline since the study helps develop students academic writing skills that is required at all level. However, in the context of postgraduate level, the study has evaluated academic writing skills by applying EA (error-analysis) pointing out the most frequent errors relating to general English language such as grammar, language style and diction etc comparing to academic writing conventions needed for research competency. About two hundred articles (twenty five from each discipline) as a sample from post-graduates belonging to a couple of universities (later may be named) from four distinct disciplines such as of social sciences, management sciences, medical sciences or natural sciences and computer or IT sciences has been the core of the study. The researcher holds the view that the results of this study may be generalized to all universities in Pakistan since, to some extent, students at post-graduation level share the same socio-cultural and educational backgrounds, where English has been medium of instruction in their educational settings. Academic length, scope, depth and originality of the thesis relies on the degree level as it demands that, at post-graduation or MA level, not necessarily showing new line of enquiry on contribution to knowledge, but should locate topic in the context of critical review with some knowledge of appropriate methodology; at MS level, students must prove mastery in research by synthesizing skills in contributing to knowledge, and; at PhD level, candidates must show more comprehensive treatment of a subject, demonstrating authority in candidate’s field, having ability to

24

communicate research findings effectively in professional and international settings and being acknowledged as member of community of scholars in the discipline. The nature and scope of the topic, which still remains to be highlighted, can bring more significant change if academic writing course is integrated with (I.T) computer-based academic literacy, providing better opportunities for novice writers to cope with issues on self-help basis at higher education settings in Pakistan’s context. Undoubtedly, the study would possibly be a guiding principle, enabling the teachers and students to set new trends concerning academic writing in multidisciplinary discourse analysis in Pakistan’s higher educational contexts. The nature and scope of the study is broad-based in higher education as academic writing in various disciplines approach enables students to gain valuable insight and experience in the theory and practice of reading and writing tasks for interdisciplinary fields of study such as Arts, the Sciences, Fine Arts, Health Sciences, Management Sciences or Education. The study is concerned with ‘academia’ a term applied and specified as being ‘nationally and internationally recognized establishment of professional scholars and university students engrossed in research work. (Outline of academia) 1.9

DEFINITION OF KEY TERMS 

Academic Writing: academic writing is particularly concerned with ‘scientific writing’ characterized as ‘structured research’ undertaken by scholars at higher education level.



Higher Education level: higher education refers to

levels ranging

undergraduate to PhD levels university education. 

Causes: causes refer to reasons or factors in context of academic writing deficiencies of tertiary level students.



Effects: effects means impacts; here they analyze possible impacts on students academic success and future prospects for lack of academic writing ability



Remedies: remedies refer to researcher’s suggestions in an attempt to find possible and effective solutions to address university students, especially, postgraduate students issues to improve their academic writing skills.

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1.9.1

CONCEPT OF WRITING Writing is a medium of communication that represents language through the

inscription of signs and symbols. In most languages, writing is a complement to spoken language or speech. Writing is not only confined to a written language but embedded with a form of technology. Writing system is based on many of the same structures as speech, e.g. grammar, vocabulary, and semantics, additionally combined with a system of signs or symbols in the form of a formal alphabet. The result of writing is generally called text, and the addressee of text is known as a reader. Motivations for writing include publication, storytelling, correspondence and diary refer to motivations for writing that has been instrument for maintaining and recording history,

disseminating

of

knowledge

through

the media and

the

formatting legal systems. Robinson, (2003 p. 36). Writing is a form of communication that enables novices to pen down their ideas, organize their knowledge and convictions into convincing arguments and convey meaningful message in well-constructed text. It evolves from simple sentences to combination of complex sentences with formal expression, sophisticated vocabulary and content-based communication skills. According to Thoreau Baird, “Give me a sentence which no intelligence can understand.” There must be a kind of life and palpitation to it, and under its words a kind of blood must circulate forever.” Perhaps these strange words unfold the possibilities for a writer in a way that Unity, Coherence, and Emphasis can never do. Perhaps writing may be perceived as somehow the expression of the imagination and imagination itself may be mysterious and wild. William E. Coles describes, “Teaching of writing as writing is the pedagogy of writing.” When writing is not taught as art or skill, it is not writing that is being taught, but something else.” What is needed in the teaching of writing as writing, is a way of teaching what cannot be taught, a course to make possible what no course can do.”J.K Gangal defines writing as: “Composition is an art which is not inherited with the birth of a man. It is acquired and consummated with single track perseverance and a sense of commitment under the guidance of one’s mentor’.

