World Academy of Science, Engineering and Technology International Journal of Electronics and Communication Engineering Vol:9, No:12, 2015
D Designn and Contrrol Alggorithm ms forr Power Eleectroniic C Converrters ffor EV V Appllications Ilya Kavalchhuk, Mehdi S Seyedmahmooudian, Ben H Horan, Amann Than Oo, A Alex Stojcevsski
International Science Index, Electronics and Communication Engineering Vol:9, No:12, 2015 waset.org/Publication/10003070
Abstract—Thhe power elecctronic componnents within E Electric Veehicles (EV) nneed to operate in several im mportant modes.. Some moodes directly influence safety, while otheers influence vvehicle peerformance. Givven the variety of functions aand operational modes reqquired of the power electroonics, it needss to meet effi ficiency reqquirements to minimize power losses. Anoother challenge in the coontrol and consstruction of succh systems is tthe ability to support s biddirectional pow wer flow. Thiss paper considders the constrruction, opperation, and feaasibility of avaiilable converterrs for electric vvehicles wiith feasible connfigurations of eelectrical buses and loads. Thiss paper deescribes logic aand control signnals for the coonverters for diifferent opperations conditions based on thhe efficiency annd energy usagee bases.
Keywords—E Electric Vehiccles, Electricall Machines C Control, Poower Electronics, Powerflow R Regulations.
P
I. INTR RODUCTION
OWER elecctronic componnents play an essential role in the operation off Electric Vehhicles (EV). T The operation of the Ennergy Storagee System (ES SS) and otheer componentts and syystems rely oon converters and inverterrs characteristtics of whhich depend on the sysstems’ interaactions and power requirements [1], [2]. b dependiing on EV power bbusses compriise separate buses w requiremennt. The high voltage v vooltage level annd power flow buus connects annd services syystems with hiigh peak pow wer and ennergy consum mption. Thesse systems include drivvetrain coomponents, cllimate controll system, andd the main energy e stoorage system. Other system ms, such as media m devices, safety coomponents, coomfort system ms, and lights are connectedd to a low w voltage buss with a peakk voltage of 12V DC. The 12DC vooltage level allows use of electrical components from coonventional veehicles [3], [4].. Due to the diifferent naturee and power leevels of the diffferent buuses, interconnnection betw ween differennt EV system ms is m minimal. The high voltage bus has biddirectional working w ennvironment and has continuoous energy floow between thhe ESS annd electric ddrive motor. The powertrrain converteer and coontroller needds to be able to handle thhis powerflow w with requested power level in bothh directions, too be able to addapt to Charge the external loaad on the poweertrain and to the State of C SoC) of the ES SS. In addition,, the converterr and controlleer need (S I. Kavalchuk annd A. Stojcevskii are with Centree of Technologyy, RMIT Viietnam, 702 Nguyyen Van Linh Bllvd., District 7, H HCMC, Vietnam (e-mail: mit.edu.vn,
[email protected]). ilyya.kavalchuk@rm M. Seyedmahmooudian, B. Horann and A. Than Ooo are with the Scchool of Enngineering, Facultty of Science, Enngineering and Buuilt Environment, Deakin Unniversity, 75 Piigdons Rd., W Waurn Ponds, V VIC, Australia (e-mail:
[email protected],
[email protected], aman.m @ddeakin.edu.au).
International Scholarly and Scientific Research & Innovation 9(12) 2015
to ooperate at higgh efficiency. The bidirectioonal nature off the highh voltage pow wer flow corrresponds to tthe modes off the pow wertrain. One mode is whhere energy is supplied too the elecctric motor to rotate the wheeels for torquee and acceleraation. In this mode, eenergy comess from the ESS throughh the r convverter accordding to the speed-load requirements. The oppposing mode oof the powerrtrain is the rregenerative m mode wheere the motor is working aas a generatorr to supply poower backk to the ESS for f rechargingg [3], [5], [6]. Another convverter operrates betweenn the two buuses. This coonverter is siingle direectional and operates o as a step down coonverter to suupply 12V V DC from thee high voltagee ESS. The reeverse directioon of the power for thiss converter is prohibited byy a diode bridgge so from the 12V bbattery to the high as too prevent currrent leakage fr volttage bus. Existting converterr configurationns follow the same s rulees, where a buuck converter cconnects the loow voltage baattery to thhe main ESS and the low vvoltage bus is connected onnly to the battery. As a rresult, only onne reference siggnal is requireed for the correct operattion. For such construction, this t is a SoC oof the batttery. Systems and componeents, and theirr energy usagee has littlee influence onn the operationn of the high voltage bus aas all enerrgy comes from m the battery aas shown in Fiig. 1.
