Details of Module and its Structure

Details of Module and its Structure Module Detail Subject Name

Sociology

Paper Name

Development, Globalisation and Society

Module Name/Title

Migration and Its Discontents

Pre-requisites

Main work related to migration and its discontents studies mainly focus upon positive and negative impacts of migration. These are Brain-Drain Amalgamation of Cultures, Racial Discrimination, Xenophobia, Trafficking and Smuggling, This module mainly looks at how globalisation affects migration, how migration bring discontent among the migrants. It is general misconception among the migrants that migration is always beneficial but how it changes scenario and also shows negative effects on migrants, even on emigrant and immigrant countries. So the basic concern is to show every aspect of both sides of coin. This module shows there are many views about migration that describe migration, from different angles but each is equally relevant to understand the phenomenon. Globalisation, Migration, Brain-Drain, Amalgamation Of Culture, Racial Discrimination and Xenophobia, trafficking and Smuggling.

Objectives

Keywords

Structure of Module / Syllabus of a module (Define Topic / Sub-topic of module) Migration and Its Discontents

Migration, Types of Migration, Discontents: - Brain –drain, Amalgamation of Culture, Racial Discrimination, Xenophobia, Trafficking and Smuggling, Summery.

Role

Name

Affiliation

Principal Investigator Paper Coordinator

Prof Sujata Patel

Department of Sociology, University of Hyderabad Department of Sociology, Panjab University, Chandigarh Department of Sociology, Panjab University Chandigarh (UT) Department of Sociology, Post Graduate Government College for Girls, Sector-11, Chandigarh (UT) Department of Sociology, Panjab University, Chandigarh Department of Sociology, Panjab University, Chandigarh

Prof Sherry Sabbarwal

Content Writer/Author (CW)

Atinder Pal Kaur and

Content Reviewer (CR) Language Editor (LE)

Prof Sherry Sabbarwal

Dr. Manoj Kumar

Prof Sherry Sabbarwal

Course: Development, Globalisation and Society Unit: Globalisation and its Impacts

Module Title: Migration and its Discontents Introduction Critics of globalisation contend that even if trade promotes material prosperity, it comes with high socio-cultural costs, running roughshod over the world’s distinctive cultures. Globalisation has increased the linkages between nation states, speeding up the exchange of goods, services, ideas and people across the national boundaries (Li, 2008), which is possible only through International relations among the various nation states. Jeremy Bentham in 1780 coined the term “International”, which is explicable while studying relation between societies and its people, culture and social, as well as, economic aspects and thus, multihued connotations in political, social, economic and geographical realms come to the fore. It is not a new phenomenon as people in earlier days also kept searching for new places and avenues to increase their job opportunities. In simpler sense, globalisation refers to integration of different national economies at global level. Such integration helps free flow of goods, capital, ideas and people, across boundaries. It is a multi-dimensional process that amalgamates economic, cultural and social change (Held et al, 2000). The contemporary globalisation is a meshwork facilitated by usage of ultra-modern high-speed communication technologies (satellite phone links, the speed of cellular phones, digitalised data transfer, video conferencing, live international news coverage, etc.) (Castells, 2003). Globalised flow of goods and capital among the nation states has become a common platform for international relations, but one thing that catalyses these changes and helps globalisation widen its reach in a faster way is “network”, which includes free flow of information, improved global communication with quick and cheap transportation costs. While network factor cannot be regarded as a direct push factor resulting in migration, it does facilitate it. The increased connectivity among nation states through networks and easy accessibility to various modes of communication has largely influenced migration. The technological advancement of these areas help people decide to move from one place to another instantly and this leads to progress in migration (IOM, 2010).

