Creating and Delivering Effective Presentations - Links Media

Technical Assistance Bulletin

Creating and Delivering Effective Presentations Introduction How many times have you attended a presentation where you tuned out the presentation or the presenter?

How many times have you been the presenter and noticed that your audience was not paying attention?

Have you ever found that you do not know how to begin your presentation or decide how much information to include?

Or you simply have never been a presenter.

How the mind processes information Why words and pictures are best Dr. John Medina in Brain Rules states that vision trumps all of the other senses.1 Results from several experiments referenced in his book demonstrates that people are able to remember more than 2,500 images with a precision of at least 90% many days after they have initially seen the image, even if they saw it only for a few seconds. Additionally, people are able to remember around 63% of the images even one year later. In contrast, other experiments testing memory showed that people presented with information orally will remember only 10% of the information 72 hours later. However, if an image is included with the information, the memory precision increases to 65%.2 (See Figure 1) Medina’s books and Website lists 12 rules. In Rule #10: Vision trumps all other senses, Medina shares a rule of thumb for presenters. Recall that the recall of visual information is three times better than for oral. Moreover, recall for information that is simultaneously oral and visual is six times better.3 (See Figure 2)

Adding pictures leads to better recall

65% 10% Words only

Pictures

and words

Figure 1. If an image is included with the information, memory precision increases by 65%. Source: Medina, John. 2010. Brain Rules: 12 Principles for Surviving and Thriving at Work, Home, and School.

Figure 2. Recall for information that is simultaneous oral and visual is six times better than for that presented only orally. Source: Medina, J. 2008. Vision: Rule #10:Vision trumps all other sense. http://www.brainrules.net/ vision?scene=

Technical Assistance Bulletin: Creating and Delivering Effective Presentations

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Similarly, research presented by Richard Mayer and Roxanne Moreno on the cognitive theory of multimedia learning, states that the learner, or participant, possesses processing systems for visual and verbal information.4 This process was illustrated in Garr Reynolds’s Presentation Zen. The learner will engage three cognitive processes (selecting, organizing, and integrating) when building connections between the verbal and visual channels. (See Figure 3) Given this information, it is therefore important for a presenter to combine different media (text, graphics, sound, and video) when presenting information.5 This will ensure that the multimedia effect is consistent with the cognitive theory of multimedia and that the participants are effectively processing information.6

Figure 3. The learner will engage three cognitive processes when

building connections between the verbal and visual channels. Source: Reynolds, Garr. 2005. Presentation Zen: How to Design & Deliver presentations Like a Pro. http://www.garrreynolds.com/Presentation/pdf/ presentation_tips.pdf (Accessed December 8, 2010).

Selecting the most appropriate presentation style to use is also very important. So is expressing clear, key messages in a very simple way that is supported with visual aids and relevant to your audience. Beginning with these basic elements will help you develop a successful presentation, and the audience will understand and recall the content more effectively.

Know the Topic to be Presented and the Objective Although this may seem obvious, understanding and having the most up-to-date information regarding the presentation topic is very important. Having outdated information is a sure way to create doubt in those who are listening. Also, understanding why you were asked to speak and the expectations for the presentation is important. Were you invited to present some concepts, advice, or maybe persuade the audience? Having this information will facilitate the process for outlining the presentation.

Understand Your Audience One of the biggest mistakes presenters make is not adapting each presentation to each audience. Reusing a presentation means that you are not considering the new audience’s needs. Consider the possible reasons an audience might not to pay attention: • Information is not useful or relevant to the audience; • Presentation contains the same information presented to the same audience before; • Presentation is confusing and the audience feels lost; • Presentation is repetitive and does not have a message or point; • Time is too long.


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• Slides with lists of long bulleted sentences, complex graphics, almost invisible letters, and background that distracts the audience’s attention;7 • Presenter did not take into consideration how the mind works, how information is processed, and how learning occurs;8 or, • Presenter is a weak speaker/presenter. It is important to understand the characteristics of the audience. When you develop the messages for your presentations, consider the topic or situation and define your audience as well. For example: • What is the audience’s knowledge of or familiarity with your topic? • What do you want the audience to learn or do? • What is the audience’s level of education? • What language should be used both in written and oral form? • What cultural rules should be considered?

