Advances in Language and Literary Studies [Vol 6 ...

Advances in Language and Literary Studies Online ISSN: 2203-4714

Advances in Language and Literary Studies [ALLS] All papers on which this is printed in this book meet the minimum requirements of "Australian International Academic Centre PTY. LTD". All papers published in this book are accessible online. Editor-in-Chief Amelia Ying Qin, PhD. University of Houston, United States Editorial Assistants Seyed Ali Rezvani Kalajahi, PhD Ruzbeh Babaee, PhD Journal Information ISSN: 2203-4714 ISBN: 978-1-291-71811-9 Website: www.alls.aiac.org.au & http://www.journals.aiac.org.au/index.php/alls/index E-mail: [email protected] Publisher Australian International Academic Centre PTY. LTD. 11 Souter Crescent, Footscray VIC 3011 Australia Phone: +61 3 9028 6880 Website: http://www.aiac.org.au Hardcopy Provider Lulu Press Inc. 3101 Hillsborough Street Raleigh, NC 27607 USA Web: http://www.lulu.com/spotlight/AIAC

2010 – 2015 © ALLS No part of this book may be reproduced in any form, by print, photo print, microfilm, or any other means, without written permission from the publisher.

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ALLS Editorial Team Editor-in-Chief Amelia Ying Qin, University of Houston, United States

Editorial Assistants Seyed Ali Rezvani Kalajahi Ruzbeh Babaee

Advisory Board Andrew Weiler, Holmesglen Institute, Australia Brian Tomlinson, Leeds Metropolitan University, United Kingdom John I. Liontas, University of South Florida, United States Mark Pegrum, The University of Western Australia, Australia NS Prabhu, National University of Singapore, Singapore

Editorial Board Alex Ho-Cheong Leung, Northumbria University, Newcastle, United Kingdom Ali Miremadi, California State University, United States Andrés Canga Alonso, Universidad de La Rioja, Spain Anthony J. Liddicoat, University of South Australia, Australia Bakhtiar Naghdipour, Girne American University, Cyprus Canzhong Wu, Macquarie University, Australia Chan Swee Heng, University Putra Malaysia, Malaysia Chamkaur Singh Gill, Bond University, Australia Darryl Jones, Trinity College, Ireland Dat Bao, Monash University, Australia Fadil S Elmenfi, Omar Al-Mukhtar University/Derna, Libya

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Holi Ibrahim Holi, Rusaq College of Applied Sciences, Oman I Wayan Arka, Australian National University, Australia Jason Brown, The University of Auckland, New Zealand Jayakaran Mukundan, University Putra Malaysia, Malaysia Karim Hajhashemi, James Cook University, Australia Leila Lomashvili, Shawnee State University, United States Kylie Cardell, Flinders University, Adelaide, Australia Mahmoud M Gewaily, Minia University, Egypt Mohammad Hossein Keshavarz, Near East University, Cyprus Mohammad Reza Shams, University of Kashan, Iran, Islamic Republic of Mounir Jilani Ben Zid, Sultan Qaboos University, Oman Natasha Pourdana, Gyeongju University, Korea, Republic of Neil Anderson, James Cook University, Australia Shaofeng Li, The University of Auckland, New Zealand Siamak Babaee, University of Kashan, Iran, Islamic Republic of Vahed Zarifi, Iran, Islamic Republic of Wayne DeFehr, University of Alberta, Canada Wisdom Agorde, University of Alberta, Canada

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Vol 6, No 6 (2015) Table of Contents Articles The Effects of Using Microsoft Power Point on EFL Learners’ Attitude and Anxiety Boualem Benghalem

1-6

Examining the Effect of Interference on Short-term Memory Recall of Arabic Abstract and Concrete Words Using Free, Cued, and Serial Recall Paradigms Ahmed Mohammed Saleh Alduais, Yasir Saad Almukhaizeem

7-24

The Effect of Iranian Teachers’ Epistemological Beliefs on Their Teaching Practice Malahat Yousefzadeh, Leila Babapour Azam

25-28

A Network Text Analysis of David Ayer’s Fury Starling David Hunter, Susan Smith

29-38

How James Kept the Pace?; A Look into the Organic Unity of Daisy Miller Sina Movaghati, Milad Comcar

39-45

“Reports from an Absurdist” —An Analysis of Artistic Features of Ukraine Diaries Yang Jing

46-48

Influence of Speech Anxiety on Oral Communication Skills among ESL/EFL Learners Said Muhammad Khan

49-53

The Effect of Focus on Form and Task Complexity on L2 Learners’ Oral Task Performance Asghar Salimi

54-62

Power in Play: A Foucauldian Reading of A.O. Soyinka’s The Trials of Brother Jero Mahboobeh Davoodifar, Moussa Pourya Asl

63-68

Acculturation Attitudes and Sociocultural Adaptation of Chinese Mainland Sojourners in Hong Kong Yuanyi Ma, Bo Wang

69-73

On the Comparative Impact of Self-assessment and Teacher-assessment on Iranian EFL Learners' Academic Motivation Asghar Salimi, Vahid Nowrozi Larsari

74-79

Language Testing: an Overview and Language Testing in Educational Institutions of Bangladesh Md. Mahroof Hossain, Md. Kawser Ahmed

80-84

Development and Validation of a Materials Preparation Model from the Perspective of Transformative Pedagogy Hamed Barjesteh, Parviz Birjandi, Parviz Maftoon

85-93

Lexion: That Which Upholds or Bears an Archetype; Introducing Lex and Lexion to Modern English Helen Russ

94-100

Mandarin, Suzhou Dialect and English: Multilingualism in Suzhou

v

Sibing Xu

101-106

Acoustic Analysis on the Palatalized Vowels of Modern Mongolian Sangidkhorloo Bulgantamir

107-110

The Impacts of Presenting New Words in Semantically-Related Sets on Vocabulary Learning Xingrong Wang

111-118

Genre Analysis and Writing Skill: Improving Iranian EFL Learners Writing Performance through the Tenets of Genre Analysis Nazanin Naderi Kalali, Kian Pishkar

119-130

Syntactic Dependencies and Verbal Inflection: Complementisers and Verbal Forms in Standard Arabic Feras Saeed

131-140

The Function of Native American Storytelling as Means of Education in Luci Tapahonso’s Selected Poems Widad Allawi Saddam, Wan Roselezam Wan Yahya

141-145

Arabic and English Consonants: A Phonetic and Phonological Investigation Mohammed Shariq

146-152

On (De) Personification in Prophet Muhammad’s Tradition Ahmad El-Sharif

153-164

Important Points on Rewriting Old Stories for Children Maryam Jalali

165-169

Ego is a Hurdle in Second Language Learning: A Contrastive Study between Adults and Children Shumaila Abdullah, Javed Akhter

170-173

An Etymological Study of Mythical Lakes in Iranian Bundahišn Hossein Najari, Zahra Mahjoub

174-182

Rhetorical Impact through Hedging Devices in the ‘Results and Discussion’ Part of a Civil Engineering Research Article Minoo Khamesian

183-186

Analysing ESL Students’ Perceptions towards Oral Communication for Social and Occupational Purposes Fauzilah Md Husain, Malini Ganapathy, Akmar Mohamad

187-194

An Investigation into Undergraduates’ Errors in the use of the Indefinite Article at Omar Al-Mukhtar University Ahmed Gaibani

195-200

Effectiveness of Oral Proficiency in English for Secondary Schools (OPS-English) Programme in Improving English Language Vocabulary among Secondary School

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Students Manesha Kaur Rajendra Singh, Manjet Kaur Mehar Singh, Lin Siew Eng

201-208

Book Review: Backhaus, Peter (2007): Linguistic Landscapes: A Comparative Study of Urban Multilingualism in Tokyo. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters; 158 Pages ISBN 9781853599460 Omar Alomoush

209-210

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Advances in Language and Literary Studies ISSN: 2203-4714 Vol. 6 No. 6; December 2015 Flourishing Creativity & Literacy

Australian International Academic Centre, Australia

The Effects of Using Microsoft Power Point on EFL Learners’ Attitude and Anxiety Case Study of Two Master Students of Didactics of English as a Foreign Language, Djillali Liabes University, Sidi Bel Abbes, Algeria Boualem Benghalem Djillali Liabes University,Sidi Bel Abbes,Algeria Laboratoire critique et étude littéraires linguistique B.p N° 89 Sidi Bel Abbes 22000, Algeria E-mail: [email protected]

Doi:10.7575/aiac.alls.v.6n.6p.1

Received: 24/05/2015

URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.7575/aiac.alls.v.6n.6p.1

Accepted: 17/08/2015

Abstract This study aims to investigate the effects of using ICT tools such as Microsoft PowerPoint on EFL students’ attitude and anxiety. The participants in this study were 40 Master 2 students of Didactics of English as a Foreign Language, Djillali Liabes University, Sidi Bel Abbes Algeria. In order to find out the effects of Microsoft PowerPoint on EFL students’ attitude and anxiety, two main research tools were employed in this study: a questionnaire that was addressed to 40 Master 2 students of Didactics of English as a Foreign Language and an interview for 10 participants, randomly selected from the forty participants who answered the questionnaire. After the data had been analysed, the results revealed a positive attitude and low anxiety among students towards Microsoft PowerPoint. These concluding results promote the use of ICT and encourage EFL teachers to use these tools in the most beneficial way to improve students’ level of English and motivate them. Keywords: Information and Communication Technology (ICT), attitude, anxiety, English as foreign language, teaching, learning 1. Introduction Educational technology and Information Communication Technology (ICT) provide many benefits for education and especially for the acquisition and application of English Language skills (listening, speaking, reading and writing) and grammar in EFL classroom. ICT is an acronym that stands for Information Communication Technology. However, apart from explaining a contraction, there is not a universally accepted definition of ICT, because the concepts, methods and applications involved in ICT are constantly evolving on an almost daily basis. Since ICT was introduced in the West, students have benefited from educational technology. This leads to the need to investigate whether Algerian students are also getting the benefits of educational technology and ICT and progressing on balance with students in other parts of the world. Strategies have been designed to equip teachers with the knowledge and skills to use technology effectively in the classroom. Information Technology (IT) is also introduced as a subject course offered by teachers in Algerian Universities. Language instructors can also utilize Power Point in language classrooms as an effective complement to, or as a substitute for traditional textbook teaching. PowerPoint group projects can give learners the opportunity to work together toward a common group goal while using their language skills creatively. This study involved the use of Microsoft Power Point to learn the English language. The participants of this study were Master 2 students of Didactics of English as a Foreign Language, Djillali Liabes University, Sidi Bel Abbes. The objective of this study were to determine students’ attitude and to evaluate students’ anxiety when Microsoft Power Point is used in EFL classroom. This research aimed to address the following research questions: 

What are the students’ attitudes toward lessons that are presented by Microsoft PowerPoint to learn English?



Do students feel anxious when lessons are presented by Microsoft PowerPoint to learn English?

The study was made up to test the following hypotheses: 

EFL students’ attitude is positive when lessons are presented by Microsoft PowerPoint EFL students are less anxious when lessons are presented by Microsoft Power Point

2. Literature review 2.1 Attitude and Language Learning Thomas (1971) views attitude as “a complex of feelings, desires, fears, convictions, prejudices or other tendencies that have given a set of readiness to act because of varied experience.” According to Noor Zainab (2005), attitude is thought

ALLS 6(6):1-6, 2015

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to provide answers to why some students avoid while others approach educational tasks. Noor Zainab (2005) gave an example that “if students develop positive attitudes towards learning English language, they presumably can enhance their favourable attitudes towards learning the language which in turn may lead to successful achievement.” Hedge (2000) points out that, “a learner who has generally negative attitudes towards learning English will have a high affective filter and the task for the teacher will be substantial.” Teachers also can help in changing students’ attitude to learn a language. Disick (1972) as cited in Noor Zainab (2005) suggests that “attitudes towards second language learning can be improved if teachers seek to promote their students’ needs and interests.” 2.2 Anxiety and Language Learning Anxiety can be defined as “a state of uneasiness and apprehension or fear caused by the anticipation of something threatening” (Koba, Ogawa and Wilkinson, 2000). In addition, Spielberger (1972) defined anxiety as : Unpleasant emotional state or condition, which is characterised by subjective feelings of tension, apprehension, and worry, and by activation or arousal of the autonomic nervous system. In general, anxiety includes tension, nervousness, fear or worry and is a rather negative or unfavourable feeling. Von Wörde (2003) believes that both foreign and second language learners experience language anxiety and poses potential problems as it can interfere with the acquisition, retention and production of the new language. High levels of anxiety could prevent a student from trying in the learning process. Teachers play an important role in reducing student anxiety. Von Wörde (2003) found that, “teachers who provide a supportive and understanding environment, who employ non-threatening teaching methods, and who use appealing and relevant topics seem to enhance the foreign language experience.” 2.3 Educational Technology and ICT in Algeria As Kennewell (2004) argues, the term ICT covers all aspects of computers, networks (including the Internet) and certain other devices with information storage and processing capacity such as calculators, mobile phones and automatic control devices. ICT is an acronym that stands for Information Communications Technology. According to Kennewell (2004), ICT resources are broadly classified as follow: • Hardware: The equipment, such as a PC or interactive whiteboard; • Software: The stored instructions, which enable the hardware to operate automatically, together with the information that it stores and processes, such as a word processing program and the documents produced using it • Media: The materials that carry data and programs, such as floppy or hard disks. • Services: Combinations of hardware, software and human resources that enable users to achieve more than they could with hardware and software alone, such as the Internet. Algeria is encouraging and fostering the use of ICT to enhance the development process in general and the development of the educational system in particular, paving the road for an ICT policy framework along with an implementation strategy (Hamdy, 2007). According to Hamdy (2007), the government is committed to set forth a policy for the integration of ICT within the educational system. The reform of the educational process and inclusion of ICT with a set structure was formally included in the country’s formal ICT policy in June 2002 with an allocation of three billion dinar. Some Algerian universities have computer labs and Internet access for faculty, students, and administration in addition to the availability of digital libraries. Each university has its own ICT policy to accelerate the educational process and offer better learning opportunities in virtual universities and with distance and open learning. 2.4 Using Power Point in EFL Classroom As Radanov (2008) explains, “PowerPoint is a type of presentation software that allows one to show coloured text and images with simple animation and sound”. This tool can be shown on a computer screen or using a projector with a large screen for the whole class who can view the same presentation at the same time. PowerPoint has many features, which make it a useful classroom tool. It can save teachers time because the materials that are produced for PowerPoint can be reused many times. PowerPoint also allows teachers to vary their teaching methods and break the routine (Ahmed, 2005). Moreover, Steele & Johnson (n.d) note that using PowerPoint’s big screen allows all learners (at the front and back of the class) to see what is being introduced. They argue that, when used appropriately, it can enhance the teacher’s instruction and learners’ motivation. Of course, teachers must also be aware of potential disadvantages of using PowerPoint. The use of presentation software encourages use of all four skills. Fisher (2003) explains that PowerPoint “can be used for initial teaching, for practice and drilling, for games, for reviews, and for tests.” 3. Methodology To allow the investigation of students’ perceptions of the use of Microsoft Power Point, the study was based on mixed model research paradigm. The choice of this research design was pointed by the aim of the study and also the type of data to be analysed and discussed. The most important material used in this study was obtained from the closed-form questionnaire responses of the participants along with their responses to the open-form questionnaire administered for both students.

ALLS 6(6):1-6, 2015

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The respondents for this study were 40 LMD Master 2 students of Didactics of English as Foreign Language in the Djillali Liabes University Sidi Bel Abbes, Faculty of Letters, Languages and Arts. They usually have few teachers who use power point to present their lessons. At that particular stage of the study, the choice of participants was based on some standards, which make the selection ideal. First, they are typical EFL Algerian learners. Second, they are students at Djillali Liabes University and consequently are more convenient in location to the researcher in terms of access and delivery of the survey. Third, they are particularly exposed to ICT in general and the use of Microsoft Power Point by few teachers. Finally, it seems likely that by fifth year of their studies in the faculty and after a long-term exposure to mandatory foreign language instructions in secondary and high schools prior to their study at university. The students’ academic level is ideal for this study because they have enough experience to propose some helpful insights about the use of Microsoft Power Point in EFL classroom. The questionnaire was distributed for the participants during class sessions, after a brief explanation about the nature of the study and its major implication in the LMD system. They were agreed to have enough time to give back the answers to the researcher himself. Following the semi-structured format, the interviews with 10 participants were conducted in an informal manner (English or Algerian Arabic). 4. Results and Discussions 4.1 Participants The questionnaire used in this study was distributed to 40 Master 2 students of didactics of English foreign language at Djillali Liabes University Sidi Bel Abbes. In this study, the numbers of male and female students are not equally represented, as there are 7 male and 33 female respondents between the age of 21 and 46 years old as shown in the following table: Table 4.1 Gender of the Participants Number

Percentage

Female

33

82.5%

Male

7

17.5%

Total = 40

100%

4.2 Participants’ Attitude towards Using Microsoft Power Point Table 4.2 was devoted to seek participants’ attitude towards using Microsoft Power Point; four items were designed for this purpose. It shows the results given by the participants determined if they have positive or negative attitude. Table 4.2 Participants’ Attitude towards Using Microsoft Power Point Statements

I believe I can use Microsoft PowerPoint to improve my language skills. It is boring to only listen to my lecturer in normal English class. Microsoft Power Point makes it easy for me to learn English. I am not interested to use Microsoft PowerPoint in doing a presentation.