Although International migration was present long before the onset of globalisation era, but if we take into consideration factors like speed, scope, complexity; rate of increase in volume of world migration under the present globalisation era can be regarded as unprecedented (Li, 2008). There is no doubt that liberalised immigration policy of nation states, gradual rise in demand of cheap labour at global level etc. necessitate migration, which is mostly unidirectional from developing nations to developed nations. The late twentieth century is often regarded as “The age of migration” for the developing countries. Outflow of migrants is meagre when compared with population growth in developing nations. On the contrary, in developed nations, stock of immigrants has increased in proportion to total population between 1965 and 1990 (Demeny, 2002). The word migration is an umbrella term that not only includes those who migrate in search of greener pastures, but also comprise of refugees, displaced people etc. that move across National or International borders either permanently or temporarily. The United Nation has defined migrant as someone who enters a country for twelve months or longer. Different countries define migrant in various definitions (IOM, 2005). Zlotnik et al, 1992 stated International Migration System refers to a group of countries that exchange relatively large number of migrants with each other. Such magnitude of migration is due to potential economic gain from low income to high income countries at large level, freedom of international migratory flow from less developed countries to advanced industrial countries. In the words of Held et al, 2003 this is not importing or exporting labour. International Organisation for Migration (IOM), 2003 notes that the rising tide of people crossing frontiers is one of the most reliable indications of the intensity of globalisation. According to an estimate made by the International Organisation for Migration, approximately 180 million people live outside their country of birth. One out of every 35 persons in the world is a migrant, or almost 3% of the global population. If all migrants were to be put into a single nation, it would be the world’s fifth most populous country (IOM, 2003). People cross border for economic and political gains, to avert consequences of war and civil wars, sometimes displacement is forced but all these categories have different interpretations and meanings, in relation to migration. It has created a stir among researchers so as how to differentiate these from each other. An effort is made here to focus explicitly on the different meanings of migration in various contexts:Voluntary and forced Migration: It is a debatable issue among political and economic literature to deal with exact interpretation of voluntary as well as forced migration. In general,

voluntary migration is taken up by individuals who leave their homes to pursue economic opportunities for personal enrichment or to be reunited with their families (family reunification is a standard immigrant category in most industrialised states). On the other hand, forced migration includes refugees and displaced people. Such involuntary migration occurs due to various causes, which may include slavery, ethnic cleansing and deportation. Best example that fits the bill here is that of migration of Jewish Diaspora, first after the destruction of the temple of Jerusalem in 586 B.C, second when the Russian programs forced Jews to leave their soil and later, during the Holocaust (Adamson, 2006). It is often said that population flow of refugees and exiles are outcomes of forced migration only and not a by product of state action, but they also occur due to non state or market forces also. Economic versus Political Migration: Economic migrants are those who leave their countries in search of employment or other opportunities. They feel compelled to move out because of harsh conditions they face in their country of origin (Zoltnik et, al., 1992).Economic migration includes skilled and unskilled labour, permanent or temporary workers, gust workers, forced migrants like human trafficking in sex industry and slave labour. It is asserted that much of the literature on international migration is primarily written from an economic perspective and has concentrated on only one form of migration that is voluntary labour migration (Adamson, 2006). In the globalised era, presence of laissez-faire policies helps in massive labour migration among the nation states. Developed countries have become permanent magnets of economic migration that attract migrants from developing countries around the world. At the same time, it can also be said that economies luring migrants such as Gulf States, would collapse without foreign labour (Hirst and Thompson, 2000). On the other hand, refugees and asylum seekers leave their native countries to avoid the trauma of war or political persecution. They are usually able to exercise a degree of choice while choosing the destination, which is influenced by factors such as economic opportunities, formal ties existent between the source and destination countries and already functioning migration networks (Zolberg, 1983; Neumayer, 2005; Borjas, 1999; Mittelman, 1995). International law defines “refugees” as those people who have a well-founded fear of persecution because of race, religion, nationality or membership in particular, social or political group. According to the office of the United Nation High Commissioner for Refugees, it is estimated that there were 15.2 million refugees worldwide at the end of the 2008. The proportion of refugees in global migrants’ stock is 76%, out of which 4/5th of the world refugees are present in the developing countries. Surprisingly, Pakistan, the Syrian Arab Republic and the Islamic Republic of Iran host the largest number of refugees with 1.8 million, 1.1 million and 980,000

