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nd e r t a k e n a s a n ini t i a l a t t e m p t a t t h e ta sk of i nv e s t i g a t ing ve ri fyi n g h u e nc e s o f n t e r p r e t in e ro i t infl u pin d an g g g F r e n ch l i fe a n d l e t t e r s u pon t h e li t e r a t u r e of h n o E n gla nd b e gi ning wi t h t e s c a ll e d E liz a be t h a n p e riod a n d e x t e n d in g t hro u g h t h e y e a rs prio r to t h e S t u a r t R e s t or a t ion T hi s is in no an y s e n se a n e w fi e l d of s t u dy nor is t h e r e disposi t ion t o r e g a rd t his wo r k a s fin a l Mu ch a c t u a l m a t e ri a l h a s be e n fo u n d a v a i l a b l e th e r e su l t s of va r io u s ind e p e n de nt li n e s of i n ve s t i g a t io n Al s o a va il a b l e w e r e nu m e ro u s sc a t t e r e d s u g g e s t ion s of re la t io n s hip a n d i n d e b t e dn e s s a w a i t i n g de v e l op m e n t a n d v e r i fic a t io n Su ch da ta dr a wn u pon l i be r a lly a n d co n sid e re d c a r e f u l ly in t h e prog r e s s of t h is s t u dy c a n b e conv e n i e n t ly a c k n owl e dg e d i n d e t a il only i n foot n o t e s a n d bi blio g r a phy To t he s e t h e r e a d e r is r e sp e c t f u lly r e f e r r e d wi t h t h e u nd e rs t a n d i n g th a t t o o n e a n d a ll of t h e p a i n s t a k i n g pa t h b r e a k e r s t h e r e r e pr e s e n t e d t h e a u t hor i s a b u nd a n t ly r a t e fu l g T

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pl a n a n d domin a tin g p u rpos e of this e ss a y wi t h i t s r e co ni t ion of soci a l a n d li t e ra ry g k inships u nd e r T u dor a n d St u a r t r u l e a r e s u ffici e n t ly indic a t e d in t h e I ntrodu c t ion a n d A s no t e d l a t e r i t is a t h e ch a p t e r-h e a din g s pl a n t h a t m a d e i t s e lf a s t h e inve st i g a t ion d e in t h e a n d wh a t e v e r i t s d e fi ci e nci e s ve l o p e d ; tr e a t m e n t of incid e nta l ind e b t e dn e ss on t h e o n e S id e a n d in t h e m a ssin g of infl u e nc e s by chronolog ic al s t e ps on t h e oth e r it s e e m s t o o ff e r a n a tu r a l a n d f a irly a d e q u a t e sch e m e fo r this p a r t ic u l a r s e t of lit e r a ry r e l a t i ons Oh v i o u s l y consid e r a b l e m a t e ri a l of v a l u e for s u ch a st u dy h a s not fo u nd its w a y in t o t h e p a g e s th a t follo w C ri t icis m a n d a ddi t ion a r e p a r I nt e rpr e t a t ion t i c ul a r l y invi t e d in t his r e sp e c t e n r liz ion lik wis h a ve not n and e e a a t e b e e g c a rri e d so fa r a s th e y mi g ht h a ve be e n h a d this be e n oth e r th a n a n ini t i a l ve nt u r e T he i n t e r e s t h a s be e n r a th e r in t h e s e c u ri t y of t h e fo u nd a t ions l a id t h a n i n t h e e xt e n t of t h e s u p e r s t ru c t u r e M os t of t h e m a t e ri a l u tiliz e d in th e s e ch a p t e rs h a s be e r om t h e coll e c t i ons of t h e dr f a wn n C ol u m b i a U niv e rsi t y L i br a ry s u ppl e m e n t e d in p a rt i c u l a r by t h e L i br a ry of H a rva r d U nive r s i t y a n d t h e Pu b li c L i br a ry a t C inc inn a ti O h i o T he ,

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o ffici a ls of a l l t h e s e t h e a u t hor wou l d T h e s u b j e c t of t h e e xpr e ss h i s ob lig a t ion its a n d e v e r y s t e p in su g ge st e d e ss a y w as s u bs e q u e n t d e ve lop m e n t h a s be e n c a r e f u lly w a t ch e d by Prof e sso r Je fie r s o n B u t l e r Fl e t ch e r a n d Prof e ssor Jo e l E li a s S pin g a r n of t h e D e m L t r a t u r e in C ol u m b i a of o p r iv i r t m n t a t e e a a e C p T h e ir kind a n d con t in u a l a ssis t U n iv e r si t y a n c e h a s b e e n a vi t a l f a c t or in t h e g r ow t h a n d c o m pl e t ion of t his wor k m a kin t h a c kn o wl e g e dg m e n t of i n d e b t e d n e ss t o t h e m no e m p t y for m bu t a n e xp r e ss ion of t h e d e e p e s t s e ns e of r u a t t e P r r i d of ssor dg r wi n g B ndon e E a E a g of t h e D e p a r t m e nt o f R o m a nic L a n g u a g e s M i a m i U nive rsi t y h a s k indly r e a d t h e va r i ous ch a p t e rs in proof a n d o ff e re d va l u a bl e s u g g e s t ions T

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INTRODU C TI ON T H E A R E O PA G U S G R O U P T H E E L I Z A B ET H A N SO N N ET D U B AR T A S RAB E L A I S M ON TA IG NE S E V E N TEE N T H C E N T U RY PR E C I E U S E S A N D PL A T O N I S T S R O M A N C E D RA M A A N D H E R O I C P O E M M I N O R L I TE RAR Y F O R M S C O NC L U S ION ,

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is a commonpl a c e in t h e stu dy o f E nglish lit e r a tu r e th a t t h e fo u rt e e nth c e ntu ry an d t h e p e riod imm e di a t e ly following t h e Stu a rt R e sto r a tion a r e p e c u li a rly m a rk e d by e xt e nd e d in E q u a lly flu e n ce from t h e lit e ra t u r e of Fr a n c e commonpl a c e is t h e dict u m th a t t h e lit e r a tu r e which in t h e wid e r s e ns e we c a ll E liz a be th a n is domin a t e d r a th e r by an I t a li a n inspir a tion Op e r a ting l a rge ly by dir e ct imp u ls e bu t in p a rt this tim e thro u gh t h e m e di u m o f t h e Fr e nch T h e m a nn e r in which Fr a n c e r e nd e r e d h e r s e r " vic e a s an a ge nt in this E liz a be th a n t r a n s a c tion t h e a mo u nt of origin a l r e a ction an d fr e sh impul s e Sh e imp a rt e d to wh a t p as s e d throu gh h e r h a nds t h e lit e r a ry r e s u lts in E ngl a nd for which s h e m a y be h e ld individ u a lly r e sponsi bl e ar e c e rt a inly d e s e rving of s e riou s a t t e ntion E sp e ci a lly is this t h e c a s e in vi e w o f t h e gr e a t IT

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m as s o f m a t e ri a l be a ring on s u ch qu e stions a n d; in most inst a nc e s e a sy o f a cc e ss T h e p e rio d dr a wn u pon for this stu dy tho u gh nomin a ll y e xt e nd ing from t h e a cc e ssion o f E liz a b e th t o t h e tim e o f t h e R e stor a tion o ff e rs n othing o f p a rtic ul a r Signific a n c e e a rli e r th a n t h e p a rtn e r S hip o f l it e ra ry int e r e sts a n d a ctiviti e s a mong — Sidn e y an d his fri e nds in t h e y e a rs 1 5 7 9 1 5 8 0 From th a t point t h e d e ve lopm e nt o f lit e r a t u r e an d t h e pl a y o f in fl u e nc e w e r e r a pid an d S i g n i fi c a nt e no u gh f T h e p e riod a s a whol e was on e m a rk e d by a lmost const a nt politic a l r e l a tions b e tw e e n E n g l a nd a n d Fr a nc e a n d for a consid e r a bl e port i on o f it t h e gr e a t m a ss o f E nglish p e opl e w a tch e d with k e e n e st int e r e st e v e ry mov e m e nt o f th e ir n e igh b ors a cro s s t h e C h a nn e l a n d d e vo u r e d e v e ry scr a p o f inform a tion r e g a rding Fr e nch a ff a irs E liz a b e th from t h e mom e nt o f h e r a cc e ssion wa s confront e d b y t h e cl a ims o f Ma ry St u a rt wif e o f t h e d a u phin o f Fr a nc e b a ck e d by t h e C a tholic a dh e r e nts in b oth r e a lms By t h e tim e t h e d e a th o f Fr a n cis l e ft Ma ry a widow an d s e nt h e r post ing b a ck t o soil E liz a be th h a d c o rfiffii t t e d h e rs e lf policy o f t h e Fr e nch H u g u e nots an d r e f u s e d t o t a k e p a rt in t h e C o un cil o f T r e nt T h e r e ligio u s str u ggl e in Fr a nc e h e ld b a ck for a t l e ngth b rok e forth in f u ll vigor with a tim e t h e b e ginning o f S p a nish d e pr e d a tions in t h e N e th e rl a nds ; a n d e v e ry d e v e lopm e nt promis e d t o b e pr e gn a nt with S ignific a nc e t o t h e E nglish p e opl e Gr a d u a lly Prot e sta ntism be c a m e s y .

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I NT ROD UCTI O N

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loy a lty t o t h e E nglish throne pri e sts from Do u a y a n d J e s u it mission a ri e s be c a m e o bj e cts o f p e rs e c u tion an d a ll E ngl a nd hun g e a ge rly u pon t h e v a rying fortu n e s o f t h e Fr e nch H u gu e nots Me n an d mon e y from E n g l a nd a id e d H e nry o f N a v a rr e in his e xt e nd e d stru ggl e a ga inst t h e forc e s of Ca tholicism to which f a ith h e fin a lly yi e lde d to s e c u r e his thron e Aft e r a Short int e rim a ctiv e r e l a tions with Fr a nc e be ga n a ga in with n e goti a tions for t h e m a rri a ge o f Pr in c e Ch a rl e s of E ngl a nd with H e nri e tt a Ma ri a d a u ght e r o f H e nry I V The m a rri a ge onc e cons u mm a t e d th e r e foll owe d a long tr a in o f dom e stic diffic ul ti e s e ncour a ge d ’ by t h e pr e j u dic e of t h e qu e e n s Fr e nch a dvis e rs an d r e li e v e d a t tim e s by diplom a tic visits from s u ch m e n a s B a ss om pi e r r e I n 1 62 7 E n gl a nd s e nt a n ill a dvis e d a n d dis a strou s e xp e dition to t h e d e f e ns e o f t h e Prot e st a nt town o f N e w R och e ll e T his wa s distinctly a t v a ri a nc e with t h e g e n e r a l policy o f Ch a rl e s how e v e r which tu rn e d e mph a tic a lly towa rd C a tholicism a n d wa s th u s fri e ndly to t h e Fr e nch crown Fin a lly it wa s Fr a nc e th a t r e c e ive d t h e widow e d q u e e n o f Ch a rl e s I a n d t h e b e vy o f f a ithf u l co u rti e rs who a tt e nd e d h e r in e xil e Whil e this history wa s u nfolding v a rio u s m e n of import a nc e from e a ch co un try visit e d t h e oth e r fr e qu e ntly on bu sin e ss o f sta t e an d som e time s prolonge d th e ir st a y a n d bro a de ne d th e ir a cq u a int a nc e T h e e xt e nd e d r e sid e nc e of t h e S cotch H u m a nist B u ch a n a n n on ym ou s

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I N T ROD UCTI O N

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in Fr a n c e a s st u d e nt an d a s t e a ch e r pr e ’ c e d e d E li z a b e th s a cc e ssion by only a fe w y e a rs Su ch Scotchm e n as Willi a m B a rcl a y an d J a ccomp an i e d Ma ry St u a rt into Fr a nc e o u ng Sidn e y was pr e s e nt a t t h e Fr e n ch co u rt a fri e nd Of H e nry o f N a v a rr e an d an a c qu a int an c e o f R ons a rd ; h e wa s a n e ye witn e ss o f t h e Sa int B a rtholom e w Ma s s a cr e an d be g a n a bro a d his lin e of fri e ndship a n d int e rco u rs e with t h e Fr e nch P rot e st a nts Sir T hom a s Smith h a d a long e xp e ri e nc e in Fr a n c e as a m bassa dor o f E liz a be th B e n J on s on a ccomp a ni e d his yo u ng w a rd t h e s on o f T h e E a rl o f E ss e x l e d t h e Sir Wa lt e r R a l e igh E nglish troops s e nt by E li z a b e th t o t h e a ssist a n c e o f H e nry I V B a con visit e d Fra nc e In t h e s u it e o f t h e diplom a t Amya s P a u l e t H un dr e ds r e f u ge e s w e r e driv e n a cross t h e o f Ca tholic Ch a nn e l as t h e Prot e st a ntism o f E ngl a nd was int e nsi fi e d As tim e w e nt on t h e contin e nt a l — — to u r e sp e ci a lly t o Fr a n c e be c a m e mor e o f ’ a n e c e ssity in t h e tr a in ing o f E ngl a nd s yo un g no b ility T h e n c a m e t h e r e gicid e in 1 6 49 a n d no b ility o f a ll a g e s fl ock e d to At l e a s t t wo E n glishm e n o f not e ga v e lit e r a ry form t o th e ir vi e ws r e g a rding Fr a n c e Ja m e s Howe ll in his L e tte r s an d his I n s tr u cti on s for ,

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i n t e r c o u r se a r e c o ll e ct e d b y J J Ju s s e r a n d , S h a ke s p e a r e i n F r a n c e u n d e r t h e “ De s An c i e n R eg i m e , L o n d o n , 1 8 9 9 , E J B R a t h e r y , R e l a t i o n s s o ci a l e s e t i n t e ll e ct u e l l e s e n t r e l a F r a n c e ’ n e m or i n e XX Xxi ii ; in R e vu e co t et l An g l e t e r r e , , p a J R o u s s e a u e t l e co s m o p o li t i s m e a n d Jo s .T e xt e , J a r is , 1 8 9 5 li tt ér a i r e , .

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tob iogr a phy T h e n a m e s o f thos e Fr e nchm e n who visit e d E ngl a nd thro u gho u t t h e p e riod form e v e n a mor e imposing a rr a y ; a ltho u gh with a fe w e xc e ptions th e y s e e m to h a v e m a d e littl e mor e impr e ssion u pon E ngl a nd th a n t h e E nglish did R ons a rd sp e nt a b o u t thr e e y e a rs u pon th e m l n D in Scotl a nd a nm a d u B a rt a s on a g diplom a tic visit t o Scotl a nd S W t h e h e a rt o f J a m e s VI th a t t h e roy a l host wa s lo a th to p e rmit his r e tu rn J a cqu es Cr evin a pp e a r e d au

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Br a ntom e who fo u nd littl e e no u gh I n his soj o u rn \ r h o t r e c a lling At t h e b e ginning of t h e s e v e n w g t e e n t h c e nt u ry Mon t ch r e s t i e n visit e d E ngl a nd whil e ln e xil e an d a fie r h u fi c a m e B o i s r o b e r t Voit u r e & Sa int Am a nt T h e ophil e d e V i a u a n d -E v r m a An d ye t y e a rs a ft e r t h e e on d f S int R e stor a tion t h e l a n g u a ge an d lit e r a t u r e o f E ngl a nd w e re look e d u pon by Fr a nc e a s cr u d e a n d in m a ny r e sp e cts b a r b a ro u s T h e p e riod a ffords s e v e r a l not a bl e e x a mpl e s o f corr e spond e nc e c a rri e d on b e tw e e n l e a ding spirits of t h e two co u ntri e s not t h e l e a st b e ing th a t of Qu e e n E liz a b e th with H e nry I V Schol a rs e sp e ci a lly e ng a g e d in this pr a ctic e Sidn e y corr e spond e d fr e e ly with H u b e rt L an gu e t H e nri E sti e nn e H o t m a n Pi br a c a n d D u pl e ssis Morn a y W illi a m C a md e n e xch a nge d l e tt e rs with H o t m a n De T hou Pe ir e s c a n d t h e broth e rs Sa int e -Ma rth e T h e corr e spond e nc e o f De T ho u a n d Pe ir e s c incl u d e d n u m e ro u s ,

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glishm e n a mong th e m C otton Wo t t on B a rcl a y a n d Se ld e n I n t h e r e ign o f E liz a b e th a s w e ll a s th a t o f t h e St u a rts a mpl e e vid e nc e a tt e sts t h e wid e kn owl e dg e o f t h e Fr e nch l a ngu a g e p a rtic ul a rly a mong t h e e d u c a t e d cl a ss e s o f E ngla nd a n d lik e wis e t h e f a mili a rity o f th e s e p e opl e with Fre nch ’ lit e r a t u r e Only a fe w y e a rs be for e E liz a b e th s “ coron a tion Nisan d e r Nu c iu s h a d t e stifi e d : L e s An g l o i s s e s e rv e nt pr e s qu e to u s du l a ng a g e ” 1 fr a n cois D u ring h e r r e i gn Pa s qu i e r is a u t h or i t y for t h e st a t e m e nt th a t in a ll G e rm a ny E ngl a nd an d Scotl a nd th e r e wa s n o no bl e ho u s e hold th a t did n o t in cl u d e a t e a ch e r o f E dw a rd Blo u nt in his introd u ction Fr e nch ’ t o a n e dition o f L yl y s com e di e s 1 6 32 d e scri b e d ’ t h e vogu e o f L yl y s styl e a t t h e co u rt o f E liz a Al l o u r L a d i e s w e r e t h e n his b e th by s a ying : Sch oll e r s ; a n d th a t B e a u t i e in C o u rt which c o u ld n o t Pa rl e y E u ph u e i sm e wa s a s littl e r e ga rd e d a s sh e which n o w th e r e sp e a ks n ot ” Fr e nch T h e dr a m a its e lf e sp e ci a lly a ft e r t h e coming cont a ins n u m e ro u s r e f e r o f H e nri e tt a Ma ri a e n c e s t o t h e knowl e dg e o f Fr e nch a s a n e c e ss a ry ’ co u rtly a ccomplishm e nt I n Middl e ton s M or e Di s se m ble r s be s ide s Wom e n t h e fo u rth sc e n e o f “ ’ Y ou ve t h e first a c t a pp e a rs t h e st a t e m e nt : m a ny d a u ght e rs s o w e ll bro u ght u p th e y S p e a k Fr e nch n a t u r a lly a t fift e e n a n d th e y a r e t u rn e d t o t h e S p a nish a n d I t a li a n h a lf a y e a r l a t e r oth e r

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him in Fr e nch v e rsions I n 1 608 for “ e x a mpl e h e re a d : T r OI S 1e m e tom e d e s H i s ’ t o i r e s T r a gi qu e s C om e di e s de l a R iv e L E n fe r ’ ’ d Amo u r P rinc e d Or an g e E xposition s u r ’ l Apo c a li p s L a C onformit é du L a ng a g e Fr a n c L e s R i s d e De m o cr i t e T r a v a u x a v e c l e Gr e c — s a ns T r a v a il e E r a st u s e u Fr a n cois L e s Anti qu it e s d e Fr a nc e D e rni e r tom e of De Se rr e s L e Se i g n e u r De s Accords E pi s t r e s d e Pa s qu i e r H istoir e d e S Al b ig e ois L a Cu r i os i t e d e Du ” Pl e SSi L a F u il e du Pe ch e L a G a z z e tt e Fr a n cois toge th e r with Si x vol u m e s o f t h e Am a di s de Only Ga u l a pp a r e ntly in t h e Fr e nch form S i x oth e r it e ms a r e n ot e d fo r t h e y e a r t wo o f th e m L a tin works writt e n by Fr e nchm e n I n 1 60 9 his r e a ding in cl u d e d : B a rt a s 1 3 T om e ’ d Am a d i S d e G a u l e L a F r a n c i a d e d e R ons a rd R a bl a is Dictionn a ir e d e N icot R ol a nd Fu ri e u x — in F r e n ch e Az ol a in s d e B e m b e in F r e n ch e ’ Mon o ph il e d E s t i e n n e Amo u rs d e R ons a rd P a s qu i e r L e s Po e m e s d e Pa ss e r a t H ymn e s d e R ons a rd L e s O d e s d e R ons a rd E l e gi e s e t E gl o g u e s d e R ons a rd D e u x T r a g e di e s d e Jod e ll e ” Dr u mmond wa s o f R e ch e rch e s d e Pa s qu i e r co u r s e a thoro u gh lingu ist a n d an omnivoro u s r e a d e r wh o wa s comp a r a tiv e ly fr e sh fro m a soj o u rn in Fr a nc e ; bu t e v e n a t th a t his a o qu a int a n c e with Fr e nch b ooks m a y be t a k e n a s f a irly indic a tiv e o f conditions pr e v a iling in t h e e d u c a t e d circl e s o f S cotl a nd a n d E ngl a nd T h a t t h e E nglish p e opl e w e r e a nxio u s t o pr o vid e th e ms e lv e s with a kn owl e dge of t h e Fr e nch tongu e is cl e a rly e vid e nc e d by t h e u nf a ilin g .

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I NT ROD UCTI O N

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d e m a nd in th a t da y for Fr e nch gr a mm a rs an d diction a ri e s T h e c e l e br a t e d t e a ch e r of Fr e nch Cl a u d e H ol yba n d (Sa int L i e n ) fo u nd a r e a dy s a l e for e dition a ft e r e dition of his t e xt b ooks T h e F r e n ch L i ttle ton first iss u e d in 1 5 6 6 T h e F r en ch S ch oole M a i s te r be g inn ing with 1 5 73 a n d ,

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T he A Di c ti on a ri e F r e n c h a n d E n g li s h , 1 5 9 3 F r en ch Alph a be t , by De l a Moth e d e Va y e r , h a d .

pop u l a rity th a t c a ll e d forth n u m e rou s e ditions ’ H olyb a n d s di ction a ry wa s s u p e rs e d e d in 1 6 1 1 by th a t of C otgr a v e which in t u rn w e nt thro u gh s e v e r a l e ditions T h a t of 1 6 5 0 dir e ct e d by J a m e s H owe ll wa s a ccomp a ni e d by a n e ss a y t h e Fr e nch la n g u a ge which dr e w o f his o n fr e e ly witho u t a dmi t t ing o bliga tion u pon t h e H owe ll a ddr e ss e d him Re ch e r ch e s of Pa sq u i e r “ s e lf to t h e no b ility an d ge ntry o f Gr e a t Brit a in th a t a r e d e siro u s to S p e a k Fr e nch for th e ir pl e as u r e an d orn a m e nt a s a lso to a ll m e rch an t a dv e nt u r e rs as we ll E nglish a s D u tch to whom t h e s a id l a ngu a ge is n e ce s ” 2 s a ry for comm e rc e an d forr e n corr e spond e nc e a

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C f Ju s s e r a n d , S h a ke s p e a r e i n F r a n c e , p p 2 1 —2 2 3 T h e o l l o i n g l i s t i ll a ff o r d s o m e i d e a o f t h e E n g li s h d e m a n d fo r t e xt -b o o k s d e a l i n g i t h t h e Fr e n ch l a n g u a g e a t e s i n b r a c k e t s i n di c a t e t im e o f e n t r y in t h e S ta ’ t i o n e r s R e g i s te r .

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Cl a u d e H o l yb a n d , T h e F r e n ch L i ttl e t o n Ot h e r e d s , 1 5 7 8 , 1 5 8 1 , 1 5 9 3 , 1 5 9 7 , 1 6 09 , 1 6 30 , e t c A D yxci o n a r y fir yn s h e a n d e n g l e s s c h e I t a l i a n , fir yn s s h e , e n g l e s s h e a n d l a t e n A bo ke of C o p ye s e n g l e s s h e fir e n s h e a n d I t a l yon Cl a u d e H o l yb a n d , T h e F r e n ch S c h o o l e -M a i s te r h e r e d s , 1 5 82, 1 64 1 , .

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I NT ROD UCTI O N

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Fr a n c e a t this tim e it wa s t h e m e rch a nt a dv e nt u r e rs a lon e wh o f e lt an y d e sir e wh a t e v e r D i cti on a i r e col l oqu e s o u ( 1 5 7 8 ) G e o r g e B i s h o p Jr ,

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d i a l o g u e s e n q u a ttr e l a n g u e s 15 78 Ja m e s B e ll o t , T h e F r e n c h Gr a m m a r 1 5 80 Jo h n B a r e t , Q u a dr u p l e D i ct i o n a r i e or Al ve a r i e , E n g l i s h , L a t i n , Gr e ch e , a n d c o n ta i n i n g F r e n ch 1 5 8 0 C l a u d e H o l yb a n d , T h e T r e a s u r i e of t h e F r e n ch to n g 1 5 8 3 C l a u d e H o l yb a n d , T h e F l ou r i e F i e ld of F ou r e l a n gu a g e s ( 1 5 8 4 ) A D i ct i on a r i e i n F r e n c h e a n d E n g l i s h e ( 1 5 9 1 ) Ma t C o r d e r i u s , i a l og u e s ( F r e n c h a n d E n g li s h ) 15 93 C l a u d e H o l yb a n d , A D i ct i o n a r i e F r e n ch a n d E n g li s h 15 95 G d e l a Mo t h e d e Va ye r , T h e F r e n ch Alp h a be t Ot h e r e d s , 1 6 3 3 , 1 6 39 , 1 6 4 7 1 605 B ei n g e t e r E r o n d e l , T h e F r e n ch Ga r de n a n i n s tr u ct i o n f o r t h e a tt a yn i n g u n to th e kn o wl e dg e of t h e F r e n c h t o n g u e 16 11 R a n d l e C o t g r a v e , A D i ct i o n a r i e of t h e F r e n c h O t h e r e d s , 1 6 32 , 1 6 5 0 a n d E n g li s h T o n g u e s ( 1 6 1 5 ) T h e F r e n ch A B C ( 1 6 1 5 ) A B oo k of C o p i e s i n E n g l i s h F r e n ch a n d I t a li a n ( 1 6 1 5 ) T h e D e c li n e i n g of Ffr e n c h e r bs ( 1 6 1 7 ) Je a n B a r b i e r , J a n u a L i n g u a r u m ( 1 6 2 3) A s h or t m e t h o d or t h e d e cl yn i n g of T h e M a r r o we of t h e F r e n ch 16 23 Jo h n W o d r oe p e An o t h e r e d , 1 6 5 2 T on gu e An o t h e r ( 1 6 2 5 ) R ob t Sh e r o o d , T h e F r e n ch T u tou r e d , 1 6 34 1 6 3 3—4 W y e S a l t o n s t a l l C l a vi s a d or t a m Wh e r e i n e h L t m e di or n d a r a l n d n a F r e n c i u a t h o y f y fi y O xo n a n y E n g l i s h Wor d 1 6 34 C h a r l e s Ma u p a s , A F r e n ch Gr a m m a r a n d S yn t a xe n e o h e r e c o n u u e n i d t t F h t 1 u e a u l C o e a u A 3 5 su r 6 , g g g ) ( d o e n h a n c h ol e S e n s n F r c u c 1 T E li h L t t h 6 3 h a 6 , g , y , ( ) .

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G a b r i e l D u G r e s , D i a l og i Ga l l i co -An g li co -L a ti n i Ox o n Ot h e r e d s , 1 6 5 2 , 1 6 60 i a l og u e s or C o l l o qu i e s , a n d a L i tt l e D i c New ti o n a r y of e i g h t L a n g u a g e s

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I NT ROD UCTI O N

11

to a c qu ir e t h e E nglish tongu e ; an d t h e only ha nd books of E nglish known a cross t h e Ch a nn e l we r e sm a ll comp e ndi u ms of phr as e s an d d i a lo g u e s n e c e ss a ry for comm e rci a l int e rco u rs e O f co u rs e th e r e we r e gr e a t m a ss e s of t h e E n g lish p e opl e who n e v e r l e a rn e d Fr e nch B u t a mpl e provision wa s c e rt a inly m a d e for th e m in a gr e a t a b u nd a nc e of tr a nsl a tions into E nglish print e d a n d circ ul a t e d throu ghou t t h e pe riod Al most e v e ry typ e o f lit e r a t u r e or of print e d m a tt e r in ge n e r a l prod u c e d in Fr a nc e for a c e ntu ry prior to t h e R e stor a tion fo u nd its wa y into an E nglish v e rsion an d oft e n t h e t r an s for m a tion wa s a ccomplish e d with gr e a t r a pidity As a lr e a dy not e d m u ch of t h e tim e wa s m a rk e d by bitt e r conflict b e twe e n t h e Fr e nch H u gu e nots an d t h e C a tholic L e a gu e a ccomp a ni e d by contin u e d milit a ry op e r a tions in t h e L ow C o un tri e s I n a ll o f this t h e Prot e st a nts of E ngl a nd f e lt t h e mos t vit a l int e r e st T h e r e s u lt was th a t for m a ny y e a rs th e r e wa s a const a nt str e a m of n e ws l e tt e rs roy a l e dicts tr e a ti e s controve rsi a l p a mphl e ts a n d t h e lik e be ing t u rn e d from th e ir origin a l F r e nch form into E nglish a n d sold in gr e a t n u mbe rs to t h e popu l a c e of L ondon I n f a ct on e might a ct u a lly tr a c e Fr e nch history in a cc u r a t e d e t a il from t h e c a t a logu e of E nglish tr a nsl a tions T h e gr e a t e st doc u m e nts of t h e Prot e st a nt f a ith .

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16 5 6 T h o s B l o u n t , Glo s s ogr a p h i a Cf a p p e n di x A .

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I N T RODU CTI O N

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—S e rmons , comm e nt a r i e s ,

rgu m ent a tive tr e a tis e s w e r e in gr e a t d e m a nd in E nglish v e r sions a n d t h e most f a mili a r pi e c e of lit e r a t ur e in ’ E ngl a nd fo r a tim e w a s Josh u a Sylv e st e r s t r an sl a tion o f t h e Fr e nch e pic o f Prot e st a ntism t h e S e m a i n e s o f Du B a rt a s I n t h e first thr e e d e c a d e s ’ o f E liz a b e th s r e ign mor e th a n tw e nty s e p a r a t e tr a nsl a tions from John C a lvin w e r e o ff e r e d t o D u ring t h e y e a rs th a t fol t h e E nglish p u blic low e d a n a lmost e qu a l pop u l a rity w a s e xt e nd e d to t h e writings o f Pi e rr e V ir e t T h eodor e d e ’ B ez e John d e l E Spin e O d e t de l a N o u e D u pl e ssis Morn a y an d Pi e rr e du Mo u lin I t r e m a ins t o b e not e d h o w fa r t h e r e ligio u s i m p u ls e from this lit e r a t u r e a ffe ct e d t h e cr e a tive prod u ct o f E ngl a nd I n t h e fi e ld o f s e c u l a r lit e r a t u r e most o f t h e Fr e nch m a t e ri a l o f e xc e ll e nc e a n d signific a n c e wa s t u rn e d into E nglish form witho u t m u ch d e l a y T h u s pl a ys by G a rni e r writt e n 1 5 74 w e r e in E nglish by 1 5 9 2 a n d 1 5 9 4 ; a n d 1 5 78 ’ Mont a ign e s E s s a i s compl e t e d in 1 5 88 we r e on an d

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S ta ti on e r s Re g i s te r by 1 5 9 5 ; E s t i e n n e s Ap olog i e p ou r H e r odote w a it e d from 1 5 66 t o 1 5 9 9 fo r a n E nglish r e nd e ring , a n d t h e Q u a tr a i n s o f P i br a c ( 1 5 7 4 ) w e r e in E nglish by 1 6 05 T h e H e p ta m er on a n d t h e work o f R a b e l a is wa it e d still longe r fo r tr a nsl a tion , t h e first from 1 5 5 9 to 1 5 9 7 a n d t h e s e cond from 1 5 5 2 un til a t l e a st In 1 5 9 4 , an d m u ch mor e pro b a bly u ntil 1 66 3 " t h e s e v e nt e e nth c e nt u ry tr a nsl a tions a pp e a r e d ’ mor e promptly T h e As tr ée a n d B a rcl a y s Ar g en i s w e r e b oth in E nglish fo u r y e a rs a ft e r th e

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I NTRODUCTI O N

13

th e ir first a pp e a r a nc e T h e Cid e xp e ri e nc e d a ll Su ch rom a nc e s a s a lmost no d e l a y a t ’ L a C a l pr e n ed e s C a s s a n dr a an d C leop atr e an d ’ Sc u d ery S Ar ta m en e b e ga n to a pp e a r in E n g lish ga r b a b o u t as soon a s th e y we r e comple t e d ’ T h e first coll e ction o f B a lz a c 8 in Fr e nch L ette r s wa s p u blish e d 111 Fr e nch i n 1 6 24 in E n g ’ lish in 1 6 38 Sor e l s F r a n ci on wa it e d from 1 6 22 to 1 6 5 5 ; his B e r g er E xtr a va g a n t from 1 6 2 7 to 1 6 5 4 L e s L e ttr e s Pr ovi n ci a le s of Pas c a l howe v e r we r e compl e t e d in Fr e nch a n d pu b l is h e d in E nglish t h e s a m e y e a r I t is signific a nt to not e th a t d u ring this tim e m a ny import a nt lit e r a ry prod u cts origin a lly in oth e r for e ign l a ngu a ge s c a m e into E nglish throu gh t h e m e di u m of Fr e nch v e rsions which s e rv e d a s t h e ba sis for tr a nsl a tors I n this ’ grou p a pp e a r N orth s r e nd e ring of Pl u t a rch b a s e d on t h e Fr e nch of Amyot a n d t h e E nglish Am a di s de Ga u l dr a wn from t h e Fr e nch of H e r be r a y d e s E ss a rts T h e I li a d t h e Poli ti cs of Aristotl e an d t h e works of Se n e c a a pp e a r to h a ve h a d a Simil a r e xp e ri e nc e T h e C e le s ti n a ’ ’ Gu e va r a s Golde n E pi s tle s a n d B o i a r d o s 0 r la n do I n n a m or a to a ll cl a im a n imm e di a t e Fr e nch sou rc e for th e ir E nglish v e rsion a s do a lso a s e ri e s of Sp a nish rom a nc e s m a d e E nglish by Anthony Mu nd a y T h e list of tr a nsl a tions a ls o incl u d e s a b ody — of misc e ll a n e ou s m a t e ri a l som e distinctly Fr e nch som e a s d e finit e ly a li e n a ll t e stifying to t h e fr e e dom with which E ngl a nd wa s th e n tu rnin g to Fr a nc e for b ooks o f e v e ry sort .

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T h e r e a r e h a nd book s o f m a nn e rs an d a cc o m l i s h r n n s f e t tr a v e l t a l e s m a n u a ls corr e spond o , , p g a rd e ning , e nc e , m e dic a l tr e a tis e s , b ooks on an d n u m e ro us sci e ntific doc u m e nts , filling ou t a

c a t a logu e th a t forms a worthy comm e nt a ry on An glo Fr e nch r e l a tions T h e r e is a pp a r e ntly n o e n d t o r e f e r e nc e s in t h e lit e r a t u r e o f t h e tim e comm e nting on t h e E nglish fondn e ss for imit a tion Of t h e Fr e n ch p a rtic u l a rly in s u ch e xt e rn a ls a s f a shions o f — clo t hing b e a ring m a nn e rs a n d t h e lik e th e p e c u li a r d e lights o f t h e r e t u rn e d tr a v e l e r T h e dr a m a n a t u r a lly displ a ys s u ch m a t e ri a l in gr e a t e st a bu nd a nc e bu t it a pp e a rs al so in n on dr a m a tic lit e r a t u r e thro u gho u t a lmost t h e e ntir e p e riod Som e sp e cim e ns m a y b e cit e d ’ Sylv e st e r s tr a nsl a tion o f Du B a rt a s pr omptly a d a pt e d shortly a ft e r 1 6 00 a c a u stic r e f e r e n c e to Fr e nch p e c u li a riti e s th a t h a d a pp e a r e d in t h e Se cond Da y o f t h e Pr e m i er e S e m a i n e -

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I N T ROD UCTI O N E pigr a m 5 6 2 in Wi ts Re cr e a ti on s , 1 6 40 wh e r e “ it h a s t h e titl e O n a n E nglish Ap e T his s a m e p u blic a tion c ont a in e d a noth e r sp e cim e n as

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import a nt howe ve r is t h e e mploym e nt o f Fr e nch history oft e n cont e mpor a ry a s a ba sis Sh a k e sp e a r e for E n glish dr a m a tic prod u c t s wh e n it is u tiliz e s s u ch history incid e nt a lly involve d with t h e E nglish history h e is r e pr e s e nting E a rly dr a m a tic r e cords m e ntion a pl a y T h e T r a g e dy of th e Gu i s e which is l a t e r list e d a s t h e M a s s a cr e of F r a n ce W e bst e r sp e a ks of a pl a y by t h e form e r n a m e a mong his T h e r e is a lso r e cord of a thr e e o wn works p a rt pl a y by D e kk e r a n d Dr a yton T h e C i vi l Wa r s i n F r a n ce a n d a noth e r with s e v e r a l T h e U nfor tu n a te Ge n a u thors un d e r t h e n a m e ’ Ma rlow e s M a s s a T h e F r e n ch H i s tor y er a l cr e a t Pa r i s is f a mili a r e no u gh a s a r e a lso Ch a p ’ ’ m a n s fo u r tr a ge di e s conc e rn ing B u ssy d Am bo i S a n d Ch a rl e s D u k e o f Biron T h e r e is e vid e nc e th a t in 1 6 1 7 a n E nglish pl a y d e a ling with t h e ’ d e a th of t h e Ma rsh a l d An cr e wa s k e pt from L a t e r ca me t h e st a ge by t h e Pri v y C o u ncil ’ s u ch pl a ys a s Ch a pm a n a n d Shirl e y S T r a g e dy of Ph i li p C h a bot Adm i r a l of F r a n c e a n d H e m ’ inge s F a ta l C on tr a s t I n m a ny dr a m a s wh e r e t h e f a cts of history a r e in no w a y involv e d in t h e plot th e r e a pp e a r in cid e nt a l r e f e r e nc e s in a f a mili a r w a y to historic a l m a tt e rs F or e x ’ a mpl e B e ll a mont in De kke r s N or th wa r d H oe ,

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t e ll s t h e c a pt a in h e i s pr e p a ring a tr a g e dy t o b e pr e s e nt e d by g a ll a nts in t h e Fr e nch co ur t at t h e m a rri a ge f e stiviti e s o f t h e D u k e o f O rl e a ns a n d thos e o f Ch a t ili on Admir a l o f Fr an c e T h e r e is a lmost n o e n d to t h e pl a ys wh e r e Fr e nch sc e n e s o r Fr e n ch ch a r a ct e rs a r e intro du ce d som e tim e s witho u t a tr a c e o f n a tion a l p e c ul i a rity o r loc a l color in oth e r c a s e s p u r e ly for t h e e ff e ct o b t a in e d by s u ch p e c u li a riti e s ’ ’ T h e f a ct th a t Sh a k e sp e a r e s All s We ll th a t E n ds We ll fo r inst a nc e h a s its sc e n e s l a id in Fr a nc e a n d d e a ls with Fr e nch ch a r a ct e rs giv e s n o ton e o f Fr e nch individ u a lity to a n y portion o f t h e pl a y T h e s a m e thing is tr u e o f s u ch ’ dr a m a s a s B e a u mont a n d Fl e tch e r s T h e E lde r ’ B r oth e r Fl e tch e r s T h e N oble Ge n tle m a n a n d ’ ’ Mas sing e r s T h e U n n a tu r a l C om ba t C h a pm a n s ’ An H u m or o u s D a y s M i r th on t h e oth e r h a nd not only loc a t e s its sc e n e s in Pa ris bu t portr a ys th e r e t h e g a y lic e ntio u s lif e conv e ntion a lly a ss oci a t e d in m a ny E nglish minds with Fr e nch m en Singl e Fr e nch ch a r a ct e rs in t h e dr a m a a r e u s u a lly c a ric a t u r e s introd u c e d fo r a comic T h e tr a v e l e d fo p L a v e rd u r e in Ma rs e ffe ct ’ ton s Wh a t Yo u Wi ll is a good sp e cim e n o f this sort At oth e r tim e s ind e e d t h e chi e f p u rpos e o f th e s e ch a r a ct e rs s e e ms to be to win a l a u gh from t h e gro u ndlings b y th e ir b rok e n E nglish T his is Oft e n t h e c a s e with m e n of — c e rt a in c a llings s u ch a s t a ilors d a ncing m a st e rs o r docto rs conv e ntion a lly r e pr e s e nt e d a s Fr e n ch ,

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ondon pop u l a c e was a lwa ys r e a dy to d e t e ct a n d d e spis e a ff e ct a tion in thos e who I t wa s a lso poss e ss e d bo a st e d of s u p e riority of a d e e p root e d bou r g e oi s hostility to for e ign e rs e sp e ci a lly wh e n th e s e a n d to for e ign c u stoms l a tt e r we r e a ss u m e d u nn a t u r a lly I t is not s u rprising th e n th a t dr a m a tic lit e r a tu r e in old E ngl a nd t e e ms with b iting r e f e r e nc e s to F r e n ch i fie d E nglishm e n who h a v e tr a v e l e d or pr e t e nd to h a v e don e so ; an d to thos e v a rio u s p e rson a l p e c u li a riti e s which we r e conv e ntion a lly cit e d A consid e r a bl e com a n d r e co g niz e d a s G a llic p a ny of th e s e tr a ve l e rs with Fr e nch a irs co u ld ’ b e mu st e r e d incl u ding B e a u mont a n d Fl e tc h e r s M on s i e u r T h om a s Pu n t a r v o l o in E ve r y M a n ’ o u t of h i s H u m ou r T h o r e ll o in D a v e n a nt s T h e F a i r F a vor i te a n d yo un g Ma t ch il in ’ ’ Brom e s T h e N e w Aca de m y L ov e ] in Jonson s ’ lik e Sh a k e sp e a r e s Ja cqu e s T h e New I n n a pp e a rs to h a v e s u ck e d m e l a ncholy ou t of his Fr e nch j o u rn e ying T h e tr a its an d p e c u li a riti e s ch a r a ct e riz e d a s Fr e nch in t h e l a t e r E liz a b e th a n dr a m a a fford a v e ry s u b st a nti a l id e a of wh a t this ov e rcritic a l th e a te r going p u blic prof e ss e d to fin d in th e ir Br a v e ry of a kind th e y G a llic n e ighb ors did conc e d e bu t it wa s of t h e mom e nt which a ccomp a ni e d hot blood a n d a ” fi e ry t e mp e r T h e L Fge n ch br a wl is a thin g oft e n m e ntion e d T his h e a t e d blood a n d e a ge r h a ste of t h e Fr en chm e n wa s s u pp o s e d to m a k e th e m pa rtic u l a rly a rd e nt in lov e an d to l e a d th e m e as ily into l u stf ul ind u lg e n c e s T his The L

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notion ga in e d e mph a sis from t h e f a ct th a t v e n e r e a l dis e a s e so fr e qu e ntly t h e o bj e ct o f comm e nt in t h e dr a m a s wa s r e gu l a rly r e f e rr e d to Fr a n c e for its origin de ce p tion w e r e const a ntly a ttri bu t e d to Fr e nchm e n ’ T h fis Gaz e t t o in D e kk e r S M a tch m e i n L on d on e xpl a in in g t h e u s e h e m a k e s o f l a ngu a g e s de ’ “ ” ’ I f I b e tr a y I m Fr e nch cl a r e s I n Ford s ’ L ove s S a cr ifice F e rn a ndo go e s into t h e m a tt e r a t gr e a t e r l e ngth : ,

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pl a ys From co u rtly wooing to co urtly q u a r ’ r e ling th é F r e n ch m a n s m an n e r sfi a r e e ve ry wri er e r e g a r de d a s t h e st a nd a rd of polit e int e r co u rs e whil e his d a nc ing is a b ov e r e prq a ch I n ’ Jonson s in dis gu is e cont e nds in a d u e l of cou rtly complim e nt h e pos e s a s a Fr e nchm a n a n d is ch a r a ct e riz e d ’ “ this Monsi e u r or Fr e n ch be h a v d ge ntl e as ’ ” I n Shirl e y s T h e Wi tty F a i r On e m an he re t h e t u tor d e liv e rs a noth e r int e rn a tion a l listing “ thu s : Ar e not I t a li a n h e a ds Sp a nish shou l d e rs D u tch b e lli e s a n d Fr e nch l e gs t h e only 1 Rt l e m e n notions of you r r e form e d M On on e point th e r e wa s compl e t e a gr e e m e nt t h e import a nc e of Fr a nc e a s a so u rc e of T h e fr e qu e nt a pp e a r a nc e fashi ons in c lothing Of t h e FFénCh t a il o r h a s b e e n a lr e a dy not e d T h e e xt e nt to which E nglishm e n we r e s u ppos e d to imit a t e t h e Fr e nch ga r b is we ll e xpr e ss e d in E a s twa r d H oe I n t h e first sc e n e of t h e fo u rth a c t Pe tron e l a n d Se a g u ll think th e y h a v e b e e n c a st on t h e co a st of Fr a nc e wh e n th e y a r e r e a lly on t h e ba nk o f t h e T h a m e s Pe tron e l e x cl a ims : .