Strongly agree N° %

agree

undecided

Disagree

%

Total (SA+A) N° %

N°

25

62,5

6

%

Strongly disagree N° %

Total (SD+D) N° %

N°

%

N°

10

25

35

87,5

5

12,5

0

0

0

0

0

0

15

21

52,5

27

67,5

2

5

0

0

11

27,5

11

27,5

33

82,5

7

17,5

40

100

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

2

5

2

5

4

10

5

12,5

7

17,5

24

60

31

77,5

In response to the first statement, “I believe I can use Microsoft PowerPoint to improve my language skills”, 62.5% of the participants strongly agreed, 25% agreed and only 12.5% were undecided. The next statement was aimed to seek

ALLS 6(6):1-6, 2015

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participants’ attitude toward a classroom where there is no use of technology. A total of 67.5% agreed with the statement “It is boring to only listen to my lecturer in normal English class” while a group of 27.5% disagreed and 5% were undecided. All the participants (100%) found that Microsoft PowerPoint had an easy feature of facilitating work when mistakes occur and need to be corrected. A high percentage of 77.5% disagreed with the last statement “I am not interested to use Microsoft PowerPoint in doing a presentation” while a minority of 5% strongly agreed, 5% agreed, however,12% of the participants were undecided. 4.3 Anxiety Level of Participants towards Using Microsoft Power Point The final part of the questionnaire was designed to determine the anxiety level of participants towards the use of Microsoft Power point in EFL classroom. Three items were designed concerning this regard and the table 3.5 shows the ratings used to determine high and low anxiety of the respondents. Table 4.3 shows that in response to the statement “I become anxious when my teacher uses a Microsoft PowerPoint presentation”, 15% strongly agreed, 12.5% agreed while 32.5% disagreed, 27.5% strongly disagreed while 12.5% were undecided. Almost all the participants (97.5%) agreed with the statement “I feel very disappointed when my Microsoft Power Point presentation does not work” 82.5% of the participants strongly agreed while 15% agreed. An amount of 75% of the respondents agreed with the final statement “After the training provided, I felt less anxious when I was asked to prepare a Microsoft Power Point presentation.”62.5% of the participants strongly agreed, 2.5% agreed whereas 17.5% disagreed, 2.5% strongly disagreed and 5% were undecided. Table 4.3 Anxiety Level of Participants towards Using Microsoft Power Point. Statements I become anxious when my teacher uses a Microsoft PowerPoint presentation. I feel very disappointed when Microsoft Power Point presentation does not work. After the training provided, I felt less anxious when I was asked to prepare a Microsoft Power Point presentation.

Strongly Agree N° % 6 15

Agree

Undecided

Disagree

% 12,5

Total (SA+A) N° % 11 27,5

N° 5

33

82,5

29

72,5

% 32,5

Strongly Disagree N° % 11 27,5

Total (SD+D) N° % 24 60

N° 5

% 12,5

N° 13

6

15

39

97,5

1

2,5

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

2,5

30

75

2

5

7

17,5

1

2,5

8

20

4.4 Discussion of the Participants’ Attitude Findings In general, the majority of the participants (87.5%) had a positive attitude towards using Microsoft PowerPoint to improve the English language skills (listening, speaking writing and reading) however 12.5% were neutral. This positive attitude of most participants indicate that there is a shift of the learning style since most participants (67.5%) replied that the lecture presented without the use of technology is boring. However, a small proportion (27.5%) still preferred the old method of conventional white board and marker. This is expected because learning style differs from one learner. Some students appreciate the use of technology and others are still techno phobic.

Figure 4.1 Participants’ Attitude about the Impact of Using of Microsoft PowerPoint

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4.5 Discussion of the Participants’ Anxiety Level Findings A low anxiety level was noticed among participants when 60% disagreed with the statement, “I become anxious when my teacher uses a Microsoft PowerPoint presentation”. However, there are problems that cause high anxiety for students. One example is when their Microsoft PowerPoint presentation does not work; almost all the respondents (97.5%) were very disappointed when the presentation of the teacher does not work. Participants felt that training could be a factor that can reduce Anxiety since 75% replied that the training provided in the first LMD cycle reduced their anxiety.

Figure 4.2 Level of participants’ anxiety towards using Microsoft Power Point 4.6 The Interview Results In order to back up the data obtained from the questionnaire, an interview was set out for 10 selected participants among those who completed the questionnaire. All participants had a positive attitude when they present a work that requires PowerPoint. This may be due to the fact that participants have been used to it since some teachers already rely on this tool. Thus, they became more integrated in technology trend. One participants said “What makes PowerPoint attractive is not the tool itself, but the way it is used and the way its functions are gathered to emphasise on the most important elements of the lecture.” When asked if a PowerPoint presentation makes the respondents feel anxious, most of them said no, because they are motivated to associate technology with English learning. However, four participants replied yes to the same question but the reason of feeling anxious varied from one participant to another. One participant said ” Yes, because sometimes there is no interaction between the teacher and learners ” while another said:” Yes, because the setting of the tool takes a lot of time and sometimes we waste time while waiting for the teacher to get it set ”. There was unanimity of respondents that Microsoft PowerPoint should be included in education and especially EFL classrooms for various reasons. One interviewee stated “Yes because visual aids help to learn better”, another interviewee said: “yes because I can take notes without making mistakes”. Another commented: “it includes clear pictures and sounds which helps to memorise the information.” 5. Summary of the Results This study was aimed to examine the attitude and anxiety of Master 2 students of didactics of English as a foreign language at Djillali Liabes University Sidi Bel Abbes Algeria when Microsoft PowerPoint is used in EFL classroom. As it was pointed out by Fisher (2003), “PowerPoint has been in existence for many years, it has just begun to spread to schools and ESL classrooms… [and]…the reason for this delay is that technology requires hardware, which is relatively expensive.”, it is no longer an excuse for Algerian teachers to avoid using technology in teaching since Algerian universities in general and Sidi Bel Abbes university in particular has already been provided with those tools. Furthermore, there can be also another determining fact shown in this study with the positive attitude of Master 2 students of didactics of English as a foreign language at Djillali Liabes University Sidi Bel Abbes towards the use of Microsoft PowerPoint in EFL classroom. Given the results of a study conducted by Cobb (2002), it was found that ICT can enhance students' motivation and confidence in using the English language and can assist with language acquisition in ESOL students. It makes sense that the majority of participants showed a positive attitude towards using Microsoft Power Point to improve their English level and also the four language skills (listening, speaking writing and reading). This positive attitude is attributed to the fact that the tools provided by Microsoft PowerPoint facilitate their work and are more helpful in improving their language skills and also their computer skills. Moreover, the use of Microsoft PowerPoint generates a great learning atmosphere, which makes English lessons interesting. If students have positive attitudes towards using Microsoft PowerPoint to learn English, it is remotely inevitable that they will achieve higher proficiency level with the software. Having said this and based on those results, EFL students’ attitude is positive when lessons are presented by Microsoft PowerPoint, which confirms the first hypothesis of this study.

ALLS 6(6):1-6, 2015

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It is a common knowledge that anxiety in language classroom cannot be avoided or prevented. Yet, it was noticed low anxiety among the majority of EFL students but as in the case of this study, anxiety is still present. High anxiety can be caused by the failure of software sometimes when it is not working appropriately because of technicalities. However, it is possible to reduce anxiety and not completely eradicate it through ICT training. The findings of the current study were generally similar to those found by Valerie (2006) on her research on the effects of using ICT on EFL Malaysian students. Based on those results, EFL students are less anxious when lessons are presented by Microsoft Power Point, which confirms the second hypothesis. 5.1 Pedagogical Implications The data obtained from this study revealed that by using ICT appropriately, it would help to improve the learning process for students learning English Foreign language. First of all, This study already proved that students are interested in using Microsoft PowerPoint to learn English. Hence, all teachers could start using Microsoft PowerPoint in their English class since so far; only few teachers at the English department Djillali Liabes University are embracing this ICT tool. Either they can use it to teach or they can make it a part of student activity since they certainly need more opportunities. Moreover, teachers should take into consideration how the students like to learn because learning style differs from one learner to another. Educational technology is playing an important role in the teaching profession but it does not mean that teachers should be totally enslaved to the ICT tools. They can use Microsoft PowerPoint as a tool, not as a method. They can incorporate the use of technology to teach as a way to add variety into classroom procedures so students do not get bored. It could be a form of motivation for the students and also the teachers themselves. 6. Conclusion The reason to choose this topic “The effects of using Microsoft PowerPoint on EFL learners” was mainly because of the awareness of the importance of ICT nowadays, its absence of using it at Algerian universities in general and especially at the department of foreign languages, Djillali Liabes University. The main objective was to show the impact of using one of ICT tools such as Microsoft PowerPoint, on the EFL learners’ attitude and anxiety. There is still a need for many studies that have to be done in order to determine the future of ICT in Algerian EFL classroom because Algeria is still consider left behind with modern technology especially in the educational field. Having said this, the use of ICT in EFL classrooms offers significant advantage in language teaching learning; students can be more motivated and less anxious. Yet, PowerPoint is not the answer to all foreign language problems. What more is certain is that, when this tool is used considerately, it can increase learners’ motivation, and therefore backing up the teacher to make his job less stressful and more efficient in order to achieve their objectives. References Amr Hamdy. (2007). ICT in Education in Algeria: Survey of ICT and Education in Africa: Algeria Country Report. Disick, R. S. (1972). Developing Positive Attitudes in Intermediate Foreign Language Classes. The Modern Language Journal. 56: 417-420 Hedge, T. (2000). Teaching and Learning in the Language Classroom. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Noor Zainab Abdul Razak. (2005). Investigating Students’ Motivational Orientation When Learning English in the ESL Classroom. In: Pandian, A., Chakravarthy, G., Kell, P. & P. Kaur. Eds. Strategies & Practices for Improving Learning and Literacy. Serdang: Universiti Putra Malaysia Press. 32-39. Spielberger, C.D., & Auerbach, S.M. (1972). The Assessment of State and Trait Anxiety with The Rorschach Test. Journal of Personality Assessment, 36, 314-335. Steve Kennewell (2004). Meeting the Standards in Using ICT for Secondary Teaching. Routledge Falmer 11 New Fetter Lane, London Thomas, K. (1971). Attitudes and Behaviour. In: Penguin Psychology Readings. Baltimore: Penguin Books. Valerie Chan Sue Lin (2007). The Use of Microsoft® PowerPoint® To Learn English Language among Uitm PreDiploma Students. Universiti Teknologi Malaysia. Web References Cobb, K. J. (2002). Facilitating Second Language Acquisition Through Computer Assisted Language Learning. Action Research Exchange. 1 (1). Retrieved 20 May 2012, http://chiron.valdosta.edu/are/Artmanscrpt/ vol1no1/ cobb_am.pdf Fisher, D. L. (2003). Motivation as a contributing factor in second language acquisition. The Internet TESL Journal. IX (4). Retrieved 20 May 2012 from http://iteslj.org/Techniques/Fisher-PowerPoint.html Koba, N., Ogawa, N. & Wilkinson, D. (2000). Using the Community Language Learning Approach to Cope with Language Anxiety. The Internet TESL Journal. VI (11). Retrieved 20th May 2012, http://iteslj.org/Articles/KobaCLL.html Radanov, L. (2008). PowerPoint presentations in EFL classroom –“Power point is” or a challenge? Retrieved 25th May 2012 from www.britishcouncil.org/serbia-elta-newsletter-march powerpoint_presentations_in_efl_classroom.doc Steele, S & Johnson, J. (n.d). PowerPoint in the classroom. Retrieved 25th May 2012 from http://www.tiger.towson.edu/users/sstee12/researchpaper.htm Von Wörde, R. (2003). Students’ Perspectives on Foreign Language Anxiety. Inquiry. 8 (1). Retrieved 1st May 2013, http://www.vccaedu.org/inquiry/ inquiry-spring2003/i-81-worde.html

Advances in Language and Literary Studies ISSN: 2203-4714 Vol. 6 No. 6; December 2015 Flourishing Creativity & Literacy

Australian International Academic Centre, Australia

Examining the Effect of Interference on Short-term Memory Recall of Arabic Abstract and Concrete Words Using Free, Cued, and Serial Recall Paradigms Ahmed Mohammed Saleh Alduais (Corresponding author) Department of Linguistics, Social Sciences Institute Ankara University, 06100 Sıhhiye, Ankara, Turkey E-mail: [email protected] Yasir Saad Almukhaizeem Department of Linguistics and Translation, College of Languages and Translation King Saud University, Riyadh, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia E-mail: [email protected]

Doi:10.7575/aiac.alls.v.6n.6p.7

Received: 29/05/2015

URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.7575/aiac.alls.v.6n.6p.7

Accepted: 18/08/2015

The research is financed by Research Centre in the College of Languages and Translation Studies and the Deanship of Scientific Research, King Saud University, Riyadh, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. Abstract Purpose: To see if there is a correlation between interference and short-term memory recall and to examine interference as a factor affecting memory recalling of Arabic and abstract words through free, cued, and serial recall tasks. Method: Four groups of undergraduates in King Saud University, Saudi Arabia participated in this study. The first group consisted of 9 undergraduates who were trained to perform three types of recall for 20 Arabic abstract and concrete words. The second, third and fourth groups consisted of 27 undergraduates where each group was trained only to perform one recall type: free recall, cued recall and serial recall respectively. Interference (short-term memory interruption) was the independent variable and a number of recalled abstract and concrete words was the dependent variable. The used materials in this study were: abstract and concrete words classification form based on four factors was distributed to the participants (concreteness, imageability, meaningfulness, and age of acquisition), three oral recall forms, three written recall forms, and observation sheets for each type of recall. Also, three methods were used: auditory, visual, and written methods. Results: Findings indicated that interference effect on short-term memory recall of Arabic abstract and concrete words was not significant especially in the case of free and serial recall paradigms. The difference between the total number of recalled Arabic abstract and concrete words was also very slight. One other the hand, we came to the conclusion that Pearson’s correlation between interference at these memory recall paradigms (M: 1.66, SD= .47) and the short-term memory recall (M: 1.75, SD= .43) supported the research hypothesis that those participants with oral interruptions tended to recall slightly less Arabic abstract and concrete words, whereas those participants with no oral interruptions would tend to recall slightly more Arabic abstract and concrete words, r = .713, p< 0.01. Conclusions: Interference as a factor affecting short-term memory recall didn’t show any significant effect where there was a noticeable increase or decrease in the number of recalled words; although, it is moderately yet positively correlated to short-term memory recall. Keywords: abstract words, concrete words, words recall, free recall, cued recall, serial recall, recall effects, interference, short-term memory 1. Introduction Psycholinguistically, language in general operates under different levels as illustrated in figure 1 below, (Scovel, 1998).

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Figure 1. Psycholinguistic processes of language Human memory plays a critical role in all the above levels in terms of: storage, recall, and encoding, (see Byrne, 2003; Baddeley, 1999; Baddeley, 2004; Parker, Wilding & Bussey, 2002). However, a number of both external and internal factors can affect these processes in general and each in particular. The possible factors that can affect memory recall are listed in figure 2. (See Menzel, 2008; Baddeley, 1999; Parker, Wilding, & Bussey, 2005; Noordman-Vonk, 1979; Eichenbaum, 2002; Byrne, 2003).

Figure 2. Factors affecting human memory recall The effect of interference on memory recall of Arabic abstract and concrete words using free, cued, and serial recall paradigms is the scope of this paper. Interference refers to ‘irrelevant information that enters the focus of attention and impairs performance’, (Mackay-Brandt, 2014, para 1). There are basically two major theories in regard to interference and memory recall: one is called Interference Theory

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and the opposing theory to it is Decay Theory. In the former theory, it is proposed that retrieval of previously encoded information is hindered by newly encoded information, (see Rieber & Salzinger, 1998). In the latter theory, it is proposed that the result of information retrieval failure is due to memory decay and attrition other than the newly acquired information, (see Thorndike, 1914). When talking about interference; however, two types of interference are differentiated (see figure 3, adapted from Rich, 2014). The first type is called proactive interference and the second type is called retroactive interference. The proactive interference is defined as, ‘… the interference effect of previously learned materials on the acquisition and retrieval of newer materials’, (Teague, Langer, Bored, & Bender, 2014, para. 1). An example of this type of interference is ‘in everyday life would be a difficulty in remembering a friend's new phone number after having previously learned the old number, (ibid). On the contrary, retroactive interference is referred to ‘... conditions in which new learning interferes with old learning. Forgetting may be due to decay, a failure to reinstate the context of initial learning, or interference’, (Rich, 2014, para. 1).