Develop and Stay on Key Messages When delivering your presentation, it is important to stay focused on the topic. Never lose your composure even when you are nervous, digress for a while, or need to answer a difficult question. The key message(s) are the core messages for the target audiences to hear, remember, and react to. Writing them down will help you stay focused and “on topic.” When developing the key messages, first write down all the ideas/ information to be communicated to the audiences.9 Then, choose the most important ideas to communicate. Repeat this process until there are only three messages/points. (Do not discard any of the other information yet because you may use it to support the three messages.) Organize these three messages/points from the most to the least important. To facilitate this process, consider the following questions: • What is the purpose of the presentation? • What do you want the audience to do because of the presentation • What message(s) do you want to deliver that will help you achieve that purpose?

Examples of signals: • the important thing is • the real issue here is • what other people aren’t thinking about • what we’re concerned about • what’s at stake now is


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The message(s) should fulfill the host’s expectation and match the type of presentation to be delivered (i.e., are you there to present concepts, advise, or persuade the audience). The message(s) should also be developed and incorporated into the presentation in an easy way to ensure the audience remembers and recalls important facts. There are several techniques that can be used to ensure that you stay on message—or to help you get back on track. Later in this document you will learn how to use the bridging technique to help get you back to your three main points when you are asked questions that do not relate to your message. You can also use key phrases to get back to your message if you have been diverted from your theme or main message. To attract attention to your message, you can use signaling by using key words or phrases to draw attention to your message. Consider signaling as a spotlight to shine on the most important thing you will say.10 Lastly, avoid tangential discussions because they can dilute the strength of your messages and as result, you could lose the audience. (Please see Technical Assistance Tip 4: Mapping the Presentation’s Messages Using the Assertion-Evidence Style.)

Establish your assertion-sentence The assertion-sentence is a single, short, full-sentence headline stating an assertion about your topic. The sentence can also be the idea you want to emphasize or you want the audience to take away after the presentation.11 For PowerPoint presentations, the assertion-sentence should begin in the upper left corner of each slide, consist of one or two lines with about 8-14 words, and be in 28-point font.12 Each slide should have its own assertion-sentence. The sentence should be short but not so short that it is cryptic, and the rules of language should be respected. Finally, avoid capitalizing all the words in your assertion-sentence because this reduces reading speed.

Carefully use acronyms and abbreviations Be sure the audience knows the acronyms and abbreviations that you use in your presentation, or include the meaning somewhere in your slide. Otherwise, it will seem as though you are speaking a different language to the audience.

Begin developing the assertion-sentence by anticipating and identifying three possible questions that the audience may have based on the key messages. You will then develop as many slides as necessary to answer each question using assertion-sentences. Keep in mind that the maximum number of slides is dependent on the amount of time you have to present and the audience’s attention span. Once the assertion-sentence has been developed, it is necessary to determine how the sentence will be supported through visual aids (assertion-evidence) in order to explain pertinent information (e.g., photos, images, charts, diagrams, videos). (See figure 4) If it is necessary to use text, it must be placed within the visual aid or immediately on the side of the visual aid. Since the brain better associates the visual

Figure 4. Example of assertion-sentence slide. Source: Cynthia Schmidt. (1989). “Methods to Reduce Sulfur Dioxide Emissions from Coal-Fired Utilities,” presentation (Austin,TX: Mechanical Engineering Department, December 8, 1989). Cited by Alley, M. 2002.The Craft of Scientific Presentation. New York: Springer, p. 59, 147-148. (Modified).


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with the words, using assertion-sentences with assertion-evidence helps participants build a mental connection. The narrative will not be a part of the slide, but be part of the presenter notes. Additionally, handouts with more details can be provided to your audience.