refugees respectively. Where, Afghans (2.8 million) and Iraqis (1.9million) make up the largest groups of refugees. On the contrary, number of applications in Southern Europe fell by 33% and with 50,100 claims, driven by significant decline in Italy -42%, Turkey -40%, and Greece -20%. Overall the number of asylum applications increased in 19 countries and it has decreased in 25 countries (IOM, 2010). Legal and Illegal Migration: Migrants who enter through labour visa or service visa or through legal procedure are called legal migrants. Those who are smuggled or trafficked or who enter with either forged papers or none at all are called irregular migrants that make 30-40% of all migration to western industrialised countries (Adamson, 2006). One estimate says that approximately 4 million people are smuggled across borders every year (IOM, 2003). Permanent and Temporary Migration: Permanent migration is when those who are crossing the national borders lead to permanent resettlement and these are traditionally called as immigrants and the phenomenon is known as immigration. And temporary migration includes guest workers, seasonal labourers and students There is no clear cut definition of migration in international context as the world policies see a change of guard every now and then. However, it is difficult to get proper and authentic data on migration. It has been observed that the present migration trends are more or less influenced by globalisation. Because of availability of global networks, global agencies are influencing people across the world to move from one place to another place and in this, a steady and continuous rise has been observed. No doubt that with the rapid growth, increase in levels of networking, communications, proportionate increase in the number of labour force is a must for the development of that country. For the all-round development of country, contribution of engineers, doctors, policy makers etc, is needed and such demands give call to migration. Such migration is basically economic migration that is done for the paramount interest of family welfare of. It is not only individual’s welfare rather the welfare of entire country (to a great extent) depends upon migration. International migration helps the emigrant nation receive foreign exchange reserves which can be utilised in foreign trade whereas; the immigrant nation benefits by receiving cheap labour in form of migrants and thus, result in symbiotic growth of both nations. India is a developing country, where migration effects are experienced at both national and international levels.

Due to globalisation, migration pattern has seen a lot of change. Earlier, migration in India was only seasonal or temporary and that too among inter-states. But now, international migration also influences Indian economy. International migration has affected Indian economy and trade, which has given rise to framing of new policies, laws and rules related to migration. Even “Pravasi Bhartiya Diwas” is a good platform to interact with those Indian migrants that left the Indian peninsula in search of better avenues. Governments of developing nations are giving special rights to their migrant people so that it helps in overall economic growth of the country. There is no doubt that as a result of globalisation, regions and nations have become more integrated overlooking their territorial extents. In-depth study reveals that factors helping in growth of digital technology and communication have eventually revolutionised the nature, efficiency and organisation of every aspect of production and distribution thus, leading to economic globalisation. (Sassen, 2001). Secondly, the rapid growth of the market economy and world trade has prompted regional and national economies to dismantle age-old barriers of trade by integrating transnational trading zones in order to carve out a larger share of the world market. European Union (EU), North America Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) etc. all are aimed to increase free trade among the countries within integrated regions (Li, 2008). Thirdly, the integration of world economy facilitate the inflow of capital, raw material, people, services, goods etc. that encourage nation states to expand their economic ties resulting in freedom of movement of people, completely bypassing their old rifts and rivalries. Since the title of the module is migration and its discontents, associated with the welfare of individuals and states, aim here is to examine both positive and negative implications that affect migration in concurrence with enhancement of human welfare. Migration and its Discontents Migration and globalisation are correlated terms; it is general trend among world that outflow of migrants is always from less developed countries towards developed countries. It has becomes possible due to globalisation, that brings awareness among people with respect to migration. The charm of economic achievement and higher standard of living constantly influence people from Less Developing Countries to move into Developed Countries. No doubt such kind of migration is helping in development at global level but still it has some negative effects for both, the source and destination countries. Without the discussion of both negative and positive effects of the migration at global level, it will be unfair to summarise the contents of the module.