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Fr e n ch hoods Fr e nch ve lve t a l s o was a t e rm m u ch in u s e Me ntion h as be e n m a d e of t h e ge n e r a l r e c og n i t i on in dr a m a a n d oth e r forms o f E nglish lit e r a t u r e o f t h e kn owl e dge o f t h e Fr e nch la ngu a ge a s e ss e nti a l t o a n a ccomplish e d E n g lishm a n Mu ch o f t h e Fr e nch ton g u e e ith e r in e xt e nd e d conv e rs a tions o r in sc a tt e r e d phr a s e s a pp e a rs thro u gho u t t h e pl a ys o f t h e tim e Most o f this is in conn e ction with Fr e nch sc e n e s a n d ch a r a ct e rs s u ch a s thos e a lr e a dy disc u ss e d B u t e v e n a p a rt from th e s e Fr e nch phr a s e s r e p e a t e dly o c c u r a t u n e xp e ct e d points an d for v e ry trivi a l re a sons T h e r e a r e a lso n u m e ro u s misc e ll a n e o u s — r e f e r e nc e s t o Fr a n c e a n d t h e Fr e nch th e ir h a b its o f e a tin g th e ir prod u cts th e ir coin T h e t a sk o f c a t a logu ing a ll s u ch r e f e r e nc e s in t h e lit e r a t u r e o f t h e p e riod wo u ld be a lmost in t e rmin a bl e For an e r a o f E nglish lit e r a t u r e in which t h e h e g e mony I s r e a lly I t a li a n t h e Fr e nch in fl u e nc e s Op e r a tiv e in a n e xt e rn a l wa y a b o u t this E liz a b e th a n p e riod a r e v a ri e d an d o f gr e a t a bu n d a nc e No t a ll o f th e m it is tr u e c a n be tho u ght o f a s f a vor a bl e to lit e r a ry prod u ction o r in a n y O bvio u s e no u gh howe ve r wa y a ffe cting it E ngl a nd thro u gho u t a r e s u ch f a cts a s th e s e this p e ri od wa s fra nkly conscio u s o f t h e e xist e nc e o f h e r Fr e nch n e igh b ors a n d thoro u ghly a w a k e t o wh a t th e y tho u ght a n d wr ot e a n d did T h e i d e al s an d ha b i t s a n d e v e n t h e m a nn e risms r a n c e w e r e c On v e ii t i on a lly f a mili a r t o t h e o f Fr e a e e L ondon pO w e r oft n imit t d a d u C e a n p l .

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to t h e work o f Du B a rt a s B y this tim e t h e sp e c u l a tiv e u tt e r a n c e s o f Mont a ign e h a d fo u n d th e ir wa y into E ngl a nd a ff e cting t h e e xt e rn a l form o f t h e E liz a b e th a n e ss a y a s w e ll as providing a stor e ho u s e o f opinions an d l e a r n e d cit a tions fo r a ll wh o c a r e d t o u s e th e m T h e a pp e a l o f R a b e l a is a s it c a m e t o be f e lt in E ngl a nd wa s l a rg e ly t o t h e B oh e mi a n s o f l it e r a t u r e an d his in fl u e nc e wa s prin cip a lly stylistic A fr e sh w a v e o f Fr e nch imp u ls e c a m e with t h e a cc e ssion an d m a rri a g e wh e n o f C h a rl e s I Fr e n ch pr éci os i té an d Fr e nch Pl a tonizin g d e S pit e n a tion a l prot e st ga in e d a consid e r a bl e hold u pon E n glish co u rt soci e ty Me r e foi bl e s o f t h e e l e ct th e s e i d e a l s m a y h a v e b e e n b u t th e y c a rri e d with th e m imm e ns e in fl u e nc e fo r lit e r a t u r e an d m a d e possi bl e t h e tr a nsf e r o f Fr e n ch lit e r a ry f a shions with an e a s e u n known S inc e t h e fo ur t e e nth c e nt u ry T h e spirit o f t h e s e v e nt e e nth c e nt u ry rom a n c e e nt e r e d E nglish lit e r a t u r e I t color e d dr a m a an d po e tic n a rr a tiv e an d c a ll e d forth i m it a tions in its own typ e T h e cot e ri e syst e m o f soci e ty whil e it m a d e n o gr e a t impr e ssion u pon E ngl a nd a tt a in e d powe r e no u gh to in fl u e nc e t h e introd u ction o f ve r s de E ve n t h e s oci été a n d lit e r a ry c orr e spond e nc e t e nd e n cy t o bu rl e s qu e th e n pr e v a l e nt e no u gh in Fr a nc e r e a ch e d E nglish shor e s b e for e t h e r e tu rn o f t h e St u a rt f a mily thr e w op e n t h e por ta ls t o t h e f u ll imp ul s e o f Fr e nch st a nd a r ds o f t a st e an d e x e c u tion c i a l ly

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si gni fi c a nt p a rt W ith th e ir br e a dth o f vision k e e nn e ss o f p e rc e ption a n d e a g e rn e ss o f S pirit th e s e m e n co u ld n o t e v e n h a v e m e t e a ch oth e r from tim e t o tim e an d ch a tt e d ov e r th e ir a m bi tions a n d a tt e mpts witho u t e volving a b ody o f critic a l doctrin e a n d a gro u p o f lit e r a ry id e a ls T h a t th e y w e r e a ct u a lly workin g towa rd a c o m m on e n d a n d f e lt t h e inspir a tion o f u nit e d e ffort s e e ms highly pro b a bl e ; an d th a t e n d wa s a fa r mor e vit a l on e th a n t h e m e a s u ring of syll a bic qu a ntiti e s T h e first n ot e o f this l a rg e r p u rpos e a pp e a rs in 1 5 7 9 in t h e introd u ction t o t h e O cto be r T h e om e clogu e Of t h e S h e p h ea r de s C a le n da r K s a ys o f po e try : n i s c i e n t comm e nt a tor E .

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shift e mph as is in th e s e prop a ga nd a T h u s by 1 6 07 D a ni e l f e lt p e rf e ct fr e e dom in writing a tr e a tis e a g a inst cl a ssic m e tr e s in E nglish an d ’ d e dic a ting it to L a dy Pe m brok e s son with t h e “ st a t e m e nt th a t h e h a d r e c e ive d t h e fir st notion for t h e form a l ord e ring of th e s e compositions a t ” I n t h e s a m e wa y t h e e l e m e nt o f Wilton Prot e st a nt d e votion pr e s e nt from t h e b e ginn in g a pp e a r e d to pl a y a mor e import a nt p a rt with t h e la te r m e n I n f a ct t h e p e rson o f L a dy Pe m b rok e h e rs e lf in h e r Prot e a n r 61e o f schol a r cr e a tive a rtist r e ligio u s e nth u si a st b e n e vol e nt p a tron e ss a n d mistr e ss of an e xc e ll e ntly ord e r e d ho u s e hold s e e ms to h a ve inspir e d a n d color e d t h e lit e r a ry e ff orts o f thos e whom s h e gro u p e d a bou t h e r Promin e nt a mong t h e l a t e m e m be rs o f t h e grou p a pp e a rs N ichol a s Br e ton who d e dic a t e d to L a dy Pe mbrok e no l e ss th a n fiv e o f his works : T h e Pi lgr i m a g e to Pa r a di s e i on e d wi th ’ th e C ou n te ss of Pe m br oke s L ove 1 5 9 2 ; Au s pi ’ c a n te Je h ova M a r i e s E xe r ci se 1 5 9 7 ; Wi t s an d

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ddr e ss e d to his fri e nd Willi a m Dr u mmond h e still pr a is e s t h e Ar ca di a a n d s a ys of his own “ a ddition to it it w e r e e no u gh to be e xc e ll e nt by b e ing s e cond t o Sidn e y S inc e who e v e r co u ld ” be th a t b e hov e d to b e b e for e oth e rs T h e consid e r a tion th a t h a s c a ll e d forth this e xt e nd e d pr e limin a ry st a t e m e nt is a t l e ngth in ord e r t h e p a rt pl a y e d by Fr a nc e or r a th e r by Fr e nch lit e r a ry th e orists in providing i m pu ls e for t h e prop a ga nd a of this E nglish circl e a s w e ll a s a ct u a l mod e ls u pon which cr e a tiv e e fforts might b e bu ilt I t a ly of co u rs e wa s t h e r e a l so u rc e of this sort o f doctrin e a n d Fr a nc e in h e r tu rn oft e n color e d it so littl e with h e r o wn p e c u li a riti e s o f thou ght th a t withou t positiv e e vid e nc e of dir e ct ind e bt e dn e ss littl e a

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s a id in m a ny c a s e s for Fr e n ch in fl u e nc e T h e r e a r e c e rt a in ph a s e s o f t h e E nglish mov e m e nt howe v e r th a t a pp e a r to be distin ctly Fr e nch a n d j u stify inv e stig a tion Prior t o this it will be we ll t o n ot e t h e r e l a tions o f individ u a ls in this E nglish g ro u p t o Fr a nc e t o Fr e nch p e opl e an d t o Fr e nch lit e r a t u r e Sp e ns e r tho u gh pro ba b ly d e priv e d o f t h e a d v a nt a g e s o f a gr a nd to u r a pp e a rs t o h a v e be e n non e t h e l e ss f a mili a r with Fr e nch lit e r a tu r e e sp e ci a lly t h e writings o f Du B e ll a y I t is tr u e th a t his r e nd e rin gs from t h e Fr e n ch a r e a s a r u l e fr e e a n d oft e n in a cc u r a t e bu t h e work e d a s an a d a pt e r r a th e r th a n a tr a nsl a tor I t is pro ba bl e th a t e v e n in yo u th h e b e g a n this a d a pting o f Fr e nch po e try I n 1 5 69 a pp e a r e d t h e E nglish ’ v e rsion o f Va n d e r Noo dt s T h e a tr e for Wor ld li n g s c ont a in ing t wo po e tic pi e c e s T h e Vi s i on s of Pe tr a r ch a n d T h e Vi s i on s of B e lla y r e p r e s e nt e d a s d e riv e d r e sp e ctiv e ly from Br a ba n t i sh T h e s e cond a n d D u tch v e rsions o f t h e origin a ls ’ follows s o lit e r a lly Du B e ll a y s o wn v e rs e s a n d t h e first is s o clos e ly mod e l e d on a Fr e nch tr a nsl a tion o f Pe tr a rch by Ma rot th a t on e might w e ll b e sk e ptic a l r e ga rding th e s e B r a b an t i s h Mor e ov e r in Spe n an d D u tch int e rm e di a ri e s ’ s e r s C om p la i n ts p u blish e d in 1 5 9 1 a n d n e v e r q u e stion e d by him a lmost th e s e s a m e E nglish po e ms a pp e a r a s t h e e ighth a n d ninth p a rts T h e re h a s be e n m u ch c ontrov e rsy pro a n d con c an

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bu t t h e pro ba bility r e m a ins th a t yo u ng Sp e ns e r contri bu t e d a d a pt a tions from t h e Fr e nch to Van ’ T hr e e oth e r divisions of d e r No o d t s T h e a tr e ’ Sp e ns e r s C om p la i n ts a r e ind e b t e d to Du B e ll a y T h e Ru i n s of Rom e by B e lla y a cknowl e dge s thu s 1 its own O bliga tion ; an d t h e Ru i n s of T i m e ’ shows m a ny r e s e m bl a nc e s to Du B e ll a y s S on g e , ’ o f which t h e Vi s i on s of th e Wor ld s Va n i t y is 2 only a r e fl e x Su ch ind e b t e dn e ss give s vit a l sinc e rity to a tri bu t e lik e t h e foll o win g , in ’ L E n voy to t h e Ru i n s of Rom e .

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comm e nds c e t e E c cl o g u e s u r l a n a iss a nc e du fil z d e Mons e ign e u r l e D a u phin a mon g r é u n d e s m e ill e u rs p e ti z o u vr a i g e s q u e fist on qu e s ” 1 Ma rot E K in his E pistl e pr e fi x e d t o t h e ’ C a le n da r e nl a rg e s on Du B e ll a y s list o f e clogu e writ e rs giving Fr e nch form t o th e ir n a m e s a n d “ concl u d e s it : a n d div e rs oth e r e xc e ll e nt b oth I t a li a n a n d Fr e nch Po e t e s whos e fo t in g this ” Au thor e v e ry wh e r e followe th An int e r e st ing conn e ction will a lso b e fo un d a rising be twe e n t h e F a e r i e Q u e e n e an d t h e S e m a i n e s o f Du B a rt a s ’ Sidn e y s r e l a tions with Fra nc e w e r e m a nifold T h e y b e g a n in 1 5 72 with a soj o u rn a t t h e co u rt wh e r e his a ttr a ctiv e o f Ch a rl e s I X o f Fr a nc e qu a liti e s soon won for him for e ign e r th a t h e wa s t h e good will o f a ll t h e Fr e nch no bility an d a sp e ci a l m a rk o f roy a l f a vor in a n a ppoint ’ m e nt a s g e ntl e m a n o f t h e king s ch a m b e r H e r e b e g a n a w a rm fri e ndship with H e nry o f N a v a rr e which Gr e vill e consid e r e d worthy o f sp e ci a l n o tic e e too h e m u st a t l e a st h a v e m a d e t h e q a cq u a int a n c e o f R ons a rd wh o wa s a tt a ch e d t o t h e co u rt h a d a n a p a rtm e nt a t t h e L o u vr e a n d 5 pro ba bly wa s writin g his sonn e ts fo r H élén e T his a c qu a int a nc e m u st h a v e be e n r e c a ll e d oft e n ,

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thro u gh his corr e spond e nc e wa s a lmost t h e ’ gu idin g f a ctor in Sidn e y s I t a li a n e xp e ri e nc e s which follow e d soon a ft e r th e ir m e e tin g T h e l e tt e rs b e tw e e n th e m s a vor strongly o f t h e e a rly typ e o f H u m a nism with s ol e n m disc u s sions o f w e ll ro u nd e d e d u c a tion o f improv e m e nt — o f styl e b y C ic e roni a n st u dy n o t t oo s e rvil e an d a b ov e a ll o f t h e C irc e e nch a ntm e nts o f I t a ly Among t h e oth e r Fr e nch fri e nds an d corr e ’ s p on d e n t s o f Sidn e y m a y b e not e d L a ng u e t s Prot e st a nt c o -work e r in politic a l th e ory Fr a n 2 H m n o t a h P ois po t i br a c r e f e rr e d t o t e e ; c ’ s e v e r a l tim e s in L a ngu e t s l e tt e rs ; H e nri ’ E s t i e n n e f Prot e st a nt schol a r tr a nsl a tor a n d ch a mpion t o o o f t h e inh e r e nt possi b iliti e s o f his n a tiv e l a ngu a g e wh o wa s an a dmir e r o f Sidn e y g a v e him a copy o f a mor a l tr e a tis e writt e n in Gr e e k by E sti e nn e hims e lf an d in 1 5 8 1 d e dic a t e d t o him a n e dition o f H e rodi a n tog e th e r with a L a tin v e rsion by Polizi a no ; ’ B an o s i u s a rd e nt follow e r o f R a m u s s Pl a ton — ism who in 1 5 7 5 promis e d Sidn e y t h e fir st ’ copy o f his e dition o f R a m u s s comm e nt a ri e s ’ be c a u s e h e r e cogni z e d t h e yo un g E nglishm a n s 1

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fondn e ss for t h e th e m e an d his a b ility to pro 1 Anoth e r e nth u si a stic it a t hom e m u lg a t e Fr e nch Prot e st a nt D u pl e ssis Morn a y c a m e to E ngl a nd in 1 5 77 ; a n d h a ving b e e n for e ight y e a rs a wa rm fri e nd of L a ngu e t wa s promptly r e c e ive d into t h e comp a ny of Sidn e y a s we ll a s o f t h e co u rt Sidn e y stood a s t h e god f a th e r ’ o f D u pl e ssis Morn a y s d a u ght e r b orn in E n g l a nd in 1 5 78 ; an d l a t e r u nd e rtook t h e E nglish tr a nsl a tion of his tr e a tis e D e la ve r i te de la r e li g i on ch r e s ti e n n e Fin a lly we not e Sidn e y a s a fri e nd an d corr e spond e nt of Du B a rt a s a s we ll a s a tr a nsl a tor of his po e try t h e tra nsl a tion be ing lic e ns e d in 1 5 88 Af t e r h e r e t u rn e d from his I t a li a n to u r Si d ’ n e y s s e rvic e to t h e cou rt wa s fu ll of a ctivity Offici a l trips a bro a d we r e int e rsp e rs e d with t h e e nt e rt a inm e nt of for e ign a m b a ss a dors a t hom e Wh e n a n e mb as sy from Fr a nc e for inst a nc e a pp e a r e d a t co u rt in 1 58 1 to n e goti a t e a m a r r i a g e b e tw e e n E liz a b e th a n d t h e D u k e of Anj o u Philip d F u lk e Gr e vill e we r e t h e l e a d e r s in t h e j o u st ing ; a n d on th e ir r e t u rn v i a t h e Ne th e rl a nds Sidn e y wa s a mong thos e chos e n to a tt e nd th e m a s fa r a s Antw e rp According to .

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h a v e Sh a r e d his r e ga rd for th e ir writ ings I n t h e c a s e of D u pl e ssis Morn a y for e xa mpl e Sh e tr a nsl a t e d his Di s co u r s de la vi e c l de la m or t a pp a r e ntly a s a comp a nion pi e c e to t h e v e rsion of L a vér i té de la r e li gi on ch r e s Among t h e oth e r ti e n n e be gu n by Si r Philip m e mbe rs of t h e grou p we a r e a t l e a st s u r e th a t b oth Dy e r a n d G r e vill e we r e schol a rly a n d a ccomplish e d co u rti e rs t h e form e r h a ving tr a v e l e d a bro a d t h e l a tt e r b e ing k e pt a t hom e ’ we a r e told b e c a u s e of Qu e e n E liz a b e th s a d D a ni e l will m i r a t i on for his a ccomplishm e nts b e s e e n to displ a y Fr e nch infl u e nc e in his writ ings Both D a ni e l a n d H a rve y p a id tri bu t e to t h e po e try of Du B a rt a s ; a n d Br e ton D a vi e s AS m a y a n d Al e x a nd e r w e r e ind e b t e d to i t be s e e n from t h e compl e t e titl e of t h e Ar c a di a n wa s w e ll a cq u a int e d with Rh e tor i k th e s e s a n d dr e w n u m e ro u s cit a tions from th e m Ab o u t thirty y e a rs pr e vio u s to t h e fir st u nit e d e fforts of this Ar e op a g u s gro u p in E ngl a nd th e r e h a d a ris e n in Fr a nc e a n a ssoci a tion of po e ts a n d lit e r a ry th e orists c a lling th e ms e lv e s L a Pléi a de a n d h a ving s u ch a n id e ntity of p u rpos e a n d so simil a r a history th a t t h e p a r a ll e l with o u r E n g lish circl e off e rs a ttr a ctiv e possi b iliti e s The l e a ding spirits in t h e gro u p h a d b e e n no u rish e d by t h e H u m a nistic t e a chings of t h e Fr e nch schol a r Dor a t a n d t h e mov e m e nt fost e r e d wa s an c e s a n d

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only t h e r e gu l a r st e p m a d e in e v e ry n a tion t o — H u m a nism e xt e nd e d which t h e r e a liz a tion ’ th a t on e s o wn v e rn a c u l a r is gr e a t in possi bility an d S ho u ld b e m a d e gr e a t in a chi e v e m e nt T h e progr a m o f t h e circl e a s fir st e xpr e ss e d ’ in Du B e lla y s Def e n ce e t I llu s tr a ti on de la L a n g u e F r a n goys e in 1 54 9 a s w e ll a s in l a t e r critic a l disc u ssions by its m e mb e rs j u stifi e s t h e st a t e m e nt th a t t h e f u nd a m e nt a l p ur pos e o f t h e Pl é i a d e org a niz a tion wa s t h e p a triotic on e o f e st a blishing t h e inh e r e nt e xc e ll e n c e o f t h e Fr e nch l a ngu a ge consid e ring t h e be st m e an s for e u richin g a n d d e v e loping it a n d th e n e xp e rim e nt ing in va rio u s cr e a tiv e e fforts in ord e r t o o bt a in a ct u al r e s u lts from this e xploit e d m e di u m o f e xpr e ssion T h e g e n e r a l m e thod o f e nrichm e nt wa s t o b e a lon g t h e lin e o f dig e stiv e imit a tion a lr e a dy m a d e f a mili a r by t h e H u m a nists As might h a v e b e e n e xp e ct e d th e s e disc u s sions soon g a th e r e d t o th e ms e lv e s most o f t h e conv e ntion a l th e m e s a n d notions which th e n form e d t h e b ody o f critic a l controv e rsy in E u rop e : mor e ov e r a s tim e we nt on v a rio u s giv e n t o n e w t u rns a n d int e rpr e t a tions w e r e Pl é i a d e th e ori e s b y e xt e rn a l conditions by t h e p e rson a l vi e ws o f l a t e r controve rsi a lists by t h e ch a r a ct e r a n d f a t e o f lit e r a ry a tt e mpts a mong By 1 5 79 ind e e d B a i f h a d e m t h e m e m b e rs zed t o an h s i t st d cl ssic v e rsifying a a n d e e a p e xt e nt sc a rc e ly dr e a m e d o f b y his f e llows thr e e d e c a d e s e a rli e r ; E sti e nn e h a d a ris e n from his G r e e k H u m a nism to e x a lt t h e Fr e nch l a ngu a g e its prot e ction from I t a li a n an d insist u pon ,

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t a int ; Du B a rta s s e izing som e of t h e t e n e ts of Pl éi a d e th e ory h a d c a rri e d th e m to e xtr e m e s in t h e int e r e sts of Prot e st a nt po e try ; t h e cl a ssic typ e of dra m a h a d ga in e d a wid e vogu e thro u gh t h e a ssist a nc e of t h e I t a li a ns ; a n d t h e v e rs e forms of I t a ly e xploit e d fir st by Pl éi a d e l e a d e rs h a d t a k e n fu rth e r sh a p e in t h e h a nds of D e sport e s Va riou s n e w tr e a tis e s on lit e r a ry criticism h a d a pp e a r e d in th e s e thirty y e a rs ’ incl u ding s e v e r a l comm e nt a ri e s on Ar istotl e s Poe ti cs ; a n d e v e n in E ngl a nd t h e H u m a nists h a d progr e ss e d to t h e thr e shold of v e rn a c u l a r e xploit a tion Obvio u sly Sidn e y a n d his fri e nds with th e ir schol a rly a tt a inm e nts a n d wid e e x r i h u e e n ce a d const a nt opport nity to com e in p cont a ct with this whol e d e v e lopm e nt An e l a b or a t e p a r a ll e l b e tw e e n th e ir a ctiviti e s a n d thos e of t h e Pl é i a d e th e n wo ul d of n e c e ssity cont a in m a ny d e t a ils in no wa y indic a tive of imm e di a t e infl u e nc e howe v e r r e a l s u ch in fl u e nc e m a y h a v e b e e n in ge n e r a l T h e b e tt e r pl a n a s a lr e a dy s u gg e st e d is to s e l e ct thos e ph a s e s in which th e r e a r e p e c u li a r r e a sons why E ngl a nd sh oul d h a ve b e e n a ff e ct e d by Fr e nch e xa mpl e T h e first consid e r a tion is t h e e xist e nc e of t h e Ar e op a gu s circl e its e lf T h e Ar e op a gu s prop e r m a y ind e e d h a v e b e e n no mor e th a n H a rv e y un d e rstood it to b e a n a ssoci a tion or a c a d e my to e xp e rim e nt with cl a ssic m e tr e s in t h e v e r ,

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I t a ly B a l f s Aca dem i c de Poesi e e t de M u s i que , ch a rt e r e d by t h e Fr e nch kin g only ’ r st visit to Fr a n c e , t wo y e a rs b e for e Sidn e y s fi m u st c e rt a inly h a v e h a d consid e r a bl e in fl u e nc e B u t it h a s be e n c a r e on this E nglish gro u p f u lly n ot e d th a t in t h e r e a l tho u ght a n d e ffort in which this E nglish circl e co Ope r a t e d th e r e wa s t h e wid e r p u rpos e which wa s f u nd a m e nt a l with t h e Pl éi a d e E ngl a nd did n o t h a v e t o g o t o t h e Pl éi a d e fo r this p a triotic conc e ption o f t h e v e rn a c u l a r , n or fo r t h e pl a n o f dig e stiv e imit a tion by which t h e n a tiv e tongu e wa s t o r e c e iv e e nrichm e nt C ontrov e rsy on t h e qu e stion h a d be g u n with D a nt e , an d b e e n c a rri e d on in t h e sixt e e nth c e nt u ry by B e m b o , Ca stiglion e , Va rchi , Mu z io , T olom e i , a n d oth e rs , to b e fin a lly s u mm e d u p fo r I t a ly in a n or a tion by Sa lvi a ti in Fr e nch H u m a nists h a d brok e n t h e p a th fo r t h e Pl e I a de , a n d E sti e nn e h a d s u ppl e m e nt e d Pl é i a d e E nglish H u m a nism , with which Si d e ff ort ’ n e y s gro u p wa s intim a t e ly conn e ct e d , h a d a d v an c e d j u st to t h e dividing lin e , o r a b i t b e yond ’ J o hn St u rm , As ch a m s fri e nd a n d co u ns e lor , s e e king only t h e p e rf e ction o f pros e L a tinity a mong st u d e nts , a n d d e ploring t h e tim e lost by childr e n in l e a rn ing a v e rn a c u l a r tongu e , h a d a dvoc a t e d a li b e r a l syst e m fo r t h e imit a tion o f mod e ls o f styl e H e conf e ss e d a dmir a tion for mod e rn I t a li a n po e try , a n d , in li e u o f good L a tin , a dvoc a t e d t h e c u ltiva tion o f t h e v e r ’

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thos e ye t e nco u nt e r e d T h e r e s e e ms to b e som e thing wa nting in E nglish H u m a nism a n d for th a t m a tt e r in a ll H u m a nism to a cco u nt e ntir e ly for t h e con ’ H u m a nism c e r t e d a ctivity of S idn e y s circl e off e r e d t h e sp e c ul a tions o f schoolm e n s e e king in or a toric a l pros e oft e n with no e xc e ll e nc e r e ga rd for po e try ; a n d a ppro a ch e d ve rn a c u l a r e nrichm e nt u s u a lly with r e gr e t th a t a p e rf e ct I nd e e d for a proto L a tinity co u ld not b e h a d typ e of t h e Ar e op a gu s grou p in its l a rge r s e ns e only on e circl e of m e n a pp e a rs a va il a bl e T h e Pl é i a d e w e r e po e tic e nth u si a sts u nit e d to c a rry into a ctu a l pr a ctic e t h e id e a s th e y h a d r e c e iv e d from H u m a nism T h e work th e y h a d u nd e r ’ t a k e n mu st h a v e be e n f a mili a r to Sidn e y s gro u p j u st a s t h e r e s u lts of th e ir u nd e rt a kings howe ve r dive rge nt from origin a l int e ntions ’ we r e f a mili a r I n 1 5 7 5 R on s a r d s Abr e ge de ’ l Ar t Poe ti qu e fr a n goi s wa s u tiliz e d by G a scoign e as a mod e ] for his C e r ta yn e N ote s of I n s tr u cti on 2

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with S imil a r a m b itions B e for e proc e e ding t o inv e stiga t e fur th e r Fr e nch in fl u e n c e in t h e a ctiviti e s o f t h e Ar e a n in t e r e sting p a r a ll e l d e s e rv e s o pa gu s gro u p involving t h e possi b ility th a t t h e a tt e ntion v e rs a til e c a r e e r o f t h e C o u nt e ss o f Pe m brok e wa s mod e l e d consid e r a b ly o n th a t o f Ma rg a r e t “ a mi a b l e moth e r o f t h e R e n a is o f N a v a rr e t h e ” s a nc e in Fr a n c e Ma rg a r e t was on e o f thos e an d thoro u ghl y c a p a bl e brilli a nt a ttr a ctiv e so f a mili a r in I t a li a n R e n a iss a n c e wom e n soci e ty Sh e wa s o f t h e r e ligio u s typ e h o w e ve r r e pr e s e nt e d a mong t h e I t a li a ns by Vi t tori a C olonn a with whom ind e e d Ma rga r e t e xch a ng e d l e tt e rs Sh e wa s e qu ipp e d with a good e d u c a tion a l a rge int e ll e ct u a l e ndowm e nt giving h e r a n d a f u ll c a p a city fo r e nj oying lif e powe r in soci a l r e l a tions in lit e r a ry e ff ort a n d Sh e h a d fo r t o som e e xt e nt in politic a l a ffa irs m a ny y e a rs h e r cot e ri e of po e ts a n d a ft e r 1 5 40 e nco u r a g e d th e m in t h e st u dy an d e xpr e ssion H e r p a tron a g e Pl a tonic philosophy of t h e wa s thoro u ghly disint e r e st e d prompt e d l a rg e ly .

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ll e gi anc e a pp e a rs to h a v e we a k e n e d som e wh a t T h e m a t e ri a l o f Ph i lota s is not Fr e nch a n d no sou rc e for t h e pl a y h a s com e to light T h e u s u a l Se n e c a n form an d S pirit a r e m a int a in e d how T h e r e a r e sixt e e n e v e r with som e v a ri a tions ch a r a ct e rs in t h e pl a y a n d no monologu e is introd u c e d T h e chor u s e s occ u py only a b ou t an d on e sixt e e nth of t h e e xt e nt o f t h e pl a y e xc e pt for th a t o f t h e s e cond a c t a r e in h e roic ve rs e Abou t this time T hom a s Kyd contri bu t e d ’ to t h e Se n e c a n vogu e a tr a nsl a tion o f G a rni e r s C or n eli e u nd e r t h e titl e Pom pe y th e Gr e a t h i s a re i or s r a his pp r d in n e l T e di e a e a e C i a e T g f 1 59 4 T h e r e is a th e ory b a s e d o n a n e xtr e m e ly “ qu e stiona bl e id e ntific a tion o f Kyd with a n u p ’ sta rt nove rint criticiz e d in Gr e e n e s M e n a ph on ’ which wou ld pl a c e t h e composition o f K yd s tra ge dy be for e 1 5 89 ; bu t it h a rdly d e s e rv e s consid e r a tion h e re T h e tr a nsl a tion is d e di ca t e d to t h e C o u nt e ss o f Su ss e x t h e a u nt o f “ L a d yPe m brok e Kyd compl a ins o f t h e b itte r ” time s a n d pr iv i e brok e n p a ssions h e h a s e n “ d u r e d in writing it a n d promis e s th a t his p a ss ” ing of a Winte rs we e k e with d e sol a te C orne li a “ sha ll be followe d by a Somm e rs be tt e r tr a ve l ] ” with t h e T ra ge dy of Porti a T h e n a tu ra l in fe r e nc e is th a t Kyd a t a low e bb o f fortu n e kne w o f t h e s u cc e ssfu l tr a nsl a tion by L a dy Pe mbrok e a n d h e r d e sir e to e nco u r a ge t h e vogu e a n d u s e d this m e a ns of ga ining h e r a

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p a tron a g e by vol u nt a ry contri bu tion t o h e r pe t proj e ct T h e a tt e mpt wa s a f a il u r e howe ve r T h e s u ppos e d s e cond e dition o f C or n e li a h a s be e n S hown t o h a v e b e e n only a r e iss u e o f u n 1 sold copi e s with ch a nge d titl e p a ge ; a n d t h e ’ promis e d tr a nsl a tion o f G a rni e r s Por ci c s o fa r I t is n o t f a ir a s we know n e v e r c a m e t o light to a cco u nt fo r this f a il u r e by a d e clin e o f i n t e r e s t in th e s e cl a ssic tr a ge di e s for t h e n u m e r ’ o u s e ditions o f D a ni e l s pl a y S how th a t this d e clin e c a m e m u ch l a t e r I t wo u ld s e e m mor e pro ba bl e th a t t h e a u di e nc e for which L a dy Pe m b rok e a n d D a ni e l we r e writing r e s e nt e d this a tt e mpt o f Kyd to br e a k into t h e circl e whil e his u s u a l p u blic h a d n o t a st e for s u ch ’ e fforts T h e st a t e m e nt in W illi a m Cl e r ke s Poli m a n te i a 1 5 9 5 a pp e a rs t o b e a r this ou t : ’ “ C orn e li a s T r a g e dy howe v e r n o t r e sp e ct e d ” wa s e xc e ll e ntly w e ll don e T h e tr a g e di e s o f F u lk e G r e vill e u pon clos e r inv e stiga tion o f th e ir d a t e fit m u ch mor e a c g e n e r a l mov e m e nt th a n is c u r a t e l y into t h e ’ ordin a rily s u ppos e d G r e vill e s o wn t e stimony in his L ife of S i dn e y fix e s t h e tim e o f writing — consid e r a bly e a rli e r th a n 1 6 08 1 6 0 9 t h e d a t e commo n ly a ssign e d b e c a u s e qu a rto e ditions a r e H e st a t e s s p e c i fi known to h a v e e xist e d th e n c a lly th a t t h e tr e a tis e s which w e r e t o b e his 1 chor u s e s we r e writt e n in his yo u th ; a n d th a t ,

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in e m u l a tion of Sidn e y s m e thod h e wa s a cc u s t o m e d to st e a l mi nu t e s of tim e from his d a ily s e rvic e s a n d e mploy th e m in this kind of ” Mor e writings r e fe rring to t h e tr a ge di e s e xplicit still a r e his st a t e m e nts r e g a rding t h e d e stroy e d tr a ge dy of An ton y a n d C le op a tr a : L a stly conc e rning t h e tr a ge di e s th e ms e lv e s th e y we r e in th e ir first cr e a tion thr e e : wh e r e of Antoni e a n d Cl e op a tr a a ccording to th e ir ir r e gu l a r p a ssions i n fors a king e mpir e to follow s e ns u a lity we r e s a crific e d in t h e fir e T h e N o t th a t h e e xe c u tion e r t h e a u thor h i m s e lfe conc e ive d it to be a cont e mpti bl e yo u nge r broth e r to t h e r e st ; bu t l e st whil e h e s e e m e d to l o o ke ove r m u ch u pwa rd h e e might stu mbl e ’ i nto t h e a stronom e r s pit T h u s w e a r e in “ ” form e d th a t t h e e xe c u t e d pl a y wa s t h e l a t e st of t h e thre e I mm e di a t e ly h e go e s on to e x pl a in th a t t h e dr a m a a pp e a r e d d a nge ro u s to “ him a n d to his fri e nds m a ny m e mb e rs in th a t cr e a tu r e h a ving som e childish wa n t o n n e sse in th e m a p t e no u gh to be constr u e d or str a ine d to a p e rson a ting of vic e s in t h e pr e s e nt gove rn ” ors a n d gove rnm e nt Aft e r noting t h e po e tic fondn e ss for s u dd e n m e t a morphos e s in h u m a n a ff a irs h e contin u e s : “ An d a ga in in t h e pr a ctic e of t h e world s e e ing t h e lik e i n st a nc e not po e t ic a lly b u t r e a lly f a shion e d in t h e E a rl e of E ss e x th e n f a lli n g ; a n d e v e n till th e n worthily b e lov e d b oth of Qu e e n a n d p e opl e ; this s u dd e n d e sc e nt of ,

