The reason for this was the sensitive nature of the issues he touched on - issues .... by supernatural aid or "any basic orientation of the self" (Barbour,. 1966:103) ...
DARWIN AND G ENESIS1
H .P .P .
L o tte r
D e p t. W ysb e g e e rte , Randse A frik a a n s e U n iv e rs ite it
OPSOMMING
In h ie rd ie a r tik e l w o rd 'n p o g in g aangewend om d ie k o n flik tu s s e n D a rw in se
te o rie
van
e v o lu s ie en d ie C h r is te lik e le e rs te llin g van 'n G o ddelike
s k e p p in g u it d ie weg te ru im .
Om d ie k o n flik goed te v e rs ta a n , w o rd
'n k o r t u ite e n s e ttin g gegee van d ie w yse waarop C h ris te n e d ie im p lika sie s van d ie te o rie van e v o lu s ie v ir h u l le e rs te llin g van 'n G o d de like s k e p p in g in g e s ie n h e t. w o rd ,
w aarna
D ie d iv e rs e re a ksie s van teoloé h ie ro p sal k o r t lik s g e sk e ts 'n
analise van d ie redes v i r h ie rd ie k o n flik
w o rd , g e b ase e r op 'n le id ra a d van Hans K iin g ,
v e rs k a f sal
'n D u its e te o lo o g .
Die
s ta n d p u n t sal b e re d e n e e r w o rd d a t d it 'n s p e s ifie k e in te rp re ta s ie van die C h ris te n d o m
w as,
g e ru g s te u n
deur
'n
filo s o fie s -b io lo g ie s e te o rie , w a t
v e rd e d ig is en nie d ie s e n tra le a sp e kte van d ie C h ris te n d o m Laastens sal g e v ra w o rd o f d ie k o n flik d ie p o s itie w e a n tw o o rd in te rp r e ta s ie
wat
h ie ro p
s e lf
n ie .
u it d ie weg g e ru im kan w o rd en
gegee
w o rd ,
s te l
dat
'n
k o rr e k te
va n d ie B y b e lse s k e p p in g s le e r 'n te o rie va n e v o lu s ie kan
akkom m odeer w a t g e re g v e rd ig d e a a n sp ra ke op w e te n s k a p lik e
g e ld ig h e id
m aak.
D a rw in 's th e o r y o f e v o lu tio n had fa r- r e a c h in g im p lic a tio n s fo r th e vie w s on c re a tio n th a t th e C h ris tia n s o f th e 19th c e n tu r y b e lie v e d in .
E ver
sin ce th e p u b lic a tio n o f his book O n th e O r ig in o f Species b y means o f N a tu ra l S e le c tio n , D a rw in 's vie w s on th e o r ig in o f life on e a rth w e re seen as c o n tro v e rs ia l a nd th e y g e n e ra te d in te n s e
T h is a r tic le o r ig in a lly fo rm e d p a r t o f my u n p u b lis h e d M .A . t it le
outonom ie
filo s o fie s e o n tle d in g va n d ie h is to rie s e v e rlo o p van
-
'n
d ie d e b a t tu s s e n
Van
te o lo g ie se
C h r is te lik e
o o rh e e rs in g
g e lo o f en
1984.
-36-
to t
d is s e r
ta tio n w ith th e
w e te n s k a p .
w e te n s k a p lik e
S te lle n b o s c h ,
and em otional d is c u s s io n s and debates ( B e rn a l,
1969:556).
T he reason
f o r th is was th e s e n s itiv e n a tu re o f th e issues he to u c h e d on - issues such as G od's in v o lv e m e n t w ith n a tu re , th e n a tu re o f man and his re la tio n to th e animal kin g d o m and th e fa c tu a l t r u t h fo rm e d
o f c e rta in
B ib lic a l passages
im p o rta n t a spects o f C h ris tia n d o c trin e th a t D a rw in 's th e o ry of
e v o lu tio n now q u e s tio n e d .
In o rd e r to p ro v id e
in s ig h t in to th e c o n flic t
betw een D a rw in 's th e o ry o f e v o lu tio n and th e C h ris tia n d o c trin e o f c r e a tio n (a n d o th e r re la te d m a tte rs ) a s h o rt e x p o s itio n w ill be g iv e n o f th e w ay in w h ic h th e im p lic a tio n s o f th e th e o ry o f e v o lu tio n fo r th e C h ris tia n d o c trin e o f c re a tio n w ere u n d e rs to o d .
T h e d iv e rs e re a c tio n s o f C h ris tia n
th e o lo g ia n s w ill be b r ie f ly o u tlin e d and th e n an a n a lys is o f th e reasons f o r th e c o n flic t w ill be g iv e n .
F in a lly th e q u e s tio n w h e th e r th is c o n flic t
can be re s o lve d w ill be posed and resp o n d e d to .
D a rw in 's th e o r y v e rs u s th e C h r is tia n v ie w
T he C h ris tia n s o f th e 19th c e n tu r y q u ic k ly re a lise d th e im p lic a tio n s th a t D a rw in 's th e o r y o f e v o lu tio n c re a tio n .
had fo r th e ir tr a d itio n a l d o c trin e o f d iv in e
T he most im p o rta n t o f th e se im p lic a tio n s was th e fa c t th a t th e
B ib lic a l a c co u n t o f c re a tio n was c o n tra d ic te d b y th e se e m in g ly s c ie n tif ic a lly p ro v e n im p lic a tio n s
th e o ry o f e v o lu tio n . be sid e s
th is
one.