Support the Assertion-Sentence with Visual Aids As mentioned above, each assertion-sentence slide needs to be supported with assertion-evidence (visual aids) in the body of the slide. The visual aids used are supporting each of the assertion sentences as explanatory images and not as decorative or descriptive images. The images represent or symbolically support the concept that aims to teach, explain, or present. For example, if you want to describe context or methods of your research, photos and movies are the ideal pieces of evidence. If you want to present your results, elements like graphs, tables, or charts (appropriately highlighted to emphasize key points) will do the trick.13 If necessary, use supporting text in the visual aids only. Do not use bulleted lists, because bullets do not reveal the connections between details.14 Each visual aid must be useful and effective in further supporting the assertion-sentence. If you want to communicate ideas, use images as metaphors in an unexpected way. Avoid importing charts and graphs from Excel into PowerPoint. Charts used in the presentation should be created in PowerPoint. Also, only the numbers needed to make your point should be included, with the meaning of the data explained.15 The less words, numbers, arrows, and crosses used in each slide, the easier it will be for the audience to interpret. If a complex visual is used, consider recording audio and adding it into the slide instead of using text. Do not try to control the audience’s eye movements with a laser, use the PowerPoint resources to do so. Be more effective in emphasizing the area that you want to highlight by using the slide software instead of a laser. Analyze what slides you want to draw the audience’s attention to and use arrows, colors, or highlight key words. Also, consider animating a circle or arrow, etc.


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Also, do not solely rely on PowerPoint. A slide is not always needed; use them only when they serve the presentation. For example, flip charts with or without PowerPoint can used to sketch out an idea, an exercise can be conducted during the presentation to get input from the audience, conducting a group activity can keep the presentation lively. Or try using a blank screen so that the audience focuses entirely on you! These are just a few options.16

The Brain Needs a Break17 Did you know that people do not pay attention to boring things and audiences check out after 10 minutes? In Brain Rules, John Medina suggests changing gears every 10 minutes. It is important to do something relevant to recover the attention of the audience. Try these tricks: • use relevant models, maps, graphics, and photographs; • tell a story or case study; • show a video; • do an activity; • get participation from the audience through questions; and • use examples, analogies, statics or repetition.18, 19

Make a Bridge - Smooth transitions between major points: The speaker should concentrate on making smooth transitions between one section and another. Making a smooth transition between each section (or division of topics) can be done through the words spoken, with a pause, or by using at least one slide for each major division as a signal of a change in topic. Good speakers often use more than one of these techniques to move from one section to another. Whatever technique is used, take each transition as an opportunity to emphasize information, particularly at the end of the presentation, and to summarize main points and provide a big-picture perspective. That perspective might be the call to action, a list of recommendations, or a review of the technical work.20


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Avoid excessive use of slide animations and transitions: Slide animation can provide the presenter the opportunity to ask questions, unveil and explain information gradually, and indicate key areas within the information with highlights or shapes. Additionally, the animation can help reduce the possibility of slides appearing boring. However, it is important to avoid making your slides too animated as too much movement can cause your presentation to appear unprofessional. (You may lose credibility with the audience as a result.) Slide transition should also not be distracting. It is recommended that their use be minimal, if at all. However, if a special effect is used, make sure to use it throughout your presentation. Do not use the “random transition option.” Experts also note that the worst effects In PowerPoint are “Checkerboard” or “Comb”.

Select Your Presentation’s Slide Design The manner in which PowerPoint presentations are created and delivered has evolved to be more illustrative with less text, in which the presenter directly discusses and incorporates visual aids into a talk. For presentations that provide research-based information, particularly scientific information, the Assertion-Evidence slide design is recommended. This slide design is a learning perspective, with no room for interpretation, and is seen as a more effective alternative to the traditional bulleted text approach.21 There are several other presentation slide designs to consider when developing the PowerPoint presentation, such as Assertion-Evidence, Beyond Bullet Points, and Slide: ology. The purpose of the presentation will help determine which design is most appropriate to use.22 (For descriptions of a few design options, please see Technical Assistance Tip 2: Selecting the Most Effective Design Style for Your Presentation.)

Develop the Presentation Once a slide design has been selected, it is important to develop the presentation outline before creating the slides. Planning your content first will help drive you to the design of the presentation.23, 24 First, structure the presentation around meaning and the big picture, such as general idea(s) of information to present. Then, develop supporting key ideas with details.25 Organize the ideas and points in a logical sequence and from the most to the least important.


