Accepted: 14 March 2018 DOI: 10.1111/lre.12209
ORIGINAL ARTICLE
Climate change impacts on natural resources and communities: A geospatial approach for management Adikanda Ojha1 | Ajit Kumar Pattnaik2 | Jajnaseni Rout3 1
ICZMP-SPMU, Odisha, Bhubaneswar, India
2
Retired IFS, Principal Chief Conservator of Forest, Odisha, India
Abstract Climate change causes environmental depletion, with threats to the global economy.
Chilika Development Authority, Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India
The health and productivity of ecosystems underpin agriculture, with stable ecosys-
Correspondence Jajnaseni Rout, Chilika Development Authority, Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India. Email:
[email protected]
proposes adaptation measures, using geospatial technology, for conserving natural
3
tems being the foundation for economic livelihoods and food security. This study resources and improving livelihoods of the local community from climate change scenarios. Planning, policy decisions and resultant programmes are required for natural resource management, which must be based on broad citizen participation and the engagement of rural communities. The suggested adaptation measures will help the planning system to regulate development of natural resources and the socio- economic environment. The major natural resources in the environment are land and water, both of which can be severely degraded by human interventions, as well as climate change. Various thematic maps are prepared with the use of geospatial technology, in order to be helpful for site-suitability analysis directed to the preparation of land and water management action plans for socio-economic development. The study area is a micro-watershed of the catchment of Ansupa Lake in the Cuttack District of Odisha, India. To reduce climate change impacts on natural resources and economic livelihoods, some adaptation measures have been proposed (e.g., 68.9 ha for afforestation.; 13.94 ha for gap plantations and agro-horticulture; 389.62 ha for farm ponds and renovation of existing ponds for pisciculture and duckery activities, etc.; 11.33 ha for land management, along with five bore wells, eight dug wells, 51 LBS/check dams, and four WHSs, etc., for water management for sustainable use). KEYWORDS
climate, geospatial, LBS, natural resource, Water Harvesting Structure (WHS)
1 | I NTRO D U C TI O N
the developing countries are expected to be affected more than those in developed countries because of their extensive depen-
Watershed management is the rational utilization of land and
dence on climate-sensitive livelihood options and limited adaptive
water resources for optimum production with minimum hazard to
capacity to adapt to the changes. Although climate change is a
natural resources (Tideman, 1996). Natural climate variability has
global phenomenon, its manifestations and impacts vary locally, as
always been a challenge to human livelihoods. Human- induced
do the adaptation capacities, preferences and strategies. Effective
climate change, however, has added a complex new dimension to
planning for climate change adaptation programming requires an
this challenge. Evidence suggests the natural climatic variability,
assessment of local vulnerabilities to bridge the gap between com-
compounded with climate change, will adversely affect millions of
munity needs and priorities at the local level and policy processes
livelihoods around the world (IPCC, 2007a). Rural communities in
at the higher level.
34 | wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/lre © 2018 John Wiley & Sons Australia, Ltd
Lakes & Reserv. 2018;23:34–42.
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OJHA et al.
F I G U R E 1 Location map of study area
Climatic stresses and shocks such as sea level rise, flooding and land erosion displace millions of people throughout the world
analysis with qualitative information obtained from primary field survey.
(IPCC, 2007b), with this number predicted to increase because of climate change (Nicholls et al., 2011). Climate-induced migration is more likely in drought-and flood-prone areas, river valleys, low-lying coastal plains, deltas and small islands, where livelihoods depend on natural resources (McLeman and Hunter, 2010). Fishing communi-
3 | DATA BA S E 3.1 | Primary sources
ties typically live on low-lying coasts and islands exposed to multiple
Primary data collection was carried out through random sampling
climatic stresses and shocks (Daw et al., 2009), thereby subjecting
method (20% household), participatory rural appraisal (PRA), fo-
them to climate- induced displacement and migration. Climate-
cused group discussions (FGD) and key informant interview (KII)
induced migration may reduce vulnerability or enhance adaptation
method.