T h e re w e re se ve ra l o th e r im p o rta n t In s te a d
of
th e
g e n e ra lly
accepted
A r is to te lia n - C h r is tia n v ie w th a t God had c re a te d all species d is tin c t from each o th e r in His o rig in a l deed o f c re a tio n and th a t He gave man a special p o s itio n
in c re a tio n
because He cre a te d man in His own lik e n e s s , th e re
now was a th e o ry th a t e x p la in e d th e o rig in o f a ll sp e cie s , in c lu d in g man, w ith o u t a n y re fe re n c e to God - b u t w ith f u ll re fe re n c e to n a tu ra l fo rce s th a t c o u ld fo rm new fo rm s o f life in th e c o u rs e o f lo n g processes o f d e ve lo p m e n t.
In ste a d o f th e idea th a t th e a d a p ta tio n o f p la n ts and animals
was d ue to G od's b r illia n t d e s ig n , it was now a s s e rte d th a t th is a d a p ta tio n co u ld b e st be e x p la in e d b y means o f th e w h e re in
no
p re c o n c e iv e d
d e s ig n ,
r a th e r b y chance th a t th in g s d e v e lo p . c re a tio n because o f his o rig in
p ro ce ss
of
n a tu ra l
p la n o r end p la y e d any
se lection
role - it is
In ste a d o f m an’ s u n iq u en e ss in
as a c re a tu re a c c o rd in g to G od's
th e re was now an em phasis on m an's hum ble o r ig in
image,
as a member o f th e
anim al kin g d o m and on th e s im ila ritie s a nd c o n tin u ity betw een man and th e o th e r a nim als.
In s te a d o f th e em phasis on
m an's
special
a b ilitie s
c re a te d b y God - such as in te llig e n c e and a sense of m o ra lity - th a t place -37 -
man in a special re la tio n s h ip to God and th a t s e p a ra te man q u a lita tiv e ly from th e animal kin g d o m , th e re was now an e xp la n a tio n o f these a b ilitie s as in s tru m e n ts th a t had de ve lo pe d th ro u g h th e process o f e v o lu tio n as a means to a s sist man in his a d a p ta tio n to his e n v iro n m e n t.
In ste a d o f th e
a u th o r ity o f b ib lic a l passages th e re was now an emphasis on th e fo rc e fu l re a so n in g th a t can be done
on
th e
g ro u n d s
of
e m p irica l
e vid e n ce
in
s u p p o rt o f s c ie n tific th e o rie s .
R eactions
I f th e im p lic a tio n s o f th e th e o ry o f e v o lu tio n ai*e u n d e rs to o d as d e s c rib e d ab o ve,
it is u n d e rs ta n d a b le w h y th e re have been such d iv e rs e re a c tio n s
to it .
D u ra n t (1985:18) ca lls th e se re a ctio n s "e x tre m e ly m ix e d ".
T he
C h ris tia n th e o lo g ia n s had to t r y to fin d a way o f liv in g w ith a th e o ry th a t se e m in g ly e n d a n g e re d th e c e n tra l d o c trin e s of th e ir fa ith .
B ro a d ly s p e a k in g th re e re a ctio n s can be d is tin g u is h e d .
•
T h e f i r s t was th e re a c tio n o f c o n s e rv a tiv e th e o lo g ia n s th a t d e fe n d e d th e
tr a d itio n a l
m o stly
b ib lic a l
" re je c te d
b e lie fs
D a rw in 's
p a s s io n a te ly
a rg u m e n ts
( K iin g ,
o u t r ig h t "
1978:379)
( D u ra n t,
and
1985:18).
T h is de fen ce o f th e t r u t h o f th e b ib lic a l a c co u n t o f c re a tio n e ith e r a lte re d th e th e o ry o f e v o lu tio n in s e v e ra l w ays to make i t f i t in to th e b ib lic a l
a c co u n t o f c re a tio n o r su g g e s te d new w ays o f in te r p r e tin g
th e B ib le th a t w o u ld make some room f o r th e new s c ie n tific th e o r y , e .g . th e w o rd 'd a y ' in G enesis 1 m ig h t be in te rp r e te d as d e s ig n a tio n a
lo n g e r
p e rio d
o f tim e.
In g e n e ra l th e c o n s e rv a tiv e th e o lo g ia n s
re fu s e d to acce p t e v o lu tio n , im p lic a tio n s
th e y
196 0:2 4 1 -24 4 ).
because th e y d id n o t lik e th e a th e is tic
d e te cte d
in
th is
new
th e o ry
( D ille n b e r g e r,
T h e y th u s re je c te d th e th e o r y o f e v o lu tio n bccause
i t e n d a n g e re d tr a d itio n a l C h ris tia n vie w s on G od's ro le in c re a tio n , th e u n iq u e n e ss o f man and th e t r u t h o f th e b ib lic a l a cco u nt o f c r e a tio n .