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e e h tog th r with q lity t e u a of t h e g ’ ’ a ctors in e v e ry sc e n e s t i r d u p t h e Au thor s — e u o b e a s cond tho ghts t e c r e f ul i n his o wn e ” — o f l e a ving f a ir e w e a th e r b e hind him c a se O bvio u sly this l a t e st o f t h e thr e e tr a ge di e s was d e stroy e d a b o u t t h e tim e o f t h e f a ll o f t h e E a rl I f t h e thr e e prod u ctions we r e 1 60 1 o f E ss e x compos e d in stol e n min u t e s t h e inc e ption o f t h e pl a n wo u ld th u s be thrown we ll forw a rd t o ’ r st s u cc e ss a tim e soon a ft e r D a ni e l s fi T he imm e di a t e so u rc e s o f th e s e pl a ys a r e n o t known ’ From t h e a u thor s o wn e xpl a n a tion t h e pu r pos e o f his writing wa s pr e e min e ntly did a ctic Ma t e ri a l s u ch a s th a t e m b odi e d in his T r e a ti s e s on M on a r ch y a n d R e li g i on wa s t o b e pr e s e nt e d t o t h e p u b lic ; a n d to m a k e this mor e vit a l it — was to form t h e chor u s e s o f tr a g e di e s th e tr a gic a ction be ing only a m e a ns t o this s u p n h l high r T ho u gh t e t mp r m nt d s e e e e o e d a e y p o f t h e a u thor m a y h a v e h a st e n e d t h e proc e ss this is onl y a n a t u r a l working ou t o f t h e Se n e c a n ’ vogu e bro u ght so promin e ntly to Gr e vill e s a t t e ntion T h e chor u s e s o f t h e Fr e nch wr it e rs whil e p a r t i c i pa t a n d th e ir E nglish follow e rs ing mor e or l e ss in t h e a ction lost n o o pp or Se nt e n t u n i t y t o mor a li z e o n t h e sit u a tions tio u s wisdom confront e d t h e r e a d e r or h e a r e r a t e v e ry t u rn G r e vill e a pp a r e ntly with t h e a o qu i e sc e nc e o f his co t e ri e ? m e r e ly ch a nge d t h e r e a t n e ss e

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rli e r p e riod of his lif e T h e r e s e e ms b e n o e vid e nc e o f a n y dir e ct in fl u e nc e o f L a dy Pe m brok e a n d h e r circl e T h e l a st gro u p o f pl a ys o ff e rs a t l e a st som e int e r e sting possi b iliti e s T h e ir a u thor Willi a m Al e x a nd e r a pp e a rs to h a v e be g u n t h e s e ri e s u nd e r a n ind e p e nd e nt lin e o f contin e nt a l i n fl u e n ce whil e still a r e sid e nt o f Scotl a nd King J a m e s with whom Al e x a nd e r wa s clos e ly a sso c i a t e d in lit e r a ry m a tt e rs h a d st u di e d in yo u th u nd e r B u ch a n a n t h e a u thor o f cl a ssic a l tr a g e di e s in L a tin a n d h a d his t a st e s t u rn e d in th a t dir e ction H e h a d a lwa ys h a d a cc e ss t o a l a rge a ssortm e nt o f Fr e nch lit e r a t u r e a n d dr e w H is pe r u pon it fr e e ly in his o wn a tt e mpts son a l r e ga rd for Du B a r t a s a n d int e r e st in t h e ’ Fr e nchm a n s work r e a ct e d o f co ur s e u pon his co u rti e rs AS h a s b e e n not e d Al e x a nd e r fo l low e d J a m e s to E ngl a nd a n d a s a g e ntl e m a n ’ ch a m b e r h a d e v e ry o pp o r o f Princ e H e nry s t u n i t y fo r cont a ct with L a dy Pe m brok e a n d h e r lit e r a ry fri e nds ’ I n 1 6 04 Al e x a nd e r s D a r i u s wa s p u blish e d in L ondon tog e th e r with C r te s u s u nd e r t h e titl e M on a r ch i cke T r a g e di e s T h e Ale xa n dr e a n ea

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T h e L i br a r y of J a m e s V I of S c o t l a n d , e d G F Wa r n e r , E d i n , 1 8 9 3 2 I n t h e p r e a ce o f h i s R e u l i s a n d C a u t e l i s , i n 1 5 9 5 , I h a v e l y k e w a yi s o m m i t t i t d y v e r s fi g u r e s , Ja m e s s a y s : n f o r w v r e i e s t o ca u sis h k n a r e u i t r u i l i a e e c e s e t o b s s s , q T h e a n e i s , b e c a u s e t h e y a r e u s i t i n a ll l a n g u a g e s , a n d t h a i r fo r e a r e s p o k e n o f b e D u B e l l a y , a n d s i n d r i e u t h e r i s , 4 d A rb e r , p h i r t e 5 b h r i n n t i s a u a e t t e i s q 2 C f c h a p i v fo r t h e r e l a t i o n o f b o t h Ja m e s a n d Al e xa n d e r t o Du B a r t a s 1

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in 1 607 For G r e vill e t h e did a ctic m a t e ri a l o f his chor u s e s h a d t o do with t h e t e mpt a tions a n d mist a k e s o f mon a rchs a n d wa s ind e e d e m bodi e d pro ba bly b e for e 1 6 03 i n a s e p a r a t e long po e m e ntitl e d T r e a ti s e s of M on a r ch y T h e r e is e v e ry r e a son th a t Al e xa nd e r a n d t h e m e m b e rs ’ with th e ir u n u s u a l o f L a dy Pe m b rok e s circl e coincid e nc e o f t a st e s a n d tr a ining sho u ld h a ve be com e we ll a c qu a int e d a lmost imm e di a t e ly ’ u pon t h e Scotchm a n s a rriv a l From a n y m e m be r o f t h e cot e ri e Al e x a nd e r might h a v e l e a rn e d ’ o f G r e vill e s did a ctic a tt e mpts still timoro u sly a voiding p u blic a tion T h e o u tspok e n n a tu r e th a t wo u ld d a r e a Pa r am e s i s e m b old e ne d by a ’ f e e ling o f s e c u r ity in t h e n e w king s good will wo ul d imm e di a t e ly h a ve b e e n e nco u r a ge d t o f u rth e r p u blic a tion by this kinship o f id e a s with a m a n s o m u ch r e sp e ct e d a s F u lk e Gr e vill e ” “ T h e te rm Mo n a r ch i c ke T r a ge di e s wo ul d be a n a t u r a l r e s u lt T h a t t h e import a nc e o f Al e x a nd e r wa s qu ickly r e cogniz e d a n d his f ur th e r pl a ns known t o Sa m u e l D a ni e l is shown by t h e ” d e dic a tion o f Ph i lota s in 1 60 5 t o t h e Princ e With Al e xa nd e r t h e cr e a tiv e e fforts o f this littl e E nglish Se n e c a n school c e a s e d T h e C o u nt e ss o f P e m b rok e a n d h e r following a p e b e o a don th ir st c rry in n l h e t o u t r a d a e t y p t h e id e a ls o f t h e r e form o n e g e nr e a t l e a st move m e nt st a rt e d a s fa r b a ck a s 1 5 80 T h a t this dr a m a tic ve nt u r e r e m a ins a m e r e e xcr e s c e nc e o n t h e history o f E nglish lit e r a t u r e is du e .

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to no l a ck of z e a l or coope r a tion o n th e ir p a rt For a time it did a ss u me consid e r a bl e promi a n d it wo u ld b e n e n ce a mong c e rt a in cl a ss e s impossi bl e to s a y how l a rge a p a rt it pl a y e d in bringing r e gul a rity into E nglish dr a m a tic str u e t u r e As r e ga rds its r e l a tions to t h e corr e spond ing line of Fr e nch dr a m a s u bs e qu e nt to t h e Pl éi a d e t h e c a s e h a s b e e n pu t a s f a irly a s possi bl e I n som e inst a nc e s th e re h a s be e n a vowe d tr a nsl a tion ; in oth e rs th e r e h a s be e n a n a cc u m u l a tion of p a r a ll e ls pointing with gr e a t pro ba bility to imm e di a te infl u e nc e T h e prod u ot of b oth mov e m e nts shows a r e m a rk a bl e id e ntity in a ll t h e e ss e nti a ls of its tho u ght a n d str u ct u re T h e possi b ility of dire ct imp u ls e from Se ne c a h a s not e nt e r e d s e riou sly into t h e disc u ssion nor h a ve t h e L a tin tr a ge di e s o f schol a rs be e n consid e re d a s a n imm e di a te i n flu e n ce Anoth e r u nc e rt a inty in t h e q u e stion a ris e s from t h e f a ct th a t I t a ly thro u gho u t t h e sixt e e nth c e ntu ry w a s doing this s a m e kind o f dr a m a t ic work a n d to a gr e a t e xt e nt infl u e nc e d t h e form a n d spirit of t h e Fr e nch tr a ge dy T he stre ngth of t h e cl a im for Fr e nch infl u e nc e in this E nglish dr a ma tic vogu e howe ve r li e s prima rily in t h e a cc u m u l a tion of e vid e nc e con firming t h e loya l co Ope r a t i o n o f th e s e pl a y wrights with t h e C ou nt e ss of Pe mbrok e whos e mod e l wa s a vowe dly Fr e nch ; a s we ll a s in t h e indic a tions a lr e a dy pr e s e nt e d th a t in va riou s m a tt e rs of pr a ctic a l r e form this E nglish grou p h a d from its inc e ption b e e n a cc u stom e d to look to t h e e xa mpl e of Fr a nc e T wo qu e stions a wa it .

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mor e d e t a il e d consid e r a tion be for e t h e i m port a nc e o f this lit e r a ry circl e c e a s e s : o n e t h e t ur ning lik e e xt e nt t o which E nglish writ e rs t h e discipl e s o f t h e P l éi a d e from cl a ssic id e a ls to t h e e xploit a tion o f I t a li a n sonne ts dr e w di r e c t l y u pon Fr a nc e for th e ir inspir a tion ; t h e oth e r t h e in fl u e nc e in E ngl a nd o f t h e po e try in its origin a l form a n d in t h e o f Du B a rt a s loc a li z e d tr a ns l a tion o f Sylve st e r ,

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s e v e r a l oth e r Fr e nch po e ts incl u ding Scev e Pe l e ti e r a n d Ma rga r e t o f N a v a rr e h e rs e lf h a d ? a nticip a t e d t h e Pl é i a d e r e form in this r e g a rd P l éi a d e sonn e t e e ring wa s n o l e ss e nth u si a stic a n d e xt e nsiv e by r e a son o f this a nticip a tion W ith common imp u ls e t h e m e m b e rs a ppli e d th e ms e lve s promptly a n d dilig e ntly t o a n imit a tion mor e o r l e ss dige stive o f t h e still a cc u m ul a ting m a ss o f I t a li a n mod e ls B e fore this imp u ls e h a d work e d its e lf o u t a t t h e e n d o f t h e c e nt u ry t h e o u tp u t o f sonn e ts in Fr a nc e ’ “ ” R o ns a r d s v a rio u s Am ou r s was l a rg e ind e e d a n d so n n e ts n u m b e r mor e th a n nin e h u ndr e d ; ’ Du B e ll a y s Oli ve a n d Re g r e ts a mo u nt t o ove r thr e e h u ndr e d ; whil e a mong t h e l a t e r m e n D e sport e s st a nds o u t with a noth e r thr e e h u n dr e d t o his cr e dit T h e sonn e t a li e n a n d imi t a t i ve as it wa s b e c a m e imm e ns e ly pop ul a r As in I t a ly th e r e was f e minin e in fl u e nc e t o e u co u r a g e i t a n d t h e c ul t o f Pl a tonism h a d It al r e a dy bl e nd e d with it be yond t h e Alps k e pt a ll t h e we ll worn conve ntion a liti e s o f tho u ght a n d tr a ffick e d with t h e f a mili a r tricks I t sold i ts e lf t o fl a tt e ry for m a t e ri a l o f styl e ,

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t h e s o n n e t v e r y cl o s e l y la t o n ic i n h i s s e r i e s o f o u r h u n d r e d a n d o r t y-n i n e d i a in s , u n d e r t h e t it le e l i e , o bje t d e l a p l u s h a u t e ver t u , i n 1 5 44 T WO so n n e t s b y h i m a p pe a r e d i n t h e M a r hi c h a l s o c o n t a i n e d a g u er i t e s de l a M a r g u e r i t e , 1 5 4 7 , s o n n e t b y Ma r g a r e t h e r s e l Sc e v e w a s s t r o n g l y i n fl u ’ e n ce d b y t h e c o n c e i t s o f Se r a fin o d e ll Aq u i l a a n d h i s i m m e d i a t e p r e d e c e ss o r s e le t i e r , i n 1 5 47 , p u bli sh e d a vo l u m e o f p o e m s c o n t a i n i n g t e l ve so n n e t s t r a n sl a t e d r om e t r a r ch A l a t e r v o l u m e , p u bli s h e d i n 1 5 5 5 , c o n t a in e d n in e t y— si x s o n n e t s 1

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ga in d e gr a d e d its e lf to t h e c e l e br a tion of u n worthy p a ss i ons r e a ct e d a t tim e s e v e n into mora l a n d r e ligiou s f e rvor in short it r e pro d u c e d with t h e modific a tions du e to e nviron m e nt t h e history of its som e wh a t e a rli e r d e v e l o pm e n t a t hom e B e for e e ve n a n a tt e mpt is m a d e a t t h e still more complic a t e d pro bl e m of Fr e nch a n d I t a li a n infl u e nc e u pon t h e E nglish sonn e t it i s d e sir a bl e to s u mm a riz e a t l e a st th e s e modi fic a t i o n s on Fr e nch soil in ord e r to e st a blish — as a p a rt from t h e conv e ntion a liz e d m a t e ri a l of th a t fa r u nifi e d a conc e ption a s possi bl e from homoge ne ou s prod u ct t h e sonn e t in Fr a nc e T h e s e ch a r a ct e ristics do not l e nd th e ms e lve s r e a dily to syst e m a tic a rr a nge m e nt a s th e y e xt e nd from m a tt e rs of m e ch a nic a l d e t a il to s u ch ge ne r a l consid e r a tions of spirit a n d im a gin a tiv e vigor a s r e st o nl y on t h e i m pr e ssion dra wn from wid e r e a ding Ne ith e r a r e th e y ch a r a ct e ristics which I t a ly h a d not a lr e a dy a nticip a t e d in h e r sonn e t e e ring ; bu t a r e r a th e r thos e qu a liti e s or t e nd e nci e s pr e v i o u sl y m a nif e st a t c e rt a in points in t h e I t a li a n d e ve lopm e nt a n d s e iz e d u pon a n d m a gnifie d by c e rt a in of t h e Fr e nch po e ts u ntil the y a ss u m e d a n e w import a nc e e v e n h e lping to giv e ch a r a ct e r to t h e prod u ct T h u s in t h e Pe tr a rchistic r e viv a l l e d by B e mb o th e re wa s a mong c e rt a in po e ts a tir e l e ss e ffort a fte r t h e dignity a n d polish o f r h e t o r i ca l e l e ga nc e p a r a ll e ling t h e pros e id e a ls o f t h e e a rli e r Cic e roni a ns T his rh e toric a l st a nd ,

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sp e ci a lly pl e a sing t o t h e Fr e nch ge ni u s wa s in e xc e ll e nt h a rmony with f u nd a m e nt a l doctrin e s o f t h e Pl éi a d e R ons a rd t h e c o m pl a c e nt ch a mpion o f a polish e d a n d e l e va t e d styl e first t u rn e d instinctiv e ly t o t h e mod e ls wh e r e this ch a r a ct e ristic a pp e a r e d a n d th e n d e ve lop e d it t o a n e xt e nt th a t h a s individ u a liz e d his work T o a l e ss d e gr e e this rh e toric a l polish is visi bl e in t h e work o f his a ssoci a t e s C los e ly a lli e d t o this q u a lity e sp e ci a lly in R o n s a rd a ga in a pp e a rs a vigor a n d vividn e ss o f im a gin a tion which a t tim e s compl e t e ly r e vi t a l i z e s som e b orrowe d bi t o f conv e ntion a l d e s cr i p tion a n d thro u gho u t whol e s e ri e s o f Am ou r s imp a rts a convincing s e ns e o f r e a lity o f f e e l ing a n d int e nsity o f p a ssion D e sport e s a lso poss e ss e s this powe r wh e n h e is n o t tr a m m e l e d by t h e a b u nd a nt conc e its o f his pr e f e rr e d mod e ls B oth th e s e m e n a s we ll a s c e rt a in o f t h e l e ss e r a rtists a llow e d th e ir lyric e fforts t o be a ff e ct e d b y s u ch m a tt e rs o f e nvironm e nt a s th e ir o wn m a t e ri a l n e e ds a n d t h e d e gr a d e d pr a ctic e s o f a corr u pt co ur t Sonne ts o f l a vish fl a tt e ry t o possi bl e p a trons we r e common e no u gh in I t a ly ; wh e r e ind e e d soci a l conditions we r e ’ s u ch th a t a T u lli a d Ar a g o n a co u ld pos e a s a l e a d e r in t h e Pe tr a rch a n c u lt I n Fr a nc e h o w e v e r t h e a cc e pt e d m a st e rs o f t h e sonn e t vog u e d e vot e d n o sm a ll a mo u nt o f th e ir t a l e nts t o s u ch n e c e ssiti e s fl a tt e ring a n u nd e s e rving n o bil i t y a ssisting with th e ir v e rs e t h e n u m e ro u s a n d e v e n c e l e b r a ting t h e a mo u rs o f roy a lty e

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th e s e dir e ctly from t h e I t a li a n The Fr e nch po e ts did r e c e iv e m u ch imm e di a te dir e ction from Gr e e k a n d L a tin howe v e r T h e pop u l a rity o f An a cr e on o r o f t h e works a ttri b u t e d t o him is a tt e st e d by t h e e nth u si a stic r e c e ptio n a ccord e d to t h e e dition o f th e s e po e ms by H e nri E sti e nn e in 1 5 5 4 a n d t o t h e t r a n sl a tion o f th e m by R e my B e ll e a u in 1 5 5 6 a s w e ll a s by t h e n u m e ro u s indic a tions o f th e ir in fl u e nc e in t h e po e try o f th a t p e riod Among t h e L a tins C a t u ll u s T i bu ll u s a n d O vid w e r e fr e e ly dr a wn u pon N ot onl y did t h e form a n d spirit o f th e s e po e ts a pp e a r promin e ntly in Fr e nch od e s m a drig a ls e l e gi e s a n d t h e lik e d u ring t h e sixt e e nth c e nt u ry ; bu t t h e sonn e ts a lso o f Fr e nch po e ts w e r e consid e r a b ly a ff e ct e d by this spirit with its fr a nk j oy in s e ns u o u s d e light its t e nd e rn e ss a n d pl a yf u ln e ss its i n “ ” sist e nc e o n t h e C a rp e di e m motive E xce pt fo r t h e f a ct o f Fr e nch f a mili a rity with t h e Gr e e k a n d L a tin a u thors a ll this might w e ll h a v e b e e n dr a wn from I t a li a n so u rc e s ; fo r C a r i t e o a n d Ariosto h a d b oth gon e fo r inspir a tion t o simil a r so u rc e s a n d Se r a fin o a vow e dly ” s e ns u a l h a d pr e a ch e d C a rp e di e m t o a long s u cc e ssion o f mistr e ss e s Pe rh a ps it is s a f e r t o th a t t h e Fr e nch po e ts e nl a rging u pon say I t a li a n e x a mpl e h a d gon e fr e e ly t o t h e Gr e e k a n d L a tin fo r mod e ls T h e r e ligio u s r e a ction m a nif e st in t h e l a t e r ?

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history of t h e Fr e nch sonne t wa s a lso a fur th e r d e ve lopm e nt u nd e r n e w conditions of a n T h e r e n e w e d r e ligio u s a o I t a li a n prototyp e t i vi t y of I t a ly a s displ a y e d in t h e C o u ncil of T r e nt whil e it t u rn e d cr e a tive a rtists to r e li gio n s tho u ghts a lso prod u c e d a f a shion of S pir i t u a li z i n g t h e s e c u l a r lit e r a t ur e a lr e a dy p o pu ? la r T his proc e ss wa s a ppli e d to t h e D e ca m e r on to t h e Or la n d o F u r i os o a n d n a t u r a lly e no u gh to t h e work of Pe tr a rch I n 1 5 36 a pp e a r e d t h e Pe tr a r ca S pi r i tu a le o f Ma l i p i e r i ; a n d long be for e its pop u l a rity h a d wa n e d Sa lv a torino h a d compl e t e d i n 1 5 47 his T e s a u r o di S a cr a S cr i ttu r a d e ve lop e d from t h e Ri m e of Pe tr a rch Wh e n this t e nd e ncy to e mploy t h e sonn e t for r e ligio u s p u rpos e s r e a ch e d Fr a nc e it fo u nd i t s e lf in n e w comp a ny ; for t h e z e a lo u s Prot e st a nt spirit th e r e wa s willing e no u gh to u tiliz e a n o u t growth of t h e Ca tholic R e a ction wh e n s u ch o u tgrowth wa s so thoro u ghly in h a rmony with Prot e st a nt d e sir e s T h u s th e re a pp e a r e d in t h e d e clin e o f t h e Pl éi a d e move m e nt t h e sp e ct a cl e of t h e Ca tholic co u rti e r D e sport e s r e ve ling in t h e e xtra va ga nt conc e its of his Am ou r s in s e a sons of good fort u n e a n d t u rning d u ring illne ss or d e pr e ssion to so n n e ts of r e li gion s d e votion into which h e did not a lwa ys a void introd u cing his ch a r a ct e ristic tric ks o f ,

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whil e cont e mpor a ry with him t h e H u gu o n o t Du B a rt a s wa s so u nding t h e c a ll o f U r a ni a ’ t o thos e who wo u ld e mploy v e rs e in G od s s e rvic e a n d minor po e ts lik e Ja c qu e s d e B i lly “ w e r e bu sying th e ms e lve s with spirit u a l s o n ” n e ts o i sin c e r e d e votion Aft e r a consid e r a tion o f t h e r e ligio u s a ctiviti e s o f thos e wh o domin a t e d t h e sonn e t lit e r a t u r e in E ngl a nd a t t h e e n d o f t h e c e nt u ry it be com e s a pp a r e nt e no u gh which o f th e s e imp u ls e s wa s t o domi n a t e th e r e S om e points r e m a in t o b e not e d r e g a rding t h e d e v e lopm e nts giv e n in Fr a nc e t o t h e form of t h e sonn e t Following t h e l a t e r I t a li a ns Fr e nch po e ts h a d a p a rtic u l a r fondn e ss for e mph a sis a t t h e concl u sion o f t h e q u a tor z a in toge th e r with t h e pr e s e nc e o f e pigr a m R o n s a rd e sp e ci a lly showe d a fondn e ss a lso fo r a c e rt a in rhym e sch e m e in t h e s e st e tt e ? T h e h e nd e c a syll a b ic m e tr e o f I t a ly wa s n o t s o e a s y for t h e Fr e nch voc a bu l a ry s o th a t t h e t e n syll a bl e v e rs e pr e va il e d in t h e sonne ts o f Fr a nc e B a i f howe ve r incl u d e d six sonn e ts in Al e x in 1 5 5 2 a n d a n dr i n e s in his Am ou r s de M éli n e R ons a rd b e g a n e mploying this typ e o f v e rs e a t R ons a rd ind e e d b e a lmost t h e s a m e tim e c a m e t h e ch a mpion o f t h e Al e x a ndrin e in 2 Fr a nc e e mploying it in most o f t h e Am ou r s de M a r i e a n d S on n e ts p ou r H e len e a s w e ll a s styl e

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cre a tive ge ni u s which from a fi e ld of wid e re a ding ga th e rs bl e nds a d a pts a n d a mplifie s u ntil oft e n th e r e is l e ft only a tr a c e of som e conve ntiona l tho u ght or figu r e so th a t i de n t i A bu ngling fica t i o n of so u rc e is impossi bl e workm a n lik e So o t h e r n or a c a re l e ss a n d irr e sponsi bl e o n e like L odge will tra nsl a t e a lmost A cr e a tive mind s l a v i s h ly fr o m his origin a ls lik e th a t Of Sidn e y or Sh a k e sp e a re a ppropri a t e s fre e ly from a ll so ur c e s a n d ye t t h e r e s u lt h a s t h e distinctiv e vit a lity of a n origin a l prod u c tion T wo concl u sions follow from th e s e con side r a tions A slight r e s e mbl a nc e in tho u ght or e ve n in e xpre ssion be twe e n a n E nglish sonn e t a n d som e p a rtic u l a r Fr e nch or I t a li a n prod u ct do e s not n e c e ss a rily a rgu e ind e bt e dn e ss a t this point u ntil t h e whol e fi e ld of possi bl e so u rc e s h as b e e n consid e r e d a n d p e rh a ps not th e n O n t h e oth e r h a nd for t h e be st m e n of t h e gro u p wh e n onc e a conge ni a l a cqu a int a nc e is e st a blish e d with a s e t of possi bl e mod e ls it is r e a sona bly s a f e to s u ppos e a n ind e bt e dne ss a long b ro a d e r a n d mor e ge n e r a l lin e s l a rge r th a n a n y d e t a il e d coll e ction of p a ra ll e ls wo u ld r e pre s e nt O n this a cco u nt p a rtic u l a r i n st a nc e s of clos e r e s e mbl a nc e will be u s e d fr e e ly in this ch a pt e r bu t with no disposition to e xa gge r a t e th e ir r e a l import a nc e ,

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writ e rs o f t h e Fr e nch P l é i a d e gro u p we r e fa m il i a r l y known t o t h e lit e r a ry p u b lic o f E n g l a nd ; a n d th a t t h e Fre nch sonne ts , com b ining so m a ny o f t h e v a rio u s I t a li a n e xc e ll e nc e s , we re dra wn u pon fr e e ly by t h e E nglish po e ts a s a conv e ni e nt store ho u s e o f id e a s , m e t a phors , At t im e s th e s e borrowings a n d tricks o f styl e .

involve d a discipl e ship : more oft e n th e y did n ot From Fr a nc e t o E ngl a nd howe ve r c a m e t h e g e ne r a l pl a n o f gro u ping a n d p u blishing sonne ts a s we ll a s m a ny o f t h e titl e s a ppli e d t o v a rio u s colle ctions R ons a rd in p a rtic u l a r pro ba bly h a d som e wh a t t o do with t h e incre a s e o f vit a l r e a lity a n d o f ind e p e nd e nt spirit dis pl a y e d by m e n lik e Sidn e y a n d Dra yt on T h e id e a ls a n d e x a mpl e s o f t h e Fr e nch we r e i n fl u e n t i a l in e nco ur a ging t h e E nglish t e nd e ncy t o m od e l sonn e ts a n d othe r lyrics a ft e r t h e po e tic m a nne r o f t h e G r e e ks a n d L a tins Fr a nc e re ligio u s e mploy a nticip a t e d E ngl a nd in t h e m e nt o f t h e sonn e t a n d by t h e clos e r e l a tions P rot e st a nts with E nglish lit e r a ry o f Fr e nch l e a d e rs g a ve a strong imp u ls e t o cons e cra t e d lyric po e try in E ngl a nd T he s e g e ne ra l i n fl u e n c e s a r e s u ppl e m e nt e d by s u ch inst a nc e s o f p a r tic u l a r ind e bt e dne ss a s t h e u s e o f Al e x a ndrin os by S idn e y t h e fondn e ss fo r t h e po e try o f r u ins in Sp e ns e r a n d t h e imm e di a t e imp e t u s t o conc e its in styl e som e tim e s imp a rt e d by D e sport e s Ce rt a inly in t h e r 6le o f a n int e r m e di a ry Fr a nc e pl a ye d n o insigni fi c a nt p a rt in t h e story o f t h e E liz a be th a n sonne t ,

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more th a n tw e nty s e p a r a t e tr a nsl a tio n s a r e r e cord e d be twe e n 1 5 5 6 a n d 1 5 8 5 incl u ding be sid e s n u m e ro u s s e rmons a n d comm e nt a ri e s his I n s ti tu ti on of th e C h r i s ti a n Re li gi on T wo works o f Pi e rre Vire t w e r e tr a ns l a t e d a b o u t 1 5 8 0 ; whil e E nglish r e nd e rings o f r e ligio us ’ tr e a t is e s a n d disc u ssions by Je a n de l E s p in e ’ T h é o do r e de Bé z e a n d Sidn e y s d e vot e d fri e nd D u pl e ssis Morn a y we r e a pp e a ring thro u gho u t t h e l a st fo u r d e c a d e s o f t h e sixt e e nth c e nt u r y From t h e writings o f t h e l a st n a m e d S idne y hims e lf be g a n t h e tr a nsl a tion o f o n e work L a vér i te de la r e li g i on ch r e s ti e n n e ; a n d a noth e r tr e a tis e t h e Di s cou r s de la vi e cl de la m or t wa s tr a nsl a t e d by t h e Co u nt e ss o f Pe m broke a ft e r ’ 1 h e r broth e r s d e a th ’ Across t h e C h a nne l Du Ba r t a s s fi rst op e n ch a mpion a n d tr a nsl a tor wa s o f roy a l b lood n o l e ss a p e rson a ge th a n J a m e s VI o f S cotl a nd B e ing we ll r e a d in Fre nch yo u ng Ja m e s soon h a d his a tt e ntion a ttr a ct e d by this work o f Du B a rt a s a n d fo u nd it in both form a n d cont e nt ve ry m u ch to his liking I n his fi rst coll e ction o f po e ms T h e E s s a ye s of a Pr e n ti s e i n th e Di vi n e Ar t of P oe s i e p u blish e d a t E din bur gh i n 1 5 84 J a m e s incl u d e d a tr a ns l a tion h e h a d m a d e o f t h e U r a n i e pr e f a cing it with a comm e nd a tory notic e H e s a ys : ,

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ve st e r His a t tit u de t owa rd t h e Fr e nch po e t o f divine things wa s o n e o f a rd e nt worship ; h e t o o f e lt t h e c a ll o f t h e Mu s e U r a ni a a n d r e a li z e d t h e m a gnit u d e o f his t a sk ; a n d wh a t e ve r o u r opinion o f t h e r e s ul ts h e a ccomplishe d we r e j oic e th a t by this tr a nsl a tion his re p u t a tion was m a d e fo r mor e th a n h a lf a c e nt u ry a n d his n a m e linke d with th a t o f his a m b itio u s m a st e r a s t h e po e t m e ss e nge rs o f G o d Sylve st e r h a d h a d o nl y a limit e d schooling bu t th a t o f a sort th a t l e ft him we ll gro u nd e d F or in his knowle dge o f t h e Fr e nch l a ng u a ge som e ye a rs h e live d t h e life o f a m e rch a nt ’ a dve nt u r e r bu t wa s a ttr a ct e d t o Du B a r t as s po e try a n d gr a d u a lly g a ve mor e a n d more t im e I n J a m e s St u a rt t o a tt e mpts a t tr a nsl a ting it a lr e a dy t h e d e vot e d a dmir e r o f Du B a rt a s h e fo u nd t h e logic a l p a tron o f his m u se a n d t o t h e n e w-cro wn e d king his colle ct e d works we re d e dic a t e d T he r e is no positive e vid e nc e a s t o ’ whe n Sylve st e r s tr a nsl a tions e sp e ci a lly thos e w e r e be g u n o r a s t o o f t h e Pr e m i er e S e m a i n e t h e fr e e dom with which th e y circ u l a t e d in m a n u script befor e p u b lic a tion I t is onl y conj e ct u r e “ th a t t h e b ook in E nglish E n t it u le d Sa lus t i us ” Du B a rt a s his we e k e o r Se v e n D a y e s wo o r k ’ e nt e r e d in t h e S ta ti on e r s R e gi s te r Au g u st 14 .

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is t r u e th a t the r e a r e v a rio u s points a b o u t t h e Di vi n e Poe m s th a t indic a t e ind e bt e dne ss t o S p e ns e r o r p e rh a ps t o t h e I t a li a n e pics from which h e dr e w a n d t h e p a ss a g e j us t q u ot e d might th u s be a cco u nt e d for s u ffici e ntly by t h e ” “ H o u s e o f Alm a T he r e is howe ve r thi s i m po r t a nt di ffe r e nc e : S p e ns e r r e fe rs t o t h e hostil e ’ ba nds s u rro u nding Alm a s c a stl e bu t do e s n ot give th e ir n a m e s o r int e rpre t a tion Du B a rt a s a n d Sylve st e r n a m e th e m v e ry m u ch in t h e m a nne r o f Qu a rle s T h e r e is e ve ry r e a son t h a t Q u a rl e s sho u ld h a ve be e n a ttr a ct e d by t h e work o f Sylve st e r a m a n wh o c a r e d s o m u ch fo r t h e f a nt a stic e x t e r n a ls o f ve rs e m a king for a n a gr a ms a crostics Ye t th e r e is a bs o a n d e m bl e m a tic d e signs l u t e l y n o m e ntion o f S ylve st e r o r Du B a rt a s in t h e introd u ctory m a t e ri a l t o a n y o f t h e Di vi n e Poe m s a n d it is in t h e conc e its o f S ylve st e r th a t Qu a rl e s s e e ms t o follow him l e a st All t h e p e c u li a riti e s a lr e a dy not e d in t h e Di vi n e We e ks a pp e a r occ a sion a lly in th e s e po e ms o f Q u a rl e s b u t th e y a r e t oo r a r e t o be o f va l u e a s e vid e nc e T h e c a t a log u ing o f a nim a ls with a som e wh a t e l a b or a t e a cco u nt o f th e ir s u ppos e d ch a r a ct e r “ T h u s in t h e Jo b i s t i cs oc c u rs a fe w tim e s ’ ” Milit a nt Go d c a lls Jo b s a tt e ntion t o a n u m be r Of cr e a t u r e s a s e vid e nc e s o f divin e cr e a tive 2 powe r T h e s e d e scriptio n s c u lmin a t e in a long — 4 47 2 n n 1 6 Qu a r l e s D i vi n e P o e m s e d L o d o 63 p p ,

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compo u nds th a t occ u r T h e onl y compo u nd o f mor e th a n t wo p a rt s occ ur s in t h e Sa mson : “ 1 T o s e e this fl e sh a n d blood r e le nt ing sigh Su ch e vid e nc e a s this s u cc e e ds in e st a blishing ve ry little e sp e ci a lly for po e ms writt e n s o l a t e a s th e s e w e r e A possi bl e p a rti a l in fl u e nc e i n cl u ding a n initi a l imp ul se is t h e most th a t co u ld be cl a im e d I n t h e c a s e o f T a ylor th e r e is a t l e a st t h e fa ct th a t h e r e cogniz e d t h e position o f t h e po e try o f Du B a rt a s a n d p a id tri bu t e t o a u thor a n d tr a nsl a tor D e scription o f I n his ” N a t u r a l] E nglish P o e try h e s a ys : .

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s e mph a tic de cl a r a tion th a t h e kne w n o 2 Fr e nch d e tr a cts from t h e v a l u e o f p a rt o f t his 1 tho u gh a nothe r r e fe r e nc e t o Du B a rt a s indi c a t e s th a t h e kne w t h e po e ms if o nl y in t r a n s l a ’ “ ” tion By t h e tim e T a ylor s U r a ni a a pp e a r e d in 1 630 the r e wa s o f co u rs e s o wid e a vog u e o f po e ms o f this sort th a t the re wa s n o ne e d fo r him t o dr a w u pon Du B a rt a s T he re m a y howe ve r be som e signi fi c a nc e in t h e f a ct t h a t D i vi n e P o e m s e d ci t p 35 6 ,

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imme di a t e ly a ft e r this po e m in t h e folio e dition “ of his works a pp e a re d T h e Si e g e s a n d Sa ck ” ings of Je ru s a l e m th a t o n e of his poe ms which be a rs clos e st re s e m bl a nc e in b oth m a tt e r a n d form to t h e work of Sylve st e r ’ Cowle y s Da vi de i s mod e le d u pon t h e I li a d ’ a n d showing u nmist a k a b l e r e l a tions to Ma rino s ’ S tr a g e de gli I n n ocen ti o r Cr a sh a w s tr a nsl a tion ’ — from Ma rino s first book S os pe tto D H er ode was st ill fa rthe r r e move d in tim e from Du B a rt a s a n d his tr a nsl a tor I t is in t h e me tr e it d e a ls with a n d e l a bor a t e s a o f Sylve st e r ; “ port ion of Bi ble story n a rr a t e d in L e s Ca pi t a ine s a n d L e s T roph ée s it digre ss e s a t o n e point into a se ve nty line de scription of Cr e a tion ; a n d it r e j oic e s in ponde ro u s comp a riso n s dr a wn from t h e m a t e ri a l d e t a ils of sci e nc e B u t s u ch r e s e m bl a nc e s a s th e s e giv e w a y be fore ’ a clos e r st u dy of C owl e y s r e a l inspir a tion t h e n e w imp u ls e tow a rd t h e re ligio u s e pic which h e h a d j u s t e nco u nt e re d in Fr a nc e T ha t h e consid e re d t h e Da vi de i s a n innova tion for E ngl a nd is shown by t h e pr e fa c e to t h e e dition Apropos of t h e o f his works p u blishe d in 1 6 5 6 Da vi de i s h e h a s disc u sse d a t som e le ngth t h e ne e d for gre a t po e ms on divine or re ligio u s s u b “ I a m fa r from je ct s T he n h e concl u de s : a ss u ming to mys e lf to h a ve f u lfille d t h e d u ty of this we ighty u nd e rt a king ; b u t s u r e I a m the r e is not hing ye t in o ur l a ngu a ge (nor p e r ha ps in a n y) th a t is in a n y d e gr e e a nswe r a ble ,

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ide a th a t I conc e ive o f it An d I sh a ll be a m b itio us o f n o oth e r fr u it from this we a k a n d imp e rfe ct a tt e mpt o f mine bu t t h e op e ning o f a wa y t o t h e co u r a g e a n d ind u stry o f som e othe r p e rsons wh o m a y be be tt e r a ble t o pe r ” 1 form it thoro u ghly a n d s u cc e ssf ul ly On e int e r e sting line o f conn e ction o cc u rs a t I n t h e s u mm a ry writt e n by Du t his point ’ B a r t a s s e ditor S imon G o u l a rt de Se nlis a n d ” pre fi xe d t o L e s T roph ée s in which t h e st ory o f D a vid is giv e n a pp e a r th e s e st a t e m e nts :

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ide a is contin u e d a t conside r a bl e le n g th ” with a pt Similit u d e s a s t h e m a rgin a l e x “ — con fi r m in g t h e pl a n a tion s a ys r e a son a n d ’ d e cl a ring t h e right e n d o f God s dive rs de a lings Ye t th e r e wa s r e a son e no u gh in with m e n ’ Milton s o wn e xp e ri e nc e a n d p a rty a ffili a tions to t u rn his cr e a tive powe rs t o the ir r e ligio u s the m e T he r e a r e ind e e d som e othe r r e s e m bl a nc e s with Du B a rt a s which a dd s u pport t o a pro ba b ili ty th a t t h e Di vi n e We e ks known t o Milton in his yo u th r e a dily re c u rr e d t o his mind wh e n t h e not ion o f a s a cre d e pic a ros e the re B oth po e ts fo u nd it ne ce ss a ry t o bl e nd t h e m a chin e r y o f cl a ssic myth with the ir b i blic a l ch a r a ct e rs Du B a rt a s h a d d e p e nd e d fo r po e tic ” “ Milton di d o n e ff e ct as m us t e r roll s of prop e r n a m e s Phr a s e s a n d word —com b in a tions in Milton a r e fr e q u e ntly r e c a lling simil a r e x pr e ssions in t h e We e ks a ltho u gh t h e r e s e m 1 T he bl a nc e s c a nnot j u stly be c a lle d p a r a ll e ls whol e qu e st ion li e s slightly o u tside t h e scop e o f this st u dy a n d a t be st o ffe rs littl e mor e th a n t h e t hr e a d o f pro b a b ility indic a t e d a b ove ’ By t h e t im e o f E ngl a nd s civil strife lit e r a ry in fl u e nc e s s u ch a s Du B a r t a s a n d Sylve st e r r e pr e s e nt e d h a d be com e so va rio u s a n d compli c a t e d th a t it is n e xt t o impossi b l e t o point o u t d e fi nit e inst a nc e s o f d e p e nd e nc e T he re is indic a tion howe ve r th a t thr o u gh t h e a mpl e e ntir e fi rst h a lf o f t h e c e nt u ry t h e pop u l a rity o f th e s e po e ts wa s pr a ctic a lly int a ct ; s o th a t it ,

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re a lly ga ve wa y only with t h e vigoro u s imp u ls e s of t h e R e stora tion Nu me ro u s tri bu t e s might be q u ot e d from m e n who h a ve not be e n m e n t i o n e d a s imit a tors or a s conne ct e d with imi Som e of the s e d a t e from t h e be ginning t a t or s of t h e c e nt u ry whe n the y we r e p u blishe d in ’ conn e ction with Sylve st e r s colle ct e d works T h e d e m a nd th a t ne c e ssit a t e d t h e n u m e ro u s l a t e r e ditions of Sylve st e r re pre s e nts contin u e d pop u l a rity in a m a t e ri a l form Su ffici e nt l a t e t e stimony is provide d by a bri e f tri bu t e in Ge orge ’ “ ” D a ni e l s Vindic a tion of Po e si e p u blishe d in 1 64 6 a n d by a f a mili a r st a t e m e nt of Dryd e n r e g a rding his own yo u th D a ni e l s a ys with a n ’ e cho of Sp e n s e r s e a rli e r tri b u t e : .