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Various survey reports indicate that among the four language skills such as (Listening, Speaking, Reading and Writing), to acquire writing skill is the most difficult task for variety of reasons. One of the prime factors is that students take on to writing when they to write for their studies and examinations just to increase GPA rather to acquire English writing competency. Mostly they depend upon mobile messaging and email communications discovering and setting new trends of coining terms of e-vocabulary codes, phrases and short informal statements, thus, having no time and energy to systematically organize themselves to pursue the writing process to develop writing skills. All the writings found in newspapers, magazines, journals and books are the result of great and sustained effort of professional writers who have to revise their writing three-four times, giving final shape before publication. They must undergo the process of writing, particularly the following steps of: determining or delimiting the topic, collecting material (thoughts), organizing them, Drafting, editing, re-reading and re-writing text and proof reading. Among some of the most significant forms of communication in writing widely taught and practiced from school level to college in Pakistan’s educational set up known as O’ level and secondary level include: 

Reports



Letters (formal and informal)



Applications for jobs



Directed Writing



Argumentative essay



Descriptive essay



Narrative essay



Situational composition



Articles for magazines or newspaper etc.



Summary composition Since theories of second language education have evolved from the grammar-

translation to the audio-lingual method to the more communicative approaches being commonly practiced today, ideas about how language proficiency develops and 27

should be taught have also transformed. Writing has generally been viewed as a support skill, used to reinforce the acquisition of grammar, as in the grammartranslation method, or to support the memorization of CO1TeCt language structures, as in the audio-lingual method. Until recently, even the communicative approaches, in which oral proficiency had more emphasis, have tended to de-emphasize writing. But ideas from writing-to-learn, writing across the curriculum, and writing for academic purposes movements in composition and English as a Second Language (ESL) have all had an impact on thinking concerning writing in second language education. 1.9.2

DEFINITION OF ACADEMIC WRITING Academic writing is generally defined as ‘scientific writing’ and characterized

as ‘structured research’ applied by scholars at higher education level (universities). In academic writing, the author covers a selected topic which is ‘thesis-based’, requiring to establishing authority of a writer from a particular perspective on the chosen topic. It is identified with what is known about a topic through literature review sources with what new ideas may emerge about the topic by explicating of the research question using the author's logically-developed, factually-based 'argumentation'. However, these new ideas will only be established as "fact" in their own right — thus joining the body of 'existing knowledge on the topic' — after the ideas have been published and subsequently validated by other 'scholars'. Since the ground-breaking contribution to the field of genre analysis by Swales, constellations of studies analyzing different sections of various genres, for example, academic, and business, medical, computer etc. have been conducted so far. Among all these studies research articles (RAs) have received special attention for analysis into different sections but still there are several other genres yet to be explored. Writing in these forms or styles is usually impersonal, targeted for a critical and informed audience based on closely investigated knowledge and intended to reinforce or challenge concepts or arguments. Typically, scholarly writing is based on deductive reasoning – clearly stating the significance of the topic, following with supporting examples and details, making complicated ideas easier to comprehend so that other intellectuals may try to replicate the results.