•
The
second
re a c tio n
to
m o d e rn is tic th e o lo g ia n s . th e o r y o f e v o lu tio n ,
th e
th e o ry
W hile th e y
of
e v o lu tio n
was
e n th u s ia s tic a lly
th a t o f th e
em braced
th e
th e y also d e v ia te d s u b s ta n tia lly fro m th e t r a d i-38-
tio n a l in te rp r e ta tio n o f key elem ents 1978:379 and B a rb o u r,
1966:101).
of
C h ris tia n
d o c trin e
( K iin g ,
In th e ir a tte m p t to accommodate
th e th e o r y o f e v o lu tio n th e y w ere in d a n g e r o f a b a n d o n in g v e ry p o rta n t aspects o f C h ris tia n d o c trin e .
im
T h is is illu s tr a te d in th e way
th e y vie w e d th e B ib le not as G od's re v e la tio n to man, b u t as a re s u lt o f th e w r it e r s ' search fo r G od.
In th e lig h t o f th is th e y saw
th e
B ib lic a l passages c o n c e rn in g c re a tio n as "a p o e tic e x p re s s io n o f r e lig io u s
c o n v ic tio n s
c o n c e rn in g
m an's
o rd e rlin e s s and th e goodness
of
th e
dependence w o r ld "
on
God
( B a rb o u r ,
and th e
1966:102).
T h e ir a tte m p t to in te r p r e t and accommodate C h ris tia n d o c trin e s w ith in th e b o u n d a rie s o f w h a t th e y th e o ry o f e v o lu tio n te r is t ic G od,
C h ris tia n
elem ents w e re a b s e n t.
fo r exam ple,
tra n s e n d e n c e "
re g a rd e d as th e in fa llib le t r u t h o f th e
led to vie w s on God and man in w h ich c h a ra c T he p rin c ip a l a t tr ib u t e o f
was seen as "im m anence in n a tu re ,
( B a rb o u r ,
1966:
r a th e r
102) and s a lva tio n was a tta in e d not
b y s u p e rn a tu ra l aid o r "a n y b a sic o rie n ta tio n o f th e s e lf" 1966:103)
but
(B a rb o u r ,
1966:102).
as
a c r ite r io n
th ro u g h
to
th a n
"in c re a s e d
kno w le d g e
and
( B a rb o u r ,
noble
g o a ls"
In th is case th e th e o ry o f e v o lu tio n fu c tio n e d
d e te rm in e
w h ich a spects o f tr a d itio n a l C h ris tia n
d o c trin e w ere s t ill re le v a n t f o r t h e ir tim e.
T h e t h ir d
re a c tio n was an a tte m p t b y s o -ca lle d lib e ra l th e o lo g ia n s to
ta k e a m ore m oderate stance betw een th e v ie w p o in ts o f c o n s e rv a tiv e and m o d e rn is tic 1966:104). e n tific
th e o lo g ia n s
( D ille n b e rg e r ,
1960:252
a nd
B a rb o u r,
L ik e th e m o d e rn is tic th e o lo g ia n s th e y welcom ed new s c i
kn o w le d g e ,
but
th e y
re a cte d
a g a in s t
th e
w ay
in
w h ich
m o d e rn is tic th e o lo g ia n s abandoned c e rta in a spects o f C h r is tia n d o c t r in e .
In th is
c o n s e rv a tiv e
re g a rd th e
th e o lo g ia n s
p re ta tio n o f C h ris tia n
lib e ra l
who
t r ie d
d o c trin e .
th e o lo g ia n s
w e re
c lo s e r
to
th e
to se cu re th e tr a d itio n a l in t e r
L ib e ra l th e o lo g y o rig in a te d
la rg e ly
fro m a new s tu d y o f th e B ib le w h e re th e fo cu s was e s p e c ia lly on th e c o n trib u tio n (H e ro n ,
of
th e
1 9 8 0 :5 1 -5 9 ).
w r ite r s
in
th e com ing in to b e in g o f th e B ib le
A new vie w o f th e B ib le em erged in w h ic h th e
h is to ric a l c o n te x t o f th e v a rio u s a u th o rs o f th e B ib le was em phasized and th e se w r ite r s them selves w e re seen "as v e ry human fig u re s who sh a re d
th e a s su m p tio n s o f th e ir d a y and in c o rp o ra te d c o n s id e ra b le
le g e n d a ry m a te ria l in th e ir w r it in g s " ( B a rb o u r , 1966:105).
W ith th is
v ie w o f th e B ib le th e y w e re able to re d u ce th e te n s io n betw een th e -39 -
th e o ry o f e v o lu tio n and th e B ib lic a l acco u nt o f c re a tio n .
No lo n g e r
d id th e y g iv e a lite r a l in te rp r e ta tio n o f th e B ib lic a l acco u nt o f c r e a tio n and th e y accepted a la rg e p a r t o f th e th e o ry o f e v o lu tio n .
A
fu rth e r
of
re le v a n t
C h r is tia n ity
aspect
of
lib e ra l
th e o lo g y
in man's re lig io u s e x p e rie n ce
in G od's re v e la tio n o r n a tu ra l th e o lo g y . to g e th e r w ith th e h ig h p r i o r it y man
(H e ro n ,
1980:32
and
th e o lo g ia n s to em phasize ( D ille n b e r g e r, 1960:252).
is
(H e ro n ,
B a rb o u r,
1980:23) and not
e th ic a l
elem ent
in
1966:107), enabled th e lib e ra l
s p ir itu a l
Thus,
fo u n d a tio n
T h is new fo u n d a tio n , ta ke n
acco rd e d to th e
"m an's
th e
suprem acy
over
n a tu re "
w h ile th e y accepted a m ajor
p a rt
o f th e e v o lu tio n a ry vie w o f man th e y succeeded in e n ric h in g it to th e e x te n t th a t th e y co u ld d e fe n d m an's re lig io tis n a tu re and his special s ta tu s
am ongst liv in g
b e in g s .