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Addressing the following guidance questions at this level of the process will help guide what to address during the introduction. Focusing on these questions in the introduction will help grab the attention of the audience: • What exactly is the topic? • What topic is the audience going to learn about? • Why is this topic important? • What information or background is needed to understand the topic? • In what order will the topic be present? During the planning process, also consider how long it will take to deliver the information. Decide if you have too much information for the time allowed and need to edit your outline. Remember, the more points made, the less points the audience will remember.26 (Please also see Technical Assistance Tip 3: Outlining a Presentation Using the Assertion-Evidence Slide Design.) Include slides that show organization

Figure 5. Presentations should have a clear beginning, middle, and end. Source: Cynthia Schmidt. (1989). “Methods to Reduce Sulfur Dioxide Emissions from Coal-Fired Utilities,” presentation (Austin,TX: Mechanical Engineering Department, December 8, 1989). Cited by Alley, M. 2002.The Craft of Scientific Presentation. New York: Springer, p. 59, 147-148. (Modified).

Number of Slides: A common mistake is to present too much information in a limited period of time. The length of your talk should determine the number of slides used in your presentation. Keep your presentation simple. Having too many slides means you will need to make more points and then you risk the audience not remembering them. As a rule of thumb, a speaker’s average time should be 1.5-2.0 minutes per slide. Developing your presentation based on this average time will help you avoid moving through the slides too quickly and before the audience has a chance to absorb the information. It will also help you from running out of time because your presentation is too long. For a 20-minute talk, prepare ONLY 10 slides.

Type of slides in a presentation: As with documents, presentations should have a clear beginning, middle, and end. According to Michael Alley, the most successful scientific presentations begin with a bigger picture (perhaps a problem that needs addressing) and then focus in on the work done.27 The middle is a discussion and analysis of that work, and the ending comes back to show the ramifications of this work on the big picture. At the beginning and end, the information presented is more general to ensure that everyone understands what will be or what has been discussed. The middle is more technical. In the middle section, presenters need to be careful with technical words, abbreviations, and the language level. (See Figure 5) Otherwise, if the level of language used is too technical and you do not put the work in an understandable context, the audience could become very confused.28


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Keep it short and simple (KISS): Experts in effective PowerPoint presentations recommend that presenters use the KISS principle to make a connection. KISS stands for “Keep it short and simple.”29, 30

Decide on a Presentation Title In most cases, if you have been invited to do a presentation, the organizer/host has given you a topic and you have provided a presentation title. The topic can easily be adapted to a title. When developing the title, ensure that it has a connection between the kind of presentation you will deliver (e.g., lecture, technical, business meeting, etc), the type of presentation (e.g., informative, persuasive, inspire, etc.), and the presentation messages. It should communicate what you want to provoke in your audience when they read the title. Consider the tips presented in the table below. Table 1. Considerations When Developing a Presentation Title Example of the topic provided by the organizer:31 “teaching enviromental ethics in graduate school” What will be Delivered

Possible Title Options

Promise benefits

• Examples:

Promise a story

--

How to teach an environmental ethics class that makes students think.

--

How to engage and inspire your students through teaching environmental ethics.

• How point A got to point B or make point A and point B as far as part as possible by adding adjectives. • Example: How a school turned students with social behavior problems into proactive schoolcommunity environmentalists.

Put the number three at the front

• Consider incorporating the number of points that you want to present to the audiences into the title. However, it is important to avoid have more than three points to deliver because is too much information for your audience. • Example: Three critical concepts for teaching environmental ethics.

Provoke curiosity

Evoke concern

• Examples: --

The #1 strategy for teaching environmental ethics to graduate students.

--

The best strategy for teaching environmental ethics in the classroom

• Examples: --

The common mistakes environmental ethics teachers make.

Or take some ownership in the title: --

The mistakes I’ve made teaching environmental ethics and how you can learn from them.

Mix ‘n’ Match Presentation Titles

• Put the number three at the front + Evoke concern

Add contrast to your titles

• By changing words (e.g., “students” to “teenagers”).

• Example: The three common mistakes environmental ethics teachers make.

• Example: How to teach an environmental ethics class that makes teenagers thinks.