Brain-Drain: Migration has direct effect on the population of both nations that is those sending migrants and receiving migrants. One of the most visible effects of migration on the native country is Brain-drain. It is widely believed that brain drain in modern terms involves one-way migration of highly intellectual manpower from less developed countries to developed countries and that too, on a massive scale. Skill based migration from less developed countries to developed countries is quite prominent in the present world scenario (Ghosh andGhosh, 1982). For the receiving countries, migration of intellect brings along welfare, income, maximising natural growth perspectives but for sending nations, it is a process that leads to loss of income, welfare and development thus, widening disparities at international level. Notion is that brain drain has negative impact on less developed countries. But some studies believed that, there is no real problem concerning brain migration in Asia, Africa and Latin America, because most of the students return home after a certain period of time (Das, 1972). But according to Perkins, 1966 90% of Asian students don’t come back. The backwardness of the developing countries still remains the main cause of brain drain. Many highly trained individuals are migrating on a massive scale into the developed countries, from all underdeveloped regions of the world and this problem of brain drain has become problem of international migration. But the outflow of High Qualified Manpower (HQM) is not always bad if the skilled people would come back to their home countries after acquiring higher skill from abroad. But it becomes a serious problem when the skilled people do not come back to their home countries (Ghosh and Ghosh, 1982; IOM, 2005). It is believed that emigration is generally good for over populated countries; but the migration of skilled people is harmful as the country loses the stock of high quality manpower that is essential for economic development. According to World Migration Report 2010, migration is contributing to economic growth in destination countries and can contribute to poverty reduction and economic growth in origin countries. This amount exceeds over USD 300 billion per year and it is rising continuously even after global financial crisis. Demand in the health care workers is increasing rapidly especially among the OCED countries. It has been observed that remittances flow constitutes the largest source of financial flows of developing countries after Foreign Direct Investment (FDI), and indeed in many countries exceed FDI flows. Some of the largest receivers of remittances in 2004 were India (USD$ 8.4 billion), Mexico (USD$ 132 billion), the Philippines (USD$8.0 billion), Egypt (USD$2.9billion), Pakistan (USD$4.2 billion) and Morocco (USD $3.2 billion) (UNFPA, 2005). According to International Labour Organisation estimates, developing countries are

presently facing 10-30% loss of skilled manpower through brain drain and OECD study recently asserted that are most apt to suffer from the effect of brain drain are small countries and less developed countries, notably in Africa and in the Caribbean. No doubt migration has positive effects like for remittances receiving countries but it has negative effects also. Due to migration, dependencies of the receiving families upon remittances have also increased. It is also true that the emigrating persons are not always benefited by braindrain. The contingents do not always get jobs according to their choices, and sometimes have to work which don’t correspond to their education qualification. Sometimes job conditions are unpleasant and the emigrants face racial discrimination among other discriminations like uncertainty, lack of adjustment, loss of skill and even unemployment due to changes in labour market situations. Emigrants are always ready to work at cheap salary and it reduces the number of jobs available for local people and in such situations; hatred disseminates among migrants and local natives. For advanced countries, brain is akin to an ordinary commodity, having no special prestige and value, it is only useful only where shortage of necessary skills is faced or is utilised to overcome the bottlenecks and shortage in the labour market. Emigrants get full access to public services once they are bestowed upon Citizenship which recognises them as citizens. They also benefit from the government facilities as restructuring of policies are done so that it works for the welfare of emigrants. Romans found out that immigrants are a burden because they escalate the cost of public services as it overshadows the gains harnessed from the immigrants (Ghosh and Ghosh, 1987). For large developed companies it is still advantageous to an extent, but for migrants, situation is even worse as influx of migrants in large numbers may lead to job insecurity. Moreover, LD’s companies can give them pink-slips without citing adequate reasons resulting in unemployment among migrant workers. So migration becomes disadvantageous for migrants and ripples out problems of taxes and savings. Sometimes, for migrants working on token wages, it becomes difficult to fulfil their basic needs and their condition deteriorates, pushing them further into the clutches of poverty, thus, creating a void of basic amenities necessary to survive. Violation of human rights is another ugly facet of migration that engulfs the whole family of migrant. Racial discrimination is a manifestation of simmering hatred in the hearts of native people, unhealthy fumes of which make the environment inhabitable for the migrants. Harsh rules and regulations lead to isolation and loneliness problem among the migrants and they find it difficult to adjust with such situations.