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d e t a il Al ong both the s e line s Sylve ste r s p a rt was simil a r t o th a t o f his m a st e r e xc e pt t ha t h e wa s a gr e a t e r e xtr e mist T o S ylve st e r as t o his g re a t e r E ngli sh cont e mpor a ri e s Du B a r t as with his Prot e st a nt z e a l a n d stylist ic e xt r a va g a nc e s o ffe r e d som e thing for which minds a n d t as t e s we r e we ll pr e p a re d Me n like Sidne y a n d Donn e co ul d find in this poe try fl ights o f fa ncy o r tricks o f e xpr e ssion t o fit th e ir n e e d witho u t d e fi nit e ly cons e cr a ting th e ir e ffo r ts to t h e H e a ve nl y Mu s e A fe w ye a rs l a t e r with Syl ’ ve st e r s tr a nsl a tions t o loc a liz e t h e a ppe a l s e r i Dr a yt on o u s mind e d m e n o f r e ligio u s p u rpos e Al e x a nd e r a n d John D a vi e s o f H e r e ford fo u nd in the s e po e ms mode ls fo r the ir o wn composi tions bas e d o n B i ble s t o r y B a ck o f this whol e d e ve lopm e nt st a nds t h e roya l fi g u r e o f King Ja m e s t h e fri e nd o f Du B a rt a s t h e e nco u r a ging forc e fo r Sylve st e r t h e p a tron o f Ale x a nd e r t h e ch a mpion o f U r a ni a h e rs e lf As t h e s e ve nt e e nth c e nt u ry proc e e d e d in fl u e nc e s incre a s e d a n d c o m plic a t e d bu t t h e po e try o f Du B a rt a s re t a ine d a pop u l a rity t h a t r e q u ir e s it t o be st i l l r e g a rd e d f a ctor O nl y with t h e R e st or a tion did as a the s e poe ms sink into t h e position o f c o n t e m pt u o u s n e gl e ct whi ch h a d so soon be com e th e ir l ot in Fr a nc e .

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good h u m ore d co a rs e ne ss o f his e xpre ssion g a ve the s e e ne mie s the ir we a pons ; a n d the r e ’ gr e w u p in m e n s minds in Fr a nc e a n d thro u gh — a tr a dition a l R a b e l a is gl u tton o u t E u rop e dr u nk a rd b u ffoon a n d tri ckst e r wh o took his pl a c e be sid e Ma chi a ve lli a n d Ar e tino a s o n e “ of t h e t e rri ble e x a mple s of t h e R e na iss a nc e B y th a t tim e t h e m e di e va lism h e r e pr e se nt e d h a d be com e d e a d m a tt e r H u m a nism h a d r u n its co u rs e a n d t h e r e ligio u s r e forms h e h a d ch a mpione d h a d pl a y e d the ir p a r t in va rio u s r e a dj u st m e nts N a t u r a lly in t h e minds o f m a ny m e n t h e only vit a l e l e m e nts l e ft t o his work we r e its co a rs e ne ss o f ton e a n d t h e l a xity o f life it e nco u r a g e d ; a n d th e s e corr e spond e d I n E ngl a nd this a l l t oo w e ll with t h e t r a d it i o n m u st h a ve be e n e sp e ci a lly tr u e T h e a bu s e s o f t h e ch ur ch wo u ld n o long e r e ntir e ly vit a liz e his s a tir e in a l a nd whe r e pop e s a n d e l a b or a t e monks h a d c e a s e d to be a r e a lly s e rio u s fa ctor E xt r e m e P rot e st a nts mor e ove r wo u ld forg e t his s e rvic e a s a r e form e r in th e ir right e o us z e a l a g a inst s o b old a n a dvoc a t e o f u nholy living ; wh o h a d n ot scr u pl e d ind e e d t o s a tiriz e Prot 2 T o t h e l e ss e st a n t l e a d e rs in his l a t e r b ooks “ z e a lo u s h e wo u ld a pp e a r m e r e ly a s t h e gre a t ” 3 j e st e r o f Fr a nc e T h e lit e r a ry in fl u e nc e o f R a be l a is the n is not t o be so u ght a mong t h e r e ligio u s po e ts o f E n g -

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l a nd nor in t h e le a rne d circle s of t h e no bility I t is like ly to a pp e a r a n d its lit e r a ry r e t a in e rs a n d sho ul d b e e sp e a t a n y tim e in t h e dr a m a in t h e s a tiric a l o u t bu rsts of c i a lly m a nife st lit e r a ry fr e e l a nc e s like T hom a s Na sh a n d John T h e r e a l R a be l a is h a d T a ylor t h e Wa t e r Po e t be e n infl u e nc e d by Si r T hom a s Mor e m a king both Ga rg a nt u a a n d Pa nt a gr u e l r u le rs of U topi a a n d r e pr e s e nting t h e moth e r of Pa n ,

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fille d u R o y de s Am a u r ot e s e n t a gr u e l a s ” 1 a s w e ll a s giving e xpr e ssion to m a ny U t opi e ,

of t h e philosophic a l opinions of both Mor e a n d T h e R a be l a is th a t E ngl a nd kne w E r a sm u s co u ld s e ldom a spire to s u ch comp a ny tho u gh Fra ncis B a con a t l e a st is known to h a ve be e n fa mili a r with his writings I n a tt e mpting to e stim a t e t h e e xt e nt of E n g lish knowle dge of R a be l a is on t h e ba sis of re fe re nc e s to him a n d his work a n u nc e rt a inty T h e books of Ga r ga n tu a a n d a t onc e a rise s Pa n ta gr u e l we re bu ilt a b o u t a gi a nt he ro of pop u l a r ch a p book rom a nc e whos e story h a d be e n in ge n e r a l circ u l a tion som e tim e be for e R a be l a is t u rne d his h a nd to t h e r e vision of it a n d fo u nd th e r e t h e ve ry m a chine ry h e d e sir e d L e s gr a n de s e t m e s for his own cre a tions Rab l i ii ; f Bat h e y P t g l (b k ch a p 2

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C r on i qu e s da gr a n t e t en or m e g ea n t Ga r g a n tu a , p u blishe d in 1 5 32 , in t h e form which wa s a pp a r e ntly giv e n th e m by R a be l a is him 1 s e lf , e nj oye d , a s h e t e stifi e s in t h e prolog u e t o Pa n ta gr u e l, a n imm e di a t e a n d va st pop u l a rity .

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for p lic w a s b e h e t e u b , 1 by 1 5 6 4 Pa n ta gru e li n e Pr ogn os ti ca ti on p ou r Pa n 1 5 33 , which wa s contin u e d ye a r by ye a r , u ntil in 1 5 4 2 it wa s m a de a Pr og ’ n os ti ca ti on r ou l a n ngl nd e r e t i n I u e E a p p p , ’ the re is e nt e r e d in t h e S ta ti on e r s Re gi s te r for “ ” April 6 , 1 5 9 2 , Ga r g a n tu a hi s pr op h e si e , which wo u ld s e e m t o indic a t e a n E nglish r e nd e ring According t o th a t vi e w , o f t h e Pr ogn os ti ca ti on the re is signi fi c a nc e in t h e tho u ght th a t t h e n a m e Ga rg a nt u a wa s be ing a cc e pt e d loos e ly t o cove r t h e v a rio u s writings o f R a be l a is , a n d th a t t h e tr a dition a l gi a nt story wa s by th a t tim e be ing conf u s e d in E nglish minds with t h e more e l a bo r a t e lit e r a ry cr e a tion I i this s u pposition co ul d be a cc e pt e d , it wo u ld a i d gre a tly in t h e int e r r i n f u e t a o o t w v ry v a g e e ntri e s m a d t o e e a p tri fl e l a t e r U nde r d a t e o f J u ne 1 6 , 1 5 9 2 , the r e is ” “ a n e ntry o f Ga r g a n tua , m a de witho u t e xpl a n a tion a n d a ft e rw a rd c a nc e lle d O n D e c e m be r 4 “ 1 5 9 4, th e r e is e nt e re d T h e h i s tor i c of Ga r ga n tua , “ with t h e not e , Provid e d th a t if this Copie d o o be longe t o a ni e oth e r , T he n this E ntr a nc e t o be ” T h e s e p u blic a tions h a ve n ot s u rvive d , voide a n d nothing wh a t e v e r is known a b o u t th e m T h e titl e a pp e a rs t o indic a t e m e r e ly a print e d E nglish v e rsion o f t h e pop u l a r tr a dition , a ltho u gh ” t h e a pp a r e nt e xt e nsion o f t h e t e rm Ga rg a nt u a , a n d t h e short tim e e l a psing be twe e n t h e e ntry o f t h e Pr op h e s i e a n d t h e first not ic e o f Ga r g a n tu a , a t l e a st op e n t h e possi b ility o f s o e a rly a tr a ns r e g a rding its

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l a tion of p a rt of R a be l a is s gre a t e r work T h e tra nsl a tion of t h e first two books by T hom a s U rqu h a rt in 1 6 5 3 wa s a pp a re ntly c a lle d fo rt h by a growing int e r e st a t th a t tim e in t hings s a tiric a l Be fore 1 5 80 the re a r e a t le a st thre e a u the ntic re fe r e nce s to G a rga nt u a a ll of th e m in conne c tions th a t s e e m to point to t h e le ge nd a ry gi a nt “ he ro I n 1 5 7 2 t h e B r i ef a n d N e ce ssa r y I n s tr u c ti on by E D d e cri e s a mong othe r E nglish “ books of t h e tim e t h e wit le s de vic e s of C a r ” 1 r n I n R o L a n h m in his a u a 5 7 5 b e t e a t g le tt e r to H u mp hr e y Ma rtin d e scri bing t h e e n t e rt a i n m e n t of t h e Qu e e n a t Ke nilwo rt h m e n tions Ga r ga n tu a a s o n e of t h e books with which All t h e othe r books Ca pt a in Co x wa s f a mili a r na me d a r e in E nglish a n d t h e pr e s u mption follows th a t this o n e is a lso T wo ye a rs l a t e r “ Doctor Me ride th H a nme r e n u me r a t e s t he ” monst ro u s fa ble s of Ga rga nt u a in a list of As l a t e a s 1 5 98 in t h e pop ul a r E nglish books Pa lla di s T a m i a of Me r e s Ga r g a n tua is con de m n e d toge the r with t h e F ou r S on s of Aym on a n d t h e S e ve n C h a m pi on s a s a b ook inj u rio u s H e re a g a in j u dging by t h e for yo u ng pe ople comp a ny it ke e ps t h e book in mind m a y we ll be t h e gi a nt st ory a ltho u gh t h e qu e st ion is a mu ch more Op e n o n e .

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him wh a t e ve r h e poss e ss e s o f k e e n ne ss a n d s a tiric a l fir e t oge the r with a fl u e ncy in t h e u se o f l a rge bu t e xpr e ssiv e words C oncl u ding t h e e pistl e t o t h e R e a d e r be for e his L en te n S tuf a pp e a ring a lmost a t t h e e n d o f his c a r e e r he “ s a ys : L e t m e sp e a ke t o yo u a bo u t my h u ge wo o r ds which I u s e in this b ook e a n d th e n you a r e yo u r o wn m e n t o do wh a t yo u list Know it is my tr u e v a ine t o be tr a gic u s O r a tor a n d o f a ll stile s I most a ffe ct a n d strive t o imit a t e Ar e t in e s n ot c a ring for this d e m u r e soft m e dio cr e ge nu s th a t is like w at e r a n d wine mixt ,

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j u sti fie d him in pl a cing R a be l a is a n d Ar e tino 1 side by side a s t h e mode ls of his a nnoying fo e ’ I n H a rve y s F ou r L e tte r s a s e a rly a s 1 5 9 2 h e m a ke s a pl e a to Na sh to be a divin e po e t a n d u s e he a ve nly e loq u e nc e ind e e d concl u ding with R ight a r t i fic i a l it y is not t h e st a t e m e nt m a d br a ine d or ridic u lo u s or a b s u rd o r bl a s m u e e h u or mons t ro s b u t d e e p conc it d e o s ; p not a ccord bu t ple a s u r a ble bu t d e lic a t e ing to t h e fa nt a stic a l mo u ld of Ar e tine or R a be l a ys b u t a ccording to t h e fin e mod e l o f 2 Orphe u s H ome r Pind a r u s T his con n e ct i o n is r e p e a t e d in t h e N e w L e tter of N o ta ble “ Whe n t h e swe e t C on te n ts t h e ye a r following : yo u th h a u nt e d Are tine a n d R a be la ys t h e two monst ro u s witt e s o f the ir l a ngu a ge s who so sha ke n with t h e fu rio u s fe a ve r s of t h e On e ; or so a tt a int e d with t h e Fre nch Pocke s o f t h e ” ’ Pi e r ce s S u p e r e r og a ti on a lso u b Ot he r ? p li s h e d in 1 5 9 3 a dds fu rt h e r confirm a tion with a concre t e d e t a il to indic a t e th a t H a rve y wa s ’ fa mili a r with R a be l a is s work a n d was not me r e ly comp a ring his e ne my to a tr a ditiona l “ m a st e r of grossne ss Poor I h e s a ys .

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m a t che d with s u ch a G a rg a nt u ist as ” c a n de v o u r e m e q u i c ke in a s a ll a t T he e x r i n f c G a a u a e e e o rg nt with t h e pilgri m s a s told p in Ch a pt e r 38 o f t h e First Book is a t onc e re c a ll e d I n co n sid e ring t h e a ct u a l writings o f N a sh the re is o n e impo rt a nt indic a tion o f o blig a tion t o R a be l a is th a t c a n o f co u rs e be tr e a t e d only in a ge ne r a l wa y T his is t h e p e c u li a r spirit a n d m a nne r which o n e com e s t o a ssoci a t e with t h e “ fr a nkly co a rs e bu t good n a t u r e d j e st e r o f Fr a nc e a n d which s e e ms t o d e p e nd o n t h e a cc u m u l a tion o f sm a ll d e t a ils r a th e r th a n o n a fe w striking p a ss a ge s B e twe e n t h e As tr o logi ca ll Pr ogn os ti ca ti on fo r inst a nc e a n d t h e Pa n ta s i c a i r u e li n e P r o n o t t on th e r is striking r e a e g g s e m bl a nc e in m a nne r a s we ll a s in m e thod o f B oth a r e bu rl e sq u e prophe ci e s g e t a ppro a ch ting the ir h u mor from t h e p e rfe ct o b vio u sne ss o f t h e things pr e dict e d a n d a dding in m a ny in st a nc e s t h e s a tiric a l to u ch T h e y b oth d e a l with t h e e clips e s fo r t h e y e a r a n d t h e conditions t o be conn e ct e d with th e s e a s we ll a s o ffe ring p r e dictions fo r e a ch o f t h e fo u r s e a sons B oth give som e a tt e ntion t o t h e di ffe r e nt cl a ss e s a n d occ u p a tions o f m e n a n d t o t h e p e c u li a riti e s o f oth e r co u ntri e s W ith t h e fre qu e nt a pp e a r a nc e o f s e rio u s prognost ic a tions in b oth co u ntri e s it wa s to be e xp e ct e d th a t s u ch p a rodi e s wo u ld b u t in this c a s e th e r e a r 1s e from tim e t o t im e s e e ms to be m u ch mor e th a n a ch a nc e p a r a ll e l th a t

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or I t a li a n T o t h e trace s of R a be l a is s infl u e nc e a lr e a dy not e d a r e now a dd e d a mor e e l a b or a t e sort of fooling a n d a t e nde ncy towa rd a cc u m u l a tion of p a r a lle l t e rms in s e rie s be side s c e rt a in de t a ile d re s e m bl a nc e s th a t a r e u nmist a k a ble H e fre e ly coins n e w words of a d e cid e dly R a be l a is i a n sort a n d a t t h e s a me tim e ridic u l e s t h e p e d a ntic voc a bu l a ry of his u nwi e ldy a nt a gonist a s R a be l a is did th a t of t h e L imo u sin schol a r Br a g m a r d o T he a n d of Ma st e r Ja n o t u s de t e nde ncy to int e rsp e rse more o r le ss l e a rne d cit a tions a lso a pp e a rs tho u gh this m a y h a ve be e n e a sily picke d u p from t h e H um a nist s a nywh e r e I nde e d it m u st be r e m e m be r e d th a t m a ny of the s e tr a its from R a be l a is sho u ld h a ve a ide d Na sh gr e a tly in constr u cting his p a rody of ’ H a rve y s c u m bro u s styl e H a ve Wi th You is sole m nl y d e dic a t ed to a ba r be r with a we a lth of r a m bling phr a s e ology of which this is a fa ir sp e cime n : p a ra h r i a ll a s t c a a P a a g ll nt tron Dick good f llow s a e p a s e ve r wa s H e igh fill t h e pot h os t e s se : co u rt e o u s Dicke live ly Dick e love ly c o m i c a l l Dicke Dicke le a rne d Dicke old e Dicke of L i ch fie ld Ju be o t e plur i m u m s a l u cr e which is by i n t e r pr e t a t i o n I j oy to he a re tho u h a st so profit e d in ” “ i r i b dg e Pr e s e nting a gr a c e in be h a lf o f g “ t h e H a rve ys for a ni e tim e this Na sh s a ys : fo u r e a n d t we n t ie ye a r e the y ha ve pl a id t h e fa n t a st i c a ll g u b s hit e s a n d goos e gi ble ts in Print a n d ke pt a h a t e fu l l s cr i bli n g a n d a a m hl i n e t p p g .

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rt h q u a ke s c o n i u n ct io n s in u nd a tions t h e fe a r fu ll b l a zing St a rr e a n d t h e fo r s wo r n e Fl a xe wife ; a n d took e u pon the m t o be f a l s e We a th e r wiz a rds Proph e ts Fort u ne t e lle rs P o e ts Philosoph e rs O r a tors Historiogr a phe rs Mo u n t e ba n ke s B a ll e t Ma k e rs a n d le ft n o Art e u nd e f a m e d with th e ir filt h ie d u ll h e a d e d pr a c ” ” 1 “ I h a ve h a ndle d it s a ys N a sh o f tis e ’ “ H a rve y s pict u r e so ne a tly a n d s o sprightly m i u l d b e d m u ddl d n a n d wi t h a l l o u z l e d e a d g dr i z le d it so fine ly th a t I for b id e ve r a H a n ns B a ll H a u n s H o lbi n e o r H a u n s Mul lie r o f the m ” 2 a ll t o a m e nd it ’ ’ ’ Na sh s de rision o f H a rve y s schol a r s vo ca bu “ l a ry finds e xpre ssion in An O r a t ion incl u ding most o f t h e miscr e a t e d words a n d se nt e nc e s in ” 3 T he r e is a n a cco u nt o f t h e Doctors B ook e t h e b irt h o f H a rve y a n d a l e tt e r d e scri b ing t h e ’ yo u th s fi rst e d u c a tion which a r e a lmost ce r t a i n l y mod e l e d o n simil a r st a t e m e nts conc e rning ’ t h e b i r th o f Pa nt a gr u e l a n d o n Ga rg a nt u a s le t 5 t e r to him r e g a rding his e d u c a tion On e typic a l p a ss a ge cont a ins dir e ct r e fe re nc e “ bu t whe n I t o G a rg a nt u a a n d his gl u ttony : c a m e t o u n rip a n d u n bu m ba st this Ga rga nt u a n b a g p u dding a n d fo u nd nothing in it bu t dogs trip e s swine s liv e rs o xe ga lls a n d sh e e p e s g u t t s I wa s in a bitt e re r ch a f e t h a n a n y C ook e a t a ” 6 long Se rmon wh e n his m e a t e bu rn e s Ce r ab

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R AB E L AI S

2 36

ge ni a l bu rl e s qu e o f t h e whole work is p e rh a ps its most cl e a rly R a be l a isi a n fe a t u r e T h e stori e s o f t h e origin o f H e rring a n d L ing from H e ro a n d L e a nd e r a n d t h e s a inting o f t h e He rring by t h e Pop e a r e sport o f t h e im a gin a ’ tion t h a t wo u ld h a ve be e n d e a r t o R a be l a is s h e a rt Ye t thro u gho u t o n e r e c e ive s t h e i m pr e ssion th a t a ltho u gh N a sh is a lmost c e r ta i nl y following R a be l a is it is a t a consid e r a ble dis t a nc e T h e bu rle s q u e h u mor s e e ms dil u t e d t h e pict u r e s qu e r e a lism l a cks t h e bro a d fr a nkne ss o f t h e mod e l a n d e ve n t h e n e w coin e d words a p ’ p e a r forc e d inst e a d o f spont a ne o u s N a sh s limit in this m a tt e r o f coin a ge s is r e a ch e d in t h e “ s e nt e nc e Ph ys it i o n s d e a fe n o u r c a r e s with t h e H o n o r i fic a bil it u d i n it a t i bu s o f th e ir h e a ve nly 1 Pa n a ch ae a the ir s o ve r a ig n e Gu i a cu m T h e re is a notic e a b l e r e s e m bl a nc e t o R a be ’ ” l a is s So r bo n i co lifica bilit u di n i s se m e n t u s e d l n L a C h r e m e Phi losop h a le de s Q u e s ti on s E n cyclo pe 2 T he r e is a noth e r a ll u di cque s de Pa n ta g r u e l sion t o Ga rga nt u a in t h e L e n te n S tufie a s fol “ lo ws : N othing be h i n de in n u m be r with t h e invinci bl e Sp a n is h Arm a d a tho u gh the y we r e n ot s u ch G a rg a nt u a n bo yst e r o u s g u llig u t s a s the y tho u gh ships a n d ga l e a ss e s the y wo u ld ” 2 h a ve be e n e re ckone d in t h e n a vy o f K E dga r T he

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R AB E L AI S

2 37

v e n be slightly signific a nt th a t in this 1 s a me work Na sh prote sts a ga inst t h e miscon s t r u c t i o n s pl a c e d u pon his pr e vio u s wri t ings m u ch in t h e m a nne r of R a be l a is in t h e E pistl e D e dica tory of his Fo u rth Book T h e q u e stion of R a be l a isi a n in fl u e nc e in t h e E liz a be th a n dra m a is n e c e ss a rily a ve ry u n ce r t a in o n e Pa ra ll e ls of o n e sort a n d a noth e r a r e consta ntly be ing s u gg e st e d bu t ge n e ra l re s e m bl a nc e s in mood m u st u s u a lly give wa y be for e t h e possi bility of dra wing s u ch a spirit dir e ctly from common lif e ; while t h e re c u rre nc e of a striking phra se or id e a too ofte n prove s to be only t h e re a pp e a r a nc e of som e thing e ntire ly conve ntiona l T h e be st th a t ca n be done is t o indic a te t h e p a r a ll e ls t h a t a r e l e ss strongly ope n to s u spicion T o m a k e v a lid t h e re s e m bl a nc e s in Sh a ke sp e a r e we m u st e ith e r a cc e pt a r e a sona bl e knowl e dge o f Fre nch on his p a rt or r e u a E a s ppos rli r nglish tr ns la tion of e h e e e t p ? R a be l a is a lre a dy disc u ss e d ’ ’ T h e pe d a ntic H olofe rne s in L ove s L a bou r s L os t tho u gh a stock ch a r a ct e r of contin e nt a l come dy c e rt a i n ly a pp e a rs to h a ve a dire ct prototyp e in T u ba l H olofe rne s t h e p e d a nt t u tor of Ga rga nt u a who u nde r t h e hospit a ble tre a t ’ m e nt of Gr a n dg o u s ie r dir e ct e d t h e yo u ng gi a nt s r u dime nt a ry tr a ining with s u ch z e a l th a t h e ’ le a rne d to re cit e his A B C s ba ckwa rds S h a ke I t m ay

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RAB E L AI S

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sp e a re s Holofe rne s with t h e L a tin a t e voca bu l a ry th a t R a be l a is took d e light in ridic u ling wa s e mploy e d in t e a ching boys t h e horn book a n d wa s gr a cio u sly r e c e ive d a t t h e t a bl e s o f his p a trons I t is pro ba bly going t o o fa r t o co m ’ p a r e with Ga rg a nt u a s a chi e ve me nt a bove t h e ’ q u e stion o f Moth t o Sh a ke sp e a re s pe d a nt Wh a t is a b sp e lt ba ckwa rd with t h e horn o n ” his he a d ? b u t m e ntion sho u ld be m a d e o f t h e " " word h o n o r i fica bilit u di n it a t i bu s which Cos ’ t a rd re p e a ts a s a mong t h e be st o f Holofe rne s ’ ’ 1 L ove s L a bou r s L os t wa s pro b p e d a ntic store a bly writt e n a s e a rly a s 1 5 9 1 As You L i ke I t cont a ins o n e r e fe re nc e t o G a rga nt u a tho u ght o f p e rh a ps simply a s a gi a nt R os a lind s a ys t o Ce li a in t h e s e cond a ct ’ “ third sc e ne Yo u m ust b orrow m e Ga rga nt u a s mo u th fi rst tis a word t o o gr e a t fo r a n y mo u th ” O f co u rse the re wo u ld be o f this a g e s siz e no ne e d fo r Sh a ke sp e a re to go t o Fre nch so u rc e s ” “ fo r a bit o f gr a cio u s fooling like t h e conve rs a tion o f Sir Andr e w a n d t h e clown in T we lf th “ Pi g r o g r o m it u s of the of N i g h t tr e a ting ” 2 Va p i a n s p a ssing t h e e q u inocti a l o f Q u e bu s Ye t h e might h a ve fo u nd a n a dmir a ble s u g g e s tion in t h e e le ve nth ch a pt e r o f t h e Se cond Book “ Ma is a R a be l a is wh e r e B a is e c ul s a ys of T r o p i c q u e s six r i ntr l s d e u x u s a S s o t e e e o o p p p m a ille p a r a u lt a n t q u e bl a ncs ve rs l e z e nith ,

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R A B E L AI S

2 40

ch a pt e r o f t h e First B ook : E t fa is o ie n t to u s d e u x so u ve nt e ns e m ble l a be st e a d e u x dos T h e p a r a lle l h e r e s e e ms to be j oye u s e m e nt ’ o n e o f t h e s a f e st indic a tions o f S h a k e sp e a r e s inde bt e dne ss to R a be l a is ’ T h e thirt i e th ch a pt e r o f R a be l a is s Se cond B ook give s t h e d e t a ile d a cco u nt o f t h e v a rio u s a b s u rd p u nishm e nts o f h e ro e s in Pu rg a tory a s told by E pi st e m o n wh e n h e wa s r e stor e d t o life All this is d e ve lop e d from t h e s u gge stion in ’ L u ci a n s di a log u e M e n i pp os which is tr a nsl a t e d 1 a s follows : .

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R AB E L AI S

241

sixt h sc e n e of T h e Wh i te De vi l re cognize s L u ci a n a s t h e so u rc e of t h e ge ne r a l conc e ption bu t de ve lops his d e t a ils in a thoro u ghly R a be l a i s i a n m a nne r whe n h e m a ke s F la m i n e o s a y : “ Whithe r sh a ll I go now ? O L u ci a n thy ridic u lo u s p u rg a tory ! T o find Ale xa nde r t h e Gre a t co bbling sho e s Pomp e y t a ggi n g points H a nni a n d J u li u s C ae s a r m a king h a ir b u ttons b a l s e lling bl a cking a n d Au g u st u s s e lli n g g a rlic C h a rle m a gne s e lling lists by t h e doz e n a n d King Pe pin crying a pple s in a c a rt dr a wn with ” o n e hors e ’ I t is only n a t u r a l th a t Pa n u rge s c e l e br a t e d in t h e third ch a pte r of R a be e ul ogy of d e bt ’ l a is s T hird Book sho ul d a pp e a l to p a r a lle l hu nt e rs R e se m bl a n c e s h a ve be e n not e d be twe e n t h e de scription o f pl a ne t a ry dist u r ba nce s the re a n d t h e figur e u s e d by U lyss e s of a n a rmy witho u t a s u pre me comm a nde r in t h e first a ct third sc e ne o f T r oi lu s a n d C r e s si da T h e re m a rks o f Ca rlo B u ffone in t h e first sc e ne of E ve r y M a n ou t of h i s H u m ou r be ginning “ ’ De bt ? Wh y th a t s t h e more for yo ur cre dit ” sir m a y a lso with conside r a ble pl a u si bility be r e fe rr e d to this ch a pt e r in R a be l a is On e “ s e nt e nc e a t le a st of t h e cha pt e r T e sm o in g s ,

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s ri e rs de L a n de r o us se q u i n a gu e re s s e p e ndir e nt vo ya n s le s ble ds e t vins r a va lle r e n ” pris e t bo n t e mps r e to u rn e r e xpr e ss e s p r a c ’ “ ’ tic a lly t h e s a m e thing a s Sh a ke sp e a r e s H e re s a fa rm e r th a t h a ng e d hims e lf o n t h e e xp e ct a tion in t h e s e cond a ct third sc e ne o f o f pl e nty

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R AB E L AI S

2 44 c o n ve n t u a l i z e

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gi a nt B oth ’ w e r e t a king cl e a r e r o u tline s in m e n s minds tho u gh it is h a rd to s a y h o w fa r this wa s du e t o fir st h a nd a c qu a int a nc e A l a t e r gro u p o f r e fe re nc e s will show th a t this knowl e dg e o f R a be l a is a mong t h e dr a m a tists did n o t d i e o u t I t s e e ms r a th e r t o h a v e be e n a s y e a rs p a ss e d r e vive d u nd e r t h e d ir e ct Fr e nch in fl u e nc e s a ft e r 1 6 25 a s a sp i rit o f cynic a l g a y e ty a n d bu rl e s q u e a pp e a r e d a mong t h e highe r circle s o f socie ty I n e ith e r p e riod howe ve r t h e imp ul s e imp a rt e d t o t h e dr a m a t ist s from R a be l a is m us t h a v e be e n chi e fl y in t h e dir e ction o f a co a rs e a n d j ovi a l r e a lism t h e F a lst a ff so r t o f thing some wh a t bro a d e ne d ; a n d ye t it is a qu e st ion if t h e dr a m a t i st s h a d t o s e e k fa r t o fi nd s u ch imp u ls e s dir e ct from t he ir fe llow m e n I t wo u ld a t l e a st h a ve s e e m e d wort h whil e t o th e m to find in R a be l a is a con fir m a tion o f t h e v a l u e o f this m a t e ri a l fo r lit e r a ry p u rpos e s Fr a ncis B a con pro ba bly h a d like most o f t h e E liz a be th a ns a str a in in his ch a r a ct e r which w a s thoro u ghly conge ni a l t o t h e m a nne r o f ’ T his is t h e B a con o f t h e R a b e l a is s j e sting ” “ I n o n e o f the s e h e r e l a t e s o f a pophth e gms ” t h e a pocryph a l t h e gr e a t j e st e r o f Fr a nc e a n e cdot e which m a k e s him sa y o n his d e a th “ m a e v n going my j o ur n y th y h v I be d a e e e e ( ) ” 1 Anoth e r a p o gr e a s e d my b oots a lr e a dy 2 h e h m t r p ts in m u ch cond ns d form h a e t e e e e g p .

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R AB E L AI S

245

fort y first ch a pt e r of R a be l a is s T hird B ook conc e rning Ju dge Br i do ye T h e c a t a log u e o f s e e ms t o h a ve t h e L i br a ry of Sa i n ct V ictor m a de a d e e p impre ssion on B a con I n his D e Au gm e n ti s S ci e n ti a r u m h e m e nt ions a t t h e be ginning of t h e sixth book t h e e ntry of a vol u me e ntitl e d Formic a ri u m Arti u m in this “ s a m e c a t a logu e ; a n d in his e ss a y O f U nity in “ ” T he re is a Ma st e r of h e s a ys : R e ligion Sco ffin g th a t in his Ca t a logu e of Books of a fa i g n e d L i br a ry s e ts downe t his T itle of a At Booke T h e Morris Da u n ce of H e r e t i c ke s t h e be ginning of t h e Adva n ce m e n t of L e a r n i n g a pp e a rs t h e comp a rison of Socr a t e s t o t h e ’ “ or a pothe c a ri e s boxe s with the ir S ile ne s grot e squ e e xt e rior a n d pre cio u s cont e nts T his ’ figu re origin a t e d in Pl a to s S ym p osi u m f a n d wa s u s e d a ft e r him b y both E r a sm u s and R a be l a is t h e l a tt e r m a king it a promine nt fe a t ur e of t h e prolog u e of his First Book B a con of co u rse kne w it in t h e origina l form a n d m a y h a ve dra wn it dir e ct ly from th e r e e xc e pt for ’ t h e fa ct th a t his phr a s e ology u nl ik e Pl a to s is a lmost e xa ctl y th a t of R a be l a is T he s e fe w ’ re fe re nc e s a r e su ffici e nt to e st a blish B a con s a cq u a int a nc e with R a be l a is whos e doctrine s of life de spit e the ir grot e squ e e xt e rior do u btle ss re ve a le d to t h e E nglish thinke r t h e re a l va l u e of the ir cont e nt a n d se rve d the ir p u rpose in ’

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RAB E L AI S

2 46

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de ve lopm e nt o f B a con s philosophy ? T he ir in fl u e nc e in this c a s e wa s o f t ho u ght r a the r th a n o f styl e ’ A r e fe r e nc e t o R a be l a is in J os e ph H a ll s Ve r gide m i a r u m ( 1 5 9 7 ) h a s a lr e a dy be e n m e n 2 I n 1 6 05 t h e r e wa s fi rst p u blishe d a t io n e d L a t in tr a ct by t h e s a m e a u thor which is g e n e r a lly s u ppos e d t o h a ve be e n writt e n soon a ft e r 2 T his tr a ct e ntitl e d M u n t h e Ve r gi de m i a r u m du s Alter c l I de m is s a t iric a l in p u rpos e a n d ’ f e o a d scriptive nothe r no m a n s l a nd in t h e T e rr a Au str a lis T h e r e gion in qu e st ion is divid e d into fo u r p a rt s : Cr a p u l i a t h e l a nd o f ine bri a t e e xc e ss ; Vir a g in i a t h e l a nd o f t h e V ir a go e s ; Mor o n i a t h e co u ntry o f fools ; a n d T he re L a ve rni a t h e l a nd of thi e ve s a n d ch e a ts is no p a rtic ul a r r e s e m bl a nc e in pl a n o r st yle t o R a be l a is bu t th e r e is a bl u nt fr e e dom o f e x pre ssion t hr ou gho u t a n d the re a r e a n u m be r o f id e a s wove n into t h e first p a rt e sp e ci a lly ’ th a t indic a t e H a ll s t horo u gh f a mili a rity with ” “ at t h e wick e d R a bl a is dr o n ke n r e ve llings tim e h e compos e d this s a t ir e Cr a p ul i a is divid e d into t wo dist ricts Pa m ph a g o n i a t h e provinc e o f gl u ttony a n d I n the Yvr o n i a t h e provinc e o f dr u nk e nn e ss d e scription o f th e s e r e gions t h e kind o f de t a il the

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R AB E L AI S

2 48

T he r e

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R ABE L AI S

2 49

p e c u li a r voya ge s m a de th a t the y might be de scri be d H e h a d a n e a sy fl u e nt style k e pt his finge r o n t h e lit e r a ry p ul s e of t h e day a n d wa s a lwa ys r e a dy with t h e thing in f a shion drifting n a t ur a lly into p a rody a n d bu rl e sq u e s a tire on va rio u s occ a sions 1 T a ylor wa s a n op e n a dmir e r of Na sh a n d might h a ve fo u nd e nco u r a ge m e nt in him for some of t h e things th a t a ppe a r R a be l a isi a n B u t h e follows R a be l a is in a nu m be r o f pl a c e s whe r e Na sh doe s not I n t h e e mployme nt of long lists o f p a r a ll e l t e rms for inst a nce h e ’ wo u ld ha ve fo u nd o nl y a fe w mod e ls in Na sh s wo r k Bu t u nde r some othe r infl u e nc e or i n fl u e n ce s h e e xt e nds s u ch lists be yond a l l t h e bo u nds of r e a son th u s p a r a lle ling a t a n y r a t e o n e of t h e ch a r a ct e ristic v a g a ri e s of R a be l a is ” I n T h e T ra ve ls of a T we lve p e nc e the r e is a list of tra de s e xt e nding t h r o u gh more th a n sixt y 2 line s ; be side s a short e r s e ri e s of p a rt icipi a l no u ns of which t h e following is a n e x a mple : ,

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25 0

list o f birds is give n in T a ylor s G oos e T he form e r o f the s e t wo wor ks ind e e d is bu ilt e n t ir e ly o n a whimsic a l v a ri a tion o f this list ” “ m e thod T h e ships in his did a ctic n a vy a r e simpl y a bstr a ct t e rms h a ving th a t word a s a ” “ “ ” a b a fi n a l syll l e s lord ship scholl e r ship ” T h e n a vy is vict u a ll e d a ccording l a dy ship to T a ylor with a s u pply o f v a rio u s kinds o f “ “ ” “ ” ling s u ch a s ch a nge ling da r ling ” sh a ve ling a n d oth e rs T his u s a ge clos e ly corr e sponds t o a m e thod o f R a be l a is in whi ch t h e s a m e no u n is r e p e a t e d o r u nd e rstood with ? of a long list o f a dj e ct ive s In e a ch o n e ’ “ T a yl or s Pr a i s e o f H e mps e e d the r e a r e lists o f 3 writ e rs a n d o f rive r s b u t t h e s e a r e mor e in t h e comp a ss o f t h e m e di e v a l c a t a log u e m e thod ’ “ ”4 A list o f dis e a s e s a pp e a rs in T a ylor s T r a ve ls — in o f t h e post st a t ions o f Fr a nc e a n d S p a in ” 5 and P rinc e Ch a rl e s his We lcom e from Sp a in “ T h e P ra is e o f o f n e e dl e work a n d stitch e s in ” 2 t h e N e e dl e I t is in his d e dic a tions e sp e ci a lly th a t T a ylor give s hims e lf u p t o a p e c u li a rly R a be l a isi a n styl e o f r a m bling whimsic a lity wit h e xt r a v a ga nt phr a s e ology mock e r u dition word pl a y ’ “ ” for e x a mple T a ylor s G oose a n d a llit e r a tion is d e dic a t e d ’

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m e rry Po e m s wa s writt e n is l a rg e ly m a de u p o f co a rs e word pl a y in t h e m a nn e r o f R a be l a is ” “ C ory a t in t h e d e dic a tion o f t h e T r a v e ls is a d “ dre ss e d as t h e C os m o g r a ph i ca l l Ge o g r a ph i ca ll de scri be r Ge o m e t r i c a ll m e a s ur e r ; Historio i ll l l i r h i l h ca C a a a l r r l t rit r a c R a a n d e e W e g p g p ; E n i g m a t i c a ll I n g r oss e r Su rve yor a n d E lo qu e nt B rittish G rae ci a n L a t inist o r L a tine G rae ci a n or ator t h e Odc u m bia n De a m bu l a t o r Am ble r ” T rott e r o r u n t yr e d T r a ve ll e r Sir T h o : Co r i a t I n this t o o a l e a rn e d q u ot a tion is inve nt e d ” “ Also wort hy o f not e is t h e f a ct th a t t h e T ra v e ls “ the ms e lve s a r e t h e o bs e rva tio ns o f T hr e e We e ks T hr e e D a ys a n d T hr e e Ho u r s a kind o f concr e t e n e ss in d e t a il th a t T a ylor wo u ld h a ve ’ fo u nd e ithe r in R a be l a is s a cknowl e dge d work o r ind e e d in L e s Gr a n ds C h r on i q u e s T his e xt r a v a g a nt styl e o f d e dic a tion c a rri e d som e wh a t f a rt h e r p a ss e s into t h e a b sol u t e a b “ s u rdity fo u nd in Si r G re gory No n s e n ce H is ” T h e d e dic a t ion o f this Ne ws from No Pl a c e to Mr T rim T r a m Se n ce le ss still sho ws t h e ge ne r a l form o f thos e qu ot e d a b ove tho u gh t h e “ ” T o N o body N e w e s p r ope r an d t he a ddr e ss th a t follow a r e m e re colle ctions o f grot e sq u e cont r a dictions R a be l a is p a r a lle ls this sort o f thing in t h e po e m L e s F a nfre l u ch e s An t i do t e e s in t h e s e cond ch a pt e r o f t h e First B ook T a ylor “ Mr Se n ce le ss a s h o n o r ific i c a bili a ddr e ss e s ” s u bst a nti a t ing his o wn ignor a nc e t u di n it a t i bu s o f L a tin by m a king this e nding u s e d corr e ctly -

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by Na sh , se rve for a c a s e of dir e ct a ddr e ss Sig “ Au thors m e ntion e d , n i fic a n t too is t h e list of which is bu ilt u p m u ch in t h e m a nne r of t h e — T h e list be gins wi t h L i br a ry of Sa i n ct Victor “ Am a dis de Ga ul , Ar chy Arms , B e vis of H a mp ” ton , Boe to a Goose ; while a s e ction e xtr a ct e d “ fa rt h e r down re a ds : Knight of t h e Su nne , Kn a ve o f Di a monds , L a nu m , L ong Me g , Ma d ” Ma wlin , No body T a ylor shows a t time s a n u n u s u a l int e re st in “ Ja ck a t h e de lights of e a ting a n d drinking 1 conside rs its s u bj e ct a lmost e ntire ly L en from t h e point of vie w of t h e a pp e tit e T h e p e rsonific a tion of Shrove T u e sd a y he re re c a lls t h e simil a r p e rsonific a tion of Q u a r e s m e pr e n a n t 2 in t h e Fo urt h Book of R a be l a is , tho u gh t h e two a r e conside re d in di ffe re nt a ttit u de s T h e “ chi e f int e re st of T h e G r e a t E a t e r of Ke nt is o bvio u s in t h e title T he re is a re a l pl e a s u r e ’ e vide nt in t h e d e t a ils o f t h e he ro s e xploits I ncide nt a lly , the r e is a long r a m bling i n t r o du c ’ tion , m u ch in R a be l a is s m a n ne r , r e co u nting t h e di ff e r e nt things by which m e n h a ve be com e “ ” 1 distinctive or f a mo u s T h e Pra is e of Ale , a .