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As part of the title slide, consider using a key image from one of the slides that will seen later in the presentation. The image will help orient the audience to make a connection with the details of the title. Also, this gives the presenter the opportunity to say a few things about their work/topic, addressing the work’s importance or providing key background information that the audience needs in order to understand the content of the presentation. (See Figure 6)

Map the Presentation’s Agenda The agenda should be a timetable or table of contents for the presentation. It lets your audience know exactly what to expect. It also helps keep the presenter on track and minimizes the chances of losing his/her place in the presentation. To ensure that the presentation flows well, make sure the agenda has a clear and visual structure. Many presenters, when doing a PowerPoint presentation, have the agenda as one of the first slides. A timed schedule for the presentation, such as the one below, can also be developed:32 Time

Topic

9:00 a.m.

Opening

9:05 a.m.

Part 1

9:15 a.m.

Part 2

9:25 a.m.

Part 3

9:40 a.m.

Closing

9:45 a.m.

Stop talking

Figure 6. The image used in the title slide will help orient the audience to make a connection with the details of the title. Source: Aspmo, K. Berg,T. and G.Wibetoe. 2004. “Atmospheric mercury Depletion events in polar regions during arctic spring,” presentation. (Oslo, Norway: University of Oslo, June 16, 2004). Cited by Alley, M. and M. Marshall. 2009. Rethinking the Design of Presentation Slides:The Assertion-Evidence Structure. Available at http://writing.engr.psu.edu/slides.html . (Accessed December 15, 2010). (Modified).


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Prepare for the Presentation Rehearsing: Most experts say that an outstanding 1-hour presentation takes 30 hours or more to prepare.33 Rehearsing is the only way to make sure you are prepared to deliver an outstanding presentation. Seize every opportunity to practice, plan your body and hand positions. It is very important to not go into your presentation cold. If possible, practice the presentation in front of a smaller group, such as co-workers, or even family or friends. If practicing in front of others is not possible, then perhaps in front of a mirror. Just make sure to practice the presentation as it will alleviate the possibility of stumbling through the presentation. Practicing will also ensure that you are confident when presenting. Confidence adds to your credibility, which in turn will lend more credibility to your subject matter. When rehearsing with friends, colleagues, or family members, make sure that there is a clear understanding that this is a professional consultation and not a time for personal criticism. Choose people who will make honest and helpful suggestions. If you are not prepared to hear suggestions, consider rehearsing with a third party who does not have a personal relationship with you.34 Use a Presentation Performance Assessment Tool to guide your evaluators’ feedback. (Please see Technical Assistance Tip 9: Assessing Your Performance as a Speaker.) Become Familiar with the Place and Audio/Visual Equipment: Being familiar with the emergency exits, restrooms, room lights, and equipment (e.g., computer, projector, microphone, flip charts, etc.) will help ensure that the presentation will run smoothly and give credence to your topic. If possible, rehearse the day before of your presentation in the presentation room and with all the equipment that you will use. Pay Attention to the Logistical Details: If rehearsing in the presentation room is not possible, make sure you have all the necessary logistical information (e.g., the right location and the correct time). This may seem rather elementary, but if special attention is not paid up-front to the location of your presentation, you could become very embarrassed the day of your presentation when you realize that you are not sure where you are going. Make sure to arrive at least 30-60 minutes before you are to speak. Factor in equipment issues, changes to the agenda by the host, among other last minutes issues that could affect the presentation. Make sure enough materials are available to promote your topic, project, investigation, the initiative, such as brochure, executive summaries, handouts, etc. It is important to save your presentation in an extra USB as well as to send it to the host via e-mail to assure that you will have the correct file and a backup.


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Have a Plan A – and a Plan B: Always have an alternative option (such as a print out of your slides and notes) so you can make presentation even if something wrong happens at the last minute (i.e., no electricity, equipment malfunction, etc.).

After the Presentation After delivering your presentation, your instinct may be to relax. However, there are still some opportunities to further promote your work. Before formally ending your time with the participants, consider the following items:

Show Appreciation: Show appreciation to your audience and any others, who may have been important to the success of the presentation. Thank them for their time. Also express gratitude to any staff or employees who provided assistance during your presentation.