Fig. 1 EV Electricall System Architecture
E EV Electrical System Archhitecture has low efficienccy in enerrgy conversionn, seeing as ennergy which iss stored in the high
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vooltage energy system needds to be connverted to chharging ennergy for the low voltage battery and tthen this batttery is poowering the enntire 12V systtems. The maiin advantage of this appproach is to uuse a single chhannel for thee control signaal. The SooC of the low voltage batterry is the mainn feedback signnal for the converter, aand the contrrol algorithm uses this siggnal to Another suupport requiredd SoC level foor all conditioons [7], [8]. A poower electroniic system in E EVs is the volltage energy sstorage syystem. Modernn storage systtems consist m mainly of Li-Ion or NiiMH batteriess with severaal cells to prrovide the reequired vooltage and currrent. This syystem requiress a suitable ccontrol alggorithm for bbalancing the power flow in all cells of the baattery. Other ESSs consistt of other ellements for energy e stoorage such as ultra-capacitors and hydroggen fuel cells. To T use these, additionnal converteers are reqquired to bbalance chharacteristics and SoC off the compoonents. To aachieve efffective poweer flow and high efficienncy, the connverter beetween the poowertrain and ESS needs ooperation condditions whhere both thee ESS and poowertrain are operating wiith the highest possiblee efficiency to provide energgy supply and safety foor the occupaants in all soorts of enviroonment. Given that caapacitors provvide high pow wer density, for electric m motors opperating in geeneration modde with high braking torquue, the ennergy generateed should be sstored in the ccapacitor ratheer than the batteries because of the differennt power chharging chharacteristics oof the elementss. This paper aiims to classifyy converters inn EVs based onn their opperational prinncipals and power requiremeents. The papeer also deescribes the reequirements off the converters and the inffluence off different elecctric bus designns to the efficiency of EVs. There arre different appproaches to thhe electric drivve configuratioon and opperation, so ddifferent drivetrain configuurations havee been seelected and disscussed. In adddition, the layyout of electricc loads arre taken into acccount, and ennergy consumpption of the syystems annd the influencce of their opeeration on the overall performance off the vehicle diiscussed. II. DC C-BASED DRIV VETRAIN CON NVERTERS Drivetrain coonverters connnect a EVs ddrive motors to the ES SS. These pow wer electronicc converters ooperate continuuously annd mostly proovide power for the high power load. Such coonverters needd to be able too achieve reassonable perforrmance duue to required vvehicular acceeleration. In contrast tto conventionnal internal coombustion poowered veehicles, given their EV drivvetrain characcteristics, gearrboxes arre not an esseential part of the system. H High torque at a low sppeed, flexibilitty in operatioonal speeds, combined c withh high effficiency are thhe main advanttages of electrric motors. The drivetraain torque annd speed chhange as thee load increases durinng the accelerration period. To obtain looading foorces and the reequired powerr, (1)-(5) can bbe used ∗
(1)
whhere (2)
International Scholarly and Scientific Research & Innovation 9(12) 2015
(3) (4)
0..5 ∗
∗ 1
(5)
and Tm is the reqquired torque oof the motor, rwheels the radiuus of the wheels, I thee moment of inertia of thee rolling system’s wheeels, transmisssion, shaft of thhe motor, avehiicle the acceleraation of the t vehicle, Cx the drag rresistance coeefficient, ρ thee air density, A the area of the vehicle in the directionn of t rolling resiistance coefficcient, acceeleration, V thhe velocity, φ the m tthe mass of thhe vehicle, annd g the graviity constant. A After considering all vaariables, the ttorque requireed to overcom me all resistive forces aand to provide accelerationn, will requiree the t resistive liine, as seen inn Fig. acceeleration to bee higher than the 2. F Fig. 2 is baseed on a moddel of a mediium sized vehicle (15000kg) with Cx= =0.28 and 1.5xx1.8m.