to climate variability and change. On the other hand, it may also lead to loss of assets, reduced opportunities and increased vulnerability. Migration outcomes are influenced by the degree to which migrants
3.2 | Secondary sources
depend on the environment for their livelihoods and social factors that mitigate or exacerbate the impacts of climatic stresses and shocks. Sensitivity is the degree to which a system will respond to
• Survey of India (SOI) Toposheet (1:25,000 scale) and village cadastral map;
a given change in climate. It measures, for example, how much the
• High-resolution satellite image (Cartosat II and Quickbird); and
composition, structure and functioning of an ecosystem will respond
• Demographic data from Census of India.
to a given temperature rise.
2 | S T U DY A R E A
4 | M E TH O DS Figure 2 illustrates the geospatial methodology applied for prepara-
The study area is a micro-watershed of the Ansupa Lake catch-
tion of the maps. The SRTM data download, SOI topographic sheet
ment in the Cuttack District of Odisha, India, situated between
collection, and references with stream and contour lines were used
20°26′37.864″ to 20°29′59.228″ N latitude and 85°34′52.697″ to
to delineate the micro-watershed boundary. The village cadastral
85°37′19.271″ E longitude. The micro-watershed is situated in the
map digitization and mosaic sheets also were used. Plot-wise land
border area of the Banki and Athagarh block of the Cuttack District
detail information known as record of right (ROR) was collected from
(Figure 1). Five villages were selected for this study (Kadalibadi,
the Bhulekh website. Ground control points were collected from the
Podapada, Mahidharpur, Radhadarsanpur and Baidehipur [although
study area for geo-referencing the cadastral sheets, and Cartosat
the latter is uninhabited]). This study conducted an in-depth anal-
II satellite images were used to prepare existing land use, geomor-
ysis of the local- level vulnerabilities by integrating quantitative
phology, slope, soil and land capability, with visual interpretation
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OJHA et al.
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Data collection
Spatial data
Field work
Non-spatial data SOI data
Primary data
GPS survey
Remote sensing data
SRTM data
Census data
Satellite image
Ground truthing
Georeferencing
Questionnaire
GIS software used
Digitisation
Data processing
Layer superimposing
Data analysis Site suitable for land and water management action plan technique for site-suitability analysis of the land and water resource adaptation measures.
F I G U R E 2 Geospatial approach for site-suitability analysis
4.3 | Focused group discussions (FGD) Focused group discussions is also a participatory method of data
4.1 | Sustainable livelihood approach (SLA)
collection becoming increasingly popular as a qualitative research method in social science. Questions focusing on how livelihoods
The concept of sustainable livelihood (SL) is an attempt to go beyond
have been impacted, and how communities were adapting to cli-
conventional definitions and approaches to poverty eradication. It
mate change as they experience it, were also mainstreamed. FGDs
is now recognized that more attention must be paid to the various
can be used to explore the meanings of survey findings that cannot
factors and processes that either constrain or enhance the ability of
be explained statistically, the range of opinions/views on a topic
poor people to make a living in an economically, ecologically and so-
of interest, and to collect a wide variety of local terms. In bridg-
cially sustainable manner. The SL concept offers the prospects of a
ing research and policy, FGD can be useful in providing an insight
more coherent and integrated approach. The main purpose of these
into different opinions among different parties involved in the
participatory assessments is to understand the nature of livelihood
change process, thereby enabling the process to be more smoothly
strategies for different household categories (social differentia-
managed.
tion), their levels of livelihood security, and the principle constraints and opportunities needing to be addressed through programming. This information was also disaggregated by gender and generation (Figure 3).
4.4 | Key informant interviews (KII) Key informant interviews resemble a conversation among acquaintances, allowing a free flow of ideas and information.