B y means o f th is
new a n th ro p o lo g y
th e y hoped to s a fe g u a rd th e fu n d a m e n ta l t r u t h s o f C h r is tia n ity .
A new p e rs p e c tiv e
It is q u e s tio n a b le w h e th e r th e th e o lo g ic a l re a c tio n s , a b o ve,
as b r ie f ly o u tlin e d
succeeded in s o lv in g th e c o n flic t betw een th e C h ris tia n d o c trin e
o f c re a tio n and th e th e o ry o f e v o lu tio n s a tis fa c to r ily .
Is it re a lly nec
e s sa ry th a t th e vie w s o f a m ajor s c ie n tis t lik e D a rw in , w ho b ro u g h t a b o u t a
r e v o lu tio n
in b io lo g y so th a t he c o u ld ju s t ifia b ly be c a lle d a second
C o p e rn ic u s , s h o u ld once ag a in g e n e ra te c o n tro v e rs y to such an
e x te n t
w ith re g a rd to re lig io n th a t he s h o u ld be condem ned lik e a second G alileo ( K iin g ,
1978:377)?
A n d does it re a lly c o u n t as th e b e s t s o lu tio n to t r y
to h a rm o n ize th e C h ris tia n d o c trin e o f c re a tio n w ith th e th e o ry o f e v o lu tio n b y a d a p tin g them to each o th e r?
Is i t n o t p o ssib le th a t w ith th e
a id o f h in d s ig h t we co u ld look a fre s h a t th is c o n flic t to d a y ,
w ith a new
p e rs p e c tiv e ?
H and
K iin g p ro v id e s a clu e th a t co u ld lead to su ch a new p e rs p e c tiv e
( K iin g , 197 8:3 7 8 ).
He p o in ts o u t th a t th e d e b a te betw een th e C h ris tia n
d o c trin e o f c re a tio n and th e th e o r y o f e v o lu tio n was m o stly c o n d u c te d in a way
in
w h ic h
th e
b ib lic a l a cco u n t o f c re a tio n was id e n tifie d w ith a
p a r t ic u la r s c ie n tific th e o r y .
T h is s c ie n tific th e o ry was A r is to tle 's v ie w
o f n a tu re as i t had been a d a p te d e s p e c ia lly b y Thomas A q u in a s to f i t in w ith C h r is tia n d o c trin e s .
T h is c lu e th a t K iin g p ro v id e s th u s leads one
to ask w h e th e r th e c o n s e rv a tiv e th e o lo g ia n s d e fe n d e d th e b ib lic a l d o c trin e -4 0 -
of
c re a tio n
or
w h e th e r
th e y d e fe n d e d a c e rta in
in te rp r e ta tio n
based on A ris to te lia n s c ie n tific and p h ilo s o p h ic a l a ss u m p tio n s.
th e re o f O r, one
may a s k , was th e b a ttle a g a in s t one s p e c ific s c ie n tific th e o ry fo u g h t w ith th e a ssista n ce o f a n o th e r s c ie n tific th e o ry th a t f it t e d b e tte r in to a lite r a l in te rp r e ta tio n
o f c e rta in B ib lic a l passages?
c o n flic t was
C o u ld one th u s say th a t th e
"tegen h e t v e r d e r fe lijk e 'e v o lu tio n is m e ', v o o r een met b ijb e l
en t r a d it ie o ve reenstem m end ’ fix is m e '"
( K iin g ,
1978:377)?
K iin g g iv e s a
v a lu a b le in s ig h t in to one o f th e fa c to rs th a t e n d a n g e re d th e re la tio n b e tween C h r is tia n ity and science in th is s p e c ific case, v iz . th e in a b ility to d is e n ta n g le c o n flic t.
and
c le a rly d is tin g u is h
th e v a rio u s issues in v o lv e d in th is
T h e re fo re it now becomes e s se n tia l to ask ( i) w h a t th e o rig in a l
in te n tio n o f th e b ib lic a l a cco u nt o f c re a tio n was and how it m ust be in te rp r e te d to d a y ; and
what
its
( ii)
w h a t D a rw in 's th e o r y o f e v o lu tio n in te n d e d to say
s u p p o r tin g
e m p irica l
e v id e n ce
p e rm its
it
to
say;
( iii )
w h e th e r all th e c o n c lu s io n s d ra w n fro m D a rw in 's th e o ry and th e e x tr a p o la tio n s made th e re o f b ib lic a l
a cco u nt
of
w e re
s c ie n tific a lly
c re a tio n
sh o u ld
so u n d
and
Civ)
w h e th e r
be id e n tifie d w ith a c e rta in
so p h ica l system o r a s c ie n tific th e o r y .
th e
p h ilo
A n sw e rs to th e se q u e s tio n s co u ld
*
do much to c la r if y th e re la tio n betw een D a rw in ’s th e o r y o f e v o lu tio n and th e b ib lic a l a cco u n ts o f c re a tio n .