F Fig. 2 Resistive Torque Behavior
T The powertrainn is supposedd to provide the possibilitty to provvide the requeested performaance in terms of variable speed s and requested torrque. Acceleraation, as a maiin measuremennt of perfformance, cannnot be constannt due to the ssteadily increaasing resistive torque w which increasees with the speeed of the vehhicle. s Norrmally the higghest acceleration is possiblee in the low speed regiion when resisstance is low aand greater gennerated torquee can be uused for acceleeration. C Common driveetrains for EV Vs consist off either Permaanent Maggnet DC (PM MDC) or AC Induction motors. m Conveerters betw ween the motoor and battery can be considdered as simillar to the throttle of ann Internal Com mbustion Engiine. The operaating poinnt should, if poossible providde increasing sppeed together with incrreasing motorr torque. Inncreasing torqque will proovide additional accelerration perform mance for the vehicle, v as all eextra torqque will transfe fer into accelerration [9]. D During accelerration, the eleectric drivetrain operates inn the firstt quadrant annd electric m machine is connverting electtrical enerrgy from thee ESS into mechanical m ennergy movingg the vehicle. The mainn inputs for thiis mode are thee accelerator ppedal posiition, speed oof the vehiclee, and wheel slip. Acceleraation perfformance is noot only limiteed by the torquue provided too the pow wer train, but also a by frictioon of the wheeels as all torquue of the motor is convverted into moovement throuugh the connecction
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beetween wheelss and driving surface. The coonverter betweeen the ES SS and DC m motor can be bbased on seveeral devices, suuch as M MOSFETs or IG GBTs. Due to advantages inn efficiency and cost, IG GBT based DC C-DC convertters are more commonly ussed for this application [1], [10]. As EV shouuld be able too move forwaard and backw wards, coonverters shouuld be able to rotate magneetic flux in diffferent dirrections. For this purposee, a four quuadrant IGBT-based coonverter is bettter suited thaan a buck choopper, as a chhopper coonsist of four IIGBTs connectted in pairs, ass shown in Figg. 3.
Q1
Q2
Q3
Q4
openned. This curvve was obtainned from the eexperimental ssetup withhin the Schhool of Enggineering, Deeakin Univerrsity, com mprising a PM MDC 0.3kW motor, PWM M controlled IG GBT fourr quadrant connverter with a switching freequency of 20 kHz baseed on the chharacteristics oof the smootthing componnents. Testting speed andd loads to dissiipate created ppower were keept at the same level too see pure inflluence of the ccontrolling siggnals mental for the converterr. According to the propoosed experim setuup, maximum voltages weree obtained for the duty cyclees of 0 annd 100, but wiith switched poolarities, as it w was planned inn the theooretical discussion.