4.2 | Participatory rural appraisal (PRA)
Interviewers frame questions spontaneously, probe for information and take notes that are later elaborated. Key inform-
A questionnaire was prepared to determine the socio-economic sta-
ant interviews are qualitative in- d epth interviews with people
tus of the community, using a random sampling method of 20% of
who are familiar with the happenings and goings-o n in a com-
the total households of each village. The PRA has carried out in each
munity. The purpose is to collect information from a wide range
village. The PRA approach seeks to incorporate the knowledge and
of people, including community leaders, professionals and resi-
opinions of rural people in the planning and management of develop-
dents with firsthand knowledge about a community. The key
ment projects and programmes. It comprises a set of participatory,
informants include individuals inside and outside of the com-
and largely visual, techniques for assessing group and community re-
munities. During the main data collection, the goals of key in-
sources, identifying and prioritizing problems, and appraising strat-
formant interviews were used to collect data on the issues in
egies for solving them. Participatory Rural appraisal is particularly
the research objectives or topics raised by respondents during
interested in ensuring the multiple perspectives existing in any com-
the other data collection methods. Thus, key informant inter-
munity are represented in the analysis and also that the community
views were conducted at a later stage of the main data collection
itself takes the lead in evaluating its situation and finding solutions.
activities.
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OJHA et al.
Assets Human capital ( Livelihood capabilities)
Economic capital ( Stores & resources)
Security of :
Natural resources Household
Infrastructure Economic and cultural environment
Producing & income activities
Consumption activities
Household
Food Nutrition Health Water Education Shelter Community participation Personal safety
Processing & exchange activities
Context
Livelihood strategy
Livelihood outcome
F I G U R E 3 SL approach adopted from CARE’s livelihood model
5 | R E S U LT S A N D D I S CU S S I O N S
temperature, frequency of calamities and soil erosion were used. These four indicators are important for the micro-watershed study
The primary goal of micro-watershed management is to manage water
area context because it is surrounded on three sides by hills and the
supply, water quality, drainage water run-off and water rights. It also
other by Ansupa Lake. Sediments are discharged from the hills to the
incorporates overall planning processes for the micro- watersheds.
lake, resulting in the lake becoming shallower, thereby also affecting
It comprises the planned, coordinated and sustainable use of water
the fish production.
resources, agricultural resources, forest resources and grazing land.
Figure 4 indicates the average annual rainfall variation during
Micro-watershed development in India is moving towards developing
the years 1987 to 2015. It indicates the annual total volume of rain-
micro-watersheds to create sustainable livelihood opportunities. Key
fall has decreasing from the year 2005. Although the study area is
features include building on participatory approaches, increasing water
situated on the bank of the Mahanadi River, there is no irrigation
availability, improving degraded environments and choosing sustainable
facility, meaning the people depend on rainfall for agricultural irri-
agricultural activities. Thus, micro-watershed development is directly
gation. Thus, the irregular rainfall is another indicator for the loss of
dependent on climate parameters such as rainfall and temperature.
cropping.
The major threats to a lake and its surrounding areas are deg-
Figure 5 illustrates the average annual temperature variation
radation of physical habitat, degraded water quality and decreasing
during the years 1987 to 2011. The annual average temperature has
natural/food resources. The sources of these degrading activities are
regularly increasing from the year 2005. It also indicates that the
anthropogenic interference, unregulated agricultural practices, ero-
average annual temperature has regularly increased from the year
sion and deforestation of the catchment area, environmental pollution,
2007 and subsequently decreasing again in the year 2011.
spread of invasive species and unregulated fisheries activities.
5.1 | Indicators of climate change for the study area
5.2 | Climate change perception timelines of local communities
With the goal of the present study being to determine the impacts
Figure 6 defines the perceptions of people regarding climate change.
of climate change on human livelihoods, indicators such as rainfall,
The climate change perception timeline of local communities
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OJHA et al.