T oday it is g e n e ra lly acce p te d th a t th e th e o ry o f e v o lu tio n ch a lle n g e d th e tru th
o f th e
(B a rb o u r ,
lite r a l
in te rp r e ta tio n
1966:96-98
and
of
G ilk e y ,
th e
b ib lic a l
196 8:1 6 7 ).
a cco u n t
A c c o rd in g
of
c re a tio n
to B a rb o u r
(19 6 6 :9 7 ) th e re " c o u ld be no com prom ise w ith e v o lu tio n " f o r th o se who p r e fe r r e d a lite r a l in te rp r e ta tio n o f th e b ib lic a l a cco u n t o f c re a tio n . k in d o f in te r p r e ta tio n ,
T h is
th a t im plies th a t th e b ib lic a l a c co u n t o f c re a tio n
p ro v id e s fa c ts re le v a n t f o r science c o n c e rn in g th e o rig in o f life on e a rth , w ill o b v io u s ly be in c o n flic t w ith as D a rw in 's .
a s o p h is tic a te d s c ie n tific th e o r y
such
I t is q u e s tio n a b le w h e th e r th is in te r p r e ta tio n does ju s tic e
to th e o rig in a l in te n tio n o f th e
b ib lic a l
passages
under
c o n s id e ra tio n .
T od a y th is lite r a l in te r p r e ta tio n is m o s tly re je c te d and i t is accepted th a t th e b ib lic a l a c c o u n t o f c re a tio n fa c ts
- it r a th e r f u lf ille d
co m m u n ity ( D e is t, d u r in g
th e
a
1 9 8 2 :1 1 -2 3 ).
B a b ylo n ia n
e x ile
had no in te n tio n o f p r o v id in g
re lig io u s
fu n c tio n
in
th e
a n c ie n t
s c ie n tific H ebrew
D e ist in d ic a te d th a t Genesis 1 o rig in a te d (19 8 2 :1 1 )
and
it
g ro o ts h e id van God aan d ie moedelose b a llin g e in
-41-
had
to
p o r tr a y
"d ie
B a b ilo n ië " and had to
com pare God w ith th e id o ls "w a t ly k
asof h u lle s te r k e r is as Is ra e l
se
G od" (1 9 8 2 :1 9 ).
T he c o n flic t betw een th e b ib lic a l acco u nt o f c re a tio n and th e th e o ry o f e v o lu tio n seems even less se rio u s if th e lim ita tio n s o f s c ie n tific th e o rie s are ta ke n
in to a cco u n t.
It seems th a t D a rw in 's th e o ry was w id e ly a c
ce p ted in th e 19th c e n tu r y as if it p ro v id e d th e fin a l and a u th o r ita tiv e t r u t h c o n c e rn in g th e o r ig in , in g s .
n a tu re , end and fu n c tio n o f all liv in g b e
A c c o rd in g to Jim Moore in D u ra n t (1985:76) e v o lu tio n
p o p u la r d o c trin e to recko n w ith th e o lo g y ". to
be
in n a tu ra l
h is to r y ,
social
"was th e
th e o r y
and
I t is q u e s tio n a b le w h e th e r D a rw in h im se lf in te n d e d h is th e o ry
used
f o r such fa r- r e a c h in g in fe re n ce s to be d ra w n fro m it and
w h e th e r th e a va ila b le s u p p o r tin g evid e n ce o f his th e o ry w o u ld in any case have allow ed a n yone to make v a lid statem ents c o n c e rn in g ra n g e o f to p ic s .
such
a wide
F u th e rm o re it seems as if n o t all o f D a rw in 's own co n
c lu s io n s co u ld be s u p p o rte d b y e m p irica l e v id e n c e . c e rn s th e way in w h ich D a rw in
d re w
in fe re n c e s
T h is e s p e c ia lly co n fro m
e x p la n a tio n s
know n phenom ena th a t he e x tra p o la te d to u n kn o w n phenom ena.
of
H ere one
can r e fe r to h is e x p la n a tio n o f h is co lle c tio n o f e m p iric a l e v id e n ce c o n c e rn in g v a ria tio n s th a t he o b s e rv e d in anim als th a t he e x tra p o la te d th e d e ve lo pm e n ta l h is to r y o f th e anim al kin g d o m .
to
T hese e x tra p o la tio n s
th a t led him to p o s tu la te f o u r o r fiv e o rig in a l fo rm s o f life fro m w h ich a ll o th e r fo rm s o f lif e e v o lv e d (D a rw in , 1859:241, 243) seemed p la u s ib le , b u t t h e ir v a lid ity was n o t e a s ily p ro v e d b y means o f e x p e rim e n ta l te s tin g o r s u ffic ie n t s u p p o r tin g e m p iric a l e v id e n c e .
T h is is re fle c te d in D a rw in ’ s
re m a rk th a t " th o u g h we f in d in o u r g e o logical fo rm a tio n s m any lin k s b e tween th e species w h ic h now e x is t a nd w h ic h fo rm e rly e x is te d , n o t fin d
in f in it e ly
as
"a
h is to r y
c h a n g in g d ia le c t; la tin g
do
n um erous fin e tr a n s itio n a l fo rm s clo s e ly jo in in g them
a ll to g e th e r " ( D a rw in , 1859:165). w o rld
we
of
th e
He sees th e g e o lo g ica l re c o rd o f th e
w o rld
im p e rfe c tly k e p t,
and w r itte n
o f th is h is to r y we possess th e la s t volum e alone,
o n ly to tw o o r th re e c o u n trie s .
in a re
O f th is vo lu m e , o n ly h e re and
th e re a s h o rt c h a p te r has been p re s e rv e d ;
a nd o f each page, o n ly h e re
and th e re a fe w lin e s " (D a rw in , 1859:166).