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l e nt t o t h e more g e ne r a l word d e p e nd e nc e Wh a t e a ch m a n do e s is t o pr e s e nt t h e ne c e ssity o f int e rd e p e nd e nt r e l a tio n s in t h e sch e m e o f things ; a n d this id e a is s u pport e d by e a ch with pr a ctic a lly t h e s a me s e ri e s o f ill u str a t ions E a ch c a lls a tt e ntion t o t h e r e l a tions o f t h e pl a ne ts a n d the n t u rns t o t h e simil a r sit u a t ion — in t h e micro cosm t h e b ody o f m a n E a ch not e s t h e d e p e nd e nc e o f m a n u pon m a n in t h e soci a l syst e m a n d t h e simil a r sit u a tion in in a ni m a t e life a n d s o t h e a pp a r e nt p a ra dox is comple t e d Mu ch is s a id in R a be l a is o f t h e vi rt u e s o f t h e “ he r b p a nt a gr u e lion which h e e xpl a ins a n d disc u s s e s in d e t a il a t t h e e n d o f t h e T hird ” B ook T h e he r b prove s t o be fl a x I t s a pp e a r a nc e growt h an d pr e p a r a tion fo r s e rvic e a r e d e scri b e d a n d th e n follows a long a cco u nt o f its v a rio u s forms o f u s e f u lne ss be ginning ch a r a ct e r i st i c a l ly e no u gh with t h e m a king o f h a ng ’ m a n s rop e s Sp e ci a l not e is m a d e o f its va l u e fo r s a ils lin e n f a brics in th e ir n u m e ro u s e m m n n l p a p r rop s in g n r a l d h o e s e e e e a t t e p y lik e T a ylor a ft e r a n a pologe tic introd u ction c a lling a tt e nt ion t o t h e writ e rs wh o h a ve d e a lt with light s u b j e cts s e rio u sly u nde rt a ke s a 1 H e d e cl a r e s po e m in t h e pr a is e o f h e mp s e e d e mph a t ic a lly th a t n o o n e h a s e ve r tr e a t e d o f this s u bj e ct be fore ; a ltho u gh R a be l a is h a d d e finit e ly incl u d e d h e mp u nd e r p a nt a gr u e lion a gr e e ing with T a ylor in r e l a ting fl a x t o he mp T a ylor giv e s littl e a tt e n a s m a le t o f e m a le .

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tion t o a nyt hing bu t t h e u s e fu lne ss of his pl a nt m a king its e mployme nt for p a p e r t h e most i m port a nt a n d br a nching o u t from this to lists of gre a t writ e rs in va rio u s line s H e t a k e s u p t h e va l u e of t h e pl a nt for line n a n d for cord a ge ’ giving t h e h a ngm a n s rop e only a p a ssing m e n tion T h e impor t a nc e of s a ils h e m a ke s m u ch o f p e rh a ps be c a u s e this give s him a n o p p o r t u n it y to introd u c e a d e scription o f a storm a t which by his o wn confe ssion h e h a s h a d se a re a dy for a bo u t five ye a rs T h e p a r a lle l t hr o u gh o u t is clos e e no u gh to e st a blish a be li e f in i n ’ de bt e dn e s s if o n e is willing t o w a ive T a ylor s e xplicit de cl a r a tion th a t no writ e r h a d pr e vio u sly tre a t e d t h e s u bj e ct I n fa ct t h e whol e q u e stion o f T a ylor a n d I n a ddition t o p a r a ll e l R a be l a is is a p u zzle T a ylor h a s e xpr e ssion o f c e rt a in simil a r ide a s ’ R a be l a is s e mploym e nt of a lmost int e rmin a ble lists his whimsic a l r a m bling e xtr a va g a nc e s his fondne ss for t h e d e t a ils of good e a ting a n d drinking a n d a const a nt t e nde ncy to introd u ce I f o n e co ul d f u lly t h e n a m e of Ga rg a nt u a f a ct of a n e a rly tr a nsl a t ion o f e st a blish t h e R a be l a is or might disp u t e t h e st a t e me nts of T a ylor r e g a rding his own ling u istic a ccomplish me nts t h e c a se wo ul d be simple e no u gh T h e pro ba b ility o f so e xt e nsive a cha in of m e r e coincide nc e s is not a strong o n e a n d it is not ’ like ly th a t T a ylor s be tt e r e qu ipp e d lit e r a ry a ssoci a t e s co u ld imp a rt to him a ll th e s e in fl u e n ce s witho u t som e knowl e dge a n d m e ntion by him of t h e a u thor R a be l a is Pe rh a ps a ,

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com b in a t ion o f t h e l a st t wo s u gge st ions is e no u gh t o cov e r t h e sit u a tion b u t r e p e a t e d r e a ding o f T a ylor only s e rve s t o str e ng the n t h e be li e f th a t th e r e is R a be l a is the r e C ory a t whos e e xploits with foot a n d pe n a fford e d s o m u ch a m u s e m e nt to T a ylor wa s comp a r e d by s u ppos e dly a dmiring fri e nds both ’ t o R a be l a is a n d t o R a be l a is s h e ro Pa nt a gr u e l T his in its e lf indic a t e s a f a irly ge n e r a l knowl e dg e o f t h e Pa nt a gr u e l story b y 1 6 1 1 t h e d a t e whe n th e s e solicit e d t e stimoni a ls we r e p u b lis h e d L a wr e nc e W hitt a k e r s u gge sts t h e r e l a tion in a pros e introd u ction a n d e mph a si z e s it in t h e sonne t th a t follows : ,

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only in philosophy bu t in pi e c e s only fit t o be pl a c e d in ’ Pa n t a g r u e l s li br a ry o r b o u nd u p with T a rt a r e ” 1 t u s De Modo C a c a ndi On l y t wo p a g e s be for e “ t h e a u thor h a d e xpr e ss e d hims e lf th u s : I con f e ss t he r e a r e in S cript ur e stori e s th a t do e xc e e d t h e f a bl e o f po e ts a n d t o a c a ptio u s r e a de r ” so u nd like G a rg a nt u a o r B e vis T his r e m a rk a ffords a cl e a r inst a nc e o f G a rg a nt u a in a p p a r e nt rom a nc e a ssoci a tions wh e n t h e writ e r m u st r e a lly h a ve h a d in mind t h e work o f R a be l a is Som e wh a t simil a r complic a tions o cc u r a mid t h e l a t e r gro u p o f dr a m a r e fe r e nc e s n o w t o be ’ m e ntione d I n t h e first a ct o f Be n Jonson s T h e N e w I n n a ct e d 1 6 29 L ove l is e xpl a ining h o w t h e st u di e s o f his m a st e r L ord Be a u fort h a d be e n in t h e cl a ssics r a th e r th a n in rom a nti c m a t e ri a l H e d e cl a r e s : point divinity

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tim e t h e n a m e o f t h e ch a r a ct e r th a t wa s distinctly a cr e a tion o f R a b e l a is h a s be e n m a d e ’ I n Ford s T h e t o s e rve for t h e rom a nc e gi a nt ’ L a dy s T r i a l a ct e d in 16 38 F u t e lli s a ys o f Pul goso a n u pst a rt g a ll a nt :

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of Willi a m H a bin g t o n s Q ue en of Arr a g on writt e n by 1 640 Sa n Ma r t ino who is a dwa rf with t h e a ddr e sse s his p a ge ” “ A r e fe r e nc e o f words : Ga rg a nt u a ! b o y ! a bo u t e q u a l v a l u e is th a t from L a dy Ali m on y pro ba bly writt e n a lmost a s e a rly in which ’ “ T imon s a ys of H a xt e r : H o w this G a rg a nt u a s ” S pirit be gins to th a w I t h as be e n s u gge st e d th a t some tim e a ft e r 1 625 the r e wa s a r e ne we d int e re st in R a be l a is in E ngl a nd corre sponding to t h e t a st e for s a tire a n d r a ille ry gr a d u a lly imp a rt e d t o t h e highe r r a nks o f soci e ty by Fr a nc e T h e r e fe r e n ce s j u st not e d wo u ld of th e ms e lve s do littl e to s u bst a nti a t e this Othe r e vide nc e is a va il a ble howe ve r T hu s i n 1 6 28 a pp e a re d Q u od Ne a r t h e

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pistle s of th a t e xce lle ntly witti e Doctor ” Fra ncis R a be l a is tr a nsl a t e d o u t of Fr e nch More import a nt still is a n it e m in t h e mock will of Ja me s H owe ll incl u de d in a le tt e r which h e d a t e s Ma rch 26 1 64 3 H i s knowle dge of ’ “ Fre nch h e be qu e a ths to my most h o n o u r d L a dy t h e L a dy Co r e a n d it m a y he lp h e r som e ” T h a t t h e de thing to u nde rst a nd R a be l a is “ sire to u nde rst a nd R a be l a is soon be c a me ve ry ge ne r a l in E ngl a nd is indic a te d by t h e ’ a pp e a r a nc e in 1 6 5 3 of T hom a s U rqu h a rt s tr a nsl a tion of t h e first two books H is ve rsion e

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t h e T hird B ook wa s print e d post h u mo u sly in 1 6 93 ; a n d int e re st t he n wa s sti ll strong e no u gh t o j u stify Pi e rr e Mott e u x in p u b lishing a n E nglish v e rsion o f t h e Fo u rt h a n d Fifth of

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ne c e ss a ry r e strictions it is still highly pro ba ble th a t thr o u gh his o wn ch a nn e ls a n d in t h e mor e pop u l a r if le ss fa shion a ble wa ys R a be l a is m a d e hims e lf distinctly fe lt in t h e E ngl a nd o f this p e riod ,

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d a pt e d to t h e m e thod of de s u ltory e xp a nsion by which the ir a u thor a u gm e nt e d the m for t h e s u bs e qu e nt e ditions of 1 5 88 a n d 1 5 9 5 whe re t he y we re a ccomp a ni e d by a third book in t h e s a me f a shion I n th e se e ss a ys we r e c e r t a in p e c u li a r iti e s which ga ve the m gr e a t va l u e for t h e p u rpos e s I n t h e wide scope of o f othe r lit e r a ry m e n m a t e ri a l with which the y d e a lt the re wa s s u g ge st e d for t h e l a t e r writ e r a fu nd o f tho u ght on a lmost a n y s u bj e ct o f int e re st ; a n d in most inst a nc e s t h e borrowe r might be s u r e of a de s i g n e dly u n b i a s e d a n d c a r e f u lly noncommitt a l st a t e me nt in his so u rce Str a nge ly co u ple d with t h e z e a l of a n innova ting sk e ptic the r e wa s a n u ndist u r be d r e ga rd for t h e a u thorit a tive s a y ings of t h e a nci e nts a re ga rd which m a de t h e books a lmost a c a t a logu e of cl a ssic a ne cdot e a n d m a xim T h e styl e wa s wort hy of e m u l a t ion in its richne ss a n d cl e a rne ss ; t h e p e rson a l a

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l m e nt wa s introd u c e d t o a d e gr e e u nkno wn be fo r e ; a n d s o s u cc e ssf ul a n e xploit a tion o f t h e r a m bling e ss a y a s a lit e r a ry form wa s e no u gh in its e lf t o c a ll fort h imit a tors T h e E s s a i s in th e ir origin a l fo r m we r e c e r t a i n l y n ot long in r e a ching E ngl a nd Within t wo d e c a d e s th e y we r e be ing t r a ns l a t e d T he ’ fir st r e fe r e nce t o t he m in t h e S ta ti on e r s Re gi s te r is v a g u e e no u gh O n O cto be r 20 1 5 9 5 “ E dwa rd Agga s e n t r e d fo r his copi e u nd e r t h e h a n de s o f t h e Wa r d e n e s : T h e E ss a is o f Mich a e ll ” L ord Mo u n t e n e P r e s u m a bly from t h e l a n g u a ge o f t h e t itle this wa s t o be a n E nglish ve rsion ; a n d we m a y ind e e d h a ve he re a n e a rly e ntry o f t h e tr a nsl a tion proj e cte d by Florio W ith e qu al pro ba b ility this m a y r e “ cord t h e int e ntions o f o n e o f t h e s e ve n o r ” whos e a tt e mpts e ight o f gr e a t wit a n d wort h a t t h e tr a nsl a tion o f t h e E s s a i s a r e note d in ’ “ ” F l o r i o s T o t h e C o u rt e o u s R e a d e r pre fi xe d t o his fi rst e dition T h e Florio t r a nsl a tion is de fi n it e l y m e ntion e d in a n e ntry o f J u n e 4 T h a t th e r e we r e a n d fi rst a pp e a r e d in 1 6 03 m a n u script tr a ns l a t ions fr om t h e E s s a i s in c ir c u l a tion prior t o 1 6 00 is a tt e st e d by Sir Willi a m C o r nwa llis t h e fi rst p a rt o f whos e E s sa ye s ’ e nt e re d o n t h e s a m e d a y a s F l o r i o s M on ta i gn e H e m a ke s n o wa s p u b lishe d d u ring th a t ye a r conc e a l his o bl ig a tions t o Mo n a tt e mpt t o e e

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Fl orio wa s in position t o a dva nc e m a te ri a lly t h e pop u l a rity o f Mont a igne in E ngl a nd He h a d pr e vio us ly p u blish e d v a rio u s I t a li a n— E ng ! lish e xe rcis e b ooks a n d a some wh a t pr e t e ntio us I t a li a n E nglish diction a ry T h e Wor ld of Wor ds which h a d a pp e a r e d in 1 5 9 8 H e h a d s e rve d a s I t a li a n t u tor fo r s e ve r a l o f t h e no b ility e sp e c i a ll y fo r t h e E a rl o f S o u th a mpton whom h e re cogni z e d a s his p a tron in t h e d e dic a tion o f t h e dict ion a ry a n d whos e fri e ndship a n d f a vor h a d n o do u bt thrown him into clos e r a c qu ai nt 1 a nc e with a l a rge circle o f lit e ra ry p e ople Sa m u e l D a ni e l fo r e x a mpl e a tt e sts a t t h e s a m e tim e his a dmir a tion fo r Mont a igne a n d his r e g a rd for Flo r io in complim e nt a ry v e rs e s a t t a ch e d t o t h e fi rst E nglish e dition o f t h e E s s a ys ’ F l or i o s work a s a tr a nsl a tor sc a rc e ly s e e ms t o For a n d a y worthy o f high comm e nd a tion origin a l th a t wa s cle a r a n d limpid a n d u n pr e t e n t i o u s h e s u b st it u t e d t h e a wkwa rd l u m be r ing move m e nt th a t ch a r a ct e ri z e d s o m u ch E li z a be th a n pros e witho u t m u ch o f t h e p i ct u r e s q u e vit a lity th a t oft e n m a d e it gre a t H e is t o o oft e n t h e b om ba stic pe d a nt r a th e r th a n t h e g a rr u lo u s ske ptic B u t his tr a nsl a tion w a s t h e fir st th a t fo un d its wa y into print a n d its o p port u ne a pp e a r a nc e m a de it t h e st a nd a rd for t h e E nglish p e opl e T h e e ss a y a pp e a rs t o h a ve be e n a n imm e ns e ly ’ pop u l a r lit e r a ry form j u st a t this tim e B a co n s — E ss a ys a pp e a r e d in t e n o f th e m a t le a st print in 1 5 9 7 a n d we r e r e p u blishe d in 1 5 9 8

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ditions we re p u blishe d in 1 6 1 2 T hr o u gho u t this work the re a r e a n d 1 6 25 ’ nu me ro u s indic a tions of Mont a igne s infl u e nce ’ Be side s t h e e dition of Cornwa llis s E s sa ye s in 1 600 a lre a dy not e d a s e cond p a rt a ppe a r e d in 1 60 1 a n d r e prints we r e p u blish e d in 1 6 09 1 6 23 ’ T h e S ta ti on e r s Re gi s te r a dds 1 6 38 a n d 1 6 39 fur the r t e stimony s u pplying t h e n a m e s a n d works othe rwis e e ntire ly a u thorship of som e “ O n Ma rch 7 1 5 9 8 a r e e nt e re d Di u nknown ve rs e se rmons a n d tra ct e s u pp o n s e ve r a ll t e xt e s ” T we nty t hr e e wr yt t e n by m a st e r Gr e e n e h a m title s a r e a ppe nde d se ve r a l of the m signific a nt whe n comp a re d with Mont a ign e : n a me ly 1 O f Ange r ; 6 O f t h e E d u c a t ion of C hildr e n ; 9 O f Pe r s e ve r e a n ce ; 1 0 O f t h e Me dit a co n of De a t h e ; 1 1 O f J u stic e a n d J u st m e n ; 1 3 O f L yi n g e ; 14 O f Foolishne ss ; 1 5 O f H u m i l a t i e a n d H ono u r ; 1 8 O f Z e a l e Ot he r e ntri e s a p pe a r a s follows : Au gme nt e d

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Oct 9 , 1 60 1 E s s a ye s b y Ma s t e r R ob e r t o h n s o n Ap r 1 9 , 1 60 8 — E s s a ye s p o li t i qu e a n d m o r a l] t o t h e r i g h t h o n o r a bl e t h e L a d y An n e H a r r i n g t o n Oc t 1 7 , 1 608 Ap h o r i s m e s C i v il a n d m i li t a r i e a m p li e d i t h a u t h o r i t i e s a n d e x e m p li e d i t h h i s t o r y 2 ou t of t h e r s t Q u a r t e r n e o f Ffr a u n c i s s G u i ch i a r d i n i .

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An E s s a y o r r a t h e r a n E n c o m i u m De c 23, 1 6 1 4 fo r s a dn e s w r i t t e n b y Si r Wi lli a m C o r n e w a lli s Kn i g h t w i t h h is o b s e r va t i o n s u p o n t h e li fe o f u l i a n t h e Ap o s t a t e — E s s a ye s o f c e r t a i n e P a r a d o xe s un e — E s s a i e s u o n t h e fiv e s e n c e s b Se t 1 3 1 6 1 9 .

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s nc e of compl e t e d a t a a som e wh a t d e t a ile d consid e r a tion o f t h e work o f Corn wa ll is a n d B a con a pp e a rs t o be t h e only a va il a bl e m e a ns o f e st im a ting how fa r t h e in fl u e nc e o f Mont a ign e m a y h a v e op e r a t e d in this lit e r a ry fa shion T his involve s t h e s u pposition tha t wh a t wa s tr u e o f s u ch pe rm a ne nt a n d i n flu e n ti a l prod u cts might a lso be t h e c a s e in more m e ch a nic a l fa shion a mong t h e l e ss e r a tt e mpts Cornw a llis a p a rt from t h e tri bu t e p a id Mo n t a i g n e in t h e d e dic a tion o f his E ssa ye s a n d t h e a d u l a tory m e ntion o f t h e Fr e nch work a n d its ” tra nsl a tion in E ss a y 1 2 O f Ce ns u ring h a s n o le ss th a n six oth e r dir e ct re fe re nc e s t o this so u rce o f his sc a tt e r e d t hr o u gh t h e E s sa ye s O f the m a ll howe ve r t h e o n e a lre a dy p a rt ly qu ot e d o ffe rs t h e most e xplicit e st im a t e o f ’ Mont a igne s work a s Cornwa llis vie we d it “ B u t his t hro u gh t h e m e di u m o f tr a nsl a tion Au t h o u r h e s a ys f u rt he r o f t h e u nknown tr a nsl a tor sp e a ke s no bly hone stly a n d W is e ly with littl e m e thod bu t with m u ch j u dge m e nt : L e a rn e d h e e wa s a n d oft e n s howe s it bu t with I n th e

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this n or I t o s a y s o for I wo u ld n ot h a ve u tt e r e d s o m u ch bu t fo r t h e thing it is a s a fe ” a n d a n hon e st principl e “ At t h e clos e o f E ss a y 35 O f T r a ps fo r C ornw a llis cl a ss e s hims e lf with Mo n Fa m e t a i g n e in t h e u s e o f pe rson a l e xp e ri e nc e a n d a noth e r e vid e nc e o f discipl e shi p m e ntion ,

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fo r Mon t a n i a a n d m yse lfe ( wh om i n t h e s e m a t t e r s o f e x cu s e I m a y s a f e ly i o yn e w i t h m e e ) t h o u g h w e e d o e s o m e t im e s m e n t i o n o u r s e l v e s , ye t a r e w e n o t t o b e s u s p e c t e d o f i n t r a pp i n g F a m e : w e a ll o w m e n i n t h e i r li v e s t o b u ild t h e i r T o m b e s , a n d w e e a ll o w c h a r i t y t o s e t t h e r s t L e t t e r s o f t h e ir n a m e s u p on t h e G o wn e s a n d C o a t e s t h e y g i v e i n a lrn e s , s h a ll i t n o t b e l a wfu ll t h e n fo r u s t o b u il d o u r T o m b e s i n o u r a p e r s ? a n d t o w e a r e o u r n a m e s i n o u r la b o u r s Y e s s u r e l y , i t ca n n o t b e d e n i e d u s , t h e y a r e o u r ch ild r e n , wh i ch i f t h e y r e s e m b l e u s i t is n ot a t h in g m o n s t r o u s , b u t p le a s in g a n d n a t u r a l]

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de a le s some wh a t too indi ffe r e ntly with his t a xe rs for this a lle a dg in g a prove r be I n a ddition to the s e r e fe r e nc e s to Mont a igne by n a me t h e E s s a ye s f a irly t e e m with e cho e s ’ of t h e Fre nchm a n s tho u ght I t is tr u e tha t both m e n e xpre ss d e votion to t h e s a me cl a ssic be ing both we ll r e a d in s u ch an d a u thors m a t e ri a l m a y e a sily ha ve dr a wn from it simil a r tho u ght a n d s u gge stion I t is f u rt h e r tr u e tha t sp e cific p a r a ll e ls in phr a sing a r e ve ry r a r e a n d tha t t h e philosophic a l point of vi e w of t h e two Ye t with C orn m e n is r a dic a lly di ffe r e nt ’ wa llis s e nthu si a stic confe ssion of a dmir a tion be for e u s th e r e n e e d be no he sit a tion in a ttri b u t i n g m u ch of t h e p a r a ll e lism to t h e imm e di a t e infl u e nce of Mont a igne T he r e is sc a rc e ly a n For e xa mple e ss a y th a t do e s not s u gge st him ” in E ss a y 1 O f R e sol u tion Cornwal lis con ’ de m n s me n s ch a nge a ble opinions de cl a r e s him s e lf a ffe ct e d chie fly by Se ne c a a n d Pl a to con fe sse s tha t h e t a lks most of hims e lf st a t e s th a t h e h as fe w fri e nds a n d holds fe w worthy of th a t ne a rne ss a dvise s a ga inst de pe nde nc e on o u t wa rd l us t e r a n d e xpre ss e s his cont e mpt for d e a th I n E ss a y 2 O f Advis e h e u rge s m e n to a cce pt t h e a dvic e dr a wn from e xp e ri e nc e comme nds a n e d u c a tion tha t pre p a re s m e n for

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ctive life a n d e nj oins mode r a tion u pon a ll ” E ss a y 4 O f Su s pit io n e sp e ci a lly t h e yo u ng not e s th a t t h e d e p e nd e nts o f prince s a r e not ” E ss a y 5 O f L ove e x a lts t h e t o be t r u st e d ’ choic e st a ffe ction o f m a n fo r m a n (Mont a ign e s ’ ” “ fri e ndship ) a b ove m a n s love fo r wom a n of ch a r a ct e rist ic S imil a r r e fl e ctions the t ho u ghts o f Mont a igne contin u e t hr o u gho u t t h e ” “ b ook T h u s E ss a y 32 O f F e a re disc u ss e s t h e common e ff e ct s o f fe a r o n t h e im a gin a tion not e s t h a t t h e a cts o f othe r cre a t u r e s a r e bo u nd by n a t u re whil e thos e o f m a n a r e fr e e p a r a lle ls ’ Mont a ign e s fa mo u s disc u ssions o f d e a th in i n sist ing th a t t h e fe a r is mor e t e rri ble t h a n t h e fa ct a n d incl u d e s a disc u ssion o f or a cle s a n d p r o g n os ” O f Va n it ie m a ke s light E ss a y 4 3 t i c at io n s conde mning ove r o f rh e toric fo r its o wn s a k e m u ch sp e a king a n d a dvising a h a ppy m e a n b e twe e n sp e e ch a n d sil e nc e ; r e minds u s t h a t n a k e d m e n a r e m u ch a lik e h e nc e it is wrong t o j u dge a m a n by his cloth e s a n d foolish to try t o k e e p u p with t h e fa shions ; not e s t h e h yp o c r i s y o f goo d d e e ds don e fo r glory a n d d e cl a r e s th a t t h e r e wa rds o f fa m e a r e le a n T h e simil a rity o f ill u str a tions u s e d by t h e t wo e ss a yists wo u ld be e sp e ci a lly striking e xc e pt fo r t h e f a ct th a t th e s e a r e u s u a lly com m o n pl a c e s a va il a bl e to a n y o n e who c a r e d O f this typ e p e rha ps is t h e story t o u s e th e m who f e a r e d o f t h e m a n a b o u t t o b e h a ng e d th a t t h e rop e wo u ld tic kl e his n e ck ? an a

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MON T AI G N E

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oft e n signi fi c a nt in t h is typ e o f lit e r a t u r e bu t t h e following list from C ornwa llis m a y a dd a tri fl e in fs u bs t a n t i a t i n g his vit a l r e l a tion to Mont a ign e : 6 O f Fri e n ds hip a n d Fa ctions ; 8 O f Pra is e a n d Glori e ; 1 8 O f Sl e e p e ; 32 O f F e a r e ; 4 1 O f Sorrow ; 4 2 O f So li t a r i n e s s e a n d C omp a ny ; 43 O f Va n i t i e ; 44 O f Va in e Glory ; 4 5 O f E ss a i e s a n d B o o ke s ; 4 7 O f W ords ; 4 9 O f Fl a tt e ry Dissim u l a tion All th e s e s u bj e cts h a d be e n u tiliz e d a n d L ying by Mont a i g n e ’ F o r t h e ind e bt e dn e ss o f B a con s E s s a ys t o Mont a ign e t h e c a s e is n o t qu it e s o cl e a r T h e r e wa s s o m u ch di ff e r e nc e in t h e p e rson a lity o f t h e t w o m e n so div e rs e a n a i m a n d styl e in th e ir d e v e lopm e nt o f t h e s a m e lit e ra ry form th a t s u ch i n fl u e n c e s a s do a pp e a r a r e not lik e ly B oth m e n ind e e d r e pr e t o be v e ry p a t e nt ? Bu t s e nt e d t h e br e a kdown o f schol a sticism in o n e t h e r e s ul t wa s a n introsp e ctive so r t o f do u bt ; in t h e oth e r a ros e a n e w syst e m o f Mont a ign e dogm a tism in pra ctic a l a ffa irs loo ks d e e p a n d only wond e rs ; B a con k e e ps his Mont a ign e e ye on t h e s u rf a c e a n d a dvis e s u s e s t h e e ss a y a s a n e v e r shifting e v e r growing m e di u m for t h e e xpr e ssion o f h is va gr a nt sk e p B a con tre a ts it a s a r e fin e d a n d polish e d t i ci s m commonpl a ce book f u ll o f pithy phr a sing o f pra ctic a l a dvic e U nd e r s u ch circ u ms t a nc e s a re

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infl u e nc e mu st be so u ght chi e fl y in simil a rity of vi e ws with s u ch simil a rity of phr a s ing a s On e m u st t h e di ff e r e nc e in m a nn e r p e rmits of co u rs e tha t both m e n a lwa ys r e m e m be r we r e we ll re a d in t h e wisdom of t h e a nci e nts a n d might a t a n y tim e dr a w from a common so u rc e ’ T he re is bu t o n e pl a c e in B a con s E s sa ys whe r e Mont a ign e is m e ntion e d by n a m e ” H e r e h e is q u ot e d t h e first e ss a y on T r u th “ I f it be w e ll we igh e d to s a y th a t a s s a ying a m a n li e th is a s mu ch to s a y a s tha t h e is bra ve towa rds Go d a n d a cowa rd towa rds m e n ” For a l i e fa c e s Go d a n d shrinks from m a n I n t h e s a m e e ss a y how e v e r the r e occ u rs a r e fe r e nc e which s e e ms most pro ba bly to ha ve point e d a t Mont a ign e B a con h a s be e n sp e a k ing of c e rt a in of t h e a nci e nt philosoph e rs who a s h e p u ts it d e light e d in giddin e ss a n d u n “ ” fixe d be li e f An d tho u gh t h e T h e n h e a dds s e cts of philosoph e rs of th a t kind be gone ye t the r e r e m a in c e rt a in disco u rsing wits which a r e of t h e s a me v e ins tho u gh th e r e be not so mu ch blood in th e m a s wa s in thos e of ” 2 t h e a nci e nts A fe w minor p a r a ll e ls ha ve be e n s u gge st e d be twe e n this first e ss a y of ’ B a con s a n d c e rt a in st a t e m e nts in Mont a ign e bu t th e y a r e witho u t signific a nc e ’ I n B a con s e ighth e ss a y O f Ma rri a ge a n d ,

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Singl e L ife , th e r e is possi bly a noth e r thr u st , mil dl y s a tiric a l in spirit , a t Mont a ign e a n d his “ T h e most ordin a ry c a u s e o f a doctrin e “ singl e lif e , s a ys B a con , is li be rty , e sp e ci a lly in c e rt a in s e lf pl e a sing a n d h u moro u s minds , which a r e s o s e nsi bl e o f e ve ry r e stra int a s th e y will go n e a r to think th e ir girdl e s a n d ga rt e rs ” 1 t o be bonds a n d sh a c kl e s B a con m a y w e ll ’ h a ve h a d in mind Mont a ign e s st a t e m e nt co n c e rning m a rri a g e in t h e fi fth e ss a y o f t h e T hird B ook T h e p a ss a g e is r e nd e re d by Florio : .

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d a ye s f o u n d m o s t fit o r c o m m o di ou s fo r s i m p l e m i n de s a n d p o p u l a r s p i r i t s w h o m d a i n t i e s , Li c u r i o s i t y , a n d i d l e n e s d o n o t s o m u ch t r o u b l e c e n t i ou s h u m ou r s , d e b a u s h e d c o n c e i t s ( a s a r e m i n e ) wh o h a t e a ll m a n n e r o f d u t i e s , b o n d e s , o r b se r va n c e s a r e n o t s o fit , s o p r op e r , a n d s o s u i t a b l e fo r i t E t m i h i du lce m a g i s r e s o lu to vi ve r e co llo ” 2 Sw e e t e r i t is t o m e , w i t h l o o s e n e c ke t o li v e fr e e It

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proph e ci e s I f simil a rity o f e xpr e ssion sho u ld not be insist e d u pon a host o f simil a r id e a s might be coll e ct e d from t h e t wo a u thors som e o f th e m from a mong th e ir f a vorit e cont e ntions F o r e x a mpl e : B e li be r a l to childre n l e st yo u forc e th e m into crim e ; St a t e a dva nc e m e nt r e move s a m a n from p e rson a l fr e e dom ; T ra ve l e a rly a n d l e a r n for e ign l a ng u a g e s ; Kings h a v e littl e food fo r a m b ition bu t m u ch fo r fe a r ; I t is spirit r a th e r th a n n u m be rs th a t co u nts in T h a t t h e two m e n oft e n u s e t h e a n a rmy s a m e cit a tions from t h e a nci e nts o r ill u stra t e with simil a r e xa mpl e s is m u ch l e ss signific a nt T h e concl u sion o f it a ll wo u ld be th a t B a con kn e w t h e work o f Mont a ign e fo u nd it a fr u itfu l so u rc e for id e a s a n d followe d t h e vi e ws it e xpr e ss e s only so f a r a s t h e inn a t e di ffe r e nc e s o f t h e two m e n p e rmitt e d I n his conn e ction with Sh a k e sp e a r e Mon t a ig n e h a s b e com e t h e pr e y o f t h e con fi rm e d so u rc e hu nt e rs who a r e a lwa ys e nroll e d in t h e s e rvic e o f th a t po e t So a rd e nt h a s be e n t h e s e a rch fo r p a ra ll e ls a s t o c a ll forth wh a t s e e ms I n t h e British t o be a cl e v e r lit e r a ry forg e ry Mu s e u m is pr e s e rv e d a vol u m e o f t h e 1 603 ’ cont a ining wh a t e dition o f F l o r i o s M on ta i g n e h a s oft e n be e n prono u nc e d a g e n u in e a u togr a ph tog e th e r with c e rt a in o f W illi a m S h a k e sp e a r e r e fe r e nc e s which corr e spond to Sh a k e sp e a re a n p a ss a ge s ? Mod e rn schol a rship howe ve r r e f u s e s to t a k e this s e rio u sly a n d no inf e r e nc e s T h e id e nti fi c a tion o f ca n be dr a wn from it .

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with Mont a igne whe th e r a s a pl a in ’ or a s a tt a ck on t h e Fr e nchm a n s sk e pticism pr e a che d t h e a criticism of him b e c a u s e h e rights of na t u re whilst ye t clinging to dogma tic ” h a s give n occ u p a t ion to s e v e r a l t e n e ts the orists ; whil e oth e rs go fa rthe r a n d hold Sha ke sp e a r e ind e bt e d to Mont a ign e for pr a c tic a lly a ll t h e e xc e ll e nc e of t h e dra m a s L a t e ly more r e a sona ble a ttit u d e h a s be e n t a k e n a sifting t h e d a t a ga th e r e d by the s e e nth u si a sts For t h e a n d giving it a f a ir int e rpr e t a tion pr e s e nt stu dy it r e m a ins only to dra w from t h e m a t e ri a l off e r e d t h e most striking e vid e nc e s o f ind e bt e dn e ss a n d t h e g e n e r a l lin e s of pro b a bility a tt e nding t h e m T h e e xt e rn a ls a r e soon dispos e d of Sh a k e sp e a r e like Florio e nj oy e d t h e p a trona ge of t h e E a rl of So u th a mpton h a ving d e dic a t e d to him both t h e Ve n u s a n d Adon i s in 1 5 9 3 a n d t h e L u cr e ce in 1 5 9 4 Florio e nt e r e d So u t h a m p ’ ton s e mploy a s e a rly a s 1 5 89 a n d might in a ll pro ba bility h a ve be e n on fa mili a r t e rms with Sha k e sp e a r e by t h e e n d of t h e c e nt u ry T hu s t h e first dr a fts of hi s tra nsl a tions wo ul d fa ll ’ into t h e dra ma tist s ha nds or e a rli e r sti ll Florio might ha ve dir e ct e d Sh a k e sp e a r e s notic e to othe r m e n s a tt e mpts a t tra n sl a ting Mo n t a ig n e a tt e mpts which w e r e inspiring Florio hims e lf to m a ke a simil a r e ffort H a ml e t

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T h e r e is o n e p a r a ll e l be twe e n Sh a k e sp e a re a n d Mont a ign e o f which th e r e is e ntir e c e r ’ t a inty , a n d it is Fl o r i o s tra n sl a tion th a t is follow e d T h e r e s e m bl a nc e in qu e stion , point e d 1 o u t within t wo c e nt u ri e s a ft e r its a pp e a r a nc e , ’ is be tw e e n Gonz a lo s d e scription o f a n id e a l commonw e a lth , in t h e s e cond a ct o f T h e T e m pe s t “ a n d a portion o f t h e e ss a y , O f t h e Ca n i ba lle s .