Figure 3. Main difference between proactive interference and retroactive interference Campoy, 2011 conducted a study about retroactive interference on short-term memory and word-length effect. Two experiments were carried out to see if word-length effect on short-term memory is the result of generated greater level of retroactive interference by long words. It was concluded that ‘… long words produce more retroactive interference than short words, supporting an interference-based account for the word-length effect’, (ibid, p. 1). Furthermore, Risser, McNamara, Baldwin, Scerbo, & Barshi (2002) studied the interference effects on the recall of heard and read words. Two experiments where the first one examined effects of simultaneous interference and the second one examined the effects of post-task and/or subsequent interference. It was concluded that both visual and verbal interferences are equivalent. In fact, studies of interference effects have not been only conducted on human, but also on non-humans. Consider, for instance, the study of (Lewis & Kamil, 2006) who examined interference effects on the memory for serially presented locations in Clark’s nutcrackers. Results of the two experiments approved effect of interference both proactive and retroactive during recall of spatial information by nutcrackers. Henson, Hartley, Burgess & Flude (2003) investigated in four experiments, ‘effects of irrelevant speech, articulatory suppression, temporal grouping, and paced finger tapping on these two tasks [item probe and list probe tasks]’ (p. 1307). Findings reported limited evidence for the proposed aim of the study in spite of inferred reasonable interpretations. In depth, Oberauer & Lewandowsky (2008) tested ‘three hypotheses of forgetting from immediate memory: time-based decay, decreasing temporal distinctiveness, and interference’ (p. 544); using three models of serial recall, ‘the primacy model, the SIMPLE (scale-independent memory, perception, and learning) model, and the SOB (serial order in a box) model’ (ibid). It was concluded that, ‘purely temporal views of forgetting are inadequate’ (ibid). Moreover, Darby & Sloutsky (2013) examined, ‘proactive and retroactive interference effects’ (p. 2130); in children and adults. Results indicated stability of these effects among the two targeted groups. Thus, it is proposed that there might be vital role of ‘associative complexity as a possible modulator or proactive interference’ (Darby & Sloutsky, 2013, p. 2013) in the investigated age groups. Further, Balota, Cowan, & Engle (1990) investigated suffix interference in the recall of linguistically coherent speech. Four experiments were conducted and results indicated that, ‘auditory memory interference can take place for linguistically coherent speech, although magnitude of the interference decreases as one increases the level linguistic structure in the to-be-recalled materials’ (p. 446). One more study is Turvey & Weeks (1975) studied effects of interference and rehearsal on the primary and secondary components of short-term retention. Findings of the study consolidated the view that ‘proactive interference is limited to long-term store and that items in short-term store are impervious to the influence of prior traces’ (p. 119). (Lustig, May, & Hasher, 2001) investigated ‘the possibility that working memory span tasks are influenced by the interference…’ (p. 199). Findings suggested the validity of the view that interference influences on span. Another study examined the effect of retroactive interference on memory recall using two phases: learning and

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recognition for three types of visual passwords: faces, objects, and abstract imagery. It was concluded that, ‘overall recognition was better for abstract images than for pictures of people and object imagery’ (UKEssaysa, 2014, p. 6). One more study was conducted examining the effect of interference on remembering words in short-term memory. The researcher made use of 24 unrelated words, selected randomly, and 24 participants with no neurological and/or psychiatry record. Results indicated that the number of recalled words was more in the group where no interference was occurred. On the contrary, less number of recalled words was found in the case of group where interference was occurred. Thus, the difference between the two groups was insignificant, (UKEssaysb, 2014). One more study was conducted by (UKEssaysc, 2014) investigating the effects of chunking and distraction on shortterm memory recall. Twenty male and female undergraduates participated in the study, using two types of recall stimuli: related and unrelated words with ten lists of words in each type. In each type, the recall process was carried out with and without distraction. Results proposed significant effect of interference on short-memory recall in that it decreases recall changes and the number of recalled items. Also, results suggested that related and/or chunked words help improve memory recall as compared to unrelated and/or un-chunked words which showed less recalled words even in the case of non-interference, (ibid). In 1997, Nairne, Neath, & Serra examined the effect of proactive interference role in the word length effect. Two experiments were carried out and it was concluded that ‘proactive interference is an important source of forgetting in immediate memory tasks’ (p. 544). The trend of research applies to Tulving & Arbuckle (1963). They studied two sources (separation and evaluation effects- input and output) intratrial interference in immediate recall of paired associates. The study was based on the assumption that a certain learned item is recalled immediately after its presentation and if it cannot be recalled after interval retention regardless of its length, then it must have been forgotten. A major conclusion was that ‘probability of recall of an individual item is greatly affected by the position of the item in the input and output sequence’ (p. 333). It has been mentioned above that human memory undergoes three main processes as illustrated in (figure 4) below (see Baddeley, 2004; Baddeley, 1999; Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1968; Randall, 2007; Byrne, 2003; Parker, Wilding, & Bussey, 2002).

Figure 4. Human memory core processes A large number of studies have been conducted investigating concreteness effect in particular and abstract and concrete words recall in general. A number of these studies are reviewed shortly below. One of these studies is Harad’s & Coch (2009). They investigated the concreteness’ effect on the ability of processing words and backward recall. 14 normal adults participated in the study where 120 abstract words and 120 concrete words were used. It should be noted that 60 words from each type were old and 60 words were considered as new. Memory tasks including press button judgment were used as tools of this research. It was concluded that concrete word are more remembered than abstract ones. The researchers supported their empirical conclusion with that concrete words have more “meaning-based features” than do have the abstract ones, (Walker & Hulme, 1999 in Harad& Coch, 2009, p. 1). Another study related to the same perspective is West’s & Holcomb (2000). They conducted an experimental study claiming supporting the previously finding that concrete concepts and/or words over abstract ones in terms of cognitive processing. The study consisted of 36 student in the age range (19-23) divided into through groups where each group

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represents one investigated level: imagery, semantic and surface levels. The researcher made use of Reaction time (RE) and Even-Related brain Potential (ERP) as tool measurements for their research. The ERs were shorter in both the imagery and semantic tasks for concrete words than abstract ones specially the imagery task. Besides, concrete words elicited more negative ERPs than abstract ones. Furthermore, Schwa, Akin & Luh (1992) examined the concreteness effects of automatic-imagery, strategic-imagery, and context availability hypothesis predictions to recall abstract and concrete words. The researchers conducted three experiments supporting the view that abstract words “are remembered more poorly than concrete materials”, (Paivio, 1971, 1986 in Schwa, Akin & Luh, 1992, p. 96). The researchers concluded that their research with results supporting the “strategic-imagery view of concreteness effects in free recall”, (ibid). An important study is Fliessbach’s, Weis, Klaver, Elger, & Weber (2006) who examined abstract and concrete words processing on the basis of the notion that concrete words are generally better than abstract ones in terms of more successful remembering. The study was based on two theories, both supporting the view that concrete words, but not abstract ones are more accurately remembered. The first theory is called Dual-Coding Theory and the second one is called Context-Availability Theory. The former theory states that concrete words are over abstract ones because they possess “dual coding … in the form of a verbal and sensory code”, (p. 1413). The latter theory states again that concrete words are over abstract ones because they possess “a more accessible semantic network”, (Fliessbach, Weis, Klaver, Elger, & Weber, 2006, p. 1413). The researcher made use of the even-related Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) technique as a tool for testing their proposed prediction. Twenty one (21) subjects without any neurological or psychiatric history in the age range (19-43) participated in the study. The material of the study was 180 abstract words and 180 concrete words, selected and identified as among the most frequent German words. The drawn conclusion was in favour of more significance in the case of concrete words over the abstract ones in terms of activated places in the brain. The same applies to Dahlstrom and Ultis (2014) who investigated the view that concrete words but not abstract ones are generally recognized more by humans. Using an attractor network “a recurrent neural network designed to settle to a stable output over time”, (p. 1) the researchers attempted to analyse the human behaviour towards language processing. It was concluded that the concrete words are more recognizable than the abstract ones, not because of their highly intensive representation, but of being more “reinforced” (p. 6) in terms of learning [input]. Immediate Free Recall (IFR) has been used by (Dukes & Bastian, 1966). They used abstract and concrete words using a list of 10 abstract words and 10 concrete words, more specifically nouns. The words were shown to the participants by a projector twice. It was concluded that the participants recalled more concrete words than abstract ones. The roles of word concreteness and word valence in immediate serial recall has been assessed by Tse & Altarriba (2009). The researchers conducted two experiments using word-label and word-laden pairs of words. Five lists of positive concrete words, five lists of negative concrete words, five lists of positive abstract words, and five lists of negative abstract words in the first experiment. In the second experiment, the researcher used five lists of neutral abstract words and five lists of neural concrete words plus the twenty lists used in the experiment 1. The participants were 20 in Experiment 1 and 20 in Experiment 2 who are native-speaker of English Language. A compatible computer with E-Prime was used for data-analysis purposes. Results indicated that concrete words are more recalled than abstract ones, yet positive ones are more recalled than negative ones. These results are also the same in the second experiment in addition to that positive and neutral words are more remembered than negative words. (Lagishetti & Goswami, 2012) conducted a study examining the effectiveness of concreteness on differentiating between abstract and concrete words processing. A minor aim of this study was also observing any gender differences in relation to abstract and concrete words processing. The participants were 20 neuro-typical adults (10 males and 10 females) whose first language is Kannada Language. The instrument of the study is DMDX software and an accompanying software called (TimeDX). The researchers made use of 100 selected abstract and concrete words measured on 3-point scale (1: abstract, 2: unrecognized, 3: concrete). Reaction times for both abstract and concrete words were measured and results revealed significant differences between occurring reaction times for abstract and concrete words in favour of the concrete ones. Gender differences were not observed during the study and the researchers conclude that concreteness is an effective variable for distinguishing between abstract and concrete words processing. The same is true for Hanley, Hunt, Steed & Jackman (2013). They examined concreteness’ effect on abstract and concrete words’ production. Two experiments were conducted where in 56 undergraduates from the University of Essex participated in Experiment 1 and 58 participated in Experiment 2. 68 words where 34 are abstract and 34 are concrete with their dictionary definitions were used to measure the productions of the words in terms of semantic lexical weighs and phonological lexical weighs. Findings indicated that “poor performance during attempts to retrieve abstract words from their dictionary definitions… associated with more omissions, more alternates, and more TOTs (tip-of-the-tonguestate) than is the case for concrete words”, (p. 374). On the basis of the above presented literature, it could be seen that previous studies accounted for either interference effect on memory recall of words or concreteness effect on memory recall but not the two as an integrated topic. In this study, the researchers investigated the validity of the following hypotheses: 1.

Participants will recall more words in non-interference recall processes than in the interference recall processes; and

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2. 3.

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Participants will not recall the same number of abstract and concrete words in non-interference and interference processes [less/more abstract words than concrete ones]. There might be a [correlation] between interference and memory recall of Arabic abstract and concrete words.

2. Method 2.1 Sample The population of interest in this study is all university students in the undergraduate level who meets the following criteria: 1) native-speakers of Arabic Language; 2) registered in the university as undergraduate students; and 3) typical neurological and clinical history. The following table (2) shows the characteristics of the subjects in this study. Table 1. Characteristics of subjects Age range

20-24

Mother tongue language

Arabic Language

Dialect

Saudi Arabic Language

Ethnicity

Arab

Other languages

English (EFL use)

Gender

Male (single and married)

Nationality

Saudis

Specific characteristic

Be enrolled in a BA programme in the university level (King Saud University).

Probability sampling method, mainly stratified sampling method was used in this study where one class out many available classes was picked randomly to take part in this study. The class has 36 students from the college of Engineering who are enrolled in prerequisite English Language course in the College of Languages and Translation, King Saud University, Riyadh, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, in 2013, late December. The class was divided randomly into two four groups as shown in table (2) below. Table 2. Population distribution Task type

Group 1

Group 2

Group 3

Group 4

No

No

No

Yes

Free recall Cued recall Serial recall Interference

The selected sample is aimed to be representative of the population of interest and that reached results are generalizable for populations with similar characteristics. In other words, the study investigates a language acquisition topic from both cognitive and psycholinguistic perspectives and the targeted population is native speakers of Arabic so external effects like time, place and people cannot affect the generalizability of this study as long as they have similar characteristics to the above mentioned ones. 2.2 Measures Two measures were used in this study: one is a list of 20 Arabic abstract and concrete words and an observation sheet of the observed effects of recall types. To start with the first measure, a list of 20 Arabic words where 20 are abstract and 20 are concrete were used in this study. The words were selected on the basis of semantic relationship where one word could relate to another in terms of meaning but differ from one another in terms of concreteness. For instance, the words: mind and brain which are both semantically related but actually different from one another. It should be noted that by stating semantically similar is to mean that they share same associations and a person can think of both words when provided by certain cues and/or associations. The list of the 20 abstract and concrete words were selected to measure abstract and concrete words processing and recall through free call tasks. The list of the words, yet more procedural issues could be followed in the procedures section below and in the appendix.

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Both validity and reliability were calculated in this used measurement tool. In detail, in the case of construct validity: both face and content validities were calculated to represent translation validity. Face validity was calculated by the principal researcher and another PhD student of Arabic Language from the Department of Arabic Language and Literature, College of Arts, King Saud University, Riyadh, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. Both of them indicated very good face validity for the list of the words. For content validity, again, the list of the words was divided into two types in terms of content: abstract and concrete, yet in terms of semantic relationship between the abstract and concrete pair of words. In other words, the abstract word must have an association with the concrete words in order to be included in the list; otherwise, it will be excluded and replaced by another pair of words. One type only of criterion-related validity, namely, predictive validity, was calculated in this study (see tables 3 & 5 below). To move to reliability, two types of reliability were calculated: inter-rater and internal consistency reliability. Inter-rater reliability was measured by the principal researcher who divided the words into two lists: abstract and concrete words on the basis of the following criteria: concreteness, imageability, meaningfulness (Paivio Norms), and age of acquisition, (MRC Psycholinguistic Database, 2013). The list of words was rated twice to make sure that the list of the abstract words are those with negative significant concreteness, zero or negative imageability, and vague and/or ambiguous meaning(s), and the concrete words are those with positive significant concreteness, high or positive imageability, and clear-cut meaning(s). Tables (3-5) below display and summarize the calculated validity and reliability types and their values. Table 3. Reliability & validity results of abstract and concrete words scale Reliability

Statistical tool & result

Validity

Tool

Result

Inter-rater

Pearson

.80, .80, .78

Internal

Cronbach

.82

Statistical tool & result Tool

Result

Face

2 raters

High

Content

Categories

Excellent

Predictive

Pearson

.49

Concurrent

Uncalculated

Convergent

Uncalculated

Discriminant

Uncalculated

Table 4. Internal consistency reliability of the abstract and concrete words scale Feature

Corrected Alpha

Cronbach’s

Cronbach’s alpha if item deleted

Concreteness

.71

.78

Imageability

.70

.78

Meaningfulness

.69

.80

Concreteness and abstractness

1.00

.71

Table 5. Construct validity of the abstract and concrete words scale Feature R value

R Value

R value

R value

Concreteness

.46

.47

.40

.80

Imageability

.46

.44

.37

.80

Meaningfulness

.46

.44

.38

.78

Age of acquisition

.40

.37

.38

.49

Concreteness and abstractness

.80

.80

.78

.49

*Indicates insignificant values, ** indicate low level validity, all other values are significant at the 0.01 level.

The second measure was an observation sheet where in the administrator of the research was provided with to document his observations following the given instructions in the provided sheet (see appendix) 2.3 Design A four group quasi-experimental randomized design was used in this study. The design can be depicted in notational

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form as: R

X- 1, 2, 3

O1

O+ 1, 2

R

X- 1, 2, 3

O2

O+ 1, 2

R

X- 1, 2, 3

O3

O+ 1, 2

R

X- 1, 2, 3

O4

O- 1, 2

where: R = indicates that the groups were randomly assigned X- = indicates words processing methods (1 = auditory, 2 = visual, and 3 = writing), (-) indicates that it is non=treatment research O = indicates the measurement tools used in the study O = the first O stands for the observation sheet for recall types (1: means only free recall task without shortterm memory interruption, 2 means cued recall task without short-term memory interruption, 3 means serial recall without short-term memory interruption and 4 means free, cued, and serial recalls with short-term memory interruption) O = the second O stands for observing which type of words comes over which, that is abstract words are better recalled than content words or vice versa. The numbers in lower case stand for (1 = abstract words, and 2 = concrete words, and more generally retrieved and non-retrieved words), (+) means the possibility that number of recalled words increases when a short-term memory interruption does not occur and (-) means the possibility that number of recalled words decreases when is a short-term memory interruption occurs. The first three groups were compared to the fourth group to see first if words recalling is correlated with interference and then to see if interference affects word recall. The independent variable was the short-term memory interruptionrepresented by intended explanatory oral interruptions from the test administrator. On the other hand, the dependent variable was the number of recalled abstract and concrete words in the non-interference group and interference group. 2.4 Procedure Between 01.02.2014 and 01.03.2014, the study was conducted and all the following procedures were arranged and followed. Data collection: an observation sheet for documenting the observed effects was designed where the subjects were first provided with a list of 20 words and asked to classify them into both abstract and concrete words. Before that, the students are provided with very basic information about the differences between abstract and concrete words. Moreover, they were introduced with related terms to classification process: concreteness, imageability, meaningfulness (Paivio Norms), and age of acquisition, (MRC Psycholinguistic Database, 2013). Having done that, then the list of words was presented to the students using three methods: 1. 2. 3.

Auditory methods: the administrator of the research reads the words aloud to the students; Visual method: the administrator of the research presents the list of words to the student using an Over-Head Projector (OHP) and powerpoint slides where each word is presented as a card (pictures are may be provided next to each word); and Writing method: the administrator of the research asks the students to read the words aloud and write them from the over-head projector in the paper-notes they are provided with.

The next step was asking the students to start recalling the words they can recall from both abstract and concrete words. Of course, the same procedures will be followed to the four groups with following differences: 1. 2. 3. 4.

Group one attempted only free recall (no interference); Group two attempted only cued recall (no interference); Group three attempted only serial recall (no interference); and Group four attempted free, cued and serial recalls (short-term memory interruption).

Authenticity: the students were informed by their instructor and were given the chance to take part or not before being the subjects of the study. Having agreed, the students are assured to have full authenticity about the collected data and restricting its use for research purposes only. Needless to say, all the above procedures were officially documented using a consent form signed by each student confirming his free willingness to participate in the study. Measures administration: the two used measures were administered by the instructor of the course after being trained by the one of the researchers. The instructor was provided with all kinds of instructions that should be followed (detailed procedural issues can be seen in the appendix). Time and environment of the measurement tools: the study was conducted in the College of Languages and Translation, King Saud University, Riyadh, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. Each student was called individually into a well-prepared classroom with comfortable chairs, over-head projector, good air conditioning, and lightening. The used time for all the above described steps to be performed was about 26 minutes (4 minutes for each for those who were assigned to recall 20 words, and 2 minutes for each for those who were assigned to recall only 10 words). Administering: the following steps were followed for administering the measurement tools in this study:

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1. 2. 3. 4.

5.

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the administrator of the research provides the students with the list of 20 words requesting them to classify them into two lists: abstract and concrete words; the administrator of the research collects the words’ lists from the students; the administrator of the test makes sure that none of the students has any words lists remaining with them; the administrator of the test reads the list of words aloud (abstract-concrete or concrete-abstract) to the students; a. the students are requested to say the words which they can recall; b. the administrator of the research documents the recalled words in both cases; and the administrator of the research presents the words to the students using an over-head projector (OHP) requesting them to: a. read them silently; b. read them either aloud, finger pointing or lips-moving; and finally c. write them down  the students are requested to note down the words they could recall

Assessing: the researchers but not the administrator of the research (the instructor of the course) does the calculations for the following: 1.

Number of recalled abstract words as opposed to number of recalled concrete ones.