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F I G U R E 4 Rainfall distribution pattern
F I G U R E 5 Temperature distribution pattern
TA B L E 1 The soil erosion status of the micro watershed No
Name
Geographical area (ha)
Slight erosion (%)
Moderate erosion (%)
1
Mahidharpur
239.12
39.16
45.47
Severe erosion 0
Very severe erosion (%) 10.88
2
Radhadarsanpur
75.71
0
71.61
0
0
3
Podapada
68.72
62.89
22.26
0
0
4
Kadalibadi
0
78.73
0
0.94
5
Badehipur
70.26
0
2.44
717.4 80.51
8.27
indicates that the climatic variable trends are increasing. The rainfall
calamity also increasing after 1985. The soil erosion process has in-
pattern has become erratic from the year 2005 onwards, with the
creased from the year 1980 (Table 1).
rainfall volume also decreasing from the year 1995. The temperature
Table 2 defines the housing status of the study area, which has
has also increased from 2005 onwards, with the frequency of the
no urban type of household, and which defines the social status
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OJHA et al. Climate Trends 1960 variables Rainfall Erratic pattern Rainfall Decrease volume Temperature Increase Frequency Increase of the calamity Soil erosion Increase
1970
1980
1990
2000
issues, noting the people depend on rainfall for agriculture activi-
2010– 15
ties. All these problems are interlinked, however, and overall livelihoods depend on appropriate community management of their natural resources.
5.4 | Community adaptations to coping with climate change impacts
F I G U R E 6 Timeline graph of perception of people about Climate Change
Among the use of natural resource management tools for attempting to address vulnerability to climate change, many local-s cale environmental management measures have been applied around
of the study area communities. Every village has maximum kutcha
the world. The first is soil management approaches for increasing
houses, while Kadalibadi, Mahidharpur and Radhadarsanpur villages
soil stability and productivity, which is a general term involving
have semi-pucca house.
a range of specific techniques (e.g., fallow cycling, forest buffer-
Table 3 indicates total household can be categorized into five
ing, selective planting, managed grazing). Soil management also is
types of income group. More households in Kadalibadi village are in
recognized as central to combating desertification. Second is the
the less than 250 average monthly income category, as is the case
use of water harvesting techniques as a drought-p roofing tool to
for Podapada village. Mahidharpur and Radhadarsanpur villages
increase water available for households and irrigation, as well as
have more households in the 250–499 categories. These figures in-
providing a baseline water flow for watershed restoration. Third
dicate that people in Kadalibadi and Podapada villages are economi-
is the intercropping technique of planting selected food crops
cally poorer than those in the other two villages.
within stands of trees, which can provide local communities with added food security and incomes through livelihood diversification, while at the same time working to reduce deforestation and
5.3 | Impact on livelihood
desertification.
Figure 7 highlights the migration status of the study area. The
Adaptation measures focused on enhanced natural resource
community has suffered a heavy agricultural loss because of irreg-
management can also more effectively benefit a community.
ular and non-m onsoon rainfall, as well as the lack of a marketing
Investing in the natural resource base that sustains their liveli-
strategy. There is no cold storage facility, for example, for stocking
hoods, therefore, can have direct positive impacts on their imme-
vegetables. Thus, in pursuit of better economic benefits, village
diate lives, as well as facilitating long-term resilience to climate
people are migrating out of the state, while many also are work-
variability. Climate change impacts can be grouped into three
ing inside the state. The analyses of the present study identified
types, namely ecological, economic and social, all being related to
10 major problems in the study area, ranking them within a prior-
natural resources and communities in some manner. After super-
ity of 1–10. The first (and major) problem hampering livelihoods is
imposing present land use/land cover, geomorphology, geology,
natural resource management issues, while the second is irrigation
groundwater prospects, soil and slope layers, a site- suitability
TA B L E 2 Housing status study area
House type Homeless Kutcha Semi-Pucca Pucca
Kadalibadi (%)
Mahidharpur (%)
5
4
76 3 16
Podapada (%)
Radhadarsanpur (%)
0
10
72
57
65
8
36
5
16
7
20
Source: Primary data.
TA B L E 3 Average monthly income for study area Number
Average monthly income
Kadalibadi (%)
1