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tim e yo u l e a v e be hind wa s n o mor e yo u rs th a n th a t which wa s be for e yo u r birth a n d ” conc e rn e th yo u no mor e ’ Mor e ch a ra ct e ristic a lly Mont a ign e s a r e t h e id e a s conc e rning t h e u ns a tisfa ctory n a t u r e o f lif e a ss e m bl e d in t h e sp e e ch o f consol a tion by t h e disg u is e d D u k e to Cl a u dio in M e a s u r e M a E r f o r e su e v ry t u rn his r m rks e o e m ay a f be p a r a ll e l e d r e a son a bly w e ll with p a ss a g e s in Florio tho u gh som e o f t h e tho u ghts a r e fa r t oo commonpl a c e to a fford v a l u a bl e e vid e nc e O f t h e oth e rs e ight in n u m be r o n e shows r e s e m bl a nc e to a noth e r p a ss a g e in t h e nin e t e e n t h e ss a y o f t h e First B ook a lr e a dy m e n t i o n e d whil e six find p a r a ll e ls within t h e limits “ T h e Apology fo r R a ym ond of on e e ss a y ” 1 a n d t h e oth e r in t h e e ss a y imm e S e bo n d “ ” I n this s a m e Apology d i a t e ly following this mor e ov e r a pp e a r possi bl e so u rc e s for othe r — in L e a r o n e on e Sh a k e sp e a r e a n p a ss a g e s ” “ t h e fa mili a r s u ch st u ff a s dr e a ms a r e m a d e o n in t h e a lr e a dy o blig a t e d T e m p e s t a n d a nothe r ? No t fa mo u s soliloqu y o f H a ml e t e ve n t h e ind e e d i n th e p a rtic ul a r p a ss a ge o f Florio not e d in t h e l a st conn e ction bu t only two o r thr e e p a ge s be for e it th e r e a r e t wo s e nt e nc e s w h ich m a y go fa r t o e xpl a in t h e m u ch t a lk e d o f mix e d m e ta phor in t h e solilo qu y : ,

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p as s a ge from Mont a i g n e re a ds :

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is not witho u t r e a son th a t so m a ny m e n ha ve be e n impr e ss e d by t h e r e s e m bl a nc e be twe e n T h e w a ve ring H a ml e t a n d Mont a ign e in concl u sive op e ra tions o f t h e D a n e s mind a r e strikingly simil a r to t h e Pyrrhonistic s pe c u l a t i o n s of t h e Fr e nch e ss a yist a n d t h e o b j e cts of th e ir consid e ra tion a r e oft e n id e n tic a l Both for inst a nc e conc e rn e d th e ms e lve s with t h e conflic t of t h e r e a son a n d t h e will disc u ssing it u nd e r simil a r s u bdivisions a n d with not a bly simil a r phr a s e ology A nu mbe r of good p a ra ] l e l s ha ve b e e n cit e d in this conn e ction two in pra is e of r e a son o n e going to t h e opposit e e xtr e m e a n d pr a ising r a shn e ss a n d a fo u rth a dvising a ga inst t h e d e l a y tha t come s from ba l a ncing r e a sons a g a inst e a ch othe r T h e s e a r e only a fe w most pro ba bl e sp e cim e ns from t h e nu m e ro u s s u ppos e d p a r a ll e ls tha t ha ve be e n s u gge st e d I n a c a s e lik e this a ccu m u l a tion is i t s e lf a kind of proof a n d t h e p e c u li a r f a cili t y fo r gro u ping which the s e e xa mpl e s show fu rthe r h e ight e ns th e ir va l u e Mor e ove r t h e pl a ys conc e rn e d a r e in e ve ry c a s e thos e which Sh a ke sp e a r e criticism is now a gr e e d l n pl a cing a t s u ch tim e s th a t th e y might we ll be i n fl u It

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pr e limin a ry m a n u scripts or fi na l print e d ve rsion o f t h e tr a nsl a tion o f Mont a ign e At t h e be st th e y show u s Sh a k e sp e a r e only a s t h e dra m a tist a lwa ys s e e king m a t e ri a l a n d cons cio u sly o r u nconscio u sly from a d a pting lik e t h e E s s a i s vi e ws a n d a gr e a t stor e ho u s e which s e e m co n sist e nt wi th h i s e xpr e ssions cha ra ct e rs T h e e xpr e ssions a r e r e vit a liz e d with a n e w concis e n e ss a n d po e tic qu a lity bu t t h e opinions o f t h e r e a l Sh a k e sp e a r e r e m a in as u s u a l in t h e ba ckgro u nd T h e ind e bt e dn e ss o f J ons on t o Mont a ign e is a pp a r e ntly t o be so u ght in t h e T i m be r r a th e r th a n in his dr a m a s I n the s e c a s u a l tho u ghts o f his conc e rn e d u s u a lly with t h e life o f m a n o n its lit e r a ry or a rtistic sid e a n d l a rg e ly fr e e from a ll id e a o f dict a tion t o m e n th e r e is m u ch mor e r e s e m bl a nc e t o t h e ge n e ra l m a nn e r o f Mont a ign e th a n t h e E s s a ys o f B a con a fford Jonson conf e ss e d hims e lf a d e vot e d a dmir e r ’ o f B a con s styl e a n d w a s gr e a tly in fl u e nc e d by it H is knowl e dg e a n d r e cogni tion o f Mo n s e e m n o l e ss c e rt a in T h e B ritish t a ign e Mu s e u m poss e ss e s t w o va l u a bl e books in this co nn e ction o n e a copy o f t h e 1 603 e dition o f ’ Fl o r i o s M on ta i gn e cont a ining wh a t is r e g a rd e d a s a g e n u in e sign a t u r e o f Jonson ; t h e oth e r a n ’ pr e s e nt e d a u togr a ph copy o f Jonson s Vo lp on e “ t o John Florio whom h e s a l u t e s a s t h e a yde I n this s a m e pl a y Volp on e o f his Mu s e s a ct e d in 1 6 05 a n d print e d t w o y e a rs l a t e r th e r e is a striking bi t o f e vid e nc e r e ga rding t h e t e nd e ncy th e n pr e va iling in E ngl a nd t o a p e n ce d

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MO N T AI G N E

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which a n omnivoro u s r e a d e r lik e Jon s o n might h a v e pick e d u p from m a ny so u rc e s On e o f th e m a lon e wo ul d c arry no w e ight ; in t h e a cc u m u l a tion th e r e is consid e ra bl e pro b T h u s Jonson sp e a ks o f t h e so ul Florio a b ility a s e nt a ngling h e rs e lf in h e r o wn o f t h e mind ? works lik e t h e silkworm B oth t e ll h o w princ e s l e a rn o n e a rt we ll ; n a m e ly th a t o f hors e m a nship be c a u s e hors e s a r e no fl a t t e r e r s a n d wo ul d a s soon t h r ow princ e a s groom Mo n t a i g n e giv e s this o n t h e a u thority o f Ca rn e a d e s ’ B oth t e l l t h e s a m e story o f t h e m u sici a n s a nsw e r t o t h e king bu t t h e ch a nc e o f ind e bt e d n e ss is l e ss e n e d sinc e Jonson n a m e s Al e xa nd e r mon a rch a n d Mont a ign e m e ntions as th e P hilip T h e y h a v e t h e s a m e a cco u nt o f m e n whos e e lo qu e nc e inc r e a s e s with th e ir a nge r bu t a g a in Jonson m e ntions no n a m e s whil e Mont a ign e st a t e s wh a t is r e port e d o f Se v e r u s O th e r p a ra ll e ls worthy o f not e a r e C a ssi u s thos e r e g a rding t h e r e l a tion o f mon a rchs t o th e ir co u ns e llors a n d t h e e a sy ro a ds th a t sho u ld I nd e e d h a lf a scor e be provid e d to e d u c a tion in which o f commonpl a c e s m a y b e coll e ct e d m o n pl a c e s ,

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Jonson t a k e s a vi e w m e ntion e d by Mont a ign e ; bu t th e s e w e r e e q u a lly a cc e ssi bl e to b oth m e n in t h e cl a ssics or for th a t m a tt e r from e xpe r i e nc e ’ a noth e r A y e a r a ft e r Jonson s Volp on e dr a m a tist John Ma rston p e rh a ps m a ke s a l l u s i o n to o n e of t h e most striking notions I n t h e first sc e ne e xpr e ss e d by Mont a ign e Z u cconi of t h e fo u rt h a ct of Pa r a s i ta s ter “ O H e a ve n ! th a t Go d m a de for a e xcl a ims m a n no oth e r m e a ns of procr e a tion a n d m a in t a ining t h e world p e opl e d bu t by wome n ! O ! tha t we co u ld inc r e a s e like ros e s by be ing ’ or like fli e s pro s l i pp d o n e from a noth e r cr e a t e with blowing or a n y othe r wa y th a n by T his a t t it u d e of mind is e xpr e ss e d a wom a n ’ a t gr e a t l e n g th in t h e fifth e ss a y of Mont a ign e s T hird Book T o a m a n of s u ch v a ri e d int e r e sts a n d bro a d ’ c u lt u r e a s Sir Wa lt e r R a le igh Mont a ign e s E s sa i s m u st h a ve a fford e d i n t e ns e d e light e sp e ci a lly be c a u s e of t h e ir m e ss a ge of individ u a l it y a n d fr e e tho u ght R a le igh m a y we ll h a ve known the s e e ss a ys in t h e origin a l ; bu t t h e tr a nsl a tion of Florio with its a tt e nd a nt wa ve of pop u l a rity a pp e a r e d in E ngl a nd a lmost cont e mpor a ry with t h e be ginning of his long imprisonme nt thu s providing in his e nforc e d idl e ne ss fr e sh imp e t u s a long some of Mo n ’ t a i g n e s f a vorit e line s of tho u ght O f this ’ r e s u lt we c a n be positive ; fo r R a l e igh s littl e tr e a tise T h e S ke p ti ck writ t e n som e time d ur ing his inc a rc e r a tion is m e r e ly a n e xposition o f ,

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long t h e s a m e lin e s with t h e s a m e ill u str a tions a n d a lmost in t h e s a m e “ phr a s e ology a s th a t o f Mont a igne in his Apology ’ ” R a l e igh s e xpl a n a tion fo r R a ymond S e bo n d ’ o f t h e Ske p t i ck s position is a lmost id e ntic a l with t h e d e fi nition o f Pyrrhonism give n a n d “ The a pp a r e ntly a pprov e d b y t h e e ss a yist ” s a ys R a l e igh doth n e ithe r a ffir m Ske p t i ck ne ith e r d e ny a n y Position b u t do u bt e th o f it a n d oppos e th his R e a sons a g a inst th a t which is a ffir m e d o r d e ni e d to j u stify his n ot cons e nt Mont a ign e h a d s a id : T h a t ignor a nc e ing which knowe th j u dge th a n d cond e mne th it s e lfe is n ot a n a bsol u t e ignor a nc e : F o r t o be s o s h e m u st a ltoge th e r be ignor a nt o f h e r s e lfe So th a t t h e prof e ssion o f t h e P yrrhoni a ns is e ve r t o w a ve r to d o u bt a n d t o e n q u ir e ; n e ve r t o be a ss u r e d o f a nyt hing n or t o t a k e a n y ” 2 wa rr a nt o f hims e lf I n s u pporting his a pprov a l o f ske pticism R a l e igh m a k e s m u ch o f two lin e s o f a rg u m e nt : — o n e th a t s e ns e impr e ssions v a ry with t h e individ u a l a n d a r e th e r e for e u n r e li a b le ; t h e ’ oth e r th a t t h e be li e f in m a n s gr e a t m e nt a l s u p e riority ove r be a sts is u nfo u nd e d T he r e a r e a b u nd a nt p a r a ll e ls t o show th a t in b oth o f th e s e h e is clos e ly following Mont a ign e U nd e r t h e fi rst consid e r a tion both m e n in ve r y simil a r t e rms not e t h a t o bj e cts a ss u m e n e w sh a de s o f color in t h e sight o f m e n v a rio u sly a ffl ict e d ; th a t t h e sh a p e o f e ye s a ffe cts t h e a pp a r e nt Pyrrhonism

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R a l e i g h , Wo r ks , e d B i r c h , 1 7 5 1 , 2 F l or i o , o p ci t , i i 2 0 7 Se e .

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29 2

it be s a id th a t t h e I m a gin a tion o f Ma n j u dge th tr u e r o f t h e o u tw a rd O bj e ct th a n t h e I m a gi n a tion o f oth e r living Cr e a t u re s doth a n d the re for e to be cr e dit e d a b ove othe rs (be sid e s th a t which is a lr e a dy s a id ) this is e a sily r e f u te d by ” 1 comp a ring o f m a n with oth e r Cr e a t ur e s R a l e igh th e n follows Mont a igne in qu oting ’ from Chr ysipp u s a n a rg u m e nt for t h e do g s ’ logic p a r a lle ls Mont a ign e s st a t e m e nts r e g a rd ’ ing t h e dog s ch a nge o f voic e t o conve y dif fe r e n t id e a s dr a ws f u rth e r s u gge stion from Mont a igne conc e rning t h e l a ng u a ge o f b irds so e l a b or a t e s his inst a nc e s o f a nim a l an d s a g a city T he r e is n o tro u bl e a bo u t t h e gro u p ing o f th e s e p a r a ll e ls fo r b ot h disc u ssions a r e limit e d in sp a c e ’ R a l e igh s I n s tr u c ti on s to h i s S on a lso show som e possi bl e p a r a lle ls t o Mont a igne F o r “ inst a nc e : T h e ne xt a n d gr e a t e st Ca r e o u ght t o be in t h e C hoic e o f a W if e a n d t h e only D a ng e r th e re in is Be a u ty by which a ll Me n in a ll Age s wis e a n d foolish h a ve be e n be t r a ye d An d tho u gh I know it v a in t o u s e R e a sons o r Arg u m e nts t o d is s wa de th e e from be ing c a p t i v a t e d th e r e with th e r e b e ing fe w o r non e t h a t e v e r r e sist e d th a t W itch e ry ; ye t I c a nnot omit to w a rn th e e a s o f othe r T hings which m a y ” Mont a igne b e thy R u in a n d D e str u ction “ 2 h a d s a id : I s e e no m a rri a g e s f a il e soon e r th e n s u ch a s a r e concl u d e d o r mor e tro u b l e d fo r be a u ti e s s a k e a n d h u dle d u p fo r a moro u s ,

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cit ci t

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335 iii 7 2 11

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MON T AI G NE

29 3

d e sire s T he r e a r e r e qu ir e d mor e solide fo u n d a tions a n d more const a nt gro u nds a n d a more wa r ie m a rching to it : this e a rne st yo u thly ” h e a t e s e rve th to no p u rpos e Both a gr e e f u rthe r in the ir disc u ssion of dr u nke nne ss t a king t h e position th a t drinking is d a nge ro u s for yo u ng m e n bu t m a y be e xc u s a ble for old one s a s ne c e ss a ry to a u gme nt the ir d e clining ” “ n a t u r a l he a t An int e re sting a n d som e wh a t complic a t e d line of p a r a lle ls is a fforde d by t h e work of H is Willi a m Dr u mmond of H a wthornde n soj o u rn in Fr a nc e from 1 606 to 1 609 a n d his e xt e nsive r e a ding in t h e l a ng u a ge d u ring thos e a n d s u b s e q u e nt ye a rs h a v e a lr e a dy b e e n not e d T ho u gh his sonn e ts writt e n b e tw e e n 1 6 1 3 a n d 1 6 1 6 s e e m chi e fly to h a ve gone dir e ct to I t a li a n ” “ mod e ls a c e rt a in Song p u blishe d in t h e colle ction of 1 6 1 6 a lmost c e rt a inly dr a ws a p a rt of its inspir a tion a t l e a st from a n e ss a y of Mont a igne T his is t h e s a m e e ss a y a lr e a dy conside r e d a s h a ving inspire d m u ch o f t h e Stoicism of Sh a k e sp e a r e t h e nine t e e nth e ss a y “ T h a t to Philosophiz e is of t h e First Book ’ “ ” to le a rn how to d ie Dr u mmond s Song de a ls with t h e r e tur n of a d e a d mistr e ss a n d proce e ds a ccording to t h e e sta blis he d t e ne ts of Pl a tonism with which it ble nds e a sily t h e .

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S u p r a , p p 7 -8 2 ru m m on d , o li o e d i t i on , E d in , 17 1 1, Wor ks , ’ ru m m on d s p o ss ible d e p e n d e n c e o n Mo n p 12 sq t ai g n e i s s u g g e s t e d b y Jo s T e xt e , E tu d e s d e l i tté r a t u r e e u r o p ée n n e , a r i s , 1 89 8, p 5 3 2 S u pr a , p 2 8 3

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xpr e s sions o f S toicism T his com bin a tion wa s a pp a r e ntly a pl e a sing o n e to Dr u mmond for in h is dignifi e d a n d be a u tif u l pros e tr e a tis e A C yp r e s s Gr ove a pp e nd e d to his F lowe r s of S i on p u blish e d in 1 6 23 t h e s a m e m a t e ri a l T h e Pl a tonism is work e d ove r a n d e xp a nd e d is r e t a ine d bu t give n a d e cid e d C hristi a n coloring a n d wro u ght into a f e rve nt r e ligio u s concl u sion T h e S toic id e a s r e c e ive a fa r gr e a t e r r e l a tive promin e nc e t h e a dditi ons a n d e xp a nsions be ing o b vio u sly d e rive d from a fr e sh consid e r a tion o f t h e e ss a ys o f Mont a igne T h e conc e ption o f d e a th which most o f Dr u m ’ mond s tr e a tis e is occ u pi e d with d e ve loping is a d e cid e dly fa mili a r o n e t o t h e r e a d e r o f Mont a igne Dr u mmond Sp e a king o f d e a th T o a min d by N a t u r e only r e solve d s a ys : it is mor e t e rri ble in Conc e it a n d pr e p a r e d th a n in Ve rity ; a n d a t t h e First Gl a nc e th a n wh e n we ll pr ye d into ; a n d th a t r a th e r by t h e We a kn e ss o f o u r Fa nt a sy th a n by wh a t is in it ; a n d th a t t h e m a r bl e Colo u r s o f O bs e q u i e s We e ping a n d fu ne r a l Pomp ( which we o u r s e lve s p a int it with ) did a dd m u ch mor e G h a st ” Mo n l i n e s s u nto it th a n oth e rwis e it h a th ’ “ Je crois a l a v e rit e q u e t a ig n e s st a t e m e nt is : sont ce s min e s e t a pp a r e ils e ffroy a ble s cc ’ d e q u o y no u s l e n t o u r n o n s q u i no u s font pl u s ’ de p e u r q u e ll e : u n e to u t e no u ve ll e form e d e vivr e ; le s cris d e s m e r e s d e s fe mm e s e t de s e n fa n s ; l a visit a tion d e p e rsonn e s e s t o n n ée s e t ’ ’ tr a nsi e s ; l a ss i st a n ce d u n nom br e de va l e ts ne a m br e a ns j o u r ; z ; u ch s l r l a e s o e s e s e t p p e

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ofte n a s Ma n ? H e se e m e th n ot t h e s a m e Pe rson in On e a n d t h e s a m e Da y ; wh a t pl e a s e t h him in t h e Morning is in t h e E v e ning u nto ” 1 hi m dist a st e f ul I n t h e n e xt fe w p a g e s o f T h e C ypr e s s Gr ove a pp e a rs a n arg u m e nt fo r t h e wort hl e ssn e ss o f thos e things in which m e n glory gr e a tne ss knowle dge c u nning riche s ple a s ur e s a n d fa m e Conte mpt fo r a ll th e se things is e xpre ss e d in va rio u s pl a c e s in Mont a igne fo r e x a mpl e in t h e sixt e e nth a n d s e ve nt e e nth e ss a ys o f De l a Gloir e t h e Se cond B ook De l a and ” P r e s u mption O n t h e othe r ha nd this posi ’ tion is thoro u ghly in line with a ll Dr u mmond s philosophy a s e xpr e ss e d for inst a nc e in t h e F lowe r s of S i on a n d th e r e fore this r e s e m bl a nc e m a y h a v e l e ss signi fi c a nc e I n t h e midst o f his r e a soning Dr u mmond t a ke s o cc a sion t o pict ur e ? t h e s a d condition o f m a n if h e w e r e n ot mort a l T his be a rs a clos e r e s e m b l a nc e t o a p a ss a g e in ’ “ Mont a ign e s T o Philosophi z e is t o l e a rn h o w ’ ” t o d ie ; a ltho u gh Dr u mmond s a ccomp a nying a rg u m e nts a s to why d e a th sho u l d n o t be p a in fu l s e e m t o fi nd no p a r a ll e l in Mont a igne I n d e ve loping t h e id e a th a t t h e fe a r o f d e a th wa s give n u s a s a pr e ve ntive o f s u icid e Dr u m mond s e e ms a g a in t o g e t his s u gge stion from ’ H e a dds t o it tho u gh Mont a igne s E ssa i s str a nge ly fa mili a r e xpr e ssion : if Ma n a fo r R e li e f o f Mis e ri e s a n d pr e s e nt E vils sho u ld h a ve u nto it R e co u rs e it be ing a pp a r e ntly a .

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worse h e sho u ld r a the r const a ntly e nd u r e wh a t h e knows th a n h a ve R e f u ge u nto th a t which h e ” W he the r this is fe a r e th a n d knowe th not me re coincide nc e or Dr u mmond phr a s e d his notion with a r e colle ction of t h e fa mili a r s o ” I n a n y ca se t h e l ilo q u y is a n op e n q u e stion Mont a igne p a ss a ge in this conne ction wo u ld ’ h a ve little va l u e a s a so u rc e for H a mle t s words A conside r a bl e n u m be r of r e a lly strik ing p a ra ll e ls follow some with a n d som e with ’ “ ” o u t t h e inte rv e ntion o f Dr u mmond s Song T h e so u rc e in a lmost e ve ry c a s e is t h e s a m e ’ nine te e nth e ss a y of Mont a igne s First Book ’ T owa rd t h e e n d of Dr u mmond s tr e a tis e his r e ligio u s a ttitu d e be com e s promine nt to t h e e xcl u sion of both Stoicism a n d Pl a tonism T his a tti t u d e is s e e n for inst a nc e in t h e dis cu s s i o n of t h e r e l a tions of so u l a n d b ody a n d t h e p a rt pl a ye d by e a ch in d e a th a n d t h e r e s u rr e ction : qu e stions me re ly op e ne d in a ’ “ noncommitta l f a shion in Mont a igne s Apology ” “ T h e Apology is like for R a ymond Se bo n d wise noncommitt a l in st a ting t h e qu e stions con ’ c e rning God s powe r ove r t h e l a ws o f n a t ur e a n d t h e a bility of m a n to compr e h e nd it bu t ’ th e re is no he sit a tion a b o u t Dr u mmond s ’ vi e ws D r u mmond s clim a x th a t m a n is ’ u p t on e a rt h a s st e w a rd of G od s poss e ssions he r e a n d is d e stine d for t h e gr e a t e r glory of he a ve n is not de ve lop e d by Mont a igne a t a ll T h e clos e r t h e comp a rison of the s e two works ,

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howe ve r t h e mor e convincing be come s t h e e vid e nc e th a t Dr u m mond w a s gr e a tly o b lig a t e d T h e ch a nge s h e introd u c e d a r e t o Mont a igne o bvio u s H e e nl a rge d u pon t h e tho u ghts a n d introd u c e d n e w a n d conn e cting id e a s the r e by prod u cing a mor e syst e m a tic sch e me o f tho u ght H e g a v e t o t h e m a t e ri a l a mor e impr e ssive po e tic a lly be a u tif ul style Fin a lly h e and s u ppr e ss e d t h e ske pticism a n d s u bstit u t e d a d e vo u tly r e ligio u s a ttit u d e As a f u rth e r inst a nc e o f t h e impr e ssion m a d e u pon Dr u mmond by this whol e lin e o f tho u ght a tt e ntion m u st be c a ll e d t o a sonn e t o f his first p u blishe d in 1 630 with t h e s e cond e dition “ ’ I t is e ntitl e d o f F l owe r s of S i on D e a th s ” L a st Will a n d t h e signi fi c a nt lin e s r e a d : ,

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T h i s , n o t b e li e ve d , e xp e r i e n ce t r u e t h e e t o ld , B y d a n g e r la t e h e n I t o t h e e ca m e n e a r As b u g b e a r t h e n m y v i s a g e I d i d s h o , ’ T h a t o f m y h o r r o r s t h o u r i g h t u s e m i g h t s t m a ke , An d a m o r e s a cr e d p a t h o f l i v i n g t a ke : No w s t i ll a l k a r m e d fo r m y r u t h le s s b l o , T ru s t fl a t t e r i n g li e n o m o r e , r e d e e m t i m e p a s t , ” An d li v e e a ch d a y a s if i t e r e t h y l a s t

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is not s u rprising th a t B u rton s An a tom y of M e la n ch oly sho u ld sho w n u m e ro u s indic a tions T h e book o f a n a c q u a int a nc e with Mont a ign e a pp e a r e d a t a tim e wh e n t h e vog u e o f t h e Fr e nch ? It m u st h a ve be com e wid e spr e a d e ss a yist wa s f ul l o f digr e ssions a n d s o p e rva d e d by t h e a c a d e mic t e mp e r a m e nt th a t it f a irly r e e ke d It

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An a t o m y a pp e a r e d i n 1 6 2 1 ; T h e r st e d it i o n o f t h e o t h e r s i n 1 6 2 4 , 1 6 2 8 , 1 6 3 2 , 1 6 5 1 , 1 6 5 2 , 1 66 0 , a n d 1 6 7 6 1

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nothing a s Mont a ign e s a id in like c a s e I will ’ m a r nothing ; tis not my doctrin e bu t my st u dy I hop e I sh a ll do no b ody wrong to sp e a k wh a t I think a n d d e s e rve n ot bl a m e in imp a rt ing ” 1 Mont a igne h a d s a id a s r e nd e r e d my mind by Florio : N ow a s Plin i e s a ith e ve ry m a n is a good disciplin e u nto h i m se l fe a l wa ye s p r o vi de d h e b e a bl e to pri e into h i m s e lfe T his is not my doctrine it is bu t my st u dy : An d n ot a noth e r m a ns l e sson b u t mine o wn e ; Ye t o u ght no m a n t o bl a m e m e if I imp a rt t h e s a me Wh a t s e rve s my t u rn e m a y h a ply se rve a noth e r ” m a ns ; othe rwis e I m a rr e nothing 2 H i s co u ntry I n a noth e r pl a c e B u rton s a ys : m a n Mont a igne i n his E ss a ys is o f t h e s a m e Opinion a n d so a r e m a ny othe rs ; o u t o f whos e m a y co n a ss e rtions th u s m u ch in bri e f w e c l u de : th a t be a u ty is mor e be holding t o Ar t th a n N a t u r e a n d stronge r provoc a tio ns proc e e d from o u twa rd orn a m e nts th a n s u ch a s n a t u r e h a th ” T his is a pp a r e ntly dr a wn from a dis provid e d ’ “ Apology for R a ymond c u ss i o n in Mont a ign e s ” a disc u ssion which is a lso t h e ba sis for Se bo n d l a te r in t h e a noth e r a cknowl e dg e d b or r owing An a tom y r e fe rring t o t h e sight Of t h e n u d e In body a s a n a ntidot e fo r e xtr e m e p a ssion this inst a nc e a L a tin qu ot a tion is r e p e a te d wi th pr a ctic a lly t h e s a m e E nglish tr a nsl a tion a s give n B u rton s a ys o f by Florio S till f a rth e r o n j e a lo us y : Some m a ke a qu e stion wh e the r this ,

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30 1

he a dstrong p a ssion ra ge more in wome n th a n B u t s u r e it is mor e o u t m e n a s Mont a igne r a ge o u s in wome n a s a ll othe r me l a ncholy is ” Mo n by r e a son of t h e we a kne ss of the ir se x “ Afte r we h a ve kn o we n th a t t a i g n e h a d s a id : wi t ho u t comp a rison the y a r e m u ch mor e ca n d viol e nt in L ove e ffe cts th a n we l a a b a s e p wa s te stifie d by th a t a ncie nt Pri e st who h a d be e ne both m a n a n d wom a n a n d trie d t h e p a s ” sions of both s e xe s Fin a lly B u rton qu ote s 2 with a cknowle dgm e nt c e rt a in Of a t le ngth Mont a igne s st a t e me nts re ga rding J u li u s Ca s a r Ma home t t h e T u rk a n d L a disl a u s king of Na pl e s I n t h e intric a t e sch e m e of t h e An a tom y Su bs e ction I I of Me m be r I I I of Se ction I I of “ Pa rt I be a rs t h e titl e Of t h e Forc e O f I m a gi T his is t h e e x a ct titl e o f t h e tw e nti e th na tion e ss a y of Mont a ign e s First Book which B u rton if a t a ll u nde r t h e infl u e nc e of Mont a ign e might T h a t h e did so be s u ppos e d to h a v e u se d fr e e ly is a mply indic a t e d by t h e int e r e sting s e t ’ of p a r a lle ls th a t m a y be prod u c e d B u rton s disc u ssion of s u icid e brings him a ga in into a t e rritory d e a r to t h e Fr e nchma n a n d a ga in we m a y e xp e ct p a ra ll e ls T h e m a t e ri a l this “ tim e is dra wn from t h e e ss a y A C u s t o m e Of ” t h e I l e of Ce a a n d incl u d e s a mong oth e r things t h e incid e nt of t h e L a ce dmm o n i a n child who .

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with Mont a ign e a t t h e m e r e ly h u m a n point o f vi e w how e v e r B rown e p a ss e s thro u gh t h e r e gion o f u nc e rt a inty t o a d e gr e e o f fa ith tha t fa lls down a n d worships T h e r e a r e t wo oth e r d e t a ils Of r e s e m bl a nc e B rown e t o o scorns t h e tho u ght o f f e a ring d e a th ; bu t in hi s c a s e o n e r e cogniz e s sinc e rity whil e r e g a rding Mon ’ t a i g n e s e xc e ssiv e prot e st a tion th e r e is a lwa ys s u spicion T h e Re li g i o M e di ci a lso r e e xpr e ss e s ’ Mont a ign e s r e gr e t th a t m a n is n o t a bl e t o procr e a t e al on e witho u t conj u nction L ik e t h e Fr e nchm a n B ro wn e a ffe ct e d t o d e spis e wom e n a n d lik e him a g a in h e m a rri e d a n d liv e d h a ppily with hi s spo u s e T his c a rri e s t h e in fl u e nc e o f Mont a ign e thr o u gh H e a p p e a rs t o h a v e b e e n in gr e a t o u r p e riod p a rt t h e inspira tion o f t h e e ss a y vogu e in E n g l a nd a t t h e be ginning o f t h e s e v e nt e e nth c e n t u ry Va rio u s o f his ch a r a ct e ristic p e c u li a riti e s — h is d e sir e fo r fr e e dom o f tho u ght hi s p e rson a l — h i point Of vi e w we re s fondn e ss for cit a tions r e pe a t e d in gr e a t p a rt thro u gh his in fl u e nc e in n u m e ro u s E nglish writ e rs Act u a l discipl e s h ip i n t h e m a tt e r o f his e ss e nti a l doctrin e Of P yrrhonism finds e xpr e ssion in only o n e i m port a nt doc u m e nt T h e S ke p ti ck o f Sir Wa lt e r T h e r e a l s e rvic e o f Mont a ign e to t h e R a l e igh E nglish writ e rs s e e ms to h a ve consist e d in stor e ho u s e o f s u g a ffording th e m a v e rit a bl e ge stions a n d cit a tions o n e ve ry sid e o f e ve ry d e sira bl e s u bj e ct so a rr a ng e d tha t th e y w e r e comp a r a tiv e ly e a sy o f a cc e ss T h e e vid e nc e Of thi s cha pt e r shows th a t E nglishm e n we r e ,

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ings in t h e va rio u s modific a tio n s r e s u lting from t h e p a ss a ge o f y e a rs F or th e s e r e a sons th e r e will be som e confu sion in t h e a tt e mpt th a t s e e ms most d e sir a bl e for th e s e ch a pt e rs t o tr e a t s e p a r a t e ly t h e soci a l e ff e cts o f Fr a nc e o n E ngl a nd a n d t h e mor e dir e ct b orrowings fro m Fr e nch rom a nc e in t h e int e r e st Of E nglish rom a nc e a n d dr a m a T his d e v e lopm e nt of t h e cot e ri e in Fr a nc e d ur ing t h e fi rst h a lf o f t h e c e nt u ry be ing a n e m i n e n t ly vit a l a n d const a ntly ch a nging t h ing it s e e ms be st fo r o u r p u rpos e s t o a tt e mpt a ge n e r a l — d e finition o f it in its fl owe r prior p e rh a ps t o 1 6 25 or 1 630 ; a n d a g a in in its e xtr a va ga ntly p e d a ntic d e c a d e nc e a s it a pp e a re d towa rd t h e middl e o f t h e c e n t u ry I n its e ss e nti a ls t h e H ote l de Ra m bou i lle t t h e fi rst gr e a t r e pr e s e nt a tiv e o f this mov e m e nt w a s mor e clos e ly a kin t o t h e e a rli e r circl e s o f t h e I t a li a n no b ility a s th e y a r e mirror e d in [ Z C or te g i a n o th a n t o t h e l a t e r ho us e hold g a th e rings in Fr a nc e a n d E ngl a nd wh e r e t h e p a tron a g e e xt e nd e d by a w e a lthy a n d a e com i h o f u l dy to circl d p nd nt thors l s e d a a e e e a e p ? pl a y e d s o promin e nt a p a rt T h e spirit o f t h e H ote l wa s a t l e a st d u a l in its origin co m bining t h e d e lic a cy a n d g a ll a ntry o f t h e I t a li a n tra dition with t h e gra vity a n d no b ility dis ,

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pl a ye d in t h e a dve nt ur o u s n a rra tive s of Sp a nish roma nc e T his Sp a nish t e nd e ncy to m a gnify t h e ga ll a ntly h e roic wa s p e rh a ps h e ight e n e d a t this tim e by t h e contr a sting ro u ghn e ss of As in t h e I t a li a n cot e ri e s t h e Fr e nch co u rt t h e infl u e nc e of wom a n w a s domin a nt bu t t hi s tim e to s u ch a d e gre e tha t it ga ve a p e c u li a rly — th e distinctive tone to a ll t h e proc e e dings t h e int e ll e ct u a l a n d lit e r a ry e x a m u s e m e nts c r ois e s t h e u tmost va ga ri e s of conv e rs a tion I n thi s n e w cot e ri e t h e m a n of l e tt e rs no m a tt e r wha t his ra nk might st a nd pra ctic a lly on a n e q u a lity with t h e high e st r e pr e s e nt a tive of t h e no bility T h e prim e r e qu isit e wa s t h e poss e s sion of s u fli ci e n t e spr i t a ccomp a ni e d by e m i n e n t l y prop e r m a nn e rs T h e r e ga rd for t h e con ve n a n ce s w a s d e v e lop e d to a n u npr e c e d e nt e d d e gre e to corr e spond to t h e a dva ncing critic a l spirit of t h e co u ntry T h e a ll import a nt pl a c e give n to conve rs a tion wa s r e ga rd e d l a t e r a t a n y ra t e a s in its e lf a n o u tgrowth of f e minin e domina tion Skill in disc u ssion sp a rkl e in t h e give a n d t a k e of r e p a rt e e wa s a n e n d in its e lf ; a n d a nything howe ve r trivi a l s e rve d a s a pr e t e xt for conve rs a tion a l e x e rcis e The e fforts a t po e try w e r e littl e mor e th a n e m be l l i s h m e n t s to t hi s conv e rs a tion i m pr o pt u e ph e me r a l t r i fl e s which lost th e ir ch a rm wh e n t a k e n from the ir s u rro u ndings or t hr own into coll e ct e d form As might be e xp e ct e d a l a rge m e a s ur e of a tt e ntion wa s give n to t h e p a ssing of co u rtly complim e nt a n d to t h e d e vio u s proc e ss e s of form a l lov e ma king a t first .

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tr e a t e d a pp a r e ntly with a h a l f pl a yf u l s e rio u s n e ss T h e s e cond p e riod o f this p r éci e u s e move m e nt displ a y e d a n a t u ra l o u tgrowth o f d e c a d e n t I rn i t a t i o n s o f t h e H ote l de Ra m a bs u rditi e s bou i lle t spr a ng u p g e n e r a lly thro u gho u t Fr a nc e a n d in m a ny inst a nc e s e xt e nd e d th e ir hospi t a lity fr e e ly t o t h e a m bitio u s bou r g e oi s i e T h e wa y h a d be e n pr e p a r e d fo r this in t h e circl e o f Ma d a m e d e R a m bo u ill e t wh e n e sp r i t wa s a as f u nd a m e nt a l st a nd a rd o f e x a cc e pt e d c e ll e n c e N a t u r a ln e ss t o a gr e a t d e gr e e g a ve wa y t o a ff e ct a tion Wom e n be c a m e strong mind e d p e d a nts cl a iming a pr e t e ntio u s p a rt in p u blic a ff a irs a n d p a r a ding th e ir s u ppos e d l e a rning P l a ton i c wooing be c a m e a n e xa g g e r a t e d pr u d e ry com bin e d with co qu e try a love r e l a tion not a lwa ys p u r e a se ri e s o f i n t r i c a t e m a n e u ve rs a ccording t o f a ls e st a nd a rds o n e o f which procl a im e d m a rri a g e a m e r e sl a v e ry Ass u m e d n a m e s a s w e ll a s p e riphr a s e s for a ll simpl e st a t e m e nts be c a m e a n e c e ssity a n d t h e l a ng u a g e o f t h e e l e ct gr e w into a stra nge j a rgon From t h e t e nd e ncy t o r e pr e s e nt p e opl e o f t h e d a y a s rom a nc e ch a r a ct e rs c a m e t h e vog u e som e tim e s in stori e s som e time s o f portr a its fo r th e i r o wn s a k e s B oth th e s e st a ge s o f pr éci osi té a pp e a r t o ha ve fo u nd a pl a c e a cross t h e C ha nn e l prior to t h e R e stor a tion : t h e first a s a conc e rt e d move m e nt inspir e d by t h e pr e s e nc e in E ngl a nd o f H e nri e tt a Ma ri a t h e Fr e nch q u e e n o f C h a rl e s I ; t h e s e cond thro u gh t h e n a t u ra l d e c a d e nc e o f this -

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in t h e fa nt a stic O bs e rva nc e s d e ve lop e d from t h e flood of Co u rte sy Books which Fr a n c e h a d be e n l a rge ly re sponsi ble for sc a tt e ring bro a dc a st a n d ble nding wi t h t h e l a t e e ff e c t s O f E u p h u e s a n d ’ ’ ? T hu s in Jonson s C yn th i a s Re ve ls Ar ca di a 1 6 00 Amorph u s is a m a st e r of co u rtly compli me nt a n d wooing with As o t u s a s his p u pil T h e l a tt e r a fte r a bu rle sq u e s e ri e s of instr u o tions iss u e s a ch a ll e nge to com ba t with t h e ” fo u r we a pons t h e be tt e r t h e ba r e a ccost ” ” “ “ and re ga rd t h e sol e mn a ddre ss t h e p e rfe ct ” Me rc u ry disgu is e d a s a F r e n ch str a ng e r clos e e nt e rs t h e con t e st a g a inst m a ste r inste a d of ’ p u pil a n d wins I n Shirl e y s L ove T r i cks or T h e S ch ool of C om p li m e n t a ct e d 1 6 25 the “ disgu ise d Ga sp a ro orga niz e s a Complim e nt ” S chool which p u rpor t s to give instr u ction in good ma nne rs a n d e mine ntly fin e e xpr e ssion ’ As indic a te d t h e infl u e nc e of S idne y s Ar ca di a wa s still p e rva sive Si r W illi a m Ale xa nd e r ’ a dd e d to Sidn e y s rom a nc e in 1 6 2 1 a n d R ich a rd Be ling a ppe nde d a sixth book in 1 6 27 Nine e ditions a ppe a r e d be twe e n 1 60 0 a n d 1 64 2 a n d nu m e ro u s pl a ys we re b a s e d on both t h e m a in sto r y a n d minor e pisode s T h e m e di e va l co u rt O f love m a chine ry is e mploy e d in c e rt a in pl a ys .

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n o l e o o r B o o k r l e d i n s f u t e s s t a s a t t C y p E n g li sh m a y b e n o t e d E d e R e u g e , T r a i t é d e s c ou r s , 1 6 1 7 , t r a n s l a t e d b y Jo h n R e y n o l d s , A T r e a ti s e of t h e C o u r t , 1 6 42 ; L u c c i , A r s Au l i c a , or t h e C o u r t i e r s Ar te , t r a n s l a t e d b y E B l o u n t , 1 6 0 7 G r a c i a n D a n t i s c o , G a l a te o E s p a nol , t r a n s l a t e d i n t o E n g li s h i n 1 6 4 0 2 Ou t h e m a i n s t o r y : ( 1 ) D a y , T h e I s l e of Gu l l s , ’ ’ a ct e d 1 6 0 5 ; ( 2 ) L o ve s C h a n g e l i n g s C h a n g e ( Ms ) ; (3 ) T h e Ar ca d i a n L o ve r s , o r t h e Ill e t a m o r ph o s i s of r i n ce s

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wh e re love co u rts o r p a rli a m e nts a r e he ld to try c a s e s a rising o u t o f distinctly cont e mpor a ry conditions bu t th e r e is nothing o f t h e Pl a tonic ? T h e As tr e e h a d b e e n e a rly a bo u t th e m tr a nsl a t e d bu t h a d a pp a re ntly be e n r e g a rd e d a s m e r e ly o n e mor e conv e ntion a l rom a nc e T h e yo u ng q u e e n H e nr i e tt a tho u gh n o t s u bmitte d dir e ctly to t h e in fl u e nc e o f t h e H ote l de R a m bou i lle t h a d no do u b t grown u p in symp a thy with m u ch Of its signi fi c a nc e a n d h a d be com e w e ll a c qu a int e d with its t e n e ts a s co u rt a n d cot e ri e contin u e d t o grow clos e r tog e th e r Sh e wa s b orn in 1 609 a n d bro u ght u p u nd e r t h e c a r e o f Ma d a m e d e Mo n g l a t a n d h e r d a u ght e r Ma d a m e S t Ge orge Fr om e a r li e st childhood h e r inclin a tion wa s t owa rd a ccomplishm e nts a n d t h e fin e a rts r a th e r th a n towa rd mor e solid l e a rning As a child s h e fo u nd p a rtic u l a r a m u s e m e nt in priva t e t h e a t r i c a ls a n d soon l e a rne d t o d a nc e a n d sing with u nu s u a l a b ility Sh e fr e qu e ntly took p a rt in co ur t ba ll e ts a n d st a te p a ge a nts a n d a fte r 1 6 20 sh a r e d j oyo u sly in a ll so ci a l a ctiviti e s H e r f u t u r e h u s ba nd ind e e d fi rst s a w h e r a s s h e wa s d a ncing in a m a sq u e with t h e yo u ng ? A little Fr e nch qu e e n a n d t h e co u rt l a di e s ,

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On Sh i r l e y , Ar c a di a , a c t e d a b o u t 1 6 3 2 ’ e p i s o d e s : ( 1 ) B e a u m o n t a n d F l e t c h e r , C u p i d s R e ve n g e , e a r n i a h u n d t A r n e r a s a P 2 l a h o l r i n e d 1 1 G t t 6 5 , , g p ; ( ) p r in t e d 1660 d r o a n i a A n m r i n t e d 1 J 3 S 6 9 3 , , ) p ; ( p 1 Cf Ma r s t o n , P a r a s i t a s t e r , o r T h e F a wn , 1 6 0 6 , a n d Ma s s i n g e r , T h e P a r l i a m e n t of L o ve , 1 6 2 4 2 C f L e t t e r s of Q u e e n H e n r i e tt a M a r i a , e d Ma r y A E — 4 ; a n d Ag n e s S t r i c kl a n d , 1 3 Gr e e n , L on do n , 85 7 , pp L i ve s of t h e Q u e e ns of E n g l a n d , v o l v .