Recall prompts: firs letter prompt, miming and or sign-language in addition to semantic associations were provided in some cases (see appendix for more details). Preliminary analysis steps: Using the 17th version of SPSS (Statistical Package for Social Sciences), both descriptive and referential statistics tools were used to test proposed hypotheses in this study. 3. Results 17th version of SPSS (Statistical Package for Social Sciences) was used for the statistical analysis of the collected data. Both descriptive and referential statistics were used where different yet suitable statistical tools were used from each to serve the purposes of the study. Table (6) below presents the used types of statistical tools, the selected tools and performed functions. To remind our readers with the proposed hypotheses in this study, they are: 1. 2. 3.

Participants will recall more words in non-interference recall processes than in the interference recall processes; and Participants will not recall the same number of abstract and concrete words in non-interference and interference processes [less/more abstract words than concrete ones]. There might be a [correlation] between interference and memory recall of Arabic abstract and concrete words.

Table 6. Summary of the statistical tools used in analyzing the data of this study Statistics type Descriptive statistics

SPSS tool(s) Frequency

Mean Standard Deviation Frequencies: graphs Inferential statistics

Pearson Cronbach Alpha Correlate: Bivariate

Graphs: scatter-plot

Purpose of use Total number of recalled words Total number of recalled abstract words Total number of concrete words Observed effects The central location of the recalled words in free, cued, and serial recall paradigms Measuring variability among recalled words in free, cued, and serial recall paradigms Description and comparisons purposes Reliability and validity issues Reliability Getting the correlation coefficient and degree of significance and deciding on whether there is a relationship or not between the two tested variables Seeing in clearer way the correlation between the two tested variables and ascertaining the presence or absence of relationship between the two tested variables

There were 36 participants in this study, divided into two groups. Group 1 acted as three sub-groups where they performed free, cued and serial recall paradigms at the same time. Group 2 was divided into 3 groups, 9 in each where

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each groups consisting of 9 students performed only one recall type. Percentages of total recalled Arabic abstract and concrete words in both groups are presented comparatively in figure 3 below.

Figure 5. Comparison of the performance of one (A) and three groups (B) in three recall types Both pie charts can be read counterclockwise. The pie chart to the right side present the percentages of the three groups (the control group) (9+ 9+ 9=27) and the pie chart to the left side presents the percentages of the experimental group. In both pie charts, free recall is the highest and serial recall is lowest. The percentage of experimental group (50) is insignificantly higher than the percentage of the control group (47%). On the other hand, the percentage of the control group (47%) is higher than the percentage of the experimental group (38%) in cued recall paradigms. Similar to free recall paradigms where the percentage is higher in the experimental groups than in the control group so is it in the serial recall paradigms (12%) for the former and (6) for the latter. This very early statistics gives us an impression that there might be a [correlation] between interference and short memory recall of Arabic abstract and concrete words though the differences in percentages between two groups are not statistically different. Detailed statistical results for the recalled Arabic abstract and concrete words in the control and experimental groups are shown in figures 4-5 below.

Figure 6. Comparison of recalled words in different performed tasks of free, cued, and serial recall paradigms

Figure 7. Comparison of recalled words in different performed tasks of free, cued, and serial recall paradigms

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Figure 6 presents results for the experimental group whereas figure 7 presents results for the control group. In both control and experimental groups, the whole number of words was fully retrieved in free recall paradigms. In cued recall paradigms, the mean for the number of the recalled words is minimally less in the experimental group than the number of the recalled words in the control group (15) for the former and (19.78) for the latter. As for serial recall, it is surprisingly higher in the experimental group than that in the control group (5) for the former, and only (2.75) for the latter. These current results might indicate either a negative correlation or zero correlation as the differences in descriptive statistics are not significantly different between the results of short memory recall and interference. It was also proposed in our study that abstract words are better recalled than concrete ones in free, cued and serial recall paradigms be it with or without interference. Statistical results for this claim are shown in figures 6-7) below.

Figure 8. Abstractness, Concreteness, or Zero Effect?

Figure 9. Abstractness, Concreteness, or Zero Effect? First, it should be noted that figure 6 presents results for the experimental group and figure 7, on the other hand, presents results of the control group. According to the two figures, in both control and experimental groups (with and without interference) the effect is neither abstract (advantage of abstract words over concrete ones) nor concrete (advantage of concrete words over abstract ones), it is rather zero effect (identical number of recalled Arabic abstract and concrete words). Both abstractness and concreteness effect remained stable and zero effect went up to (100) in free recall paradigms in the experimental and control groups. In cued recall, there is a considerable sudden change where abstractness effects went up from (1.5) in the control group to (16.7) in the experimental group. Similarly, there is also a fast negligible change in the case of concreteness effect which picked up from (0) in the control group to (25.6) in the experimental group. Besides, there is a sharp substantial decline in the case of zero effect which deteriorated to (57.8) in the experimental group before it was (98.5) in the control group. This means clearly interference decreases recalled number of Arabic abstract and concrete words though the increase rate is slightly considerable. In the case of serial recall paradigms, abstractness effects dropped gradually down to (4.1) in the experimental group. Similarly, concreteness effect did down to (4.4) before it was less than (7). On the other hand, zero effect increased gradually to (91.1) in the experimental group before it was only (82.3) in the control group. To conclude, in spite of the gradual yet significant changes in the results between the two groups, it is still too early to decide whether short memory recall of words is correlated with interference or whether interference affects short

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memory recall or not! More descriptive statistics will help us reach a solid decision about this issue before starting the analysis of referential statistics. Comparisons of observed effects in both the experimental and control groups for the three types of recall are presented in figures 8-11.

Figure 10. Effects comparison in free recall paradigms The above bar chart presents comparatively the observed effects in control and experimental groups in free recall paradigms. There were two observed effects in free recall paradigms, namely primacy and recency effects. It can be seen clearly that in both groups recency is the most popular effect, while primacy is the least popular one. To begin, primacy effect is more frequent in the experimental group than the primacy effect in the control group. It goes up in the former to (42.2) and then goes gradually down in the latter to exactly (35). On the hand, recency effect is more frequent in the control group than the recency effect in the experimental group. It picked up in the former to exactly (65) and then slips back in the latter to less than (58). Thus, recency effect is generally more frequent than the primacy effect. Also, while primacy effect is higher in the experimental group and lower in the control group than the recency effect, recency effect is conversely higher in the control group and lower in the experimental group.

Figure 11. Effects comparison in cued recall paradigms The above bar chart deals with observed effect in both experimental and control groups in cued recall paradigms. There were two observed effects in cued recall paradigms of Arabic abstract and concrete words, mainly forward and backward recalls. It is immediately apparent that forward recall effect is the most common observed effect and backward recall is least common observed effect. To start, forward recall in the experimental group is more popular than it is in the control group. It improves to over (55) in the experimental group and stops at (51) in the control group. In comparison, backward recall in the experimental group is less popular than it is in the control group with only a slight change at the rate of less than (4). That is to say, it stops at less than (44) in the former and reaches (49) in the latter. In conclusion, forward recall effect is generally more observed than backward recall effect during cued recall paradigms in both the experimental and control groups. Yet, forward recall effect has an advantage over backward recall effect in the experimental groups while the latter has an advantage over the former in the control group.

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Figure 12 (A). Comparison of observed effects in serial recall paradigms

Figure 13 (B). Comparison of observed effects in serial recall paradigms The above bar charts (10-11) show the observed effects during serial recall paradigms of Arabic abstract and concrete words for both experimental and control groups. While the first bar chart represents the experimental group, the second one represents the control group. There were nine pre-specified effects to be observedas mentioned above in the bar charts during serial recall paradigms. Generally, there are three non-observed effects in the experimental group and four in the control group. At the beginning, while there were three non-observed effects in the experimental group (item confusion error, repetition error and protrusion effects), there were four in the control group (the above mentioned three in addition to word length effect). Moreover, the most frequent occurring effect in both experimental and control groups was transposition gradients effect with being higher for the control group (100) as compared to less than (84) for the experimental group. On the other hand, the least frequent occurring effect for both groups again was the fill-in effect with a slight difference in favour of that for the experimental group (16.7) as compared to (16.2) for the control group. Some major differences between the two groups in regard to the observed effect include that while word length effect did not occur at all in the control group, the occurrence rate climbs rapidly yet dramatically to over (80) and nonoccurrence rate slips back sharply to less than (20). One more noticeable yet sudden change is that for list length effect. The occurrence rate bottomed out in the experimental group to less than (19) after it was over (82) in the control group. On the contrary, the non-occurrence rate rose considerably yet quickly to over (80) in the experimental group after it was only less than (18) in the control group. To sum up, some of the pre-specified effects were not observed at all in both groups and some others were observed in both groups with a preference for the occurrence of the observed effect to the experimental group.

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In order to reach solid yet better results for the proposed hypotheses in this study, referential statistics tools were used. The means and standard deviations of the independent variable (interference) and dependent variable (recalled Arabic abstract and concrete words abbreviated to short recall memory) are presented below in table 7. Table 7. Descriptive Statistics Mean

Std. Deviation

N

Short term memory 1.7523 .43218 recall

440

Interference

440

1.6614 .47378

It can be clearly seen from the two means for the independent variable and the dependent variable that the mean for the former (M: 1.66) with a standard deviation of (SD: .47) is slightly lower than the mean for the latter (M: 175) with a standard deviation of (SD: .43). This clearly initially indicates a correlation between the two variables from one side and the effect of one variable on the other, mainly the independent one on the dependent one (interference on short-term memory recall). These above mentioned inferences are verified more in table 8 below. Table 8. Correlations Short term Interferenc memory recall e Short term memory Pearson recall Correlation

1

Sig. (2-tailed)

Interference

.713** .000

N

440

440

Pearson Correlation

.713**

1

Sig. (2-tailed)

.000

N

440

440

**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

A Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient was computed to assess the relationship between interference (intended explanatory oral interruptions) and short-term memory recall (recalled Arabic abstract and concrete words). There was a positive correlation between the two variables, r = 0.713, n = 440, p = 0.000, with R2 = .508. A scatterplot summarizes the results Figure 12. Overall, there was a moderate, positive correlation between interference and shortmemory recall. Increases in the the interference (oral interruptions) were correlated with increases in non-retrievable Arabic abstract and concrete words (short-term memory recall).

Figure 14. Direction of correlation between interference and short memory recall Pearson’s correlation between interference at these memory recall paradigms (M: 1.66, SD= .47) and the short-term memory recall (M: 1.75, SD= .43) supported the research hypothesis that those participants with oral interruptions tended to recall slightly less Arabic abstract and concrete words, whereas those participants with no oral interruptions would tend to recall slightly more Arabic abstract and concrete words, r = .713, p< 0.01.

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To conclude, the value of R is 0.713. This is a moderate positive correlation, which means there is a tendency for high X variable scores go with high Y variable scores (and vice versa). The value of R2, the coefficient of determination, is 0.508. The P-Value is < 0.00001. The result is significant at p < 0.01. 4. Discussion The results of the current study were to some extent on contrary to our preliminary expectations. We carried out an experiment examining the effect of interference on short-term memory recall of Arabic abstract and concrete words using free, cued, and serial recall paradigms. The researchers proposed two major hypotheses along with a minor hypothesis. The statistical analysis indicated initially partial consolidation of the first hypothesis (effect of interference, the independent variable, on the number of recalled Arabic abstract and concrete words, the dependent variable). On the contrary, it indicated the approval of the minor hypothesis and the second hypothesis that (more/less abstract/concrete words will be recalled regardless of the occurring interference) and also the claim that (interference, the independent variable, might be correlated to the recalled Arabic abstract and concrete words, the dependent variable). These results are discussed below in relation to the introductory part, the previous studies and the statistical analysis. Our first hypothesis was that participants will recall more words in non-interference recall processes than in the interference recall processes. It was assumed that the intended occurring interruptions made by the experiment administrator will negatively effect on the recall level and frequency of the experimental group. On the other hand, it was assumed that the three groups who were trained to recall without any interruptions will have the chance to recall more Arabic abstract and concrete words as compared to their counterparts. Surprisingly, the results indicated the opposite of this assumption in the case of both free and serial recall paradigms but not in the case of cued recall paradigms. The percentage of the recalled Arabic abstract and concrete words for the experimental group was slightly higher than the percentage of the recalled words for the control group; (50%) for the former and less than (50%) for the latter. Though insignificant; it refutes our hypothesis stating that interference will negatively effect on short-term memory recall. Similar to the above situation is the case of serial recall where the percentage of the recalled Arabic abstract and concrete words for the experimental group was as two times (12%) as that of the percentage of the recalled words for the control group (6%). Dissimilar to these two cases is in the case of cued recall where the percentage of the retrieved Arabic abstract and concrete words for the control group was moderately higher than that of the experimental group; (47%) for the former and only over (35%) for the latter. In effect, previous conducted studies investigating the effect of interference on short-term memory recall emphasized the effect of the former variable on the latter one which is partially contrary to the reached results in our study. We return the discussion to the significant differences in terms of research methods, environments and more importantly and used measures. These studies include: (Tulving & Arbuckle, 1963; Turvey, & Weeks, 1975; Nairne, Neath, & Serra, 1997; Lustig, May, & Hasher, 2001; Henson, Hartley, Burgess, Hitch, & Flude, 2003; Lewis & Kamil, 2006; Chiasson, Forget, & Stobert, 2009; Annis, Malmberg, Criss, & Shiffrin, 2013; UK-Essays-Editors, 2014a; UK-Essays-Editors, 2014b; UK-Essays-Editors, 2014c). Within the first hypothesis, we also presented that the participants will not recall the same number of abstract and concrete words in non-interference and interference processes [less/more abstract words than concrete ones]. This assumption was based on previous studies supporting the view of concreteness effect (concrete words are better recalled than abstract ones). Studies supporting this view include: (Dukes & Bastian, 1966; Schwa, Akin & Luh, 1992; West & Holcomb, 2000; Fliessbach, Weis, Klaver, Elger, & Weber, 2006; Harad & Coch 2009; Tse & Altarriba, 2009; Lagishetti & Goswami, 2012; Hanley, Hunt, Steed & Jackman, 2013; Dahlstrom, Ultis, 2014). On the basis of this and with reference to (figures 6-9), the different between the recalled Arabic words is very slight in favour of the abstractness effect. This in return resulted to introducing the term zero effect indicating the similarity and/or identicalness between the recalled abstract and concrete words. Our second proposed hypothesis was that there might be a [correlation] between interference and memory recall of Arabic abstract and concrete words. The statistical analysis indicated that the mean for the independent variable (M: 1.66) with a standard deviation of (SD: .47) is slightly lower the mean for the dependent one (M: 175) with a standard deviation of (SD: .43). This clearly indicates a correlation between the two variables from one side and the effect of one variable on the other, mainly the independent one on the dependent one (interference on short-term memory recall). Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient was computed to assess the relationship between interference (intended explanatory oral interruptions) and short-term memory recall (recalled Arabic abstract and concrete words). Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient analysis indicated a positive correlation between the two variables, r = 0.713, n = 440, p = 0.000, with R2 = .508. That is to say, there is a moderate, positive correlation between interference and short-memory recall. Increases in the interference (oral interruptions) were correlated with increases in non-retrievable Arabic abstract and concrete words (short-term memory recall). 5. Conclusions This study examined one of the memory processes― recall in relation one of the many factors affecting memory recall― interference. In other words, the researchers accounted for the effect of interference on short-term memory recall of Arabic abstract and concrete words using free, cued, and serial recall paradigms. A four group quasiexperimental randomized design where a total number of 36 of native Arabs took part in this study. They were divided into two groups of 9 where 9 was dealt as the experimental group (performing free, cued and serial recall paradigms) and the other 27 were divided into three groups where each group performed only a recall type. The three groups were dealt as the control group. The independent variable was the interference variablerepresented by oral interruption performed by the experiment administrator. On the other hand, the dependent variable was the number of recalled

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abstract and concrete words in non-interference and interference groups. Findings indicated that interference effect on short-term memory recall of Arabic abstract and concrete words was not significant especially in the case of free and serial recall paradigms. The difference between the total number of recalled Arabic abstract and concrete words was also very slight. One other the hand, we came to the conclusion that Pearson’s correlation between interference at these memory recall paradigms (M: 1.66, SD= .47) and the short-term memory recall (M: 1.75, SD= .43) supported the research hypothesis that those participants with oral interruptions tended to recall slightly less Arabic abstract and concrete words, whereas those participants with no oral interruptions would tend to recall slightly more Arabic abstract and concrete words, r = .713, p< 0.01. Thus, there was a moderate positive correlation between interference and shortterm memory recall. 5.1 Implications The current study has two implications: cognitive and theoretical. To start with the cognitive implication, we assumed in this study that interference represented by oral interruptions in addition to the direct proactive and retroactive interferences will affect short-term memory recall of Arabic abstract and concrete words. Our results indicated that there is a moderate positive correlation between the two variables but the effect of the former on the latter was not clear according to our presented results and conclusions. Presented data and previous studies about the effect on interference stated clearly the direct effect of interference on short-term memory recall. However, presented data about memory and cognitive processes of human memory remain arguable. There is a need for further research about the situations that interference occurrence might or might not affect short-term memory recall or even long-term memory recall in the case of proactive and retroactive interference types. For further details about this issue, please see: (Conway, 1997; Greene, 1987; Monsell & Driver, 2000; Pulvermuller, 2002; Cowan, 2005; Mense, Debney, & Druce, 2006; Pickering, 2006; Mace, 2007; Foster, 2009; Faust, 2012). To move to the theoretical implication, it is based on the assumption of short-term memory capacity (seven plus or minus two) which can be depicted in the following equation: (M stands for short-term memory capacity) 7±2=𝑀 This finding needs further exploration and experimentation when presented in relation to our findings where most of the participants were able to exceed the values in this equation to become: 7±3=𝑀 Further details about this claim can be seen at: (Shiffrin & Nosofsky, 1994; Sprenger, 1999; Takac, 2008; Richards, Daller, Malvern, Meara, Milton, & Treffers-Daller, 2009). 5.2 Limitations and future work This study has one limitation that both major types of interference were not directly experimented. In other words, neither proactive interference nor retroactive interference was directly investigated in the study procedures. Instead, an interference mean was used to replace the use of such two types. We expected that basing the experiment on such two common types would have resulted to more plausible results especially about the effect of interference on short-term memory recall. Besides, further researches exploring the effect(s) of other factors affecting short-term memory recall are needed. These factors include: attention, motivation, context, state-dependent memory, gender, food consumption, physical activity and trauma and brain exposure. Acknowledgements The authors would like to express their words of thanks to the Research Centre in the College of Languages and Translation Studies and the Deanship of Scientific Research for their financial support of this project, King Saud University, Riyadh, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. References