T he in fe re n c e s d ra w n fro m
D a rw in 's th e o r y a nd u tiliz e d f o r th e m a kin g o f new w o rld vie w s w e re also no t a lw a ys s c ie n tific a lly v a lid .
S p e n ce r's view s on e v o lu tio n a ry p ro g re s s ,
fo r exa m p le , w e re based "o n th e idea th a t th e e n tir e u n iv e rs e - n a tu re , human n a tu re and s o c ie ty - was a sce n ding to w a rd s -42-
u ltim a te
p e rfe c tio n
th ro u g h
th e
o p e ra tio n
of
in e x o ra b le
n a tu ra l la w s"
( D u ra n t,
1985:21).
A c c o rd in g to D u ra n t, D a rw in o ffe re d a th e o ry o f o rg a n ic ch a n ge , w hereas S p e n ce r " o ffe r e d
a m e ta p h ys ic
G ilk e y
n a tu r a lis tic
sees
th e
based
w o rld
on
ch a n g e ”
u n d e rs ta n d in g b e yo n d th e ra n g e o f scie n ce . m e ta p h y s ic s ,
in to
a g e n e ra l
u n iv e rs e " (G ilk e y ,
1965:168).
( D u ra n t,
1985:21).
v ie w as "an e x te n s io n o f s c ie n tific
d e s c rip tio n
It
is
an
e xte n s io n
in to
o f th e u ltim a te n a tu re o f th e
I t is im p o rta n t to ask to w h a t e x te n t C h r is tia n ity m ust a lig n its e lf w ith o r be in te rp r e te d b y means o f a p h ilo s o p h ic a l system o r a s c ie n tific th e o ry .
Thus
it
m ust
be asked w h e th e r th e s y n th e s is o f th e C h ris tia n
d o c trin e o f c re a tio n and A ris to te lia n b io lo g y is p re fe ra b le to a s y n th e s is w ith
e v o lu tio n a ry b io lo g y .
avoided?
O r s h o u ld th is
k in d o f s y n th e s is
r a th e r be
T hese q u e s tio n s w e re also re le v a n t in th e de b ate on th e in
c o m p a tib ility betw een th e g e o c e n tric and h e lio c e n tric w o rld v ie w s .
I t also
c o n s titu te d one o f th e main pro b le m s th a t c o n c e rn e d m edieval t h in k e r s , v iz .
th e e xa ct re la tio n s h ip betw een C h r is tia n d o c trin e s and
p h ilo s o p h ic a l s yste m s.
th e
G ree k
T h a t s c ie n tific th e o rie s and p h ilo s o p h ic a l system s
can become p a r t and p a rc e l o f a s p e c ific in te r p r e ta tio n
and fo rm u la tio n
o f C h ris tia n d o c trin e was e v id e n ce d in th e c o n flic t betw een G alileo and th e
Roman
C a th o lic
C h u rc h .
T h e vie w th a t th e C h u rc h d e fe n d e d as
B ib lic a l co m p rise d A r is to te lia n , th is
k in d o f s y n th e s is g iv e s
Ptolem aic and T h o m is tic elem ents.
That
s e rio u s p ro b le m s h appens m ostly because a
s p e c ific th e o ry o r system is rep la ce d b y a n o th e r.
When th is happens th e
t r u t h o f C h ris tia n d o c trin e is o fte n q u e s tio n e d because o f th e close as s o cia tio n o f d o c trin e and th e o r y o r syste m . w ith
his
C h u rc h ,
de fen ce w ith
of
C o p e rn ica n
T h e d e b ate between G a lile o ,
a s tro n o m y ,
and
th e
Roman
its de fen ce o f A ris to te lia n -P to le m a ic -T h o m is tic
C a th o lic
cosm ology,
p ro v id e s a fin e exam ple o f th e p ro b le m s th a t a ris e w hen an a tte m p t made to d e s ig n a s y n th e s is . betw een th e C h ris tia n
is
One c o u ld th u s c o n clu d e th a t th e c o n flic t
d o c trin e o f c re a tio n and D a rw in 's th e o ry o f e v o
lu tio n c o u ld p a r tly have been a vo id e d if A r is to te lia n b io lo g y , th e a n c ie n t w o rld vie w o f th e b ib lic a l w r ite r s
and th e tr u e
a c c o u n t o f c re a tio n w e re s e p a ra te d .
in te n tio n o f th e b ib lic a l
I t w o u ld also have been h e lp fu l if
th e need f o r h a rm o n iz in g all aspects o f th e c o n te n ts o f th e B ib le a ll aspects o f th e th e o r y o f e v o lu tio n was d ro p p e d .
-43-
w ith
One m ig h t go one ste p f u r t h e r in an a tte m p t to re so lve th e c o n flic t b e tween D a rw in and G enesis b y a s k in g w h e th e r th e m aking and
c re a tin g
o f th e o rie s such as D a rw in 's th e o ry o f e v o lu tio n s h o u ld not be e xp e cte d if one c o r r e c tly u n d e rs ta n d s th e C h ris tia n d o c trin e o f c re a tio n .