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hostility be twe e n h u s ba nd a n d wife At le ngth t h e king s u mm a rily dismiss e d t h e e ntire ho u s e hold ; a n d n o t u ntil t h e e m ba ssy o f t h e bro a d mind e d B a s s o m p i e r r e a t t h e clos e o f 1 626 wa s t h e dist u r ba nc e r e a lly c a lm e d T he n fo l lowe d a p e riod o f comp a r a tive p e a c e growing be tt e r d a ily a n d co u rt a n d q u e e n be g a n t o m e e t o n a fri e ndly footing a n d g e t re a lly a c .

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PR E OI E U S E S AND

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pirits a n d p e rfe ctly a t hom e in h e r E nglish co ur t ; whil e e ve n be for e this s h e wa s gr a tifying h e r fondne ss for dr a m a tic pi e c e s a n d t h e kind R e cords a t th a t s h e h a d e nj oy e d a t hom e e ve n wa s S how th a t t h e C hr istm a s of 1 6 25 c e le br a t e d by pl a ys a t co u rt o n e of the m be ing I n t h e following Ma rch it a Fr e nch p a stor a l is note d th a t t h e q u e e n h a s a ct e d in a m a sq u e “ which onc e wo ul d h a ve be e n tho u ght a str a nge ” T h e q u e e n a pp e a rs to h a ve pr e p a r e d sight a m a sq u e for t h e C hristm a s s e a son of 1 62 6 a lso Am u se m e nt is e mph a tic a lly t h e ke y-note of a l e tt e r s e nt by h e r to Ma d a m e S t Ge orge in ” “ 1 63 1 s h e s a ys a doz e n p a irs Se nd m e of swe e t ch a mois glove s a n d a lso I be g yo u to s e nd m e o n e of do e skin a ga m e of jo u ch e r i e s o n e of po u l e a n d t h e r u l e s of a n y sp e ci e s of ” ” T a h following sp r ing m s now in vog e u e e g ’ a dds t h e E nglish e ditor of H e nr i e tt a s l e tt e rs r e fe rring to t h e Ga z e tte s de F r a n ce for Ju ne 4 “ 1 6 32 we find h e r h e a ding a tr a in O f lords a n d l a die s filling no fe we r th a n o n e h u ndre d a n d fifty co a che s on a Ma ying e xp e dition T h e ’ q u e e n wa s dre sse d a l An g la i s e a n d no soone r was a bus h spi e d with its be a u tif u l lo a d of white a n d p e a rly blossoms th a n s h e S pr a ng o u t of h e r co a ch ga the r e d t h e first br a nch a n d pl a ce d it ” in h e r h a t Dr a ma tic a nn a ls S how th a t in 1 6 29 a comp a ny of Fr e nch pl a ye rs with wom e n in t h e tro u p e a ppe a r e d with q u e stiona ble s u cc e ss on t h e — Cf C l e n d f P S t t o 1 2 6 1 6 26 5 f p S

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conc e its be twe e n t h e l a di e s a n d th e ir P l a tonic woo e rs Fin a lly t e rms a r e a gr e e d u pon co n a n d s e c r e cy is e nj oin e d st a n c y is vow e d As t h e lov e rs le a v e t h e st a ge o n e o f t h e b oys r e “ T r u st m e th e y co u pl e h a ndsom e ly m a r ks ’ a s if th e y h a d b e e n m a rri e d a ft e r t h n e w f a sh ion I n t h e n e xt sc e n e t h e Pl a tonics org a niz e a fo r m a l co u rt o f lov e t o h e a r t h e c a u s e s Of t h e l a di e s a n d j u stify the i r s e p a r a tion from th e ir h u s ba nds From a ll the s e cit a tio ns f a lling a s the y do into SO syste m a tic a n a rr a nge m e nt no u n ce r t a in concl us ion m a y be dr a wn Whe n H e n r ie t t a Ma ri a c a m e t o E ngl a nd yo u ng i n e x r n n i d e e c e d a look e d u pon with s u spicion p s h e bro u ght w it h h e r t h e Fr e nch t a st e o f t h e t ime fo r c u lt u r e r e fine m e nt g a ll a ntry a n d lit a s r e cogniz e d a n d pr a ctic e d c r a ry e xpr e ssion in t h e r u e lle s Sh e h a d le ft be hind At first t h e diffic u lti e s o f h e r sit u a tion pre ve nte d t h e B u t a s tim e w e nt e xt e nsion o f h e r infl u e nc e this in fl u e nc e wa s displ a ye d in t h e co u rt on e nj oym e nt a n d p a rt icip a tion in dr a m a tic pr o d u ct i o n s o f t h e p a stor a l rom a ntic sort ; in t h e e st a b lishm e nt a s a pr a ctic e o f soci a l g a ll a ntry mor e or l e ss o f t h e principl e s o f Pl a tonic lov e modifi e d ; a n d in t h e r e ne we d vog u e give n t o t h e a dornm e nts a n d conc e its o f conve rs a tion a l e lo q u e nc e O f co ur se t h e q u e e n a n d h e r imm e di a t e a tt e nd a nts we r e n o t a lone in t h e circ u l a tion o f this in fl u e nc e E nglishm e n o f le a rning a n d distinction wh e th e r clos e ly a t t a c h e d t o t h e q u e e n o r n o t w e r e const a ntly ,

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3 45

p a ying visits to t h e contine nt a n d m a king Fr e nchm e n t h e a cqu a int a nc e of its lite r a t u re from t h e inmost circle s of t h e cot e r i e s occ a T heo s i o n a lly fo u nd th e ir wa y to E ngl a nd phile de Vi a u Voit u r e Sa int Am a nt a n d B o i s r o be rt a ll a r e known to h a ve cross e d t h e B u t to H e n ri e tt a s e e ms to b e long C ha nn e l t h e cre dit of giving t h e r e a l imp e t u s th a t se t th e se t e nde nci e s in move m e nt Clos e ly a ssoci a t e d with wh a t h a s be e n tr e a t e d a s t h e d e nomin a ting ph a s e of this infl u e nc e a r e thr e e oth e r line s of de ve lopme nt : t h e te nde ncy to follow t h e Fr e nch le a d in c e rt a in m i nor lit s u ch a s ve r s de s oci e te le tt e r e r a r y forms wri t ing e t c t h e gr e a tly incr e a s e d int e r e st in r oma nc e s a n d rom a nc e m a t e ri a l re s u lting in num e ro u s tr a nsl a tions from t h e Fr e nch a n d in t h e working ove r of Fr e nch rom a nc e sit u a tions for dra m a tic p ur pos e s ; a n d t h e a pp e a r a nc e O f c e rt a in a ct u a lly o r s u ppos e dly a ccomplish e d wome n a s t h e l e a de rs of E nglish cote ri e s T h e first two of the s e m a tte rs be ing conc e rne d with t h e progr e ss of d e fini t e lit e r a ry g e nr e s m a y be l e ft for fu rthe r consid e r a tion wi t h only p a u s e e no u gh to c a ll imm e di a t e a tt e ntion to t h e pr e v a l e nc e of Pl a tonism in t h e first and to t h e inte re st a n d p a tr o n a ge of t h e king a n d qu e e n in t h e s e cond Pr a ctic a lly e ve ry c a v a li e r po e t h a s some thing to s a y in his ve rs e conc e r ning Pl a tonic love u s u a lly som e thing of a sort to s u b st a nti a t e t h e .

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d e light in fa nt a stic ga rm e nts of h e r own de vic e Pe pys d e scri be s h e r a pp e a r a nc e in an d “ I s h e h e rs e lf t e stifi e s for a n e a rli e r p e riod : took gr e a t d e light in a ttiring fin e dr e ssing a n d fa shions e sp e ci a lly s u ch f a shions a s I did inve nt mys e lf not t a king tha t pl e a s ur e in s u ch fa shion Al so I d i d dislike a s wa s inve nt e d by oth e rs for I a lwa ys a n y sho u ld follow my f a shions took d e light in a singu l a rity e ve n in a cco u tr e ” m e nts of h a bits Sh e wa s e sp e ci a lly fond of ha ving h e r portr a it p a int e d in o n e of the s e striking o u tfits T h a t th e re wa s a Fr e nch prototyp e for this sort O f thing a pp e a rs from ’ Mll e de Sc u dery s d e scription of t h e pr e s u m p a pp a r e ntly riva l a n d t u o us Da m o ph il e a imit a tor Whe n this l a dy h a d a portr a it m a de Sh e stood be for e a gr e a t t a bl e on w hich w e r e books pinc e rs a lyr e a n d som e m a the m a tic a l instru me nts I t w a s n e c e ss a ry e ve n tha t s h e be r e pre s e nt e d a ttir e d a s o n e of t h e Mu s e s T h e D u che ss h a d th a t t e nd e ncy tow a rd philosophic a l tho u ght a n d e xtr a va ga nt e x pre ssion which s e e ms t h e p e c ul i a r prop e rty of t h e confirm e d p r e ci e u s e a n d fe m m e s a va n te P pys D i y Ap i l 1 1 2 6 Ma y 1 1 6 6 7 E ve l y .

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t u re of t h e time T h e C i d a pp e a rs to h a ve h a d a cordi a l r e c e ption in E n gl a nd its contin u e d pop u l a rity be ing indi c a t e d by t h e d e m a nd for e ight ye a rs a ft e r t h e a n e w e dition in 1 6 5 0 closing of t h e t h e a t e rs ’ Vit a l d Au d ig u ie r s L i sa n de r a n d C a li s ta wa s bro u ght into promine nc e a g a in in 1 6 38 thro u gh “ W illi a m B a rwick ge nt t h e p u blic a tion by of a n e w ve rsion of o n e of t h e books u nde r t h e “ title of L ove a n d Va lou r : ce le br a te d i n th e p e r s on or th e by th e n a m e of Adr a s te of the a u th or di ver s afie cti on s of M i n e r va ; on e p a r t of th e ” u nfa i n e d s tor y of th e tr u e L i s a n de r a n d C a li s te T h e continu e d int e r e st in t h e Gr e e k rom a nc e s is indic a te d by a tr a n sl a tion p u blishe d in 1 638 a n d L e u ci e b o f T h e L o ve s of C li top h on pp y Achill e s T a ti u s a n d by t h e e ntry u nd e r d a t e “ — a Book e c a ll e d T h e o f J a n u a ry 30 1 6 37 8 of f a mo u s histo r y of H e li o do r u s a mplifi e d a u g m e n t e d a n d d e live r e d p a r a phr a stic a lly in ve r se ” I n 1 6 38 too e ntry wa s by W illi a m L isl e m a de of a tr a nsl a tion tho u gh p e rh a ps only a ’ p a rt i a l o n e o f Cyr a no de Be r ge ra c s H i s toi r e T his C om i qu e de s E ta ts e t E m p i r e s de la L u n e b ook h a d a pp a r e ntly dr a wn on a n E nglish work in its composition T h e M a n i n th e M oon by Fr a ncis Goodwin G oodwin u nd e r t h e ps e u do n ym of Domingo G onz a le s h a d writt e n this story of a moon j o u rne y t owa rd t h e clos e of t h e six t e e n t h c e nt u ry while h e w a s a st u d e nt a t C hrist T ho u gh not p u blishe d u ntil 1 638 this C hur ch .

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c qu ir e d som e notori e ty in m a nu script a n d so in fl u e nc e d De Be rge r a c wh o a cknowle dge d his o bliga tion by m e e ting Domingo Gonz a l e s o n t h e moon a n d e ng a ging in conve rs a tion with him S o wid e is t h e pr e va l e nc e o f rom a nc e color ing in t h e dra m a o f t h e s e v e nt e e nth c e nt u ry a n d s o d iffi c u lt is t h e pro b l e m o f disting u ishing t h e distinctly Fr e nch in fl u e nc e in this r e g a rd th a t th e r e is n o possi b ility of a d e t a il e d a cco u nt o f dr a m a tic o b lig a tions t o cont e mpor a ry h e roic rom a nc e s in Fr a nc e T h e sit u a tion m a y ind e e d be ill u stra t e d by a fe w signi fi c a nt e x a mpl e s ’ Su ckling s t r a ge dy o f B r en n or a lt prod u c e d a bo u t 1 64 0 c e rt a i nl y cont a i n s m a t e ri a l from t h e r o m a nc os T h e r e l a t ions o f Alm e r i n t h e r e be l a n d t h e P a l a tin e I p h i g e n e s tho u gh a n o l d st ory ’ ” going ba ck t o O vid s I phis a n d I a nth e form e d ’ t h e c e ntr a l motive o f Bishop J P Ca m u s s r o m a nc e I ph i g e n e s 1 6 25 l a t e r tr a nsl a t e d into ’ E nglish by Ma j or Wright u nd e r titl e o f N a tu r e s Pa r a d ox 1 6 5 2 I n t h e pl a y a s in t h e rom a nc e Sigism u nd is king o f Pol a nd (Poloni a ) a n d t h e Pa l a tine I p h ig e n e s r e a lly a wom a n h a s be e n bro u ght u p from b i r th a s a bo y be c a u s e o f h e r ’ f a t h e r s a ntip a thy t o r e a ring a noth e r girl Al m e r i n corr e sponds to L i a nt e in t h e rom a nce ’ wh o in wom a n s g u is e th e r e h a s t h e n a m e Alm e ri a W h a t a r e a ct u a l disg u isings in t h e rom a nc e for d e finit e p u rpose a r e m e r e ly m e n t i o n e d a s p a st im e s in t h e dr a m a which h a s g e ne r a lly a m u ch mor e tr a gic tone I n t h e fi rst I p h i g e n e still in m a l e ch ar a cte r s a ys to a ct Al m e r i n 111 prison : a

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love to fri e ndship onl y involving his fri e nd in singl e com ba t on t h e cha rge of d e s e rt ion Dori a is s u ppos e d to kill his oppone nt in this d u e l a n d is hims e lf cond e m n e d to d e a th u n l e ss some virgin a gr e e s to ma rry him H i s p a ge in disgu ise vol u nt e e rs a n d a t tha t j u nct u r e C h r i s e a T hro u gho u t a pp e a rs a n d e xpl a ins e v e ry t hing t h e a ction the r e is m u ch ga ll a nt t a lk of lov e a n d ho nor I n t h e s e cond a ct occ u rs t h e fling a t Fr e nch a cting a lr e a dy not e d Adorni r e t u rn e d “ from t h e wa rs is a ske d Wha t thi nk yo u of ” T he n occ u rs this bri e f di a log u e t h e Fr e nch ? with B on i ve t ,

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print e d in 1 6 5 7 I n 1 640 wa s print e d a n E nglish r e nd e ring o f t h e Rom a n t of Rom a n is ’ which wa s L e Si e u r Ve rdi e r s ve rsion o f t h e Am a di s T his wa s a noth e r tr a nsl a tion prompt e d from n e a r t h e E nglish thron e this tim e by P hi lip E a rl o f Pe m broke a n d Montgom e ry ’ L ord C h a m be rl a in o f t h e King s H o u s e hold ’ I n Willi a m Ca rtwright s T h e L a dy E rr a n t writ t e n prior to 1 64 3 a n d print e d in 1 65 1 th e r e is a rom a ntic e l e m e nt in t h e wooing o f t h e P rinc e ss L u c a s i a by t h e hostil e princ e C h a r i s t u s who is a t t h e s a m e tim e t h e d e vot e d fri e nd o f Ol yn d us ’ s u itor o f L u c a s i a s fri e nd E u m e la A m is u n de r st a nding be tw e e n t h e m e n r e s u lts i n a singl e com ba t a n d wh e n both m e n a r e down th e y t a lk it ove r a n d m a k e u p a ga in T h e first a c t o f t h e pl a y cont a ins t wo va l u a bl e r e fe r e nc e s o n e t o t h e pop u l a rity o f rom a nc e s t h e oth e r t o t h e p a stora l vog u e in p a rtic u l a r I n t h e s e cond sc e n e t h e co u rti e r I r i n g u s s a ys t o t h e l a di e s : wa s

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with E va n dr a T he y l e a rn of t h e plot a n d e a ch ind e p e nd e ntly e sc a p e s a n d pre s e nts h e rs e lf to t h e D u k e with t h e p u rpos e of s a ving t h e yo u ng m en Whi l e h e is a bo u t to re f e r to a n ora cl e t h e q u e stion a s to which is t h e re a l E va n dr a t h e yo u ng m e n a r e involve d in va rio u s d u e ls Fina lly both u pon t h e discove ry of th e i r loss girls a r e o r de r e d e xe c u t e d a n d on t h e d a y a p point e d Mill a i n a n d Sa voy s long lost brothe rs t u rn u p a s a mba ss a dors L e o n e l l th e n ma k e s known tha t h e is t h e r e a l h e ir to t h e thr one ; his sist e r tha t Princ e Alva ro h a d pr e vio u sly promis e d love to h e r E va n dr a t a ke s L e o n e ll a n d a ll a pp a r e ntly a r e h a ppy ’ ’ L e on a rd Will a n s As tr ce a or T r u e L ove s M i rr or wa s print e d in 1 65 1 I t is e ss e nti a lly a ma squ e a n d pra ctic a lly worthl e ss from a dra ma tic point Of V i e w ; bu t is va l u a bl e for this st u dy a s it is m e r e ly a n a tt e mpt to we a ve into a conn e ct e d dra ma c e rt a in e pisod e s from t h e As tr ée SO m u ch cond e ns a tion is n e c e ss a ry a n d t h e e pisod e s a r e com b in e d with so littl e skill tha t the y a pp e a r positive ly a bs u rd in the ir n e w s e tting a n d o n e mu st be fa mili a r with t h e r o m a nc e to u nd e rst a nd a nything of t h e pl a y Si x p a irs of love rs e cho e s of t h e rom a nc e a r e involve d in t h e complic a t e d plot E ve n t h e conve ntiona l love l e tt e rs a r e bro u ght in from t h e roma nc e a n d t h e l e n g thy conve rs a tions a r e fill e d with qu i bbl e s on t h e myst e ri e s of love Pr e fixe d to t h e pl a y is a n e l a b ora t e d e scription of st a ge s e tting a ft e r t h e ma nne r of t h e ma squ e ; “ a n d t h e fin a l st a g e dir e ction is : Wh e r e a t t h e .

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is ope n e d a n d both Comp a ni e s u niting th e ms e lve s sp e nd t h e r e st o f t h e N ight in the ir ” T h e a u thor d e dic a t e s hi s a cc u stom e d D a nc e s pl a y t o Ma ry D u ch e ss o f R ichmond a n d L e nnox a n d e xpl a i n s a t gr e a t l e ngth how s h e m a y fi nd h e r o wn portra it in t h e ch a r a ct e r Astr ae a ’ R ich a rd B rom e s T h e L ove S i ck C ou r t or th e Am bi ti o u s Poli ti que print e d 1 65 8 is bu ilt o n rom a ntic m a t e ri a l wi th t h e motive o f politi c a l T h e king ur ge d by his p e opl e to a m bition s e l e ct a s u cc e ssor m u st choos e be twe e n t h e — soldi e r st a t e sm a n St r a t o cl e s a n d t h e m or e yo u th fu l Ph il a r g us a n d Ph i l o cl e s b oth s u ppos e d sons Of a d e a d g e n e ra l H e d e cid e s to t a k e tha t o n e o f t h e t wo yo u t hs whom h i s d a u ght e r E u d i n a choos e s t o m a rry All thr e e cont e st a nts a r e h e r s u itors t h e t wo b roth e rs be ing a lso v e ry de vot e d t o e a ch oth e r E u din a c a nnot d e cid e be tw e e n t h e yo u t hs a n d th e y strive t o o u tdo e a ch oth e r in s e lf s a c r i fic e St r a t o cl e s by forg e d l e tt e rs forc e s th e m to fi ght bu t the y discove r P oison give n t h e plot a n d h e is a rr e st e d Ph il a r g u s by t h e s e rva nt o f Ph il o cle s prov e s only Whil e Ph ila r g u s is tho u ght a sl e e ping potion d e a d a n Old n ur s e r e ve a ls th a t Ph il o cl e s is r e a lly ’ t h e king s s o n a n d t h e s u ppos e d d e a d m a n com e s ba ck t o life to m a rry B u din a SO is fu l fi ll e d t h e u s u a l myst e rio u s ora cl e T h e p a ir o f fri e ndly lov e rs e cho e s L idi a n a n d Cl a r a n g e u s t h e lov e rs o f Dorind a in L ys a n de r a n d C a li s ta ’ ’ a lr e a dy u s e d in Fl e tch e r a n d Ma ssing e r s L ove r s ,

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h e roic lit e ra t u r e o f Fra nc e a n d e v e rything was r e a dy fo r t h e h e roic pl a y o f t h e R e s t o r a tion ’ D a ve n a nt s Gon di be r t r e pr e s e nting this n e w typ e o f h e roi c po e m d e m a nds first co n sid e ra tion ; for it wa s b e g u n a s e a rly a s 1 64 6 a n d give n u p u nfinish e d in 1 6 5 0 Most o f t h e work u pon it w a s don e in Fr a nc e a n d Fr a nc e a pp e a rs to h a v e b e e n r e sponsi bl e for most tha t it h a d o f nove lty I t wa s in m a ny r e sp e cts a n ordin a ry rom a ntic e pic o f love a n d wa rfa r e with a C hris ti a n coloring T h e re wa s t h e a tmosph e r e o f co u rt a n d c a mp t h e complic a t e d plot with ch a r a c t e r s o f no bl e b irth a n d st u p e ndo u s v a lor t h e m e dl e y Of op e n ba ttl e a n d spl e ndid singl e com ba ts ; a n d thro u gh it a ll r a n t h e motiv e s o f love a n d a m b ition giving t h e h e roic ton e to t h e prod u ct T his h e roic tone m a y be a n a t u ra l d e ve lopm e nt from t h e rom a ntic e pics with whi ch B u t it wa s pr o t h e a u thor wa s a c q u a int e d d u c e d in t h e e nvironm e nt a n d u nd e r t h e strong imp u ls e o f Fr e nch rom a nc e m a t e ri a l U nd e r t h e s a m e in fl u e nc e Fr e nch po e ts w e r e th e ms e lv e s shortly to d e ve lop simil a r prod u cts An innova tion o n which D a ve n a nt p a rtic u l a rly prid e d hims e lf a dds t o t h e pro ba bility o f t hi s Fr e nch in fl u e nc e At a tim e wh e n t h e most f a mili a r lit e ra ry proc e ss in E ngl a nd a n d Fr a nc e wa s t h e e m b odim e nt Of rom a nc e m a t e ri a l in dr a m a ti c form this po e t writing in Fr a nc e fr a m e d his h e roic n a rra tive o n t h e sch e me o f t h e “ dr a m a proportioning five b ooks to five a cts t h e sc e n e s ha ving th e ir a n d c a ntos t o sc e n e s ,

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Pe rh a ps nu mbe r e ver gove rn e d by occ a sion ins pire d by D a ve n a nt mor e pro ba bly mod e le d on t h e Fr e nch a tt e mpts the r e a pp e a re d j u st be for e t h e R e stora tion a noth e r E nglish h e roic Ch a m be r po e m of distinctly roma ntic tone ’ l a yn e s Ph a r on n i da T h e E nglish int e r e st in rom a nc e s for the m s e lve s wa s by no m e a ns cu t o ff by t h e closing Of T h e r e st of t h e p e riod will be t h e th e a t e rs fou nd fu ll Of tra nsl a tions of th e s e with t h e a tt e nd a nt c e rt a inty t ha t mor e E nglish p e opl e tha n e ve r we r e r e a ding the m in t h e origin a l L ike t h e Pl a tonizing t e nd e ncy t h e fondn e ss for roma nc e s pro ba bly spr e a d fa rth e r a n d fa rthe r from cou rt circl e s a n d cropp e d o u t spora dic a lly wh e r e ve r in E ngl a nd th e re we r e e d u c a t e d p e opl e not e ntire ly domina t e d by t h e e xtr e m e of Pu ri E nglishm e n a bro a d k e pt E n g t a n disciplin e l i s h m e n a t hom e inform e d of t h e l a t e st d e v e lop m e nts in t h e roma nc e ge nre a n d o blige d the m with copi e s Of e a ch n e w p u blic a tion T hu s e ve n be yond t h e co ur t p a rty a n d thro u gho u t E n g “ l a nd ge ne ra lly this he roic ton e wh a t e ve r its lit e r a ry s e tting a cqu ir e d a d e vot e d follow ing T ha t C ha rl e s hims e lf r e m a ine d int e r e st e d in Fre nch roma nc e s u ntil t h e e n d is indic a t e d .

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thr o u gh this cha nne l bu t this time it c a m e in t h e sh a pe O f dir e ct r e co u rs e to t h e Fr e nch dr a m a inst e a d of t h e working ove r o f Fr e nch ’ rom a nc e into E nglish pl a ys D a ve na nt s inno va tion of 1 65 6 promptly be g a n to r e a ct towa rd re gul a r forms ; his initi a l prod u ctions e ve n A dr a m a of his a ct e d going th a t wa y in tim e soon a ft e r t h e R e stor a tion bu t ge ne r a lly s u p pos e d to h a ve be e n writt e n in t h e Common we a lth p e riod d e s e rve s notic e i n this conne ction — I t is T h e Pla y h ou s e to be L e t a gro u p of inde p e nde nt a cts t hr own tog e the r with a pr e t e ns e of pl a n to occ u py t h e time of a r e g u l a r p e r T h e first a ct throws som e v a l u a b l e fo r m a n ce light on t h e ne wly import e d f a shion of t h e tr a ve sty or bu rl e squ e a n d t h e s e cond is a lit e r a l tra nsl a tion tho u gh in a mu sing broke n ’ E nglish of Moli er e s S g a n a r e lle ou le C ocu T h e third a n d fo u rt h a cts r e pro I m a gi n a i r e “ d u c e two of t h e r e cit a tive pi e c e s T h e H i s tor y of S i r F r a n ci s Dr a ke a n d T h e C r u e lty of th e S p a n i a r ds i n Pe r u I n 1 6 5 6 m a y be not e d a lso ’ Wa lt e r Mont a gu e s tr a nsl a tion from t h e Fr e nch of T h e Acc om p li s h e d Wom a n T h e import a nt tr a nsl a tor of dr a m a s a t t h e close Of this p e riod wa s Sir Willi a m L owe r pr a ctic a lly a ll of whos e work wa s done a bro a d H e l e ft E ngl a nd in 1 6 5 5 a n d occ u pi e d some post in t h e ho u se hold of t h e Princ e of Or a nge a t T h e H a gu e whe re h e bu si e d himse lf with ,

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mod e rni z ing the ory o f tr a n sl a tion a n d t h e n e w a ttit u d e tow a rd t h e a nci e nts F o r t h e fir st o f th e s e forms m u ch o f t h e story h a s a lr e a dy be e n told I n t h e H Ote l de Ra m bou i lle t a n d t h e l a t e r cote ri e s mod e le d u pon it wits w e re const a ntly be ing t a xe d in t h e composit ion o f imprompt u ve rs e s ; a s a ch a nc e occ u rr e nc e a n a ttr a ctive bit Of fin e ry a t u rn o f conv e rs a tion or m e r e imp uls e prompt e d Ma drig a ls mor e form a l sonne ts e pigr a ms rond e a u x br e a thing r e fi ne d g a ll a ntry a n d a m o ro u s complim e nt a n d h a ving a d e lic a t e str u e t ur a l finish we r e a lmost a s common as t h e vog u e Of conve rs a tion from which the y took the ir inspir a tion T h e I t a li a n fondne ss fo r ” “ h i a a u f e o n t s w a s stil e e ss e nti l f e t r e o th s t e e l p — compositions bu t p a rtly t hro u gh t h e i n cle a rne ss a n d simplicity fl u e n c e o f Ma lh e r be o f form w e r e s u ppl a nting t h e e a rli e r complic a tions Of tho u ght a n d e xpr e ssion whe the r in t h e ’ st u di e d compl e t e ne ss o f Ma lhe r be s disciple Ma yn a rd o r in t h e e phe m e r a l imprompt u s Of Ab ov e a ll the s e v e rs e s a t th e ir be st Voit u r e we r e distinctly o f a n d for t h e mom e nt losing th e ir signific a nc e wh e n r e move d from th e ir fi rst s u rro u ndings a n d yi e lding u p the ir ch a rm wh e n incl u d e d in colle ctions T his fa ct m a de d e t a ile d imit a tion a life le ss u nd e rt a king a n d now r e nde rs hop e l e ss a st u dy Of in fl u e nc e s e xc e pt in t h e m a ss Pr a ctic a lly a s soon as the r e we re Pl a tonics the r e we r e a nti Pl a tonics ; like wis e a s e a rly as t h e ve rs e s o f polit e a n d form a l complim e nt to

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rlie r th e re h a ve be e n po e ts who s a w a n d s a ng things a s th e y w e r e with no gr e a t re ga rd for t h e propri e ti e s T he re we r e ple nty of m e n writing s u ch ve rs e s in Fr a nc e whe n Ma d a me de R a m bo u ille t be ga n ga th e ring h e r fri e nds a bo u t h e r a t t h e be ginning of t h e c e n t u ry ; a n d t h e re fine d po e tic fl a tt e ry th a t gre w u p a n e w with this circl e only g a v e th e s e ve rs e m a ke rs a n e w point of a tt a ck a n d dignifi e d the m by t h e privile ge of contr a st Soon the re a pp e a r e d compromis e fig u r e s m e n whos e ge ni u s o r st a tion bro u ght th e m w e ll to t h e t hr e shold of polit e circle s e ve n of t h e H e te l de Ra m bou i lle t its e lf bu t whos e t a st e s a n d inn a t e virility fo u nd T hu s a p e xpr e ssion in mor e r e a listic form — r T n a d h ophil d i u b l a m e d a d not a e e e e e V p witho u t c a u se for t h e p u blic a tion of t h e de c i de dly ind e c e nt Pa rn a s s e s a tyr i qu e in t h e s e cond e dition of which t h e ye a r follow ing de finit e ly bor e his n a m e Sa int Am a nt t h e “ Ca l p ur n i u s of t h e H ote l de Ra m bou i lle t a n d a me mbe r of t h e Ac a de my a pp a r e ntly fo u nd his r e a l j oy a mid a gro u p of boon comp a nions whe re with c u p in h a nd h e might improvise l u sty ve rs e s s co ffin g a t fid e lity in love a n d ea

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t h e ba cchic j oys o f r e ve lr y a n d g o r 1 m a n di z i n g I n t h e most s e l e ct circl e s a ll wa s n ot p u r e u n fle s h l y d e vot ion o r t h e c e l e br a tion o f it Sc a nd a l wa s n o t u ncommon o r u nc a lle d

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m a rri a ge c e r e moni e s of H e nri e tt a Ma ri a Sa int Am a nt wa s in E ngl a nd twic e : first in 1 63 1 a t which tim e h e wrot e a po e m c e l e bra ting t h e e xc e ll e nc e of C h a rl e s a n d his q u e e n ; a n d a ga in ’ in 1 644 whe n t h e Comt e d H a r c o u r t we nt to propos e t h e m e di a tion of Fr a nc e in E nglish Ou t of this s e cond visit c a m e t h e a ffa irs — r r c com i g u e a e h é o i Albi on c p i e xpr e ssing the ’ a u thor s diss a tisf a ction with co u ntry a n d p e opl e Voit u re too is s a id to h a ve m a d e a V isit to E n g l a nd Ye t a ft e r a ll t h e ra tion a l e xpl a n a tion of t h e gre a t E nglish vogu e of ve rs e —m a ki n g a t this p e riod li e s not in t h e imit a tion of individ u a l pi e c e s or individ u a l a u thors bu t in t h e imp u ls e a fford e d by t h e n e w soci a l conditions a n d th e ir va rio u s a c t iviti e s I t is not within t h e scop e of this st u dy to tra c e min u t e ly t h e growth of t h e bu rl e squ e ge nre u ntil it be c a me a distinct lit e ra ry form with its two va ri e ti e s t h e tra ve sty a n d t h e ” mock he roic T h e word bu rl e squ e a s w e ll w e re a s t h e be ginnings of t h e lit e r a ry form bro u ght into Fra nc e from I t a ly At first t h e te rm wa s u s e d in t h e va gu e st possi bl e wa y for 2 th a t which wa s bro a dly hu moro u s or mocking I t wa s t e c hn ic a lly sp e ci a liz e d o n ly a ft e r t h e .

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g e nr e h a d s e ttl e d into r e g ul a r a n d r e cogni z e d ’ lin e s I n B oil e a u s Ar t Po é ti qu e be g u n in 1 6 69 a n d p u blish e d in 1 6 74 t h e bu rl e squ e in t h e n a rrowe r s e ns e h a s its form a l critic a l r e c e p tion : .

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grot e s q u e e l e m e nts o f his own mocking styl e with a r e stra int th a t n e ve r cont e mpl a t e d t h e e xc e ss e s o f his imit a tors T h e n a m e Of the s e imit a tors wa s l e gion Almost imm e di a t e ly th e y we nt t o work ; a n d Virgil H om e r O vid a ll t h e cl a ssic po e ts a va il a bl e f e ll victims a g a in a n d 1 a g a in t o th e ir mispl a c e d e n e rgy T h e r a pid c a r e l e ss e ight syll a bl e co u pl e t with its fr e qu e nt str a in e d a n d fe minin e rhym e s h a d be e n u s e d ’ in Sc a r r o n s tra v e sty a n d wa s promptly a c ce pt e d a s t h e r e g u l a r bu rl e s q u e m e tr e s o th a t po e ms c a m e to pos e a s b u rl e s qu e s a n d s e e k pop ul a rity from th a t c a ption wh e n the y h a d not a thing 2 in common with t h e Ve r gi le e xc e pt ve rs e form Su ch o f t h e imit a tions a s w e r e r e a lly tr a ve sti e s w e r e g e n e ra lly ch a r a ct e riz e d by a d e cid e d low e ring Of ton e a n d a corr e sponding incr e a s e in sc u rrility S c a rron hims e lf did nothing mor e in t h e ge nr e his Rom a n com i qu e in 1 6 5 1 be longing to t h e typ e o f r e a listic rom a nc e r a th e r th a n bu rl e s qu e I n E ngl a nd a s in Fr a nc e th e r e h a d be e n thr o u gh a long p e riod o f tim e ind e finit e a p n h h u d u a r to b rl s q m a nn e r a a s rly s o a c e t e e e e ; p a s 1 64 0 th e s e s e e m to h a v e e m b odi e d m a ny o f t h e ch a r a ct e ristics o f t h e g e nr e d e v e lop e d l a t e r th e

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th a t witho u t s p ci fic s u gg e stion t h e e ight syll a bl e co u pl e t m a y h a ve pr e s e nt e d its e lf t o th e m a s a n a t u ra l a n d conv e ni e nt V e hicl e fo r s u ch m a t e ri a l T his s a m e co u pl e t wa s e mploy e d fr e e ly in t h e co a rs e s a tir e s o f J ohn Cl e ve l a nd l a t e r a clos e fri e nd o f Sa m u e l B u tl e r ’ A st a t e m e nt in Anthony 3 Wood s Ath e n az I n his Oxon i e n s e s n e xt d e m a nds a tt e ntion disc u ssion Of John D e nh a m h e s a ys : s ibil i t y

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this st a t e m e nt is corr e ct D e nh a m occ u pi e s a n e a rly pl a c e in t h e history Of t h e bu rl e s q u e in E ngl a nd His p u blish e d work in t r a n s la tion howe ve r c a n in no wa y be r e g a rd e d a s bu rl e s q u e a n d h e e xpr e ss e s hims e lf s o strongly r e g a rding t h e bu rl e s qu e fa shion in Fr a nc e a n d I t a ly th a t th e re is a strong pro ba bility th a t ’ Wood s st a t e m e nt is n ot t o be re li e d u pon ’ D e nh a m s tr a nsl a tion T h e De s tr u cti on of T r oy; ’ a n E ssa y u p on th e s e con d bo ok of Vi r gi l s E n e i s p u blish e d i n 1 6 5 6 bu t writt e n a n u m be r o f y e a rs e a rli e r wa s in f a ct work e d o u t a ccording 2 t o his t h e ory Of mod e rnizing t h e a nci e nt cl a ssics a th e ory which h e e xpl a ins in t h e pr e f a c e t o this work I n this pre f a c e h e e xpr e ss e s hims e lf Disc u ssing his o wn bri e fl y r e g a rding b u rl e s q u e E d B li s s ii i 8 24 I nfr a p 43 1 s q ,

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t a k e p a ins t o c a ll a tt e ntion t o t h e s a m e point U n q u e stion a bly d e spit e t h e f a ct th a t h e c o n f u s e d t h e t wo typ e s o f burl e s qu e g e n e r a lly dis t i n g u i s h e d t h e gr e a t E nglish e xpon e nt o f t h e form wa s Sa m u e l B u tl e r t h e a u thor o f H u d i At a comp a r a t ive ly e a rly d a t e h e took br a s this typ e o f po e try th e n s o pop u l a r a cross t h e C h a nn e l g a ve it a n E nglish s u bj e ct o f vit a l import a nc e a n d e x e rcis e d his o wn powe r a n d origin a lity o f tho u ght u pon it u ntil a gr e a t T h e fi rst p a rt E nglish po e m w a s t h e r e s u lt wa s p u blish e d in 1 66 2 with t h e t itl e : H u di br a s T h e F i r s t Pa r t Wr i tte n i n the ti m e of th e la te Wa r s T h e s e cond p a rt a pp e a r e d t h e y e a r following a n d t h e third a s l a t e a s 1 67 8 I f t h e e xpl a n a tory lin e q u ot e d a b ov e is a cc e pt e d a s corr e ct t h e work f a lls l a rg e ly within t h e scop e o f this st u dy a s r e pr e s e nt ing a n infl u e nc e pro b a b ly Fr e nch op e r a t ing be for e t h e f u ll fl ood o f t h e R e stor a tion S inc e th e r e is som e q u e stion how e ve r conc e rning t h e tim e wh e n t h e po e m 1 w a s be g u n it m a y be w e ll t o g a th e r u p wh a t littl e f u rt h e r inform a tion th e r e is o n this point T h e conv e ntion a l st a t e m e nt o n t h e m a tt e r is th a t a bo u t 1 6 5 0 B u tle r wa s in t h e e mploy o f Sir Sa m u e l L u k e in B e dfordshir e a n d th e r e dr a ft e d a t l e a st t h e first p a rt o f his po e m mod e ling his h e ro u pon t h e p e rson a lity o f his e mploy e r a n d dr a wing v a rio u s d e t a ils from Sir ’ N e ith e r Au dr e y n o r Anthony Sa m u e l s g u e sts .

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Sir J ohn Su ckling , wh o di e d in 1 640 , wrot e a n u m be r o f l e tt e rs , which s e e m t o h a ve be e n in t e nd e d fo r circ u l a tion , bu t we r e n o t p u blish e d for m a ny y e a rs a ft e r his d e a th As in his ve rs e s , h e a pp e a rs t o follow Voit u r e , with a som e wh a t bro a d e r ton e o f mock e ry a n d d a ring T hos e l e tt e rs in which h e is t h e s e rio u s love r a bo u nd in gra c e f ul ga ll a ntry ; bu t in m a ny sp e cim e n s h e a ffe c t s t h e mocking spirit o f t h e a nti -Pl a tonics T h e e l e ga nc e a n d wit o f t h e cl e ve r co u rti e r a r e pr e s e nt e v e rywh e r e T h e r e is a 1 m e r e m e ntion o f B a lz a c in o n e Of t h e l e tt e rs ’ Howe v e r pop u l a r Voit u r e s l e tt e rs m a y ha ve be e n a bo u t t h e E nglish co ur t , th e y did n o t g e t into tra ns l a tion u ntil 165 5 , a t t h e h a nds o f J ohn .

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D a vi e s An int e r e sting pr od u ct o f this vog u e a mong ’ t h e co u rti e rs is Si r T o by Ma tth e w s coll e ction o f l e tt e rs whi ch did not a pp e a r in print u ntil 1 6 60 fiv e y e a rs a ft e r his d e a th I t wa s th e n “ p u blish e d with t h e titl e : A C oll e ction o f L e t t e rs m a d e by S T o bi e Ma tthe ws K t with a C h a r a ct e r o f t h e most e xc e ll e nt L a dy L u cy C o u nt e ss o f Ca r l e il e : to whi ch a r e a dd e d m a ny L e tt e rs o f his o wn t o s e v e r a l Pe rsons o f Hono u r ” wh o w e r e cont e mpor a ry with hi m Som e o f t h e l e tt e rs w e r e pro ba bly from origin a ls oth e rs m e r e e pistol a ry e x e rcis e s in e m u l a tion o f t h e Fr e nch mod e ls N a m e s a n d d a t e s we re r e ’ move d a n d s o fa r did Si r T o by s d e sir e for .