M
Fig. 3 Four-Q Quadrant Choppper
The control signal s operatess with all four IGBTs using a high freequency PWM M signal. The frequencyy is dependeent on coonfiguration off the componeents, such as thhe required cappacitor annd inductor w which increasse efficiency of the circuit and deecrease losses. The PWM siggnal controls the t duty cycle of the IG GBTs and alllows the outpput voltage too the motor to be coontrolled. Incrreasing voltagee achieves inccreasing operaational sppeed of the D DC motor (6)). Signals to the IGBTs sshould sim multaneously complement each other. For examplle, for m movement forw ward, Q1 and Q Q4 should opperate with thee same duuty cycle to preevent faults, w where Q3 and Q Q2 are switched off, ass power is not going throughh them. For revverse operatioon, it is poossible to swittch the polaritty of the machhine, where Q Q2 and Q33 operate as supplying s swittches for the m machine. Dutyy cycle duuration for accceleration accts similar to the throttle of an Innternal Combuustion Engine.. The longer the duty cyclle, the higher level of voltage suppllied to the mootor and, as a result, the higher the sppeed of rotatioon. /Ø
(6)
motor speed, kn the speed eqquation constaant, Vm whhere n is the m the input DC voltage, Rm the armaturee resistance, Ia the arrmature currennt, and Ø the m magnetic flux. The four IGB BT provide chhanging polarrity and, as a result, chhanging magneetic flux in thhe windings, ggeneration modde can bee performed ussing this featurre of the choppper. In this caase, the m motor will opeerate as a gennerator, as maain rotation w will be suupplied by ineertia of the vvehicle and ggenerator will apply brraking torque, as rotationn and magnetic flux willl have oppposite directions. In terms of switch operation, for foorward geeneration modde, operationall switches are Q2 and Q3 aand Q1 annd Q4 for revverse movem ments. The outtput voltage of the coonverter is reepresented in Fig. 4. Thee operation of o the coonverter lies between 0 to 100% of the duuty cycle, wheere 0% is a signal fully closed at Q1 aand Q4 where Q2 and Q3 arre fully
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F Fig. 4 Converter Output Voltagge
D During the braking prrocess the most impoortant charracteristics is braking torquue, as it slows down the vehhicle. In aaddition, all thhis torque shoould be able tto transfer throough the tires and roadd surface, and therefore shouuld not be greeater. At tthe same timee, during brakking process, rrotational speeed is decrreasing steadily as wheels are connectedd with rotor of the mottor directly. D DC generators have characteeristics to decrrease generated voltagee level with thee decreasing rrotational speeed. In thesse terms, geneerated voltagee is important as this voltagge is suppposed to supplly generated eenergy into ES SS and their ennergy shouuld be rated oon the higher voltage, v than thhe battery or other o com mponent of thhe ESS accorrding to its characteristicss, as show wn on Fig. 5, for LI-Ion bbattery and inn Fig. 6, for ssuper capaacitor systemss. The converrter is keepingg voltage leveel on the certain levell, where posssible. Charginng current afffects brakking torque aand this influuence should be considereed in conttrol signal for a converter.
Fig. 5 Charrging Characteriistics of Li-Ion Battery [11]
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Fig. 6 Chargiing characteristiics of Capacitorrs
III. AC-BASED DR RIVETRAIN CON NVERTERS Induction Sqquirrel Cage induction mootors are thee most coommonly usedd drivetrains ffor electric traansport appliccations duue to their low w cost and highh energy efficiency, in compparison wiith brushless DC machiness. One of the main problem ms for suuch systems is the requiremeent of the contiinuous supplyy of the AC C power wheen all ESS syystems supplyy DC currentt. This appplies some lim mitation on thhe design of tthe converter, as for this system connverter suppossed to supplyy AC current and it ment is bidirecctional plays a role off inverter. Anoother requirem opperational prinncipal for recupperative brakinng process. Operational principals p of induction mottors and contrrolling alggorithms are different froom the DC motor. DC m motors response to thee voltage channges where innduction AC m motors A current frrequency reguulation. arre controlled tthrough the AC Foor these workiing conditionss, it is possiblee to use IGBT T based invverters, as it provides p differrent frequencyy from the singgle DC buus voltage. Succh converter consists c of threee pairs of IGB BTs in paarallel with ddiodes, Fig. 77. Controllingg signal consiists of coomplimentary command forr each IGBT, as all of theem are opperating at thee same time, iin comparisonn with four quuadrant chhopper control [12]. To calculate synchronous ooperational speed of the indduction brrushless AC m motor, (7) can bbe used 12 20 /
(7)
whhere n is the output speed of motor, f thhe frequency of the suupplied AC poower, p the nuumber of poless of the motorr, s the sliip of the motoor, which is reeducing outputt speed accordding to the loaded torquue and can’t bee avoided. For AC basedd powertrain, smoothing indductor and powerful caapacitor are neecessary parts of the inverteer constructionn. The m main reason forr installing theese elements iis for smoothinng out
International Scholarly and Scientific Research & Innovation 9(12) 2015
the fluctuation iin DC voltagge output, whhen the motoor is operrating as a geenerator and A AC power flow is generateed by the generator and transferred too the ESS. In addition, a due too the freqquency fluctuaation in the conntrolling signaal, according too the speeed and torque requests from the driver, duuty cycle, as a m main conttrolling signaal for IGBTs, fluctuates duuring the tim me to suppply required innput power.