Conduct a Q&A Period:35 Provide time for the participants to ask a few questions. This will help you gauge the audience’s understanding of what you said and you can see if you kept their interest. It will also provide another opportunity for you to engage your participants. (Please see Technical Assistance Tip 8: Preparing for the Questions and Answers Period for guidance on how to prepare for the Q&A session and for some tips on how to conduct the Q&A session.)

Provide additional information: Provide your contact information as well as guidance on where more information about the topic can be found. This can be through a business card, references, and/or handouts. Make sure that the handouts are well-written and ready to distribute after the presentation for those who want to know more details.36 (Please see Technical Assistance Tip 6: Preparing Handouts and Other Materials.)

Further disseminate information and make your presentation available to others: Place your presentation on your organization’s Website, AMI’s project Website, and social media affinity groups. This is also an opportunity to promote your expertise on the topic.


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1 Medina, J. 2008. About Brain Rules. http://www.brainrules.net/about-brain-rules. (Accessed January 10, 2011). 2 Álvarez Marañón, Gonzalo. 2008. Una imagen en tu presentación dice más que mil palabras. http://elartedepresentar.com/2008/12/11/ una-imagen-en-tu-presentacion-dice-mas-que-mil-palabras/ (Accessed January 10, 2011). 3 Medina, J. 2008. Vision: Rule #10: Vision trumps all other sense. http://www.brainrules.net/vision?scene= (Accessed January 10, 2011). 4 Mayer, Richard and Roxana Moreno. 2001. A Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning: Implications for Design Principles. http://www. unm.edu/~moreno/PDFS/chi.pdf (Accessed January 10, 2011). 5 Najjar, Lawrence J. 1998. Principles of Educational Multimedia User Interface Design. http://www.lawrence-najjar.com/papers/Principles_ of_educational_multimedia_user_interface_design.html (Accessed January 10, 2011). 6 Mayer, Richard and Roxana Moreno. 2001. A Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning: Implications for Design Principles. http://www. unm.edu/~moreno/PDFS/chi.pdf (Accessed January 10, 2011). 7 Mitchell, Olivia. 2010. Presentation Planning Tip #3: How to keep audience attention during presentation. http:// speakingaboutpresenting.com/ (Accessed December 1, 2010). (Adaptation). 8 Presentation Facts. 2005. A Cognitive Theory of multimedia learning. http://www.presentationfacts.com/index.php/2005/12/04/acognitive-theory-of-multimedia-learning/ 9 Pollard, Catriona. 2007. Developing effect key messages. http://smallbusinesspr.wordpress.com/2007/01/08/developing-effect-keymessages/ (Accessed December 9, 2010). (Adapted) 10 M. Sanchez, K. Wheeler, J. Lawrence, R. Duarte and M. Reos. 2007. Spokespersons Training on Antimicrobial Resistance: Increasing Knowledge, Developing Skills, and Exploring Strategies. Gaithersburg, MD: Links Media. (Adapted) 11 Mitchell, Olivia. 2009. Here’s a quick way to make over a bullet-point slide. http://speakingaboutpresenting.com/design/makeover-bulletpoint-slide/ (Accessed December 2, 2010) 12 Grant, Bob. 2010. Pimp your PowerPoint. The Scientist 24 (3). http://cte.lsua.edu/Libraries/Resource_Documents/Pimp_Your_ Powerpoint.sflb.ashx 13 Grant, Bob. 2010. Pimp your PowerPoint. The Scientist 24 (3). http://cte.lsua.edu/Libraries/Resource_Documents/Pimp_Your_ Powerpoint.sflb.ashx 14 Alley, M. and M. Marshall. 2009. Rethinking the Design of Presentation Slides: The Assertion-Evidence Structure. (Assertion-Evidence Templates: Body slide). Available at http://www.writing.engr.psu.edu/slides.html (Accessed December 15, 2010). 15 Mitchell, Olivia. 2009. Here’s a quick way to make over a bullet-point slide. http://speakingaboutpresenting.com/design/makeover-bulletpoint-slide/ 16 Braithwaite, Lisa. 2009. Is PowerPoint the new black? http://coachlisab.blogspot.com/2009/01/is-powerpoint-new-black.html (Speak Schmeak: Things I’m thinking about speakers and speaking. Website). (Adapted) 17 Reynold, Garr. 2008. Rules for Presenters. Available at http://www.slideshare.net/garr/brain-rules-for-presenters. (Accessed January 10, 2011). 18 Medina, John. 2008. Brain Rules: 12 Principles for Surviving and Thriving at Work, Home, and School (Summaries). http://www. brainrules.net/pdf/brainrules_summaries.pdf. (Adapted) 19 Medina, John. 2008. Brain Rules: 12 Principles for Surviving and Thriving at Work, Home, and School (Introduction). Available at http:// www.brainrules.net/pdf/introduction.pdf. (Accessed December 8, 2010). (Adapted). 20 Alley, M. and M. Marshall. 2009. Rethinking the Design of Presentation Slides: The Assertion-Evidence Structure. (On Writing Guidelines for Engineering and Science Students: Teach Technical Presentation: Structure and Speech). Available at http://www.writing.engr.psu.edu/ handbook/presvisuals.html (Accessed January 10, 2011). 21 Marshall, Melissa. 2010. Becoming an Effective Presenter of Engineering and Science: Guidelines and Video Examples. Penn State University. Available at http://www.engr.psu.edu/speaking/Visual-Aids.html (Accessed December 1, 2010). (Adaptation). 22 Mitchell, Olivia. 2010. The Top 7 PowerPoint slide designs. Available at http://speakingaboutpresenting.com/design/powerpoint-slidedesign-7-styles/ (Accessed December 1, 2010).