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wa s t h e n i n v o g u e C f Mr s E v e l yn s l e t t e r t o B o h u n , Ma y 2 1 , 1 6 6 8 ; c i t e d b y Jii r g e n s , o p ci t , p 1 Su ckl i n g , Wor ks , e d 1 7 1 9 , p 8 3

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MI NO R L I T E R AR Y F O R MS

445

inge nu ity a n d r he toric a l e xc e ll e nc e c a rry him tha t t h e ge n e ra l e ffe ct is a ga in tha t of a m a n u a l of polit e corr e spond e nc e which in p a rt it wa s ” “ cha r a ct e r tha t a c As h a s be e n not e d t h e compa ni e s t h e book is not o n e of t h e u s u a l E nglish a bstra c t ions bu t is a portr a it a ft e r t h e m a nn e r of t h e Fr e nch rom a nc e s T h e coll e ctions O f l e tt e rs by R o be rt L ove d a y a n d T hom a s Ford e a pp e a r to h a v e b e e n mod e l e d ’ ’ on H owe ll s coll e ction L o ve da y s book pu b li s h e d posthu mo u sly in 1 6 5 9 indic a t e s this e v e n ’ “ L o v e d a y s L e t t e rs Do m e s t i c k in t h e titl e : to s e v e ra l p e r sons occ a sion a lly a n d F o r r e in distri bu t e d in s u bj e cts Philosophic a l] H is ” ’ Ford e s F a m i li a r L e t t o r i c a ll a n d Mora ll te r s p u blish e d a y e a r l a t e r cont a in o n e e pistl e ful l of pra is e a ddre ss e d to J H a pp a re ntly H ow e ll hims e lf R e g a rding a propos e d cor “ I am r e sponde nc e be twe e n th e m h e s a ys : not ignora nt tha t a ll kind of L e a rning ha th be e n wr a pp e d u p in L e tt e rs An d I a ss u r e yo u Si r I sh a ll in t h e e nj oym e nt O f yo u rs think mys e lf littl e l e ss hono u r e d tha n I do L u c il li u s ’ by Se n e c a s I n m a ny wa ys t h e most a ttra ctiv e E nglish coll e ction of t h e p e riod wa s writt e n witho u t t h e r e mot e st tho u ght of p u blicity a n d did not a pp e a r in print u ntil v e ry r e c e nt ly Dorothy O s borne writing to Sir Will i a m T e mpl e to ,

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S u pr a , p 3 5 1 2 F a m il i a r L e tt e r s , e d 1 6 00 , p 8 5 3 L e tt e r s fr o m or o t h y Os bo r n e t o S i r W i l l i a m T e m pl e ed E A a r r y , L o n d o n , 1 88 8 ( 1 65 2 .

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MI N O R

446 sh e

L I T E RA R

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F O R MS

th e n be trothe d displ a ys a r e m a rk a bl e ch a rm o f m a nn e r gr a c e o f styl e a n d a c u t e n e ss of tho u ght B u t s h e t oo wa s a d e vot e e o f Fr e nch lit e r a ry forms to whi ch s h e m a k e s const a nt r e f e r e nc e in h e r l e tt e rs ; a n d m a y w e ll h a v e a c q u ir e d som e Of h e r e a s e a n d sprightlin e ss o f styl e from a fa m ili a rity with Fr e nch mod e ls Sh e is a worthy pr e d e c e ssor o f Ma d a m e d e Se vign e T his st u dy c a nnot clos e witho u t m e ntion o f t h e corr e spond e nc e o f o u r E nglish cot e ri e “ Ma tc h l e ss O rind a le a de r th e with h e r fa vorit e fri e nd Po l i a r ch u s T h e l e tt e rs in t h e coll e ction w e r e writt e n from on e t o fo u r ye a rs a ft e r t h e R e stor a tion bu t t h e circl e in which th e y w e r e inspir e d wa s in e xist e nc e som e tim e 1 Mll e de Scu dér y a ft e r whom Mr s be for e P hi llips s e e ms us u a lly t o ha v e mod e l e d c a rri e d corr e spond e nc e with h e r n u o n a n e xt e nsiv e 2 m e r o u s fri e nds p e rha ps tha t a n d it is this O rind a h a d in mind in ina u gu ra ting h e r s e ri e s ’ B u t Mll e d e S c u d e ry s e pistol a ry o f l e tt e rs styl e is r a th e r e a sy simpl e a n d dir e ct with v e ry littl e a tt e mpt a t lofty e lo qu e nc e o r l a vish complim e nt Mr s Phillips how e ve r m u st ha v e conc e ive d o f s u ch corr e spond e nc e o n t h e ba sis o f t h e S c u d ery rom a nc e s fo r it is t h e spirit a n d m a nn e r o f th e s e th a t is const a ntly giving color O f co u rs e only a p a rt o f t h e t o h e r l e tt e rs w hom

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Se e c h a p V l l 2 C f R a t h e r y e t B o u t r o n , M l l e de S cu de r y, s a vi e e t Pa r i s , 1 8 7 3 s a co r r e s p o n d e n c e 3 C f h e r l e t t e r s t o G o d e a u , o p ci t , p p 2 1 0 240 , 2 4 9 2 5 4 , 2 7 1 —2 7 2 1

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C HAPT E R X C ON C L

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T H E pl a n a dopt e d fo r this e ff e ct o f s u b ordin a ting , Oft e n

st u dy h a s h a d t h e p e rh a ps to a n u n fa ir d e gr e e n u m e ro u s u nr e l a t e d d e t a ils o f Fr e nch in fl u e nc e in E nglish lit e ra t u r e I t h a s like wis e pl a c e d e mph a sis u pon t h e progr e ss o f c e rt a in lit e ra ry typ e s o r line s o f a ctivity with littl e a tt e ntion th u s fa r t o t h e e ntir e signi fi c a nc e Of t h e Fr e nch in fl u e nc e a t v a rio u s st a g e s o f its hi story I n a pology it m a y be s a id tha t t h e pl a n m a d e its e lf a s o n e lin e o f in fl u e nc e o r a o t i vi t y a ft e r a noth e r ros e o u t Of t h e t a ngl e o f E liz a be th a n lit e r a ry e ffort r e pr e s e nting a vit a l fa ctor in t h e complic a t e d proc e ss T h e fo u r score ye a rs tha t m a ke u p t h e a ct u a l scop e o f t h e st u dy a r e n o t so long a p e riod nor is t h e c hr onology o f t h e writ e rs involve d so intric a t e tha t th e r e is a n y r e a l difli c ul t y in s u mming u p t h e cont e nt o f Fr e nch lit e r a ry infl u e nc e a t a n y point d e sir e d or in its s u cc e ssiv e st a g e s For twe nty y e a rs from t h e a cc e ssion o f E liz a be th th e r e w a s littl e e vid e nc e o f E nglish int e r e st in Fra nc e a p a rt from n u m e ro u s tra nsl a tions o f t h e writings o f John Ca lvin a n d occ a sion a l b orrowings from Ma rot a mong t h e m a k e rs o f T h e n c a m e t h e comm u nity o f int e r e clog u e s ,

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448

CO

N C L US I O N

4 49

ort involving Sidn e y a n d Sp e ns e r a n d the ir littl e following a comm u nity a nim a t e d in a t l e a st o n e of its e nt e rpris e s a n d p e rha ps in its whol e conc e ption by t h e e xa mpl e s e t by t h e Fr e nch Pl éi a de a n d its l a t e r a dhe r e nts T h e cl a ssic ve rsifying of this gro u p of E nglish inno But va t o r s wa s q u ickl y a llow e d to d e clin e t h e e nco u r a ge m e nt a n d pra ctic e of th e s e kindr e d spirits w e r e l a rge ly instr u m e nt a l in fu rthe ring thr e e lit e ra ry forms in E ngl a nd : t h e Fr e nch Se n e c a n tr a ge dy t h e sonn e t a n d t h e long r e l i g i o u s po e m T h e first of th e s e wa s o u t of pl a c e in t h e E ngl a nd of tha t tim e a n d wa s give n u p with som e re l u ct a nc e e a rly in t h e n e xt c e nt u ry I t m a y ha ve pl a y e d its p a rt in u rging re gu l a rity of form u pon t h e s u cc e ssful dra m a tic produ ct T h e sonn e t e nj oye d imm e ns e p o p u l a r i t y in t h e l a st fift e e n y e a rs of t h e c e nt u ry I t a li a n mod e ls e x e rcis e d chi e f infl u e nc e ove r this d e ve lopm e nt bu t in n u m e ro u s c a s e s the re is positive e vid e nc e of dir e ct imp u ls e from Fre nch sp e cime ns a n d O f t h e introd u ction of Fr e nch p e c ul i a riti e s R ons a rd a n d D e sport e s we re p a rtic ul a rly we ll kn own Sidne y a n d his following w e re e mph a tic a lly Prot e st a nt T h e p e riod of the ir e a rli e st e n d e a vo r s wa s o n e O f gr e a t signific a nc e to a ll of tha t fa ith a n d Fra nc e wa s for y e a rs t h e ba ttl e gro u nd Of t h e re ligio u s conflict B e sid e s t h e doc u m e nts re l a t e d dire ctly to t h e stru ggl e th e re a lso c a m e from Fr a nc e to E ngl a nd t h e imp ul s e to color r e gu l a r lit e ra ry forms with t h e id e a ls I n t h e sonn e t a n d doctrin e s O f Prot e st a ntism e st

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CO N C L

45 0

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this vogu e c a m e t o E ngl a nd som e wha t conf u s e d with t h e simil a r t e nd e ncy re s u lting from t h e Ca tholic R e a ction ; bu t in othe r forms s u ch a s t h e long po e m Of B i blic a l n a rr a tive t h e i n flu e nc e o f Fr a nc e wa s dir e ct a n d o n t h e ba sis o f T h e e ffe ct o f t h e styl e is h a rdly mist a k a bl e S e m a i n e s Of Du B a rt a s both in Fr e nch a n d tra ns l a t e d a pp e a rs t o h a ve be e n fa r mor e sig n ifi ca n t th a n h a s be e n g e n e ra lly s u ppos e d B oth in spirit a n d in styl e this work wa s in h a rmony with t e nd e nci e s a lr e a dy pr e va l e nt in E ngl a nd a n d o nl y e mph a siz e d a n d e x a gg e r a t e d the s e a n d spr e a d th e m bro a dc a st Va rio u s a dh e r e nts o f t h e Sidn e y circl e in its l a t e r d a ys w e r e a ffe ct e d by this po e try No t Sp e ns e r ’ a lon e bu t S p e ns e r s discipl e s f e lt its infl u e nc e I n S cotl a nd th e r e wa s a p a r a ll e l lin e o f d e p e nd e nc e e nco u r a g e d by King Ja m e s VI a n d no do u bt p a rtly e ff e ctive l a t e r in prod u cing t h e Doom e s da y o f t h e E a rl Of S tirling O the r ve rs e prod u cts o f t h e s e ve nt e e nth c e nt u ry r e ve a l in d e bt e d n e s s t o Du B a rt a s ; a n d Donn e Qu a rl e s a n d e v e n Milton m a y with som e s a fe ty be r e ckon e d in his e xt e nsive following With t h e n e w c e nt u ry t h e powe r o f t h e E ve n E s s a i s o f Mont a ign e be c a m e m a nif e st ’ be for e Fl o r i o s tr a nsl a tion wa s p u blish e d E n g Aft e r l i s h m e n we r e f a mili a r with t h e work p u blic a tion this be c a m e a n a bu nd a nt stor e ho u s e r e a dily a cc e ssi bl e t o a ll who so u ght spe ci m e ns o f p h ilosophic a l sp e c u l a tion ill u str a tive incid e nt o r cit a tion o f a u thority N ot a ll who dr e w u pon it k e pt t o t h e E nglish ve rsion as ,

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CO N C L

45 2

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re cogni z e d E ngl ish tra nsl a tion t h e work o f U r qu h a rt a n d his s u cc e ssor Mott e u x As t h e r e ign o f Ja m e s I d r e w to a clos e the s e t wo Mont a ign e a n d R a be l a is w e r e t h e o nl y signi fi c a nt Fr e nch a u thors e x e rcising a ppr e ci a bl e in fl u e nc e in E ngl a nd T h e cl a ssic tra g e dy e n c o u r a g e d by L a dy P e m b rok e h a d dis a pp e a r e d ; sonn e ts how e ve r inspir e d h a d lost pop u l a rity ; a n d t h e following o f Du B a rt a s a n d Sylv e st e r h a d sc a tt e r e d tow a rd o bsc u rity Ye t Fr e nch books w e r e be ing wid e ly r e a d a n d som e w e r e be ing tr a nsl a t e d whil e E ngl a nd follow e d clos e ly t h e d e t a ils Of Fr e nch politic a l a ff a irs Oft e n by m e a n s o f E nglish r e nd e rings o f importa nt doc u m e nts T o minds pr e dispos e d to p a stora l r o m a nc e by f a mili a rity with t h e Ar ca di a in pa r t i cu l a r h a d com e o n e o r mor e tr a nsl a tions o f ’ ’ D U r fé s As tr ée which wa s th e n be ing so sin T h e n e w King C h a rl e s c e r e l y a dmir e d a t hom e rom a ntic e ve n in his wooing bro u ght t o E n g l a nd as his qu e e n H e nri e tt a Ma ri a princ e ss o f Fr a nc e yo u ng fu ll Of spirits a n d im bu e d with t h e id e a ls e nco u r a g e d by t h e As tr ée a n d domi na nt in t h e H Ote l de Ra m bou i lle t T his m a rri a ge a s h a s be e n s e e n m a y be h e ld l a rge ly r e spo n s i bl e fo r a gro u p o f pot e nt lit e ra ry infl u e nc e s whi ch a lmost imme di a te ly be c a m e op e ra tive in E ngl a nd T h e no bili ty of E ngl a nd h a d o nl y t o ov e rcom e a n initi a l pr e j u dic e to be thrown into vit al cont a ct with t h e life a n d a c t i vi t i e s o f Fr a nc e I f a ga inst th e ir will the y fo u nd th e m s e lv e s mold e d into a soci a l stru ct u re mod e l e d in some m e as u r e a t l e a s t a ft e r t h e a

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CONC L

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45 3 ’

cot e ri e s of H e nri e tt a s n a tive l a nd with a pre mi u m pl a c e d on t h e min u ti ae of g a l l a ntry t h e phra s e ology of ba dina ge an d t h e cl e ve r tu rns of light occ a sion a l ve rs e Ma squ e s a n d p a stor a l pl a ys w e r e promptly e nco u r a g e d T h e r e vive d Pl a tonism c u ltiva t e d in t h e circl e o f Ma d a m e d e R a m bo u ill e t a n d distort e d a n d e xa gge r a t e d by t h e fe m m e s s a va n te s a mong h e r imita tors wa s qu ickly r e cogniz e d by E nglish cou rti e rs a s a n e ss e nti a l fe a t u r e of this infl u e nc e I t r e a ct e d va rio u sly in di ff e r e nt pl a c e s prod u c ing s e rio u s d e vot e e s a n d mocking oppone nts a n d l e nt color to a consid e r a bl e n u m be r of E n g lish m a squ e s a n d dra m a s Ve r s de s oci été wa s a ssid u o u sly c u ltiva t e d a mong t h e cou rti e rs mu ch of it d e a ling with this Pl a tonism from on e point of vi e w or a noth e r L it e ra ry c o r r e s p o n d e nc e wa s a tt e mpte d ba s e d on Fr e nch mod e ls T he r e e ve n a ros e s e ve ra l a spiring cot e ri e l e a d e rs in E ngl a nd simil a r to t h e n u me ro u s bou r ge oi s e imit a tors of Ma d a me d e R a m bo u ill e t T h e Fre nch rom a nc e a chi e v e d a r e m a rk a bl e vogu e in t h e first ha lf of t h e s e ve nt e e nth c e n t u ry T h e p a stora l rom a nc e ga ve wa y to t h e he roic a n d l a rge r a n d l e ss possi bl e a dve n t u re s we r e introd u c e d into t h e a rtifici a l a tmos h r e e a lr e a dy s a t u r a t e d with e x a gge ra t e d p s e n t ime nt T h e spirit of this n e w typ e i n fl u e n c e d b oth dra m a a n d n a rra tiv e po e m a n d p e ne tra t e d e a sily into t h e l a t e r circl e s of t h e r é c i e u s e s With e qu a l fr e e dom it p a ss e d into p E ngl a nd T h e r e t h e Fr e nch rom a nc e s w e r e e a ge rly r e a d in t h e origin a l or in t h e fr e qu e nt use c i e e r p

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CO N C L

45 4

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tra nsl a tions Va rio us pl a ys colore d with this rom a ntic cha ra ct e r fo u nd the ir wa y t o t h e st a g e whi l e t h e the a t e rs w e r e ye t op e n ; a n d we re still print e d a n d r e a d wh e n th e s e w e re clos e d H e r e a n d th e r e E nglishm e n a tt e mpt e d origin a l r o m a n c e s in th e ir o wn l a ngu a g e T h e h e roic po e m wa s a tt e mpt e d e ve n be for e t h e typ e wa s pop u l a r in Fra nc e a n d introd u c e d this s a m e spirit into t h e windings o f e pic n a rra tive I n d e e d th e r e w a s littl e wa nting in E ngl a nd y e a rs be for e t h e R e stor a tion towa rd t h e prod u ction o f t h e h e roic dr a m a a ft e rwa rd giv e n s u ch promi n e n ce by Dryd e n T h e e x a gg e r a t e d s e ntim e nt t h e e xa lt e d dignity o f ch a r a ct e rs t h e s u b ordin a tion o f e ve rything t o love t h e p a ge a ntry o f a st a ge full o f a ctivity t h e t e nd e ncy t o fl ights o f e lo q u e nc e a ll th e s e w e r e pr e s e nt a n d f a mili a r An un r e strict e d th e a t e r e no u gh in e a rli e r pl a ys a n d t h e u s e o f rhym e d co u pl e ts a pp e a r to m a rk t h e chi e f distinction ; a n d e ve n t h e l a tt e r wa s ’ s u ppli e d in D a v e n a nt s op e ra tic pi e c e s O the r fe a t u r e s o f R e stora tion lit e ra t u re w e re cl e a rly a nticip a t e d som e tim e be for e t h e r e c a ll T h e bu rl e sq u e a n d t h e mock o f t h e St u a rts he roic p a rtly r e a ction a ry p a rtly t h e n a t u ra l r e s u lt o f fr e e dom in m a king ove r gre a t historic a l fo u nd th e ir w a y into e v e nts a n d p e rson a g e s E nglish lit e r a t u r e soon a ft e r th e y be ga n t o fl o u rish in Fra nc e T h e n e w the ory o f t r a n s la tion which took li be rti e s with cl a ssic lit e ra t u r e to mod e rniz e it fo r t h e g e n e ra l r e a d e r fo u nd m a ny a dh e r e nts a mong E nglish writ e rs I nd e e d t h e whol e controve r sy o f t h e Anci e nts a n d .

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B I BL I O GR APH Y Al d e n , R M

u n der n a n d e i n E l e o m a l i r e i s o F r S a t T h R g , f b h i l o l o n n i P u l n v e C l a s s i c a l I nfl u e n c e , g y, ( p l i t e r a t u r e , a n d a r c h ae o l o g y s e r i e s , v o l v 1i , n o h il a d e l p h i a , 1 8 9 9 o e t i c a l Wor ks Al e xa n d e r , W il l i a m , E a r l o f St i r l i n g , — 1 8 1 87 2 3 vo l s 0 7 Gla sg o , a r is , An c i e n T h eatr e F r a n co i s , e d Vi o ll e t 16 D u e 10 vol s 1 8 5 4—1 8 5 7 ’ B e r l i n , 1 90 4 An d e r s , H R D , S h a ke s p e a r e s B o o ks Ar b e r , E d a r d , A T r a n s cr i p t of t h e R e g i s t e r s of t h e C om — A 6 0 D 1 5 1 5 n d L o L o n o n i o n e r s o o t a t a n S 4 4 , f p y f 5 vo l s d o n , 1 8 7 5 —1 8 9 4 Ar ch aeo l o g i a S co ti ca , v o l i v ( ru m m o n d m a t e r i a l ) L on d on , 1 864 3 As ch a m , R o g e r , Wor ks , e d G il e s v ol s i n 4 p a r t s B a c o n , Fr a n ci s , E s s a ys , e d R e Ox o r d , 1 8 9 0 ol d s B a c o n , F r a n c i s , Wo r ks , e d J p e d d in g , R L E ll i s , a n d H e at h B o s t o n , 1 8 6 0 —1 8 6 4 1 5 vol s B a i , Je a n -An t o in e d e , ( E u vr e s , e d Ma r t y-L a ve a u x a r i s , 1 88 1 5 v ol s B a l z a c , Je a n L d e , L e tt e r s , t r a n s b y W T L o n d o n , 1 6 34 B a r n e s , B a rn a b e , oe m s , ed Gr os a rt (O c c a s i o n a l I s s u e s , v ol L o n d on , 1 87 5 B e a u m o n t a n d Fl e t c h e r , Wo r ks , e d We b e r E d in b u r g h , 1 8 12 1 4 v ol s B e n g e r , E l i z a b e t h O , M e m o i r s of t h e L ife of An n e B ol n , Q u e e n of H e n r y I II h il a d e l p h i a , 1 8 2 2 ” Be r da n , M, o n i a n d t h e Ja co b e a n s , in u bl M o d L a n g As s n , Ju n e , 1 9 0 7 Bi n e t , Al r e d , Vi e d e i e rr e R o n s a r d , i n Ar ch i ve s cu ’ r i e u s e s de l h i s t d e F r a n c e , 1 8 3 4 —1 8 4 0 l s t s e r ie s , vo l x B o il e a u , Ni c o l a s , Wo r ks , e d Am a r a r is , 185 1 B or g h e si , e te r, e t r a r ch a n d h i s I nfl u e n c e o n E n g li s h L i te r a tu r e B ol o gn a , 1 9 0 6 “ Bou r g e o i , A F , R a b e l a i s e n An g l e t e rr e , n R e vu e i s d e s E t u d e s R a be la i s i e n n e s , v o l iii .

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45 7

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B I B L I OG RAP H Y

45 8

B o yl e ( Or r e r y ) , R o g e r P a r t h e n i s s a L o n d on , 1 6 76 B r a n t bm e , i e r r e d e B o u r d e i l l e , m u vr e s c o m p l et e s , e d ’ L u d o vi c L a l a n n e ( So c i é t é d e l h i s t o ir e d e F r a n c e ) 2 v ol s a r i s , 1 8 6 4—1 8 8 2 ' B r a n t bm e , i e r r e d e B o u r d e i ll e , Gi u vr e s , e d B ib l E l z év a r is , 1 890 B r e t o n , Ni c h o l a s , Wo r ks , e d G r o s a r t (Ch e r t s e y Wo r 2 vol s t h i e s L ib r ) 1 8 7 7 B r o m e , Al e xa n d e r , S on g s a n d Oth e r o e m s 2d e d , L on d o n , 1 6 6 4 B r o m e , R i c h a r d , r a m a t i c W or ks L o n d o n , 1 8 7 3 3 v o l s B r o n e , Sir T h o m a s , Wor ks , e d W il kin s L o n d o n , 1 8 35 4 vo ls B r o n e , Si r T h o m a s , R e li g i o M e di ci a n d Oth e r E s s a ys , e d L R ob e r t s L on d on , 1 89 8 B r o wr1 e , W il l i a m , L on d o n , oe m s , G G o od in ed 1 89 4 ’ Br un h u b e r , K , S i r h il i p S i d n e y s Ar ca di a u n d i h r e N a ch la u e t N ii r n b e r g , 1 9 0 3 B u ll e n , A l L yr i cs f r o m E l i z a be t h a n S o n g -B o o ks L on d on , 1 8 9 7 B u t l e r , Sa m u e l , H u d i br a s , e d W a ll e r (Ca m b r i d g e E n g Cl a s s i cs ) C a m b r i d g e , 19 0 5 B u t l e r , Sa m u e l , H u d i br a s , e d A R a m s a y L on d o n , 1 8 46 B u t l e r , Sa m u e l , o s t h u m o u s W or ks L o n d on , 175 4 B u t l e r , Sa m u e l , Ge n u i n e T h ye r o e ti ca l R e m a i n s , e d L on d o n , 1 8 27 B u r t o n , R o b e r t , An a t o m y of M e l a n c h o l y, e d A R L on d on , 1 89 3 3 v o ls Sh ill e t o a p e r s , F or e i g n a n d om e s ti c C a l e n d a r of S t a t e o r o t h e a F r a n c e s , C o r n e i l l e a n d R a ci n e i n E n g C a n fie l d , Ne w or k , 1 904 la nd a r i o u s R e a di n g s to S h a ke C a p e ll , E d a r d , N o t e s a n d L o n d o n , 1 7 83 3 vo ls s pe a r e oe m s , ed W C H a z l it t Ca r e , T h o m a s , (R o x L o n d on , 1 87 0 bu rg h e L ibr ) L on d on , 1 6 5 1 C a r t r i g h t , W il l i a m , W or ks u ch e s s tl e , T r u e R e l a t i o n C a ve n di s h , M a r g a r e t , B r yd g e s of t h e B i r t h , B r e e di n g , a n d ent, 1 8 14 L on r i n te d C a v e n d i s h , Ma r g a r e t , l a ys n e ver befor e d on , 16 68 u ke of C a v e n d i s h , M a r g a r e t , L i e of W i l li a m C a ve n d i s h , L o n d o n , 1 88 6 F ir t h N e wc a s tl e , e d C ,

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B I B L I OG RAP H Y

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186 5 a v e n a n t , W il l i a m , r a m a t i c Wo r ks , e d Ma i d m e n t a n d L og a n E d i n b u r g h , 1 8 7 2 —1 8 7 4 5 vo ls ’ a vi e s , Jo h n , H ym e n s P r ce l u d i a , 9 t h t o 1 2t h p a r t s ’ n s o f L a C a l r e n ed e s C l eo at r e r a T L n d o on , 16 5 9 ( p ) p a vi e s , Jo h n , o f H e r e o r d , Wor ks , e d 1876 G r o sa r t 2 vo ls D a y , An g e l , E n g l i s h S e cr e t o r i e L o n d o n , 1 60 7 2 v o ls o e m s a n d T r a n s l a ti o n s L o n d on , 17 09 e n h a m , Jo h n , h il i pp e , (E u vr e s , e d Mi c h i e l s e sp o r t e s , a r is , 1 8 5 8 De Mo r n a y , Ma d a m e , M e m o i r s d e M m e d e M or n a y — 2 v o ls a r i s , 1 868 1 8 6 9 i e c k o , F , J o h n F l or i a s e n g l i s c h e U e be r s e tz u n g d e r E s s a i s M o n t a i g n e s u n d L or d B a co n s , B e n J o n s o n s , M o n ta i g n e u nd zu R o be r t B u r t o n s V e r h a l tn i s s St r a ss b u r g , 1 9 0 3 D i c ti o n a r y of N a t i o n a l B i o gr a p h y, e d L e s l i e St e p h e n a n d Si d n e y L e e 63 vo ls Di s r a e31i , I sa a c , Am e n i t i e s of L it e r a t u r e o r k, Ne w 1 8 47 L o n d on , Do d s l e y , R , Old P la 3 , e d C H a li t t 1 8 7 4—1 8 7 6 15 v0 8 h Jo h n , on n e , oe m s , F u ll e r o r t ie s ed G r o s a rt W ( L ib r ) 1 8 7 2—1 8 7 3 2 vo ls Al o r d o n n e , Jo h n , Wo r ks , e d L o n d o n , 1 8 39 ” Do u m i c , R e n é , U n H i s t o i r e d u s o n n e t , i n R e vu e d e s d e u x m o n d e s , Ma r c h 1 5 , 1 9 0 4 Dr a yt o , Mi c h a e l , o e m s , Sp e n s e r So c u b l , 1888 2 ,

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F a g u e t , E m ile , L e s e i z i e m e S i ec l e ( o u ve ll e bi b l i o t h eq u e l i t t ér a ir e ) a r is , 1 89 4 M o n ta i g n e Ja c o b , Fe is , S h a ks p e r e and L o n d on , 1 884 L i vo rn o , F l a m i n i , F r a n ce s c o , S t u d i d i S tor i a l e tt e r a r i a 189 5 “ F l a m in i , F r a n c e s c o , Di a l c u n e i m i t a z i o n e i t a l i a n e n e i ” p o e t i r a n ce s i d e l C i n q u e c e n t o , i n A t ti d e l l C on g r e s s o I nte r n a z i o n al e R o m e , 1903 F l e a y , F r e d e r i c k G a r d , B i og r a p h i c a l C h r o n i cl e of t h e E n g li s h L on d o n , 1 8 9 1 ram a F l e a y Fr e d e r i c k G a r d , C h r o n i c l e H i s t or y of t h e L o n d o n S ta g e 1 89 0 F l e t c h e r , G il e s , oe m s , e d Gr o sa rt (F u ll e r W o rt h i e s L i br ) 1 868 F l e t c h e r , G i l e s , o e m s , e d G r o s a r t (E a r l y E n g l i s h o e t s ) L o n d on , 1 8 76 “ Fl e t c h e r , J B , r é c i e u s e s a t t h e Co u rt o f C h a r l e s I , i n J o u r n a l of C o m p a r a ti ve L i t e r a t u r e , v o l 1, p a r t 2 “ ” Fle t ch e r , J B , Ar e o p a g u s a n d l éia d e , in J o u r n a l of Ge r m a n i c h i lo l og y, v o l ii F le t ch e r , h in e a s , oe m s , ed G r o sa rt (F u l l e r W o rt h i e s L i b r ) 1 8 6 9 4 v o ls F o x-B o u r n e , H e n r y R i c h a r d , h il i p S id n e y H ( e r oe s of t h e Na t i o n s ) Ne w o r k, 1 89 1 Fr a u n ce , Ab r a h a m , T h e C o u n t e s s of e m br oke ’s E m a n u e l , .

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APP E 15 7 1

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47 3

T h e F or e s t e o r C o l l e c t i o n of H i s t o r i e s Ot h e r e d 1 5 7 6 F o r t e s cu e ) ’ T o u ch a n t H i s t o i r e d e M a r i e R o yn e d E s co s s e ’ l a c o n ju r a t i o n f a i e t e c o n tr e te R o y cfc l a d u l t e r e c o m m i s a ve c C o m t e d e B o i h we l , h i s t o i r e vr a ye m e n t tr a g i qu e ( r in t e d a b r o a d ; s o ld a t E d in ) a p h i l os o p h i c a l a s q u i e r , M o n o p h yl o E s t i e nn e d i s cou r s e d i vi s i o n of L o ve a nd (G e ffr a y F e n t on ) ’ h i l i p p e s , L I n n o c e n ce d e l a T r e s i l Mo r g a n et d e bo n n a i r e r i n ce s s e , l u s tr e , t r e s c h a s t e ’ M a d a m e M a r i e R o yn e d E s co s s e On e o f t h e Ab b e y o f Sa i n t i n c e n t i n F r a u n c e , A B o o ke of th e Ar t e a n d M a n e r , h o we t o p l a n t s e t s t o n e s a n d s o we P e p a n d g r afie t r e e s , i n es ( L e o n a r d Mo s c a ll ) Ot h e r e d s 1 5 7 5 , 15 90, 15 96 in g Ch a r l e s I X o f F r a n c e , T h e E d i ct of t h e F r e n ch i n g , for t h e a p p e a s i n g of th e tr o u bl e s of h i s R e a l m e A fo r m e of C h r i s ti a n p o l l i ci e ( G e ffr a y F e n t o n ) Ph il a d e l p h e , E u re be L e de s R e ve i ll e -M a t i n E d in b u r g h F r a n co i s e t d e l e u r s oi s i n s A M e r va yl ou s d i s c o u r s e u p o n t h e l yfe , d e e d e s , a n d be h a vi or of a t h e r i n e d e M e d i ci s of t h e r in ce Fr a n ci s , T h e r o t e s t a ti o n M ost H i g h a n d M i g h ti e r i n c e F r a u n ci s Gol d e n E p i s tl e s , C o n t a yn i n g va r i e t i e of di s c o u r s e bo t h M o r a l l , Ph i l o s o p h i ca l l a n d i vi n e In rom rom So m e G u e va r a F r e n ch pa rt ( G e ffr a y F e n t o n ) An t h d e G u e v a r a , A L o o ki n g - Gl a s s fo r th e C o u r t O r i g in a l i n S p a n i s h ( An t h o n y Al a yg r e , t r i i t o Fr ) r i r n h i r n B a k n i S i F a c s t ( g t , t r in t o l jn g ) T h e L yfe of t h e m os t Go d l y, va l e a n t a n d n o bl e ca p t e i n e J a s p e r C o l i g n i e S h a ti l i o n , T r a n sl a t e d o u t o f L a t in ( Ar t h u r G o l d i n g ) i e rr e d e l a l a ce , A T r e a t i s e of t h e E xc e l l e n ci e of a C h r i s t i a n m a n , a n d h o w h e m a y be kn o we n (L T o m s o n ) T h e M i r r ou r o M a d n e s s , or a a r a d o xe , m a i n t a yn i n g M n e s s to be m os t e xc e ll e n t (Ja m e s Sa n o r d ) .

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APP E

47 4

NDI X

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in t o E n g lish ) A F r e n c h e m a n s s o n g e m a d e u p on t h e d e a th e of t h e F r e n c h ki n g e I n E n g lis h ‘ ’ H e n r y I I I o f F r a n c e , L e vr a y Ag n u s D e i p ou r d e s a r m cr l e p e u p l e F r a n co i s T h e s e co n d C o l l e c t i o n c o n t e yn i n g t h e h i s t or y of t h e m o s t n o t a bl e t h i n g e s h a p p e n e d u n d e r t h e l e a g u e i s co u r s br i ef m a i s t r e s s o l i d c , m o n s tr a n t c l a i r e ’ ’ m e n t qu i l e s t n e c e s s a i r e a u R o y d e 3 a ll i e r a u R o y d c N a va r r e I n F r e n c h a n d E n g li s h T h e F r e n ch h i s t o r y m e n c o n n i n g c t h e o u t r a g e u n d e r t h e n a m e of Wyn n yn g e S a i n c t J a m e s s tr e e t A L e tt e r s e n t t o t h e g o o d t o wn e s t h a t a r e i n o be d i e n ce t o t h e ki n g e ’ D e l E s p i n e , A T r e a t i s e of fa yt h e T r a i t e p o u r c o n s ol e r l e s m a l a d e s , e t l e s As s cu r e r co n t r e l e s f r a ye u r s e t a p p r e h e n s i o n s d c l e u r s e ch e s , e t d c l a m o r t ( T o b e t r a n s l a t e d in t o n g li sh ) E xa m e n p a cifl q u c d e l a d o c tr i n e d e s H u gu e n o ts ; u reu x n e i o I n n e r o v c e s a h o u s i a o t r C t l R t l q g p F r e n ch a n d E n g l i s h A c o m p a r i s o n of t h e E n g l i s h a n d S p a n i s h c N a s h le R A ti o n y ) ( e cl a r a t i o n D u R o y, p o u r la L e t tr e s a te n te s , dc R e m i s e d e l a a s s e m bl e e g e n e r a l e r i n c e s s e of Or a n g e N e i e s s e n t u n t o t h e L a dye E A L e tt e r , wr i t t e n by a fr e n ch C a t h o l i ckc g e n tl e m a n W ill i a m d e B e l l a y , I n s tr u c t i o n s f o r t h e Wa r r e s , d i s co u r s i n g t h e m e t h od of M i l i t a r i e D i s ci l i n e ( a u l e I ve ) i n g H e n r y o f Na v a r r e , A L e tt e r t o t h e t h r e e e s ta t e s o u n e F r c : a (G R ) f e cl a r a t i o n of t h e L o r d d c L o r d d e la No u e , T h e l a N o u e u p o n h i s t a ki n g Ar m e s f or t h e ju s t ( l c c r t c of t h e T o wn e s of S e d a n a n d I a m e t z .

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APP E

NDI X

A

48 9

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49 0

NDI X

A

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49 2

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F f r a u n cc u p o n t h e h a p p y a l l i a n ce wi t h S p a yn e d e d i c a t e d t o t h e Q u e e n e ’ i s co u r s ve r i t a bl e d e c c q u i s e s t p a s s e e n l a vi lle d e T r o ye s , s u r l e s p u r s u i tt e s f a i t e s p a r l e s ’ ’ J e s u i t e s p ou r a y e s t a bl yr d e p u i s l a n 1 6 0 3 , i u s qu e s a u m o i s d c J u i ll e t 1 6 1 1 (T o b e t r a n la t e d in t o E n g li s h ) L e s F e u x d c J o ye d e l a F fr a u n c c s u r l e s p o m p e s e t ’ a ris m a g n ific e n c cs f a i t e s a p o u r l’ h cu r e u s c ’ Al l ya n ce d c s o n R o y a ve c l I nf a n ta d E s p a g n e h n n l i E T r a n l a d s o b e t t e i t o s ) g ( e s cr i p t i o n e t r e p r e s e n t a t i o n d e t o u te s l e s vi ct o i r e s ieu a t a n t p a r e a u qu e p a r t e r r e , l e s qu e l l e s U n i e s da r o vi n c e s Oct r o i e e s a u x n o bl e s , d e s a i s ba s s o u z l a C o n d u i t e c t g o u ve r n e m e n t d e s o n e xce l l e n c e l e p r i n ce M a u r i ce d e N a s s a u h n l i T n n E s o t r l a d i t o e a s t e g ) b ’ ( Jo h n d e L E s p i n e , T h e An a t o m i c of t h e C h u r ch e L ( y m o n ’V e g h e l m a n ) Jo h n d e L E s p i n e , Of t h e C o nf e s s i o n s of s yn n e s ‘ a n d afi l i c ti o n s ( L ym o n Ve g h e l m a n ) L e li vr e d e t r o i s fil z d e s R o ys c e s t a s a vo i r d c ’ ’ Ffr a u n c c d An g l e t e r r e e t D E s co s s e , (T o b e t r a n s la t e d i n t o E n g li s h ) ’ L e ttr e d e M o n s e i g n e u r l i ll u s t r i s s e s ca r d i n a ll D u e r r o n , E n vo ye e a m o n s i e u r C a s a u bo n e s t a n t e n An g l e t e r r e (T o b e’ t r a n s l a t e d i n t o E n g li s h ) L e s M e t a m o r p h os e s d O vi d e d c n o u ve a u t r a d u yt e s ’ e n F f r a n co i s a ve c X V d i s c o u r s c o n t e n a n s l e x T e i c i o n or a d e s a b e s l a t m l l p f ( o b e t r a n s la t e d in t o E n g l i s h ) i e rr e d e l a Ma r t e l i e r e , P l a i d o ye (T o b e t r a n s l a t e d i n t o E n g li s h ) L o u i s d e Ma ye r n e -T u r q u e t , T h e Ge n e r a l l H i s t or i e o S p a i n e (E d a r d G r i m e s t o n ) Ge r g e h o m p s o n , T h e H u n t i n g of t h e R o m a yn e ge a s t T h e L ife a n d e a t h of L e w i s G a u fr e d i : Ma t t h i e u , T h e H e r o yk L ife a n d d e p l or a bl e d e a t h of t h e m os t C h r i s t i a n i n g H e n r y th e F ou r t h E r m n d G i s t o ) ( T h e T r o p h i e s of t h e L if e a n d T r a g e d y of t h e e a th of H e n r y t h e Gr e a t i n ve r s e ( Syl v e s t e r ) Ja c q u e s G u il l e m e a u , C h i l d -B i r t h , o r t h e H a pp y D e li ve r y of W o m e n to

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T h e Or a ti o n of t h e F r e n c h Am ba s s a d o u r t o t h e S ta t e s co n c er n i n g B a r n e ve l t , wi th t h e i r a n s we r e t h e r e u n to i e r r e d e Mo u l i n , B ou c l i e r d e l a fo y, o u efe n s e d e l a c o nf e s s i o n d c f o y d e s E g li s e s R efo r m e s da R o ya u m e d e F r a n c e , c o n t r e l e s o bi e ct i o n s d a s a i n t Ar n o u x J e s u i t e T i r a n l d nt o o b e s a t e t ( E n g li s h ) N e w e s o u t of F r a n c e : C o n c e r n i n g g r e a t t r ou ble s l i ke l y t o e n s u e , by o c c a s i o n of t h e d e p a r tu r e of t h e Q u e e n e M o t h e r fr o m B l o i s T h e R e m o n s tr a n c e m a d e by t h e Q u e e n e m ot h e r of i n ge h er S on n e , F r a n ce , to th e d e Mo u r n a y , T h e s h i e l d a n d r e w a r d of th e f a i t hf u l o r a m e d i t a c o n u p o n Ge n e s i s 1 5 c h a p .

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