Q1
Q2
Q Q3
M Q3
Q Q4
Q Q5
Fig. 7 Inverteer Design for AC Induction Mootor Operation
Inn comparisonn with controolling algorithhms for indusstrial induuction motorrs, the EV application rrequires diffe ferent apprroaches in conntrolling princcipals, as mosst of the indusstrial induuction machinnes operate with the connstant speed and channging torque eenvironment. F For EV this opption is not ideeal as additional transm mission system,, such as gearrbox, is requireed to conttrol output speeed of the mootor with suchh control functtions. Theese mechanicaal systems incrrease the costt of the powerrtrain systtem and deecrease efficciency and increase ennergy consumption, whhich leads to thhe lower distaance range onn one charrge. D Difference bettween DC annd AC operattion for driveetrain application in E EVs is fundam mental. Whenn looking at DC pow wertrain operaations, it is possible to get good ouutput charracteristics w with supplyingg constant duuty cycles off the seveeral IGBT sw witches. Whereas For AC ccontrol, frequuency
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regulation is required for complimentary six independent IGBTs, through changing duty cycle of switches, it is possible to obtain changes in frequency of the output current and voltage and, as a result, in the rotational speed of the motor. Generation control of induction motor is also based on the frequency regulation of the AC power on the motor side of the inverter. Induction motor is operating as a generator, when shaft speed is higher than the synchronous speed of the machine, calculated with (7). The higher the difference between the frequencies is, the higher braking torque can be achieved and more energy can be recovered during the process and stored in the ESS. IV. LOW VOLTAGE BUS SUPPLYING CONVERTERS In comparison with supplying power to the powertrain, low voltage buses have pure electrical nature of powerflow. The main challenge of this bus is low predictability of the energy usage from the systems, which are operating within this bus, as their usage is dependent on the driver’s behavior in terms of using of features and external conditions, such as weather or time of the day [13]. Changing of the energy consumption of this bus have influences on the voltage level similar to the power grid operations. As this bus is operating within certain voltage range, converter should supply exact level of voltage and provide possibility to regulate power flow to compensate voltage drop when voltage of the bus level decreases due to the high energy demand. In conventional design, converters connecting ESS consisting of low voltage battery, follow the logic of supporting the programmed SoC of the low voltage power source and all features are interacting directly with it. An approach, which is proposed in this article, will allow controlling the power consumption through the voltage monitoring and supplying required amount of energy through converter without charging the additional battery. This approach provides opportunity of the fast response within the required range of the loads and also increases efficiency of the overall systems. Low voltage battery is required in this construction to add electrical inertia in the system for providing faster response and supplying important safety components, as most of the passive safety components, such as airbags and strain sensors, operate within low voltage to decrease cost of transition from the conventional vehicles. Another additional proposed system is a second converter to supply 12V DC energy. This converter can operate as a single buck converter and supply energy from the motor, when it is operating as a generator for recuperative to the braking process. This converter covers two functions at the same time. First function is to supply energy during the braking process to backup battery, supply load without discharging the battery and increasing the energy outcome from the generator, as not all of the energy generated is able to be stored in the ESS system or dissipate through the power consumed, like in the HVAC system. The proposed system requires two separate converters with difference logic of control for each of them. The first controller
International Scholarly and Scientific Research & Innovation 9(12) 2015
has the same output voltage and is working as a charger for low voltage battery and transferring energy from the main ESS. Construction can be applied as a simple one directional DC buck chopper with relatively low power rating, as shown in Fig. 8. In Fig. 8, the controlling signal is coming from the SoC of the battery and when the signal is dropping below the several preset levels and the main ESS has enough energy, this first converter is pumping energy from the high voltage bus into the battery. Another working mode for this converter is network charging of the EV. During night charging, when energy is stored into the main battery, this converter is supplied with energy from the battery. As a low battery can be discharged through the leakage of the energy into the main high voltage bus, this converter will have single direction of energy flow. Low Voltage Side