B u t how
can it be th a t a th e o ry th a t g iv e s a n a tu r a lis tic e x p la n a tio n o f th e o rig in o f a ll species and n e v e r re fe rs to God co u ld be in lin e w ith th e idea th a t God c re a te d e v e ry th in g ex n ih ilo ? lo w in g lin e s .
When C h ris tia n s
T h is can be e x p la in e d along th e f o l
re je c t D a rw in ’ s th e o ry o f e v o lu tio n th e y
do it e ith e r because it c o n tra d ic ts th e b ib lic a l
a cco u nt
of
c re a tio n
or
because his th e o ry denies God any role in th e com ing in to b e in g o f life on e a rth .
Now it seems as if th is re je c tio n is based upon th e assum ption
th a t aspects o f G od's re la tio n s h ip to c re a tio n , e ith e r His c re a tio ex n ih ilo o r His c o n tin u e d in v o lv e m e n t w ith s c ie n tific
in v e s tig a tio n .
it ,
can be
To acce p t th is
d is c o v e re d
by
means
of
assum ption w o u ld be to agree
w ith Thomas A q u in a s th a t th e fa c t o f a d iv in e c re a tio n is n o t o n ly a m a tte r o f fa it h , b u t can also be d is c o v e re d b y reason
(D u ra n d ,
198 2:2 0 ).
To
re je c t th is assu m p tio n w o u ld be in agreem ent w ith L u th e r and C a lv in who said th a t c re a tio n as a deed o f God is a m a tte r o f fa ith and th e d o c trin e o f c re a tio n
is n o t a m a tte r o f m an's n a tu ra l in s ig h t (D u ra n d , 1982:23).
T h u s if one o p ts f o r th e vie w s o f th e R eform ers th a t th e fa c t o f a d iv in e c re a tio n can
not
be
d is c o v e re d
by
m an's
n a tu ra l
in s ig h t
-
as
it
is
s u p re m e ly e x e m p lifie d in s c ie n tific a c tiv itie s - th e n D a rw in acte d c o r r e c tly n o t to a tte m p t to fin d a n y s c ie n tific p ro o f o f G od’ s c re a tiv e de e ds.
To
have done th a t w o u ld a c tu a lly have been a new fo rm o f n a tu ra l th e o lo g y . T hu s one can say th a t a s c ie n tis t ca n n o t e ffe c tiv e ly ju d g e w ith e n tific means w h e th e r God c re a te d a ll liv in g b e in g s o r n o t.
his s c i
K ola ko w ski
(19 8 2 :7 7 ) makes a s im ila r p o in t w hen he says th a t "G od is h e lp le ss p ro d u c e
any
e m p iric a l
e v id e n ce
fo r
ir r e fu t a b le , o r even h ig h ly p la u s ib le , im p ly
His
e x is te n c e
w h ic h
in s c ie n tific te rm s " .
w o u ld
to
seem
T h is w o u ld
th a t God also ca n n o t p ro v id e e m p iric a l e v id e n ce o f th e fa c t th a t
He c re a te d a ll th in g s .
T h e m ost th a t can be s ta te d b y C h ris tia n s a g a in s t
D a rw in is th a t he d id n o t b e lie v e in God as C re a to r as th e B ib le p ro cla im s God to b e .
I f D a rw in had been a C h ris tia n he p ro b a b ly w o u ld have come
up w ith th e same th e o ry - if h is s c ie n tific in t e g r it y w e re o f th e same h ig h s ta n d a rd as th a t o f th e D a rw in we know .
T he a rg u m e n t set o u t above can f u r t h e r be s u p p o rte d b y means o f John H. H ic k 's v ie w th a t God pla ce d man in an autonom ous u n iv e rs e -4 4 -
(H ic k ,
1 9 6 6:318-319).
A c c o rd in g to H ick th is means th a t God c re a te d th e u n i
v e rs e and man s n a tu ra l e n v iro n m e n t to be autonom ous because i f has to fu n c tio n "as a n e u tra l sp h e re in w h ich we a re endow ed w ith
a s u ffic ie n t
d e g re e o f autonom y to be able to e n te r in to a fr e e ly acce p te d re la tio n s h ip w ith o u r M a k e r" ( H ic k ,
1 9 8 3:3 8 ).
T h is im plies th a t man can in v e s tig a te
his e n v iro n m e n t w ith o u t b e in g com pelled to p o s tu la te God as a p re r e q u i s ite fo r th e o rig in o r fu n c tio n in g th e re o f. v e rs e p o rtr a y s an a m b ig u ity
A t th e m ost th e c re a te d u n i
- one can a dvance reasons
b o th
fo r
and
a g a in s t G od's e x is te n c e and none o f them can e v e r c o n c lu s iv e ly s e ttle th e m a tte r.
A c c o rd in g to K o la k o w s k i,
w h o e ve r b e lie ve s in G od's p re se n ce
in th e w o rld "h a s to a d m it th a t e m p iric a lly His p re se n ce is am biguous. C le a rly ,
th e re w o u ld be no need o f fa ith
if th e co u rse o f w o rld a ffa irs
fo llo w e d d ir e c t ly and u n m is ta k a b ly th e norm s o f ju s tic e " 198 2:4 9 ).