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Pickering, S. J. (Ed.). (2006). Working memory and education. Academic Press. Pulvermuller, F. (2002). The Neuroscience of Language: On Brain Circuits of Words and Serial Order. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Randall, M. (2007). Memory, Psychology and Second Language Learning. Amsterdam: John Benjamin’s Publishing Company. Richards, B., Daller, M. H., Malvern, D. D., Meara, P., Milton, J., & Treffers-Daller, J. (Eds.). (2009). Vocabulary Studies in First and Second Language Acquisition. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Rich, J. B. (2014). Retroactive Interference. Retrieved from Springer reference: Retroactive Interference Rieber, R. W., & Salzinger, K. (1998). Psychology: Theoretical-Historical Perspectives (2nd Ed.). Washington D. C.: American Psychological Association. Risser, M. R., McNamara, D. S., Baldwin, C. L., Scerbo, M. W., & Barshi, I. (2002). Interference Effects on the Recall of Words Heard and Read: Considerations for ATC Communication. Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting, 392-396. Schwanenflugel, P. J., Akin, C., & Luh, W. (1992). Context availability and the recall of abstract and concrete words. Memory & Cognition (Pre-2011), 20(1), 96-104. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/217453817?accountid=142908 Shiffrin, R., & Nosofsky, R. (1994). Seven plus or minus two: a commentary on capacity limitations. Psychological Review, 101(2), pp. 357-61. Sprenger, M. (1999). Learning & Memory: the Brain in Action. Alexandria: Association of Supervision & Curriculum Development. Takac, V. P. (2008). Vocabulary Learning Strategies and Foreign Language Acquisition. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters Ltd. Teague, E. B., Langer, K. G., Borod, J. C., & Bender, H. A. (2014). Proactive Interference. Retrieved from Springer reference: http://www.springerreference.com/docs/html/chapterdbid/183882.html Thorndike, E. L., Bergman, E. O., Cobb, M. V., & Woodyard, E. (1927). The Measurement of Intelligence. Arno Press. Tse, C. S., & Altarriba, J. (2009). The word concreteness effect occurs for positive, but not negative, emotion words in immediate serial recall. British Journal of Psychology, 91–109. Tulving, E., & Arbuckle, T. Y. (1963). Sources of Intratrial Interference in Immediate Recall of Paired Associates. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 1, pp. 321-334. Turvey, T. M., & Weeks, A. R. (1975). Effects of proactive interference and rehearsal on the primary and secondary components of short term retention Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/64083678?accountid=142908 UK-Essays-Editors. (2014a). Visual passwords experiment into memory recall. Retrieved from ukessays.com: http://www.ukessays.co m/essays/psycho logy/visual-passwords-experiment-into -memory-recall-psycho logyessay.php UK-Essays-Editors. (2014b). Interference and remembering words in short term memory. Retrieved from ukessays.co m: http://www.ukessays.co m/essays/psycho logy/interference-and-remembering-words-in-shortterm-memory-psycho logyessay. UK-Essays-Editors. (2014c). The Effects of Chunking and Distraction on Short Term Memory Recall. Retrieved from ukessays.co m: http://www.ukessays.co m/essays/psycho logy/short-term-memory-recall.php West, W. C., & Holcomb, P. J. (2000). Imaginal, semantic, and surface-level processing of concrete and abstract words: An electrophysiological investigation. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 12(6), 1024-1037. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/72554202?accountid=142908

Advances in Language and Literary Studies ISSN: 2203-4714 Vol. 6 No. 6; December 2015 Australian International Academic Centre, Australia

Flourishing Creativity & Literacy

The Effect of Iranian Teachers’ Epistemological Beliefs on Their Teaching Practice Malahat Yousefzadeh (Corresponding author) Department of Teaching English as a second language, Sarab Branch, Islamic Azad University, Sarab, Iran E-mail: [email protected] Leila Babapour Azam Department of Teaching English as a second language, Sarab Branch, Islamic Azad University, Sarab, Iran

Doi:10.7575/aiac.alls.v.6n.6p.25

Received: 02/06/2015

URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.7575/aiac.alls.v.6n.6p.25

Accepted: 22/08/2015

Abstract Epistemology is the branch of philosophy that investigates what knowledge is and how people know whether they know something (BonJour, 2002). It addresses questions such as: What is knowledge? How do people know if they really have knowledge? What gives a reason for any knowledge that they have? This study aimed at investigating the relationships between high school teachers’ epistemological beliefs and their teaching practices. The subjects of the study were 60 teachers at Ardabil high schools. They responded to two questionnaires: an Epistemological Beliefs Questionnaire and a Teaching Practices Questionnaire. In this study, the independent variables are measures of teacher epistemology and their teaching practices as the dependent variables. Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient was used to assess the relationship between scores on the Teaching practice scale and those on the Epistemological Beliefs scale. Findings of the study showed that teachers with inexperienced epistemological beliefs tend to traditional teacher-centered practices and experienced belief holders were more tend to constructive learner-centered practices. Keywords: inexperienced epistemology, experienced epistemology, teacher-centered practices, constructive learnercentered 1. Introduction There is no or a little studies investigating the relation of teachers' epistemic beliefs and their pedagogical strategy. Epistemology is defined by Schraw, Olafson and Vanderveldt (2011) as a study of beliefs about the origin and acquisition of knowledge. Now the issue is: if teachers have beliefs about epistemological questions and whether these beliefs affect in any way their teaching. A contextualist theory assumes that learners construct common understandings in concerned contexts in which teachers act as facilitators. Teachers with a contextualist view are less concerned with the type of knowledge that students construct, than the process by which they construct that knowledge, and the degree to which that knowledge has authentic practices to the context it is learned in (Mertens2005). Constructivism is an epistemology, a learning or meaning-making theory, that puts forward an explanation of the nature of knowledge and how human beings learn. It maintains that individuals create or construct their own new understandings or knowledge through the interaction of what they already know and believe and the ideas, events, and activities with which they come in contact (Richardson, 1997). Chen & Elliot (2004b) mentioned that traditional ideas of teaching were positively related to teachers' naive beliefs and certainty of knowledge. Those teachers using more constructivist teaching practices felt that knowledge is acquired through effort and that knowledge was not certain. Schraw and Sinatra (2004) noted that teachers with more Experienced epistemologies are likely to be adaptable in terms of teaching strategies and they tend to engage more with their students. Teachers’ teaching practices are believed to be determined by their ideas about teaching and student learning which should be driven by their epistemological beliefs (Chan &Elliot, 2004, p.817). Hofer (2001) says that teachers' beliefs influence the types of pedagogical practices and as a result affect the process in different ways. Beliefs about the role of education can filter down and impact teachers' epistemological beliefs. These include “beliefs about the nature of knowledge and the processes of knowing” (Hofer & Pintrich, 1997, p. 117). 1.1 Research Question Is there any significant relationship between the experienced and inexperienced teachers’ epistemological beliefs and their teaching practice? 1.2 Null Hypothesis There is not any significant relationship between the experienced and inexperienced teachers’ epistemological beliefs and their teaching practice.

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2. Method 2.1 Participant The study sample is 60 high school teachers in Ardabil. 30 inexperienced teachers had an experience period of 1-4 years and 30 experienced teachers had an experience period of 20-25 years. This study investigated Iranian high school teachers’ epistemological beliefs and their impact on their teaching practices. 2.2 Procedures The study was conducted during the second semester of the academic year (2014-2015). The teachers were informed that their participation would be voluntary and were assured that the information they provided would be confidential. Epistemological Beliefs Questionnaire was used on the basis of Schommer (1990) stating about belief system. According to the structure of knowledge, integration of knowledge, the source of knowledge, certainty of knowledge, the speed of knowledge acquisition and the control of knowledge acquisition. All items are to be rated on a Likert-type scale from 1 to 5. The scale includes thirty items that are rated on a five point Likert scale, ranging from ‘Strongly Disagree’ (1) to ‘Strongly Agree’ (5). Lower scores represent more inexperienced epistemological beliefs and higher scores represent more experienced epistemological beliefs. These dimensions of epistemological beliefs change alone a continuum with polarities at two extreme ends. The first dimension, Source of Knowledge, differs from students' believing in “knowledge as submitted by experts and authority” to “knowledge as gained by reason and evidence”. The second dimension, Control of Knowledge, differs from “students' beliefs in linguistic ability as inborn and fixed” to “beliefs of linguistic ability as a result of effort”. The third dimension, Certainty of Knowledge, differs from beliefs in “knowledge as certain and definite” to "knowledge as uncertain and ever-changing”. The fourth dimension, the Speed of Knowledge Acquisition, differs from “beliefs in linguistic knowledge acquisition as quick” to “beliefs in acquisition as steady and time-consuming”. The fifth dimension, the Structure of Knowledge, differs from “beliefs in linguistic knowledge as simple” to “beliefs in linguistic knowledge as complex”. The sixth dimension, Integration of Knowledge, differs from “beliefs in linguistic knowledge as disintegrated” to “beliefs in linguistic knowledge as integrated and in constant interaction with the cultural context of language learning”. Teaching Practices Questionnaire intended to identify the teaching orientations of teachers in their teaching practice. The scale includes thirty items which are scored on a Likert scale of five points (1 = Never; 2 = Rarely; 3 = Sometimes; 4 = Often; 5 = Always). These items are classified under two main teaching orientations: a constructivist learnercentered orientation and a traditional teacher-centered one. In this study, the independent variables are measures of teacher epistemology and the teaching practices as the dependent variables. The researcher established a priori a minimum significance level of 0.05. 2.2 Data analysis The mean scores obtained by inexperienced teachers in Epistemological Beliefs Questionnaire: The mean score on the “Source of Knowledge” dimension is (2.25), which showed that they tend to believe in knowledge as chiefly derived from authority figures. Their mean score on the “Certainty of Knowledge” is (2.15) indicating that they believe in unchanging nature of knowledge. Their mean score on the “Control of Knowledge” is (2.33) indicating that they believe in knowledge as limited by innate ability. Their mean score on the “Speed of Knowledge Acquisition” is (2.20) showed that they believe in linguistic knowledge acquisition as quick process. Their mean score on the “Integration of Knowledge” is (2.11) showed that linguistic knowledge is not influenced by socio-cultural norms. Their mean score on the “Structure of Knowledge” is (2.60) indicated that inexperienced teachers believe that knowledge is simple and can be deal with using by learning strategies such as rehearsal and memorization. On the other hands, the mean scores obtained by experienced teachers: The mean score on the “Source of Knowledge” is (3.33), which showed that they tend to believe in knowledge obtained by reason and evidence. Their mean score on the “Certainty of Knowledge” is (3.55) indicating that they believe in knowledge as indefinite and ever-changing. Their mean score on the “Control of Knowledge” is (3.10) indicating that they believe that linguistic ability is as a result of effort. Their mean score on the “Speed of Knowledge Acquisition is (3.20) showed that they believe in acquisition as gradual and time consuming. Their mean score on the Integration of Knowledge is (3.66) showed that linguistic knowledge is influenced by cultural norms. Their mean score on the “Structure of Knowledge” is (3.60) indicated that the experienced teachers believe that knowledge is beliefs in linguistic knowledge as complex. The mean scores obtained by inexperienced teachers in Teaching Practices Questionnaire: Most of the inexperienced teachers showed traditional orientation about language teaching (M= 4.15). However, the items applying to constructivist orientation received rather low scores (M= 2.86). Also most of experienced teachers tended to constructivist orientation (M= 3.95). For investigating if there is any significant relationship between the experienced and inexperienced teachers’ epistemological beliefs and their teaching practice, the Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient was used to assess the relationship between scores on the teaching practice scale and those on the Epistemological Beliefs scale. 3. Result & Discussion The results indicated that there is a significant positive correlation between traditional conceptions of teaching and the teachers' Innate/Fixed Ability beliefs (r = 0.66), unchanging nature of Knowledge (r = 0.52),innate ability of knowledge(r= 0.65),quick processing of knowledge( r= 0.58),simple knowledge(r= 0.67) and (r= 0.61) showed knowledge is not nfluenced by cultural norms. As well as negative correlation between traditional conceptions and six epistemological beliefs, i.e. knowledge by reason (r = -0.18), ever changing Knowledge (r = -0.15), knowledge by effort (r= -0.25), knowledge by gradual process ( r= -0.21 ), influenced by cultural context (r= -0.33) and complex nature( r=

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-0.28). Also there is a positive correlation between constructivist conceptions and six epistemological beliefs, i.e. knowledge by reason (r = 0.27), ever changing Knowledge (r = 0.25), knowledge by effort( r=0.18), knowledge by gradual process( r=0.33), influenced by cultural context ( r=0.33) and complex nature(r=0.29).As well as there is a significant negative correlation between constructivist conceptions of teaching and the teachers' Innate/Fixed Ability beliefs (r = -0.36) unchanging nature of Knowledge (r = -0.22), innate ability of knowledge(r=-0.41), quick processing of knowledge(r= -0.38), not influencing by sociocultural ( r= -0.44), and simple knowledge(r= 0.39).The mean scores obtained by the subjects of the study as measured by Teaching Practices Questionnaire in its two dimensions (traditional teacher-centered vs. constructive learner- centered) indicate a tendency to the first dimension by inexperienced teachers and second dimension by experienced teachers. The finding of study showed teachers who hold inexperienced epistemology believe that knowledge is simple, definite and specific. They believe that knowledge resides in authorities and it is certain and unchanging. Concepts are learned quickly, their learning abilities are innate and fixed. On the other hand, the experienced teachers believe that knowledge is complex, uncertain and it can be learned gradually through deduction processes and created by learners. 4. Discussion & Conclusion The present study found that teacher beliefs are mostly consistent with their practice. According to Schraw & Olafson (2002), “teachers' epistemological worldviews influence the ways that they make important instructional decisions related to the curriculum, pedagogy, and assessment.” Donmoyer (2001) stated that epistemological beliefs define how teachers control different classroom problems. On the hand, there have been some studies that teacher beliefs do not necessarily influence classroom practice because of several factors (Hancock & Gallard, 2004; Mellado, 1998). Table 1. A comparison of constructivist vs. transmission (traditional) beliefs and practices (Brownlee, Schraw, Berthelsen 2012, P. 247) Constructivist teaching

Transmission teaching

Developmental stage

Characterized by evaluativist stance

Characterized by absolutist stance

……………………...

……………………………………..

…………………………………..

Epistemological beliefs

Sophisticated awareness)

Naïve beliefs(less explicit awareness)

…………………………….

………………………………………

Teacher practices: pedagogy

Student-centered approach which emphasizes collaborative learning, teacher scaffolding and independent work, leading to domain-general application of critical thinking skills.

beliefs(more

explicit

………………………….

…………………………………..

Teacher practices curriculum

Higher order thinking and evaluation skills based on reasoned application of first order skill (i.e., domain knowledge and procedures)

…………………………………… Teacher-centered approach which emphasizes acquisition of core facts and concepts mastery of basic procedures, leading to automated application of domain-specific skills. ………………………………….. Mastery of first-order knowledge and procedures

domain

Inexperienced epistemologies are parallel to transmission epistemologies and experienced epistemologies are parallel to constructivist epistemologies. Rosso (1978) determined that the educational beliefs of teachers had little influence over the instructional decisions a teacher makes. Wilcox-Herzog (2002) suggested that there was not a relationship between teachers‘beliefs and their actions. The findings suggest that there is a need to take teachers' epistemological beliefs into account when considering and designing professional development opportunities. These findings help to areas of research that probe the impact of teachers' epistemological beliefs on teaching practice. Teachers' epistemological beliefs may direct curricula and instructional practices. Epistemology is not a fixed trait it can be changed. It is important to instructing teacher for rising epistemological change. Teacher training and teacher background, administrator, parent and student views and other factors may influence teacher classroom practice as well as teachers’ beliefs about teaching and learning, and should be taken into account by researchers. Teacher's epistemology is able to determine what he/she sees, how he/she interprets the world, which strategies he/she selects to learn. Teacher beliefs play a major role in teachers’ decision making about curriculum and instructional tasks. In summary, educational researchers have advocated the need for careful examination and direct study of the relationship between teacher beliefs and educational practice.