High Voltage Side
Q1
Fig. 8 Low Voltage Battery Charging Converter
Second converter proposed in this design scheme is operating in between drive motor and low voltage appliances, such as lights, safety systems, and media system of the vehicle. In comparison with battery charging buck converter, which is operating based on the SoC of the battery and ESS, this converter has more variables, as it is providing all required power for the appliances and it should react to the changing of the amount of loads it is supplying. In addition, it should react on the SoC of the main ESS and mode of the drivetrain. In order to increase efficiency of the recuperative braking, the converter acts as a load for the generator and through energy consumption, it has influence on the braking torque. As a result of this influence, this converter should get controlling signal from not only appliances control unit, but also from the ABS control system, as ABS system is operating with the braking torque of the drivetrain. Power fluctuations are the normal working conditions for this converter. To prevent shocking modes, in the bus line design, this converter is following the bidirectional converter for the drivetrain, as shown in Fig. 9. As all appliances are working with low voltage DC, an additional converter is supplying DC energy and due to the proposed position of this converter, input voltage is also DC, as it is coming from the high voltage DC bus. Peak power requirements are not as high, as main bidirectional converter is providing the required power, but this requirement is higher than for the charging buck chopper battery. All appliances in the low voltage bus have total power consumption of approximate 8 kW when all of them are in use. As not all of them are being used continuously, for example seats heaters or windows lifting systems, the converter adjusts
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ouutput power. A Also, some ligghts are not woorking during whole tim me of the operration, for exaample stop lighhts are only working duuring the brakiing process. T To improve thee performance of the coonverter, it is a possibility to unite onbooard systems in the sinngle central ccontrolling uniit. For effectivve interactionns with drrivers, this conntrolling systeem can interacct as a single board wiith all controollers and sw witches on it. Such system ms are avvailable for a llong time in auutomotive, buut in EV appliccations suuch systems w will have highher influence on the perforrmance annd usability thhrough smart control and ppower consum mption prrediction and control. c
addition cost efficciency as one of the key eleements, as it is not an iissue due to thhe dc-dc singlle direction naature of additiional convverters. C Current researrch activities are focused on developingg an efficcient logic alggorithm for sm mart energy connsumption sysstems for EV and operaational logic fo for converters as a main parrts of the systems. Smarrt grid and micro grid princiipals of the ennergy mannagement aree the foundaation for thee developing the algoorithms. REFER RENCES [1] [2] [3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7] [8]
Fig. 9 Propoosed Architecturre [9]
V. CO ONCLUSION AN ND WORK IN PROGRESS This paper hhighlighted coonverters for EV applicatioon for different designn approachess and drivetrrain configurations. w modees and convertters operationss were Allso, different working highlighted andd the supply rrequired in thhe operations of the MDC motors and a induction DC drive motors were disccussed. PM Thhe new propoosed controllinng design is aimed to unitte two relatively separaate buses in coonventional EV V architecturess- high annd low voltagge buses withh an additionnal converter. This coonverter will give allow support not onnly to low voltage v apppliances direcctly from the hhigh voltage sside of the eleectrical arrchitecture bbut additionaally increasee efficiency and coontrollability of the regenerative braaking processs, as coontrolling unitts will have more m ways to dissipate gennerated poower, as it cann be used for supplying s loadds in the low voltage v buus. Another aapplication off such conveerters can be smart coontrol of the uusage of the poower as it can react directly to the request. In thee proposed ciircuit, a low voltage batttery is woorking as an additional unnit to increasee the inertia of the whhole low vooltage bus annd supply saafety systemss with reduction in posssible faults. E Energy efficienncy of the prooposed syystem is highher, as an addditional conveerter is not sstoring ennergy in the baattery, like in tthe traditionall EV architectuure. In
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[10]
[11]
[12]
[13]
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