(K o la k o w s k i,
I t seems as if D a rw in lo s t his fa ith in th e C h ris tia n God p a r tly
because o f his s tu d y o f th e autonom ous u n iv e rs e w h e re he c o u ld fin d no r a tio n a lly c o n v in c in g tra c e o f God s c re a tiv e a c tiv itie s - s h o u ld it indeed be th e case th e n it im plies th a t D a rw in acce p te d th e assu m p tio n m entioned e a rlie r o f Thomas A q u in a s , and abandoned C h r is tia n ity because he co u ld fin d
no tra c e s o f d iv in e c re a tiv e a c tiv it y
th ro u g h h is s c ie n tific in v e s ti
g a tio n .
C o n clu s io n
In th e lig h t o f th e fo re g o in g d is c u s s io n one m ig h t v e n tu r e th e fo llo w in g c o n c lu s io n ,
v iz .
th a t s c ie n tific a c tiv it y
m ust be seen as " in c u r a b ly u n -
th e o lo g ic a l" ( G ilk e y , 1965:167) on th e one h and and on th e o th e r hand it can also n o t be " a n tith e o lo g ic a l" c lu s io n a nd th e
d is c u s s io n
above
( G ilk e y , in
m ind
1965:167). it
ought
to
W ith th is co n be
c le a r
w hy
D a rw in 's th e o ry o f e v o lu tio n c o u ld d e v a s ta te th e n a tu ra l th e o lo g y o f Paley and o th e rs th a t was p o p u la r in th e e a rly p a r t o f th e 19th c e n tu r y d e s p ite Hume's
s h a tte r in g
c r itic is m
e x p re s s e d a g a in s t th is
k in d o f a rg u m e n ts .
The a tte m p t o f n a tu ra l th e o lo g y to show th a t th is w o rld b y God b y
r e f e r r in g
to c e rta in
was
d e sig n e d
e m p iric a l e v id e n c e , is also u n a cce p ta b le
if ju d g e d in te rm s o f th e C h r is tia n d o c trin e o f c re a tio n , because it c o n ta in s
th e
assu m p tio n
means o f man’ s rea so n .
th a t
G od's
c re a tiv e deeds can be d is c o v e re d b y
T h e fa c t th a t God c re a te d th e u n iv e rs e and all
liv in g b e in g s can o n ly be co n fe sse d as a t r u t h
o f fa ith
th a t has to be
b e lie ve d and c a n n o t be p ro v e d in a n y w ay b y human rea so n . -4 5 -
How God
was in v o lv e d in th e p ro ce ss o f c re a tio n ca n n o t be know n and th e re fo re s c ie n tis ts ca n n o t be in s tru c te d on th e g ro u n d s o f b ib lic a l e vid e n ce as to th e co n c lu s io n s th a t th e y o u g h t to reach o r n o t o u g h t to rea ch .
A t th e
same tim e it m ust be said th a t G od’ s n o n -e x is te n c e o r absence c a n , in p r in c ip le ,
not
be
p ro v e d
b y science ( G ilk e y ,
1965:167) and th e re fo re
s c ie n tis ts m ust be w a ry o r a tte m p tin g to make statem ents based on science c o n c e rn in g G od's e x is te n c e .
B IB L IO G R A P H Y
BARBOUR,
IAN G.
1966.
Issues in S c ie n c e 'a n d R e lig io n .
L o n do n :
SCM P re ss.
B E R N A L, J . D .
1969.
S cience in H is to r y .
in d u s tria l r e v o lu tio n s .
DAR W IN,
C.
L o n do n :
In G re a t Books
E n cyclo p a e d ia B rita n n ic a ,
D E IS T ,
F .E .
( e d .)
T h e s c ie n tific and
C .A . W atts t C o ., L td .
1859 ( R e p r in t 1952).
N a tu ra l S e le c tio n .
Volum e 2:
T h e O r ig in o f Species b y Means o f of
th e
W estern
W o rld .
C h ica g o :
In c .
1982.
Die B yb e l le e f.
P re to ria :
J . L . van Schaik
(E d m s .) B p k .
D ILLE N B E R G E R , JO HN .
1960.
A H is to ric a l In te r p r e ta tio n .
DURAND, J .J .F .
1982.
P ro te s ta n t T h o u g h t and N a tu ra l S cience:
L o n do n :
C o llin s .
S k e p p in g , m ens, v o o rs ie n ig h e id .
P re to ria :
NG K e rk b o e k h a n d e l T v l.
D U R A N T , JO H N .
1985.
and R e lig io u s B e lie f.
G IL K E Y , L .
1965.
London:
O x fo rd :
1980.
Essays on E v o lu tio n
B asil B la c k w e ll.
M aker o f Heaven and e a rth :
D o c trin e o f C re a tio n .
HERON, A . I . C .
D a rw in ism and D iv in it y :
G ordon C ity :
a S tu d y o f th e C h ris tia n
D o u b le d a y.
A C e n tu ry o f p ro te s ta n t T h e o lo g y .
L u tte r w o r th P re ss.
-46-
G u ild fo rd &
H IC K , J .H .
1966.
E v il and th e God o f Love.
H IC K , J . H .
1983.
P h ilo so p h y o f R e lig io n
C lif f s , New J e rs e y :
P re n tic e -H a ll,
KO LA KO W SK I, L.
1982.
K iiN G , H.
B e sta a t God?
1978.
R e lig io n .
Lon do n :
( T h ir d
M acM illan.
E d itio n ) .
Englewood
In c .
Fontana P ap e rba cks.
H ilv e rs u m :
-47-
Gooi en S tic h t b . v .