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References BonJour, L. (2002). Epistemology: Classic problems and contemporary solutions. Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield. Brownlee. J., Schraw. G., Berthelsen. D (2012). Teacher practices curriculum. Routledge Chan, K., & Elliot, R. G. (2004b). Relational Analysis of Personal Epistemology and Conceptions about Teaching and Learning. Teaching and Teacher Education, 20, 817-831. Donmoyer, R. (2001). Paradigm talk reconsidered. In V. Richardson (Ed.), Handbook of research on teaching (4th ed., pp. 174-197). Washington, D.C.: American Education Research Association. Hancock, E. S., & Gallard, A. J. (2004). Preservice science teachers’ beliefs about teaching and influence of K-12 field experiences. Journal of Science Teacher Education, 15(4), 281-291.

learning: The

Hofer, B. K. (2001) Personal epistemology research: Implications for learning and instruction. Educational Psychology Review, 13(4), 353-382. Hofer, B. K., & Pintrich, P. R. (1997). The development of epistemological theories: Beliefs about knowledge and knowing and their relation to learning. Review of Educational Research, 67, 88–140. Mellado, V. (1998). The classroom practice of preservice teachers and their conceptions of teaching and learning science. Science Education, 82(2), 197-214. Mertens, D. M. (2005). Research and Evaluation in Education and Psychology: Integrating Diversity With Quantitative, Qualitative, and Mixed Methods, Sage, Thousand Oaks, Calif, USA, 2nd edition. Richardson, V. (1997). Constructivist Teaching and Teacher Education: Theory and practice. In V. Richardson (Ed.), Constructivist Teacher Education: building new understandings (pp. 3-14).Washington, DC: Falmer Press. Rosso, N. A. (1978). Capturing teachers’ decision policies: An investigation of strategies for teaching reading and mathematics. Paper presented at the annual conference of the American Educational Research Association, Toronto, Canada. Schommer, M. (1990). Effects of beliefs about the nature of knowledge on comprehension. Journal of Educational Psychology, 82, 498–504. Schraw, G. & Olafson L. (2002). Knowing, Knowledge and Beliefs. New York, Springer Netherlands. Schraw, G., Olafson, O., & Vanderveldt, M. (2011). Fostering Critical Awareness of Teachers' Epistemological and Ontological Beliefs. In J, Brownlee, G. Schraw & D. Berthelsen (eds.), Personal Epistemology and Teacher Education (pp. 149-165). UK: Routledge. Schraw, G., & Sinatra, G. M. (2004). Epistemological Development and its Impact on Cognition in Academic Domains. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 29, 95-102. Wilcox-Herzog. A. (2002). Is there a link between teachers‘ beliefs and behaviors? Early Education and Development, 13(1), 81-106.

Advances in Language and Literary Studies ISSN: 2203-4714 Vol. 6 No. 6; December 2015 Flourishing Creativity & Literacy

Australian International Academic Centre, Australia

A Network Text Analysis of David Ayer’s Fury Starling David Hunter (Corresponding author) Tepper School of Business, Carnegie Mellon University, 5032 Forbes Ave, Pittsburgh PA, USA E-mail: [email protected] Susan Smith College of Mass Communication, American University of Sharjah, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates E-mail: [email protected]

Doi:10.7575/aiac.alls.v.6n.6p.29

Received: 09/06/2015

URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.7575/aiac.alls.v.6n.6p.29

Accepted: 25/08/2015

Abstract Network Text Analysis (NTA) involves the creation of networks of words and/or concepts from linguistic data. Its key insight is that the position of words and concepts in a text network provides vital clues to the central and underlying themes of the text as a whole. Recent research has relied on inductive approaches to identify these themes. In this study we demonstrate a deductive approach that we apply to the screenplay of the 2014 World War II-era film Fury. Specifically, we first use genre expectations theory to establish prior expectations as to the key themes associated with war films. We then empirically test whether words and concepts associated with the most influentially-positioned nodes are consistent with themes common to the war-film genre. As predicted, we find that words and concepts associated with the least constrained nodes in the text network were significantly more likely to be associated with the war, action, and biography genres and significantly less likely to be associated with the mystery, science-fiction, fantasy, and filmnoir genres. Keywords: content analysis, text analysis, network text analysis, semantic network analysis, film studies, screenplay, screenwriting, war movies, World War II, tanks 1. Introduction Network text analysis (NTA) is a term used to describe a wide variety of “computer supported solutions” that model a text as a network “of words and the relations between them” (Diesner & Carley, 2005, p. 83). Constructing these networks is a four-step process and differences in how each is performed account for much of the variety to be found in approaches to NTA (Diesner, 2012). The first step involves the selection of which words are to be included or excluded in the analysis. The second step involves the abstraction of the included words to higher-order conceptual categories. In the third step, connections are established between pairs of related concepts. Subsequent analysis of the resulting network involves a fourth step—the identification or extraction of the key themes. Like other forms of content analysis, NTA explicitly assumes that structure encodes meaning (Fischer-Starcke, 2009). Where it differs from traditional content analytic approaches, i.e. those concerned with word-frequency, is that meaning is encoded in the structure of the network. Most specifically, in the extraction phase of NTA, prime importance is placed upon the position or role of concepts within the text network. In short, the more influential the network roles and position occupied by concepts, the greater the assumed thematic or semantic relevance they are assumed to have. A number of recent studies have focused attention on the last step. In the last five years alone these include network text analyses of abstracts of academic journal articles (Beam, et al, 2014), medical school mission statements (Grbic, Hafferty, & Hafferty, 2013), presidential inaugural addresses (Light, 2014), violent extremist propaganda (Morris, 2014), screenplays and novellas (Hunter & Singh 2015; Hunter & Smith, 2014), energy policy speeches (Shim, Park, & Wilding, 2015), as well as newspaper articles about the global financial crisis (Nerghes, Lee, Groenewegen, & Hellsten, 2015), mad cow disease (Lim, Berry, & Lee, 2015), the creationism debate in the US (Shortell, 2011) and two major cities in Afghanistan (Martin, Pfeffer, & Carley, 2013). In these studies, measures of concept position within the text networks include degree centrality (Shortell, 2011; Grbic, Hafferty, & Hafferty, 2013; Martin, Pfeffer & Carley, 2013; Morris, 2014;) , betweenness centrality (Light, 2014; Shim, Park, & Wilding, 2015; Nerges, Groenewegen, & Hellsten, 2015), and network constraint (Hunter & Singh, 2015). Despite the wide variety of corpora and research questions, the research designs share two important features. The first is the use of exploratory or inductive methods. Put another way, falsifiable hypotheses concerning both the content and positions of the themes are rarely if ever formulated and tested. Rather, the approach has been to select texts on a particular topic, generate semantic networks therefrom, identify the words/concepts occupying the most influential network positions or roles, and for the purposes of the ensuing analysis treat those words/concepts as indicators of the most important themes. For example, Shim, Park & Wilding (2015) undertook to “explore and compare nuclear energy

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policy frames” in six countries –Japan, South Korea, USA, UK, France, and Germany—in the two years preceding and two years following the March 2011 Fukushima accident. They created semantic networks from “the speeches and addresses made by top policy makers” in each of the six countries. Their subsequent analysis found many important differences both with and across countries, as well as over time. But the analysis was exploratory and no falsifiable hypotheses or propositions were formulated concerning the differences in the centrality of concepts across the various analytical frames. Similarly, Beam, Applebaum, Jack, et al (2014) undertook to map the semantic structure of “cognitive neuroscience” a field that links the “biological systems” investigated by neuroscientists to the “processing constructs” investigated by psychologists. Notably, their investigation revealed many significant instances of “negative” structure—what they termed “islands” and “gaps”—as well as “positive” structure—what they termed “hubs” and “branches” (ibid., p. 1958). However, despite the clearly stated role of cognitive neuroscience as a “linking discipline”, the authors offered no predictions concerning either which concepts would be central in each of the three domains or which concepts, if any, would serve as linchpins among them. Two recently studies have undertaken an inductive approach concerning the network position of concepts. One of them is Grbic, Hafferty, & Hafferty (2013, p. 853) who studied the semantic structure of mission statements of 132 US medical schools. They divided the schools into four types—research-focused, social mission-focused, public, and private. Their hypothesis was that “key differences in institutional identity and purpose are projected through (medical) school mission statements, ” differences that would “become apparent particularly under the lens of a network approach to text analysis.” And as predicted they found that the top 10 most central themes—terms like leader, biomedical, health, research, and community—across the four hospitals differed. They did not, however, predict what any of the most central themes would be. Nor did they specify a priori how the most central concepts would differ across the four types of medical schools—only that they would differ. Another study adopting an inductive approach is Hunter & Singh’s (2015) analysis of the screenplay of the 1999 film Fight Club. They selected the film not only because of its status as a cult classic, but also because the film and the novel upon which it is based have been the subject of over 100 peer-reviewed journal articles with emphases on literary criticism, film studies, religion, philosophy, media and culture, race and ethnicity, gothic studies, psychotherapy, and the sociology of sport. And it was from the abstracts of such journal articles that they first identified thirteen prominent themes prominent in the academic discourse about the film. The four most frequently occurring in the sample of 52 abstracts were gender, social and individual identity, capitalism, and anarchism. As expected, they found these themes to be clearly associated with the most central and least constrained nodes in the morpho-etymological network that they constructed from the screenplay’s text. That said, it is important to note that neither Hunter & Singh (2015) nor Grbic, Hafferty, & Hafferty (2013) offered theoretically-grounded justifications for their predictions. And that is where the present study stands to contribute to the existing literature concerning the extraction of important themes. Our is the first of which we are aware that grounds our predictions in such a manner. As detailed in the next section, in this study we use genre expectations theory (Bignell, 2002; Altman, 1984; Eberwein, 2009) to determine a priori what themes should be prevalent in a war film in general and in an Iraq-war film in particular. We then test whether those themes are associated with centrally or influentially positioned nodes in the text network that we construct from the text of the screenplay. We then externally validate those results by having survey respondents attempt to determine the film’s genre based only on their examination of words and concepts associated with the most influentially positioned nodes in the network. 2. Literature Review & Hypothesis The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language defines the word genre both as “a type or class” and more specifically—in reference to the arts—as “a category of artistic composition…marked by a distinctive style, form, or content.” In film studies the term “genre analysis” refers to the classification of films into recognizable groups and types—e.g. comedy, drama, science-fiction, and horror—as well as the study of the “codes and conventions” that define them (Bignell, 2002, p. 199). Many aspects of a film can convey its genre. These include, but are not limited to the story structure (plots, characters, issues, situations), locations and backdrops, props, the narrative style, dialog, lighting, emphasized camera shots, the musical score and sounds, lighting, etc. (Bignell, 2002; Altman, 1984). “Genres have characteristic features that are known to and recognized by audiences.” For example, in a Western we see similar characters, situations, and settings, e.g. native Americans, settlers and homesteaders, horses and men on horseback, stagecoaches and covered wagons, guns and gunfights, corrals and ranches, wilderness and wide open spaces. Taken together, all of these things—and more—“offer the audience a set of expectations” and allow the film producer a template upon which to base its marketing and promotional discourse. (Bignell, 2002, p. 199). There is currently no universally agreed-upon set of film genres. The International Movie Database (imdb.com) classifies films into 21 genres which have remained relatively constant over time (http://www.imdb.com/genre/). Box Office Mojo (BOM) , however, currently lists 217 genres and sub-genres (http://www.boxofficemojo.com/genres/). Notably, neither site claim that their genre categories are either mutually exclusive or cumulatively exhaustive, or scientifically precise (Bordwell & Thompson, 2009). In fact, BOM explicitly states that “more genres will be added over time” and it invites readers to indicate what new (sub-) genres should be added. On both sites, a very large number of films are assigned to more than one genre but few appear to have more than four. Although definitions of genres vary, implicit in standard definitions is the notion that films can be classified into groups that have high similarity within the groups and low similarity across

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them. In other words, members of a genre share particular certain conventions of “content, e.g. themes or setting” with one another to a much greater degree than they do with those belong to other genres. In the introduction of his book entitled The Hollywood War Film, Eberwein (2009) places the “conventions” that define the genre into two categories—stock “characters” and “basic narrative elements.” As summarized in in the first column of Table 1, below, the characters of three types—males, females, and “youth/children/pets.” The former are further subdivided into (a) “the older, seasoned leader” (b) “young recruits” (c) “camp/platoon clown (d) “ladies man” [e] (“newly married or recent father” (f) “regional, ethnic, and racial types” and (g) “examples of different social classes.” The basic narrative elements are of three kinds—(1) the “basic training” that characterizes the preparation for combat (2) activities characterizing the specific branches of the armed services at war (3) activities or elements common to all branches of the armed services and where appropriate (4) the aftermath of war. Table 1. Codes and Conventions that Define the War Film Genre—Adapted from Eberwein, (2009) MALE CHARACTERS • Older, seasoned leader; Young recruits; Camp/platoon clown; Ladies’ man; Newly married or recent father • Regional, ethnic, & racial types; Different social classes FEMALE CHARACTERS • Loyal wife, girlfriend, nurse; Prostitute, floozie; Wise, sustaining mother YOUTH, CHILDREN, & PETS • Eager brothers, boys; Younger sisters; Endangered or killed child; Animals (dogs, cats) PRE-COMBAT: BASIC TRAINING • Tyrannical squad leader; Demanding exercises, drills; Bonding, pranks; Weekend passes; Sexual initiation • Successful graduation, completion of training COMBAT: ARMY/INFANTRY/MARINES • Water landings, patrols, ambushes, raids, digging in; Combat in jungles, deserts, mountains • Tanks, grenades, flamethrowers; Dealing with heat/cold (or elements) ELEMENTS COMMON TO ALL BRANCHES • Writing letters; receiving mail from home (typically birth announcements and “Dear John” letters). • Sharing and observing photographs; Listening to the radio • Spontaneous and improvised play to alleviate tension and boredom • Singing; prayers/church service; communion; Burials with short, moving eulogies & tributes • Leaves and Rest & Recuperation; Reflections on the nature of the enemy POST-COMBAT: AFTERMATH OF WAR • Recovery/rehab for physical/psychological injuries; Difficulty adjusting to civilian life • Reunion with wife, girl, family, friend As noted previously, prior studies in semantic network analysis operate on the assumption that the most influentially positioned words and concepts in text network embody or illustrate the source texts’ most important themes or meaning. Prior research of an exploratory kind on screenplays has already demonstrated that thematically-relevant words are associated with the least constrained and most central nodes in text networks (Hunter, 2014). One of those was The Hurt Locker, an Iraq War film about a bomb-disposal team working in and around Baghdad. In the text network of the screenplay, words associated with the least constrained nodes in that network included— HUMVEE, IED (improvised explosive device), machine gun, shell-shocked, suicide bomber, army-issue, body armor, fireball, gunfire, gunshot, , UN (United Nations), and USA. All of these words, and others, were illustrative of the conventions that Eberwein (2009) and others have identified as defining war films, in general, and Iraq war films in particular. As such, our hypothesis is that H1: In a text network constructed from the screenplay of a war film, words associated with the most influentially-positioned nodes will embody or illustrate the codes and conventions of the war genre to a greater extent than they do any other genre to which the film does not belong. In other words, the influentially-positioned words should be strongly associated with the WAR genre and not strongly associated with genres to which the film does not belong. 3. Methods & Data The object of our analysis is Fury, a 2014 American war film about US tank crews in Nazi Germany during the final months of World War II. The film stars Brad Pitt and Shia LeBeouf and was written and directed by David Ayer. Among Ayers’ other screenwriting credits are one other WWII-era film (U-571, 2000), the first installment of the highly-successful Fast and Furious franchise (The Fast & the Furious, 2001), a forthcoming comic-book adaptation

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(Suicide Squad, 2016), and several law-enforcement-themed dramas including Dark Blue (2002), Sabotage (2014) SWAT (2003), End of Watch (2012), and Training Day (2001), the last of which starred Denzel Washington in an Academy-Award winning performance. The film had its world premiere in Washington DC on October 15, 2014 followed by a wide release to over 3700 theaters across North America on October 17th. As of July 1, 2015 the film had earned $85.8 million domestically and another $126 Million in foreign revenues for a total of 211.8 million against a budget of $68 million. Critical response to the film has been largely positive. The film has a “Certified Fresh” by Rotten Tomatoes, rating of 77% based on 223 reviews (Rotten Tomatoes, 2015). Thirty-one positive ratings out of forty-five reviews by “top critics” as “fresh” leaves the film with a slightly lower 69% rating. Although the film received no Academy Award nominations, the lead and several supporting actors earned nominations and/or wins for their performances. These included the Best Actor in an Action Movie from the Broadcast Film Critics Association, Best Ensemble (National Board of Review) and Best Actor in a Supporting Role (Phoenix Film Critics Society). The film also was nominated and/or won a number of technical awards including Outstanding Action Performance by a Stunt Ensemble in a Motion Picture (Screen Actors Guild Awards), Best Sound Editing (Motion Picture Sound Editors), Best Film Editing and Best Art Direction and Production Design (Satellite Awards). The copy of the screenplay used in this paper was the “pink” revision date October 30, 2013, a date which is one month after principal photography began. Thus, it is likely the final draft of the screenplay and the one which matches most closely the resulting film. The screenplay was downloaded in PDF format directly from the website of Sony Pictures. (Note 1). The script itself is only 103 pages, approximately 17 less than the 120-page industry standard. 4. Network Text Analysis Recall that the four steps involved in a semantic network analysis, as detailed by Diesner (2012, pp. 90-1), are (1) selection, the determination of which words are to be included and excluded from consideration (2) abstraction, i.e. assigning the retained words to higher-level conceptual categories (3) connection, establishing a relationship for connecting pairs of conceptual categories and (4) and extraction, i.e. extracting or inferring meaning and key themes from the completed network. Our choices for these four steps were consistent with prior research on the semantic networks of screenplays (Hunter, 2014a, b; Hunter & Singh, 2015). In those studies, the only words that are selected are multi-morphemic compounds (MMCs), i.e. hyphenated and closed compounds, e.g. heavy-handed or shotgun; acronyms and abbreviations, e.g. NATO, radar, laser; blend words, e.g. guesstimate (guess + estimate) and motel (moter + hotel); clipped words, e.g. internet(work), e(lectronic)-mail; multi-word compounds, e.g. son-in-law, over-thetop; copulative compounds, e.g. actor/model, attorney-client; open compounds, e.g. trade secret and post office and words with hyphenated prefixes of three or more letters, e.g. pro-choice, ultra-sophisticated, anti-establishment. The text of Fury contained 4291 unique words repeated a total of 24,872 times. Excluding open compounds, the text contained 227 multi-morphemic compounds, about 5.3% of the number of unique words. Abstraction involved the assignment of each element of each MMC to a category defined as its etymological root. The source used to determine these roots was the 3rd edition of the Watkins’ (2011) American Heritage Dictionary of IndoEuropean Roots (AHDIER). which traces more than 13,000 English words back to over 1,300 Indo-European roots. For example, word shotgun is comprised of two morphemes—shot and gun. According to the AHDIER, the former descends from the IE root skeud- which means “ to shoot, chase, throw” (p. 81). The latter descends from the IE root gwhen- which means “to strike, kill” (p. 36). When Indo-European (IE) roots were not identified, then Greek, Latin, Semitic, or other roots are used, as provided in words’ etymology in the American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language (AHDEL). Because no software exists that etymological stems words in this fashion, the mapping had to be performed manually. At the conclusion of this process the 227 MMCs were traced back to 255 unique roots, 73% of which were Indo-European. The relationship between a word and its etymological root is genetic in that it suggests that the former descends from the latter. The choice of relationship used to connect these 403 roots was the co-occurrence of descendants of two or more roots within the same MMC. As shown above, the word shot descends from skeud- and gun from gwhen-. In semantic network of the screenplay of Fury, these two roots are linked or connected because their descendants co-occur within the same MMC—shotgun. And because roots have many descendants that may co-occur with many other descendants of other roots, the result is a semantic network where the nodes are etymological roots and the linkages representing the MMCs in which the roots co-occur. The 227 nodes in the semantic network for the screenplay of Fury were connected by 250 links or ties. As shown in Figure 1, the main component of the network—i.e. the largest group of interconnected or mutually-reachable nodes—contained 130 nodes connected by 165 linkages.