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While academic writing consists of a number of text types and genres, however, what is common, in the conventions that academic writers traditionally follow, is a subject of debate. Many writers have set new trends challenging the conventions, for example Pennycook, (1997) and Ivanic, (1998), while others believe that some conventions should be maintained, for example Clark, (1997, p136). 1.9.3

SIGNIFICANCE OF ACADEMIC WRITING Researchers and academic writers, especially, those who are concerned with

the field of applied linguistics and education from across the world have generally acknowledged through their studies that, among the four functional skills of English language, writing remains one of the most challenging tasks when the novice writers intend to embark upon their research journey at tertiary level studies. Almost all the research studies undertaken in all settings such as Africa, Europe, Asia, Australia and Arab world, more or less, indicate that students’ difficulties are of similar nature but, the studies have been conducted with various contexts, situations and methods, specifying the framework of general English language writing and academic writing problems. Studies carried out to investigate the issues of writing from students’ written assignments, essays for examinations purpose, writing a thesis on a specific genre etc. show weaknesses related to general writing such as grammar, subject-verb agreement, inconsistency in usage of tenses, surface structure and deep structure, spellings, diction, expression, punctuations, capitalization, poor sentence construction etc, and; few of the studies have grasped academic writing issues pertaining to academic rhetorical structure, conventions concentrating genre-based instruction in academic writing courses for novice non-native writers. A large number of postgraduate students at most universities in Pakistan, especially, with diversified academic background for example, with exception to elite class schools, colleges; public (government schools) some average schools, and most commonly found schools, established at every nook and corner with congested classrooms, lack of recreational activities etc, face serious problems in English language proficiency, especially, lack of writing skills. At postgraduate level, students are anticipated to have developed academic writing skills, showing mastery in use of linguistic competence so as to demonstrate in their article writing an insight to genre-based approaches.

Since the ground29

breaking contribution to the field of genre analysis by Swales, constellations of studies analyzing different sections of various genres, for example, academic, and business have been conducted so far. Among all these studies research articles (RAs) have received special attention in analyses but not most other genres that need to be explored. Motivated by academic writing development, the current study aimed at covering comprehensive and detailed analysis of academic writing approaches such as product, process and genre approaches, focusing on prevailing NA (need analysis), EA (error-analysis). Academic writing is widely recognized as a key skill that influences students’ academic performance at higher education level. However, in European higher education settings where most of the research focusing on issues related to supporting international ESL students in their academic writing has been largely concerned with exploring the ways to assist the students within the institutions (Felix & Lawson, 1994; Woodward-Kron, (2007). In Pakistan, there is little attention paid to this most significant area of research, largely depending upon traditional and conventional methods and approaches to language teaching. Apart from ineffective and nonpracticing ways of teaching, teaching writing has not been taken as seriously as is needed at higher education settings. Had the teaching writing even in general English writing been practiced, a considerable number of students would have avoided from exhibiting common errors such as inconsistency in tenses, subject-verb agreement, punctuations etc. Lack of teaching academic writing skills from undergraduate to postgraduate classes, majority students either get intimidated, consequently, drop research studies or even if attempt to undertake, but their work is interfered with plagiarism and deviated to academic norms and conventions. Not only the increase in numbers of international students studying in English medium universities has emphasized on the need of English language development at higher level education but also stressed on the importance of developing academic writing, especially to meet genre-based interdisciplinary and multidisciplinary approaches to writing. This study has attempted to provide a comprehensive coverage of common writing issues to genre-specific academic writing approaches and practices widely being exercised at various international universities, offering an 30

insight to Pakistan’s educational settings. All possible tables, figures, moves, steps, strategies, plans etc have been documented entailing details concerning development of multidiscipline-academic writing. It is widely recognized that academics worldwide are seriously concerned with having the results of their research endorsed to be published in high impact journals, particularly published in English language. For the last few years, there has been upsurge in research writing with rapidly increasing number of publication sites in which English has become leading language for proliferating innovative academic knowledge. Hence, stress to write and publish in English has generated a great deal of cross cultural analyses (Connor, 2004) with in English for academic Purposes (EAP). This ongoing research has attempted to analyze remarkable differences in rhetorical structure, style of several academic genres written in the English international settings. More importantly, this research has focused on the error analysis of lexico-grammatical features with emphasis on diction and expression in research article introductions to compare genre specific linguistics needs.

31