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23 Renolds, Garr. 2005. Organization & Preparation Tips. http://www.garrreynolds.com/Presentation/prep.html (Accessed December 2, 2010). (Adapted) 24 Michell, Olivia. 2009. How to make an effective PowerPoint presentation. http://speakingaboutpresenting.com/design/powerpointdesign-recommended-tips/ 25 Reynolds, Garr. 2008. Rules for Presenters. http://www.slideshare.net/garr/brain-rules-for-presenters 26 Michael, O. 2010. How to keep to time during your presentation. Available at http://speakingaboutpresenting.com/delivery/keep-totime-presentation/ (Accessed January 10, 2011). 27 Alley, M. 2007. Rethinking the Design of Presentation Slides: Teaching Slides and Exercises: Before-After Examples. Available at http:// www.writing.engr.psu.edu/teaching_slide_design.html. (Accessed December 15, 2010). (Modified). 28 Links Media. 2007. A Training Guide: Spokesperson Training of Antimicrobial Strategies Increasing Knowledge, Developing Skills, and Exploring Strategies. (Adapted) 29 Links Media. 2007. A Training Guide: Spokesperson Training of Antimicrobial Strategies Increasing Knowledge, Developing Skills, and Exploring Strategies. (Adapted) 30 Renolds, Garr. 2005. Organization & Preparation Tips. http://www.garrreynolds.com/Presentation/prep.html (Accessed December 2, 2010). (Adapted) 31 Olivia M. 2010. How to write a presentation title that gets people flocking to your session. Available at http://speakingaboutpresenting. com/content/presentation-title/ (Accessed December 15, 2010). (Adapted). 32 Michael, O. 2010. How to keep to time during your presentation. Available at http://speakingaboutpresenting.com/delivery/keep-totime-presentation/ (Accessed January 10, 2011). 33 Desjardins, J. 2010. You Suck at PowerPoint Presentation. Available at http://www.slideshare.net/jessedee/you-suck-at-powerpoint (Presentation). 34 Molay, K. 2007. Vocal Skills for Presenters. Available at http://www.brainshark.com/brainshark/vu/view.asp?pi=366251398 (Accessed February 8, 2011). (Adapted). 35 M. Sanchez, K. Wheeler, J. Lawrence, R. Duarte and M. Reos. 2007. Spokespersons Training on Antimicrobial Resistance: Increasing Knowledge, Developing Skills, and Exploring Strategies. Gaithersburg, MD: Links Media. (Adapted) 36 Pulsifer, M. 2009. What I’d Like to see in Slide Design in 2009. http://mike-pulsifer.org/2009/01/what-id-like-to-see-in-slide-designin-2009/ (Accessed December 1, 2010).


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