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Figure 1. Main Component of the Morpho-Etymological Network of the Screenplay of David Ayers’ Fury 4.1 Identifying Key Themes As discussed above, prior research in semantic network analysis has relied upon a variety of node-level measures to identify the most influentially-positioned concepts in a text network, degree and/or betweenness centrality being the most common (Nerges, Groenewegen, & Hellsten, 2015). In this study, we defined “influentially-positioned” nodes as those with betweenness centrality scores in the top 10% of the 130 nodes (etymological roots) in the main component. Those nodes and their betweenness scores are shown in Table 2, below: Table 2. The Most Influentially-positioned Nodes and Betweenness Centralities and Multi-Morphemic Compounds Associated with Them Node (definition)

Betweenness Centrality (Normalized)

Associated Multi-morphemic Compounds

kaput- (head)

28.9

forehead, handkerchief, headbutt, headquarters, HQ, headset, overhead, shithead, spearhead

bhel-2 (ball)

24.9

skei- (to cut, split)

24.5

baseball, bulldozer, bullshit, eyeball, fireball, football, hardball, redball bullshit, dogshit, shithead, shithouse, shit-yer-pants,

en- (in)

21.9

close-in, dug-in, incoming, instead

se-2 (side) agh-2 (a day) gwhen (to strike, skill)

20.8 20.3 18.0

backside, broadside, countryside, roadside, sidewalk daylight, everyday, Sunday anti-tank gun, COAX (coaxial machinegun), greasegun, gunfire, gunpowder, gunshot, gunsight, MG (machine gun), outgunned, shotgun, sub-machinegun, tommy-gun

aiw- (vital force; life; eternity) sta- (to stand)

17.9

everyday, forever, middle-aged, nevertheless, teenager

16.3

anti-tank gun, assistant-driver, TC (tank commander), anti-tank mine, anti-tank rocket, lamppost, outpost, instead, understand

uper- (over)

16.0

hangover, overalls, overhead, overheated, overlay, overrun, overwhelming, supercharge, superquick.

per1 (forward, through)

13.2

forearm, forehead, forever.

paewr- (fire) de- (to)

12.7 12.1

gunfire, fireball, firelight, today

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Recall that in all other semantic network analyses reviewed above—and all of which we are more generally aware— words are nodes in the networks whereas in the morpho-etymological approach the nodes are etymological roots and the words are associated with the edges. As such, while the determination of the most influentially-positioned nodes is a relatively straight-forward process, the only contingency or element of uncertainty being which of many measures of influence to use. In the table above, the third column contains all of the MMCs associated with each of the 13 most influentially-positioned nodes. After excluding prepositions and pronouns, these nodes were associated with the following 57 MMCs : anti-tank (mine), anti-tank (gun), anti-tank (rocket), assistant-driver, backside, baseball, birthday, broadside, bulldozer, bullshit, close-in, COAX (coaxial machine gun), countryside, daylight, dogshit, dug-in, everyday, eyeball, fireball, firelight, football, forearm, forehead, forever, grease-gun, gunfire, gunpowder, gunshot, gunsight, handkerchief, hardball, headbutts, headquarters, headsets, incoming, instead, lamppost, MG (machine gun), middleaged, nevertheless, outgunned, outpost, overhead, Redball, roadside, shithead, shithouse, shit-yer-pants, shotgun, sidewalk, spearhead, Sunday, TC (Tank Commander), teenager, today, Tommy-gun, and understand. 4.2 Results Several of the above MMCs typify several of the codes and conventions of war films defined by Eberwein (2009). Recall that his “COMBAT” category included participation in and participation for combat (“ambushes, raids, digging in”), the locations where combat takes, and the weaponry itself (tanks, grenades, flamethrowers, etc.). Clearly, several MMCs are relevant to this category including anti-tank mine, anti-tank gun, anti-tank rocket, COAX (coaxial machine gun), dug-in, fireball, grease-gun, gunfire, gunpowder, gunshot, gunsight, incoming, machine gun, outgunned, shotgun, TC (tank commander), and Tommy-gun. Additionally, the term spearhead is used in this context figuratively and takes the meaning of the “the leading forces in a military thrust.” The MMC countryside is used the phrase “German countryside” in reference to the location of all combat which takes place in the film. The term outpost appears in the phrase “outpost tank” and refers to a defensive combat role performed by a specific tank in the column. The term overhead appears in reference to American P47 warplanes that provided air-cover for the tank column. Associated with the “MALE CHARACTERS” is the troupe of “regional, ethnic, and racial types” representing “different social classes.” Among the MMCs used to convey this convention were the names of several characters—WarDaddy, Coon-Ass, goodold-boy, redneck, peachfuzzy teenager, and Redball. Only the latter term was associated with the most influentially nodes and it refers to the supply trucks driven by black American soldiers. 4.3 Survey Results Taken together, the above MMCs are adequate to support the first hypothesis, i.e. that the influentially positioned concepts (nodes) in the text network of Fury’s screenplay embody the conventions of the genre. As noted previously, it is at approximately this point that most network text analyses conclude. We, however, opted to further validate our coding with an approach not previously undertaken in any study of which we are aware. Specifically, developed a survey that would allow us to directly compare how well the MMCs convey not the codes and conventions of the war genre, by comparing it to genres to which it does not belong. Specifically, we created a survey instrument that asked respondents to first review the above list of MMCs and then required them to indicate the film genre to which they best correspond. (See Appendix 1 for details of the questions which appeared in the survey instrument). Respondents were from Amazon.com’s mTurk e-worker service (mTurk.com). All survey respondents were located in the USA, had previously completed at least 5000 human intelligence tasks (HITs) and had a 98% or better approval rates from other employers. Respondents were told in the introduction to the survey that they would be matching keywords extracted from the screenplay of a film to types or genres of films. After viewing just one of the three groups of keywords, respondents were asked to answer a series of 20 questions, each of which provided a definition of a genre and which required the respondent to rate on a 1-10 scale the likelihood that the resulting film belonged to that genre. Higher scores represented higher likelihoods. The question specific to the war genre read as follows: “How likely is it that this list of words was taken from a WAR film, i.e. one that contains numerous scenes and/or a narrative that pertains to a real war (i.e., past or current).” The question regard westerns was worded similarly: “How likely is it that this list of words was taken from a WESTERN film, i.e. a film that contains numerous scenes and/or a narrative that portrays frontier life in the American West during 1600s to contemporary times.” The eighteen other genres about which the respondents provided opinions were Action, Adventure, Animation, Biography, Comedy, Crime, Drama, Family, Fantasy, Film-Noir, History, Horror, Music/Musical, Mystery, Romance, Science-Fiction, Sport, and Thriller. Their definitions embedded in the questions were taken directly from the International Movie Database (IMDB). (Note 2). Consistent with our qualitative analysis, we found the predicted relationship between the network position of concepts and the film’s genre. Table 3 contains the descriptive statistics the scores for each of the 158 usable responses.

Table 3. Descriptive Statistics for Survey Responses Genre Action War Crime Adventure

Min 1 1 1 1

Max 10 10 10 10

Median 8.5 8 6 6

Average 8.29 8.02 6.08 6.08

Std. Dev. 1.60 2.08 2.34 2.23

Skewness -1.15 -1.21 -0.43 -0.62

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Thriller History Drama Bio Film-noir Comedy Horror Mystery Scifi Sports Western Fantasy Animated Romance Music Family

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1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 9 10 10 10 10 10 10 10

6 6 5 4 4 3 3 4 3 3 3 2 2 1.5 1 1

5.53 5.33 5.18 4.24 4.16 3.97 3.90 3.89 3.83 3.73 3.46 3.21 2.72 2.24 2.16 1.98

2.23 2.54 2.44 2.36 2.47 2.48 2.34 2.03 2.29 2.46 2.54 2.28 2.13 1.87 1.88 1.77

-0.24 -0.09 0.05 0.46 0.49 0.65 0.56 0.52 0.55 0.67 0.82 1.07 1.48 2.03 2.31 2.51

In the IMDB, Fury belongs to three of the 20 aforementioned genres—Action, War, and Drama. As shown in the table above, the mean scores of the corresponding survey responses were 8.29, 8.02, and 5.18, respectively. Notably, these are the first, second, and seventh highest scores among the 20 genre-specific averages. The skewness of the Action and War responses were also the most highly negative with values of -1.15 and -1.21, respectively. This indicates that the left tail of the distribution of these scores is longer and, accordingly, that the mass of the distribution is concentrated to the right. This skewness can be interpreted to indicate that there was relatively less uncertainty in the scores for these two genres. By comparison, the skewness of the scores for the Drama genre was only 0.46, thereby indicating that there was a slight right-hand shift in the distribution. The standard deviation of the distribution of the Action and War genres were 1.60 and 2.08, the lowest and fourth lowest scores respectively. While these results strongly suggest that the most influentially-positioned concepts—those with the high betweenness scores—were easily recognizable as belonging to the War genre, they only partially support the hypothesis. Recall that our specific prediction was not just that the most influentially-positioned words would illustrate or embody the War genre but not do the same for genres to which it did not belong. As we can see from the results in Table 1, the lowest average scores are those associated with the following five genres—Fantasy (3.21), Animated (2.72), Romance (2.24), Music & Musicals (2.16) and Family (1.98). Notably, these five genres also have the five highest levels of skewness— values of 1.07, 1.48, 2.03, 2.31, and 2.51, respectively. This pattern of results suggests that the survey respondents had very little uncertainty associated with their determinations concerning these five genres in particular. Seventeen t-test of means were also conducted in which War genre scores were compared to scores for the remaining seventeen genres to which the film did not belong. In every instance the scores for the War genre were very significantly larger (p < 1E-10). Taken together these results make clear that the most influentially-positioned concepts—those with the highest betweenness centrality scores—were strongly associated with the War genre in the absolute sense and the relative. As such, the study’s hypothesis is strongly supported. 5. Conclusion As noted in the introductory section of this paper, the extraction of meaning from text or semantic networks involves an examination of the most influentially positioned nodes in the network. That said, we are aware only one other study wherein the themes associated with a text network’s most influential nodes were specified a priori. Thus, the present study is distinguished from most of the prior literature in this regard. Where the present study is most distinctive concerns the theory we used to generate our falsifiable two hypotheses. Specifically, it was genre theory within the broader film studies literature, and research on the war-film genre that we applied to the screenplay of Fury. As discussed in the preceding section, our results supported both hypotheses, i.e. that the words associated with the most influentially-positioned nodes would embody the codes and conventions of the war film genre and that they would so more accurately than words associated with the least influentially-positioned nodes. Recall that we used network constraint (Burt, 2000) as our measure of positional influence and found that several words associated with the subset of least constrained—and thus most influentially-positioned—nodes were clearly associated with the codes and conventions of war films, words like anti-tank mine, anti-tank gun, anti-tank rocket, COAX (coaxial machine gun), dugin, fireball, grease-gun, gunfire, gunpowder, gunshot, gunsight, incoming, machine gun, outgunned, shotgun, TC (tank commander), and Tommy-gun. In marked contrast, our reading of the words associated with the most constrained—and thus least influentially-positioned—nodes revealed that many fewer evoked the codes and conventions of the war genre. But unlike prior studies of this kind, we also externally validated our impressions of these two sets of words. Specifically, we administered surveys to over 100 participants recruited through Amazon’s mTurk service and, as discussed above, we found further and stronger support for our hypothesis. To the best of our knowledge, ours is the only network text analysis that has externally validated its findings.

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There are at least two important implications of our findings that should be explicitly noted. First, as noted above, this study is the first of which we are aware that developed specific, falsifiable hypothesis concerning the role and positions of relevant concepts and externally validated the hypothesis. It is our belief that this approach should become a standard practice followed by future network text analyses. Secondly, the approach outlined here may have implications for the practice of screenplay “coverage”—the term used to describe the qualitative analysis of screenplays by readers, directors, agents, and producers. As noted by Eliashberg, Hui, and Zhang (2007), “deciding which scripts to produce is dauntingly difficult task, as the number of submissions always greatly exceeds the number of movies that can be made” (p. 881). The approach used by all major studios to select screenplays from the thousands submitted each year has been described both “age-old” and “labor-intensive” (ibid, p. 881). In short, they hire 3-4 readers who read the script and provide a written “synopsis of the story line” along with a “recommendation on whether the screenplay should be produced into a movie and the changes, if any, that are needed before actual production” (ibid, p. 881-2) Because the evaluations are entirely subjective and qualitative, it means that the success of a movie relies in large part on the “quality of the available readers and their acumen in picking out promising scripts” (ibid., p. 882). In addition, because readers can and do frequently disagree—as do producers—the process is characterized by high levels of uncertainty and strikes many as arbitrary (Hague, 2011). Although this study did not attempt to link the position of key concepts to the screenplay’s quality, it’s worth noting that it’s possible that screenplays will vary systematically in this regard. More specifically, it is possible that in higher quality screenplays will be characterized by a greater number of genre-relevant concepts in the more influential positions within the text network. If so, then it means that an objective and muchneeded measure of screenplay quality could be developed, one based on the process and approach outlined here. We should note that there are several limitations to this study that should be explicitly recognized, limitations that may place bounds around on the generalizability of the result. The first concerns the nature of the text analyzed. Whereas all other network text analyses of which we are aware use non-fiction, we used a screenplay, one adapted from an autobiography. This is important because contemporary screenplays adhere to very well-defined set of story-telling conventions, plot devices, and narrative structures (Field, 2005; Snyder, 2005) and are characterized by a level or thematic and lexical repetition not common to texts in other domains (Hunter& Smith, 2013). Secondly, we analyzed a screenplay from a film genre that is long-standing and well-defined in the minds of American movie-goers and media consumers. It’s possible that widespread familiarity with war films enhanced survey respondents’ ability to correctly identify the genre and it’s an open question as to whether a romantic comedy or a family drama would be so easily identified through a similar approach. Third, we should note that the method upon which we based our findings relies on a single source for tracing multi-morphemic compounds back to their etymological roots—the American Heritage Dictionary of Indo-European Roots (Watkins, 2011). Recall that approximately 75% of the individual morphemes in the network model were traced back to that source. It is possible that some of the remaining 25% could have been traced to common roots—Indo-European or otherwise—described and defined in other well-known sources, e.g. the Barnhart Concise Dictionary of Etymology (Barnhart, 1995) or The Concise Oxford Dictionary of English Etymology (Hoad, 1993). Finally, we should note that it is unclear whether and to what degree the approach described here can be applied to languages other than English. While it is widely accepted in comparative linguistics that compounding is a common to all languages, the same compound words are not always used across languages to describe the same thing. For example, the English compound laptop doesn’t translate directly into many other languages. Furthermore, research on the Indo-European roots of those languages may not have progressed as far as it has in English. As such, there may be serious limitations associated with the application of the methods described herein to other Indo-European or other language families. References Altman, R. (1984). A semantic/syntactic approach to film genre. Cinema Journal, 6-18. Barnhart, R. K. (Ed.). (1995). The Barnhart Concise Dictionary of Etymology. New York, NY: Harper-Collins. Beam, E., Appelbaum, L. G., Jack, J., Moody, J., & Huettel, S. A. (2014). Mapping the semantic structure of cognitive neuroscience. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 26(9), 1949-1965. Bignell, J. (2002). Media semiotics: An Introduction. Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press. Box Office Mojo (2015), Retrieved April 23, 2015, from http://www.boxofficemojo.com/movies/?id=savingprivateryan.htm Burt, R. S. (2000). The network structure of social capital. Research in Organizational Behavior, 22, 345-423. Diesner, J., & Carley, K. M. (2005). Revealing social structure from texts: meta-matrix text analysis as a novel method for network text analysis. Causal mapping for information systems and technology research: Approaches, advances, and illustrations, 81-108. Diesner, J. (2012). Uncovering and managing the impact of methodological choices for the computational construction of socio-technical networks from texts. Carnegie-Mellon University, Pittsburgh PA. Institute of Software Research International. Eberwein, R. (2009). The Hollywood War Film. Malden, MA: John Wiley & Sons. Eliashberg, J., Hui, S. K., & Zhang, Z. J. (2007). From story line to box office: A new approach for green-lighting movie scripts. Management Science, 53(6), 881-893. Field, S. (2005). Screenplay: The Foundations of Screenwriting (2nd ed.). New York: Delta. Fischer-Starcke, B. (2009). Keywords and frequent phrases of Jane Austen's Pride and Prejudice: A corpus-stylistic analysis. International Journal of Corpus Linguistics, 14(4), 492-523.