Amalgamation of Cultures: The second aspect of migration is amalgamation of world cultures. Migrants always remain tied to their native culture but, often wilfully accept and follow other culture also. Migrants try to establish and flourish their culture in the immigrant countries and also imbibe their culture. For example, Punjabi migrants in Vancouver, Canada and other advanced countries have developed several hubs of Punjabi culture in their vicinity and are fondly called as mini-Punjabs. Even Bengali and south Indian culture has also become prominent all over the world. It has only become possible through globalisation and migration. The easy connectivity through networks of ideas, transport systems give mixing of cultures all over the world, a new tinge. The spreading of McDonaldisation and the culture of Starbucks was made possible through migration and globalisation. Fusion of foods, dresses, music, languages and art have become an essential part of everyday life in modern societies. Intermingling of western and eastern cultures in modern societies has strengthened social bonds. West-bound migration of Jewish Diaspora have acclimatised them to new yet different culture but still, they try to save their original culture by conversing in their language, watching TV channels, listening to their songs, CD’s etc. The world-wide recognition that Punjabi culture has acclaimed for itself has only become possible via exchange of migrants. Culture breaks the nation states boundaries with the help of migration and globalisation of mass media. Earlier nobody knew about western culture and their life style but after integration of societies and concept of humanity and equality, gave a call to co-existence of multi-cultures and thus, developed a common culture known as Cosmo-culture which, nobody knows from where it came, how did it develop and how does it spread but is enjoyed and hence, followed by all. The fusion of cultures and their adaptation has given rise to fears about the dilution or disappearance of local or traditional culture. Global culture presents a picture of conjugated cultures, which are a mélange of diverse elements. The coexistence of multiple cultures doesn’t means that these cultures are free from tensions and conflicts. The spread of culture arouse the feeling of superiority among one section and inferiority amongst the other, serving as germinating ground for attacks, culminating hatred in minds and hearts of people of other culture (Turner and Khondker, 2010). Huntington (1997) argues in his controversial book Clash of Civilisation that the global world is actually becoming more deeply fractured along historical cultural fault lines. Even he views this perspective as an erroneous distortion and over simplification, which is kind of a time-space compressed world, simultaneously leading to stronger new and old solidarities as well as to the opening of new and old fissures. But in the worst case, the process is associated

with targeted assault on members of minority groups and so-called “race-riots” when anger in the minority community overflows (UNFPA, 2005; Turner and Khondkar, 2010). Racial Discrimination and Xenophobia: There is no doubt globalisation has manifested in form of increase in rate of international migration and such migration, though chaotic, affects all parts of migrants’ life. Migration not only affects economic and cultural aspects but also the political, educational and psychological arenas too stand affected by it. Pressure is felt by the receiving nations to change their political rules and regulations and many amendments had to done to protect the rights of migrants. States have to give not only citizen rights to immigrants rather all basic human rights helped by U.N protect immigrant’s right through International Organisation for Migration, Human rights declaration. Burden falls upon the receiving states to bestow the basic standards of living so as to show their best in a heist to avoid political turmoil. Such changes create biases, imbalances and hatred feelings among the local natives. People treat migrants as aliens and don’t allow them to enjoy basic human rights. Such situations leads to failure of state’s machinery and riots occur at local level. Distress arouses among the native people. Cases have been seen among Australian people where Indian students were killed due to racial discrimination and even strikes were done by Australian citisens against Indians. Achieving higher or better education so as to get better job is the root-cause that influences people to migrate from less developed countries to advanced countries. After migration they would be able to get better education and job among the migrant countries, but such migration leads to loss of migrants to native countries because they have to face shortage of educated chunk. Silicon Valley is the best example in relation to educational brain drain among the developing countries. Indians and Chinese in large number are working in Silicon Valley and helping America become a supreme power in the field of technology. Such engineers after completing their basic education from native countries flee to seek job opportunities in developed countries. They get handsome packages in developed countries because their native countries are not economically strong enough so as to remunerate them with such nice packages. It is believed that migration has a positive side that leads to welfare among the societies but such migration sometime has bad effects on emotional needs of both the migrants and native people of receiving countries. Migrants suffer emotional breakdowns, loneliness, and isolation due to absence of family members, friends and other loved ones. Sometimes they feel problem in adjusting to new environment as they are habitual tied to old environment only, which leads to emotional sickness and they feel stressed out, tensed due to lack of proper resources and

fulfilment of gregarious needs. Such things hinder their potential and leads to stress and unhappy life. Native people also experience xenophobia and become ethnocentric due to feeling that migrants would take their place and prominence of their culture would take a backseat. Such fears play a spoilsport as instead of helping the migrant people adjust to their new settings they target and drag migrants into internal disputes. Increase in multi-ethnic societies, has marked an onset of discrimination and violence directed against migrants, refugees and other non-nationals by extremist groups in many parts of the world. Such things create negative thoughts among the migrants and native people in relation to culture and religion. It becomes difficult to compromise and live with these situations and this leads to riots, mob-lynching and other kind of tortures and sometimes result into a political turmoil. It also creates the feeling of racial discrimination and native people start discriminating with migrant people. Concept of superiority and inferiority always remain attached with migrants and native people. To stop Xenophobia, national campaign called as Roll Back Xenophobia was launched in South Africa in 1998 where national effort was widely visible to confront rising incidences of xenophobic hostility and violence in that country. It began as a joint effort by national and international institutions: the South Africa Human Rights Commission, the National Consortium on Refugee Affairs and the office of the United Nation High Commission of Refugees. It emphasised multi-faceted activity by government, civil society, and communications, media, including information campaigns by national and local government, training of police, strengthening of labour rights protections for migrant worker, sensitising of trade union officials, awareness raising by religious organisations, factual reporting by mass media and other measures were also taken (ILO, IOM, OHCHR, 2001). Trafficking and Smuggling: Another aspect that brings bad name to migration is when migrant people are involved in trafficking, slave trade and exchange of sex workers etc. Trafficking and migrant smuggling have blotted the image of legal migrants as well. Rise in number of criminal groups pose great challenge for advocates of human rights and such humanitarian organisations like law enforcement agencies (IOM, 20001). Trafficking was defined by U.N in 2000 when it adopted a protocol to prevent, suppress and punish the culprits causing trafficking especially of women and children thus, supplementing the U.N Convention against Transnational Organisation Crime. “According to Article 3 of the trafficking protocol, trafficking of persons in the recruitment, transportation, transfer harbouring or receipt of persons by means of treat or use of force or other

forms of coercion, of abduction, of fraud, of deception, of the abuse of power or of a position of vulnerability or of the giving or receiving of payments or benefits to achieve the consent of a person having control over other persons, for the purpose of exploitation (UN, 2004). The term ‘trafficking’ refers to a migratory process which involves some form of coercion or deception and which is done for an exploitative purpose (U.N, 2000). The term ‘migrant smuggling’ refers to the facilitated, illegal movement of persons across borders for profit (UNFPA, 2005). In one estimate, 2.5 million people are engaged in one or more forms of forced labour, including sexual harassment; according to the first Global Slavery Index (Walk Free Foundation, 2013). Approximately 30 million slaves in the world and victims are trafficked from 127 countries to be exploited in 137 countries. An estimated 1.2 million children (under the age of 18 years) are trafficked every year. Secondly 43% of victims are used for forced commercial sexual exploitation, and about 32% of victims are used for forced economic exploitation (for example manual labour, commercial production and semi-skilled labour from which 56% are women and girls). Estimate of global annual profits reaped from the exploitation of all trafficked force labour are US$ 31.6 million (Chibba, 2014). However, majority of trafficking occurs in the form of international migration and involves the crossing of borders illegally, semi legal or legal and / or subsequent violation of states immigration laws e.g. via illegal work or visa abuse or over staying. Although smuggling of people is also prevalent which is also illegal migration but it is based on mutual consent of people. Still it is also a kind of illegal migration for profit making. Sometimes smuggled people are also used for sexual work and other kind of forced labour work and they are made to work as slaves. An estimate of International Labour Organisation states that 2.5 million people are estimated to be trafficked at any given point in time of which, a minimum of one third are trafficked for economic purposes. Measures are taken by U.N and IOM and even International Human Rights laws has also been implemented but still it is not totally banned or banished from all over world. Summary There is no denying the fact that globalisation has brought cheers to the lives of migrants by opening new vistas of employment. It has also made inroads into the socio-cultural heritage of this country. United Nations defines a Migrant as someone who enters a country for twelve

months or longer. Various types of migration include Voluntary and Forced Migration where, former means wilfully leaving behind their native places to pursue economic opportunities for personal gains and latter, when the migrant is not ready to migrate and migration is thus, forced ; Economic Migration where, migration is done to seek monetary benefits and Political Migration is when migration takes place to avoid the trauma of war or political turmoil ; Legal Migration is that where migration is legally sanctioned and Illegal Migration is done on forged papers ; Permanent Migration looks forward to settling down for life and Temporary Migration is when people migrate to fulfil certain needs like completing education, employment etc. Even though no proper authentic data is available to cite the real causes of migration, but somewhere it can be related to globalisation where, availability of global linkages between technologies, transportation systems, means of communication etc. along with global agencies like United Nation Organisation, MNCs, economic forums like NAFTA, SAARC, ASEAN, etc. have accentuated the pace of migration. If the process of migration comes to a standstill, economy of the nation would suffer the maximum. Though migration benefits the society in numerous ways still, there are many negative consequences that the native country has to bear with, vis. Brain Drain where along with individual; it is his skill that moves to developed country leaving behind his homeland. This often leads to slower rate of growth back home thus, widening the gap between the economic levels of two nations. Chances that these migrant intellectual minds would come back to their roots are almost negligible. On an emotional front, these migrants face difficulty in embracing culture of destination country which results into cultural shock and feeling of solitude disseminates. Moreover, natives of destination country lack cultural acceptability as well, thus, adjustment of migrant becomes a tedious task. Silver lining in this scenario is birth of cosmopolitan-culture which rises out of fusion of food habits, performing arts, dresses, lifestyles, etc. Migration fiddles with psychological state of local people and they think that migrants may take over their jobs, kill their share of seats in educational institutions and they become ethnocentric. Racial discrimination is a direct manifestation of fear that germinates from migration. In this, basic standards of living provided to migrants suffer because natives treat them as aliens and this creates an environment of feeling of hatred, biasness and imbalance. Another ugly facet of migration that is further a cause of dissatisfaction is human trafficking and smuggling. Slave trading, prostitution, child labourers, etc. constitute human trafficking. On a concluding note to this module, it would be correct to say that flow of people across the borders, increase in the multicultural population and the emergence of informal, migration based,

transnational network that helps in circulation of capital, goods, and ideas also pose a challenge to nation states to control their sovereignty. Migration always influences states’ capacity and autonomy, effect on state security and national identity. Because large scale of illegal migration, states capacity to provide public services suffers and can lead to conflict over control over resources. It becomes difficult for a state to fulfil all the demands of migrants and native people related to resources at the same time which genuinely is a cumbersome task. Lured by pull factors of destination country, migration takes place and individual does this without much analyzing its pros and cons thus, feel resentment after migration, further leading to overall displeasure during his stay there.