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Grbic, D., Hafferty, F. W., & Hafferty, P. K. (2013). Medical school mission statements as reflections of institutional identity and educational purpose: A network text analysis. Academic Medicine, 88(6), 852-860. Hauge, M. (1991). Writing screenplays that sell. New York, NY: Harper-Collins. Hoad, T. F. (Ed.). (1993). The Concise Oxford Dictionary of English Etymology. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Hunter, S. (2014). A Novel Method of Network Text Analysis. Open Journal of Modern Linguistics, 4(2), 350-66. Hunter, S., & Singh, S. (2015). A Network Text Analysis of Fight Club. Theory and Practice in Language Studies, 5(4), 737-749. Hunter, S., & Smith, S. (2013). Thematic and Lexical Repetition in a Contemporary Screenplay. Open Journal of Modern Linguistics, 3(1), 9-19. Hunter, S., & Smith, S. (2014). A Network Text Analysis of Conrad’s Heart of Darkness. English Linguistics Research, 3(2), p39. Light, R. (2014). From Words to Networks and Back: Digital Text, Computational Social Science, and the Case of Presidential Inaugural Addresses. Social Currents, 1(2), 111-129. Lim, S., Berry, F. S., & Lee, K. H. (2015). Stakeholders in the Same Bed with Different Dreams: Semantic Network Analysis of Issue Interpretation in Risk Policy Related to Mad Cow Disease. Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory, in press. Martin, M. K., Pfeffer, J., & Carley, K. M. (2013). Network text analysis of conceptual overlap in interviews, newspaper articles and keywords. Social Network Analysis and Mining, 3(4), 1165-1177. Morris, T. (2014). Networking vehement frames: neo-Nazi and violent jihadi demagoguery. Behavioral Sciences of Terrorism and Political Aggression, 6(3), 163-182. Nerghes, A., Lee, J-S., Groenewegen, P. & Hellsten, I. (2015). Mapping Discursive Dynamics of the financial crisis: a structuralist perspective of concept roles in semantic networks. Computational Social Networks, 2(16), 1-29. Rotten Tomatoes (2015). Retrieved August 4, 2015, from http://www.rottentomatoes.com /m/fury_2015 Shim, J., Park, C., & Wilding, M. (2015). Identifying policy frames through semantic network analysis: an examination of nuclear energy policy across six countries. Policy Sciences, 48(1), 51-83. Shortell, T. (2011). The conflict over origins: A discourse analysis of the creationism controversy in American newspapers. Mass Communication and Society, 14(4), 431-453. Snyder, B. (2005). Save the cat! The last book on screenwriting you’ll ever need. Studio City, CA: M. Wiese Productions. Watkins, C. (Ed.). (2011). The American Heritage Dictionary of Indo-European Roots. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. Notes Note 1: http://www.sonypictures.com/movies/fury/awards/scripts/fury_script.pdf Note 2: http://www.imdb.com/help/search?domain=helpdesk_faq&index=2&file=genres Appendix 1.

How likely is it that this list of words was taken from an ACTION film, i.e. a film that contains numerous scenes where action is spectacular and usually destructive? 2. How likely is it that this list of words was taken from an ADVENTURE film, i.e. one that contains numerous consecutive and inter-related scenes of characters participating in hazardous or exciting experiences for a specific goal. 3. How likely is it that this list of words was taken from an ANIMATED film, i.e. a film where the majority of its scenes are wholly or partly animated, hand-drawn, computer-generated, stop-motion, etc? 4. How likely is it that this list of words was taken from a BIOGRAPHICAL film, i.e. a film that focused on the depiction of activities and personality of a real person or persons, for some or all of their lifetime? 5. How likely is it that this list of words was taken from a COMEDY, i.e. a film that mostly contains characters participating in humorous or comedic experiences? 6. How likely is it that this list of words was taken from a CRIME film, i.e. a film that contains numerous consecutive and inter-related scenes of characters participating, aiding, abetting, and/or planning criminal behavior or experiences usually for an illicit goal? 7. How likely is it that this list of words was taken from a DRAMA, i.e. a film that contains numerous consecutive scenes of characters portrayed to effect a serious narrative throughout? 8. How likely is it that this list of words was taken from a FAMILY film, i.e. the film is aimed specifically for the education and/or entertainment of children or the entire family? 9. How likely is it that this list of words was taken from a FANTASY film, i.e. it contains numerous consecutive scenes of characters portrayed to effect a magical and/or mystical narrative? 10. How likely is it that this list of words was taken from a FILM NOIR, i.e. a film that features dark, brooding characters, corruption, detectives, and the seedy side of the big city? 11. How likely is it that this list of words was taken from a HISTORY film, i.e. a film whose primary focus is on reallife events of historical significance featuring real-life characters?

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12. How likely is it that this list of words was taken from a HORROR film, i.e. a film that contains numerous consecutive scenes of characters effecting a terrifying and/or repugnant narrative throughout? 13. How likely is it that this list of words was taken from an MUSICAL/MUSIC film, i.e. a film that contains several scenes of characters bursting into song aimed at the viewer and/or contains significant music-related elements, e.g. portrays a concert or a story about a band? 14. How likely is it that this list of words was taken from a MYSTERY film, i.e. a film that contains numerous interrelated scenes of one or more characters endeavoring to widen their knowledge of anything pertaining to themselves or others? 15. How likely is it that this list of words was taken from a ROMANCE film, i.e. a film that contains numerous interrelated scenes of a character and their personal life with emphasis on emotional attachment or involvement with other characters, especially those characterized by a high level of purity and devotion? 16. How likely is it that this list of words was taken from a SCIENCE FICTION film, i.e. a film that contains numerous scenes, and/or the entire background for the setting of the narrative, based on speculative scientific discoveries or developments, environmental changes, space travel, or life on other planets? 17. How likely is it that this list of words was taken from a SPORTS film, i.e. a film whose focus is on sports or a sporting event, either fictional or actual? 18. How likely is it that this list of words was taken from a THRILLER, i.e. a film that contains numerous sensational scenes or a narrative that is sensational or suspenseful? 19. How likely is it that this list of words was taken from a WAR film, i.e. a film that contains numerous scenes and/or a narrative that pertains to a real war (i.e., past or current)? 20. How likely is it that this list of words was taken from a WESTERN, i.e. a film that contains numerous scenes and/or a narrative that portrays frontier life in the American West during 1600's to contemporary times?

Advances in Language and Literary Studies ISSN: 2203-4714 Vol. 6 No. 6; December 2015 Flourishing Creativity & Literacy

Australian International Academic Centre, Australia

How James Kept the Pace?; A Look into the Organic Unity of Daisy Miller Sina Movaghati (Corresponding author) English Language and Literature Department, Kharazmi University of Tehran, Mofateh, Tehran, Iran E-mail: [email protected] Milad Comcar English Language and Literature Department, Kharazmi University of Tehran, Mofateh, Tehran, Iran E-mail: [email protected]

Doi:10.7575/aiac.alls.v.6n.6p.39

Received: 15/06/2015

URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.7575/aiac.alls.v.6n.6p.39

Accepted: 28/08/2015

Abstract Many Critics believe that Henry James has set the definitive standards of modern fiction writing. Undoubtedly his groundbreaking article “The Art of fiction,” which published for the first time in 1884, has a major contribution in developing the theories of fiction writing. The term Organic Unity has derived from a major Formalist Critic, Cleanth Brooks. Both James and Brooks believed that a critic should approach a text as an organic whole. So, in this article we try to pinpoint the ideas which James and Brooks claimed in their essays and see how these ideas conform to one of James’ well-known stories, Daisy Miller. We want to observe that how James develops and shapes his story around the central theme. Furthermore, we want to investigate that are there any literary devices embedded in the text of the story which help James to deliver his fiction with artistry? Keywords: James, Cleanth Brooks, Organic Unity, The Art of Fiction, Daisy Miller 1. Introduction 1.1 Organic Unity Organic Unity or Organic Form was one of the major topics of debates during the reign of the New Critics. The concept of organic unity was mentioned for the first time in such works as The Republic, Phaedrus, and Gorgias by the Greek philosopher Plato; but it lacked the true definitive role in literature until it was formed and shaped by another Greek philosopher, Aristotle. In Aristotle’s Poetics, organic unity is described by “how writing relies internally on narration and drama to remain cohesive to one another, not as separate entities. Without balance on both sides, the whole concept suffers” (Britannica). A Dictionary of Literary and Thematic Terms defines organic unity as: An argument that a literary work evolves and develops like a plant or other organism, naturally and internally. [...] The term was originally employed by Samuel Taylor Coleridge in defending Shakespeare from neoclassical critics’ charges of formal flaws in his plays. Coleridge argues that Shakespeare’s works exhibit “organic” rather than “mechanic” form: “The form is mechanic when, on any given material, we impress a predetermined form. The organic form, on the other hand, is innate; it shapes as it develops itself from within, and the fullness of its development is one and the same with the perfection of its outward form.” The idea of the literary text as a living organism has been an influential concept in the 20th century, particularly in NEW CRITICISM. (Quinn, 2006, p.306) 1.2 Claiming The Organic Unity in “The Art of Fiction” Henry James’ critical essay, “The Art of Fiction” was published in Longman’s Magazine in 1884. Actually, it was a reaction to a lecture which was given by Sir Walter Besant1 in 1884, but James’ essay became one of the most important essays in theory of fiction. James chose the title of the essay as a reaction to the title of Besant’s lecture, too.2 He starts his essay by asserting his key critical point; he elucidates that the sole motive of the author for the fiction should be epitomizing real life with all its fragments. He remarks that “The only reason for the existence of a novel is that it does attempt to represent life” (James, 2010, p.745). He proceeds and declares that “the air of reality (solidity of specification) seems to me to be the supreme virtue of a novel” (James, 2010, p.750). James continues his discussion by talking about form; he maintains that the author, like the painter and the artist, should capture life with all its particles and should illustrate it in his form of the novel, so one can judge a novel, not by his own taste but by the form which the author tries to produce; James maintains: Sir Walter Besant (1836 – 1901), was an English novelist and historian. The title of Besant’s lecture was The Art of Fiction, too; it seems that James chose the same title to mock Besant’s opinions about novel and author.

1 2

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The cultivation of this success, the study of this exquisite process, form, to my taste, the beginning and the end of the art of the novelist. They are his inspiration, his despair, his reward, his torment, his delight. It is here, in very truth, that he competes with life; it is here that he competes with his brother the painter, in his attempt to render the look of things, the look that conveys their meaning, to catch the colour, the relief, the expression, the surface, the substance of the human spectacle. (James, 2010, p.751) In this respect we can call him a Formalist and it is a fact that Formalists used James’s critical point of views in order to strengthen their critical theories. Later, in his essay, James attacks Besant’s standpoint about making a distinction about “incidents,” “descriptions,” and the “characters.” James claims that there is no such thing as significant incidents and insignificant incidents; there is no such thing as significant characters and insignificant characters. Here, James asserts the idea of organic unity and maintains that all the characters, incidents, and descriptions are significant to the plot. He restates Coleridge point of view about a work of art (here particularly a novel) and argues that novel is a living thing and an organic whole which all its materials and substances come together to form an organism. James contends that Nothing, for instance, is more possible than that he be of a turn of mind for which this odd, literal opposition of description and dialogue, incident and description, has little meaning and light. People often talk of these things as if they had a kind of internecine distinctness, instead of melting into each other at every breath and being intimately associated parts of one general effort of expression. I cannot imagine composition existing in a series of blocks, nor conceive, in any novel worth discussing at all, of a passage of description that is not in its intention narrative, a passage of dialogue that is not in its intention descriptive, a touch of truth of any sort that does not partake of the nature of incident, and an incident that derives its interest from any other source than the general and only source of the success of a work of art—that of being illustrative. A novel is a living thing, all one and continuous, like every other organism, and in proportion as it lives will it be found, I think, that in each of the parts there is something of each of the other parts. (James, 2010, p.751) In the next few sentences he wrote these famous questions which became one of the landmarks in the theories of novel in the twentieth century: “What is character but the determination of incidents? What is incident but the illustration of character?” (James, 2010, p.752) James maintains that the separation between novel and the romance, and the novel of incident and the novel of character are “clumsy separations” and only made by critics and certain readers for their own sake and convenience. James thinks that subject or idea of a novel should not be the subject of criticism; so he claims: “We must grant the artist his subject, his idea, donnée; our criticism is applied only to what he makes of it” (James, 2010, p.753). Again we can observe that, in James opinion, the crucial criteria for criticizing and judging a novel are those intrinsic features which the reader can see in the text, and not those features which are outside the text (like biography, politics,…) and imposed by certain critics when they are judging a literary text. Another thing which James mentions at the end of the essay is about this question that a novel should be moral or not? James confutes the whole idea and believes that it is not a goal for a novel to have certain moral lesson; One should judge a novel by the certain intrinsic features which the artist, as James calls a novelist, puts in his novel in order to achieve his own goal, which is the idea and the purpose which he pursues from writing the novel. Again this is a fact that proves James as a Formalist. Although we cannot call him a Formalist critic but certainly he and his opinions had certain tendencies toward formalism. James maintains his argument by attacking Emile Zola’s idea of the “treatment” of a novel. James argues that there is no such thing as good taste and bad taste in writing fiction, in his word he calls it “the absoluteness of taste;” and to him the motive of the author is above all things, and if the author has the success to achieve that motive, he will be able to show the real life to his readers, and readers can feel the art also; he believes that if the writers does not have creativity, they will sink into the well of familiar clichés. James writes: Thinking that there are certain things that people ought to like, and that they can be made to like. I am quite at a loss to imagine anything (at any rate in this matter of fiction) that people ought to like or to dislike. Selection will be sure to take care of itself, for it has a constant motive behind it. That motive is simply experience. As people feel life, so they will feel the art that is most closely related to it. This closeness of relation is what we should never forget in talking of the effort of the novel. Many people speak of it as a factitious, artificial form, a product of ingenuity, the business of which is to alter and arrange the things that surround us, to translate them into conventional, traditional moulds. This, however, is a view of the matter which carries us but a very short way, condemns the art to an eternal repetition of a few familiar clichés, cuts short its development, and leads us straight up to a dead wall. Catching the very note and trick, the strange irregular rhythm of life, that is the attempt whose strenuous force keeps Fiction upon her feet. (James, 2010, p.754) James believes that if an author wants to get rid of the problem of mediocrity he should have creativity; for James creativity goes along with freedom. He writes: “It appears to me that no one can ever have made a seriously artistic attempt without becoming conscious of an immense increase—a kind of revelation—of freedom” (James, 2010, p.754). When the essay becomes close to its ending, James remarks that an author or a novelist should have the capacity to receive the straight impressions from his surroundings. He writes: “If he has taste, I must add, of course he will have ingenuity, […] But it is only a secondary aid; the first is a capacity for receiving straight impressions” (James, 2010, p.755). He also, for the second time, talks about an organic whole and asserts that every line, every image, and even

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each punctuation mark contributes to the novel as a whole, so that the combination should be criticized rather than the individuals. James States: This sense of the story being the idea, the starting-point, of the novel is the only one that I see in which it can be spoken of as something different from its organic whole; and since, in proportion as the work is successful, the idea permeates and penetrates it, informs and animates it, so that every word and every punctuation-point contribute directly to the expression, in that proportion do we lose our sense of the story being a blade which may be drawn more or less out of its sheath. The story and the novel, the idea and the form, are the needle and thread, and I never heard of a guild of tailors who recommended the use of the thread without the needle or the needle without the thread. (James, 2010, p.755) Call him a realist, an impressionist or an expressionist, Henry James was truly a pioneer in modern fiction writing. Through the examination of his revolutionary essay “The Art of Fiction,” we grasp certain few points about his critical standpoints about novel writing. 1- Novelist should not have any restriction according to their subject matter. 2- He should derive his subject matter from the real life experience or his surroundings 3- Author should treat his novel delicately and with artistry. 4- Judgments should not be based on moral matters or taste. 5- The Novel should be judged as a whole, and should not be judged based on the individual fragments or parts of it. 6- The author should strive to establish an organic whole during his production of the novel. Of course there are other important details to point out, but for the sake of the discussion we limit ourselves to these few points. 1.3 Brooks and the Idea of Textual Harmony Another critical essay on the subject matter of organic unity was published in the book The Well Wrought Urn: Studies in the Structure of Poetry. The book is a series of critical essays written by American critic Cleanth Brooks, and in general it is about reading poems and how should critics approach an analysis of a poem. Although, one would argue that Brooks’ theories are only applicable to poetry and not fiction -and in result they do not relate to the subject matter of our discussion- but like James, Brooks’ standpoints about literature -in general- are important for us. The book contains eleven chapters and its most important chapter, at least for us, is the last one which is entitled by the author as “The Heresy of Paraphrase.” The method of Brooks’ criticism of poetry is the close reading of the poem. Brooks argues that because a poem is an aesthetic whole, therefore “the relation between all the elements must surely be an organic one” (Brooks, 1947, p.183), and the implications of the poem or the poet’s intentions cannot be found in the individual examination of each single element, hence the poem should be judged and criticized as a whole, and in this respect he argues that the act of paraphrasing poem’s text is like a heresy. He argues: “we see plainly that the paraphrase is not the real core of meaning which constitutes the essence of the poem” (Brooks, 1947, p.180). Here, he mentions the word “essence,” and by using this word we simply can understand that what Brooks means as the essence of the poem, or the literary work in general, is the organic whole which the creator, here particularly a poet, intends to create and the act of paraphrasing will reduce the denotations and mainly the connotations which one can derive from the text. Like James, Brooks believes that a particular element or object cannot solely stand for the beauty of the work, but it can be helpful when this single element works in “harmony” with other elements of the work; he writes: “we must draw a sharp distinction between… a particular item ...and the beauty of the poem considered as a whole” (Brooks, 1947, p.178); and the artistic and beautiful arrangement of all elements can make certain impact which shows itself in the wholeness of the work, which is the organic unity of the work. He asserts that a glorious poem does not unify the same things with one another, on the contrary a poem can be called glorious when it “unites the like with the unlike” (Brooks, 1947, p.179). By uniting the like with the unlike, Brooks emphasizes on the concepts such as irony, paradox, and ambiguity; and of course these elements can produce the estrangement impact on the reader and we should note that New Critics were overemphasizing on the use of literary devices such as irony and paradox, and of course one of their pioneers is William Empson3 which wrote a book of the concept of ambiguity. Brooks States that -and in this matter we can say that he is very close to what James expects of a well-written fictionthe poem should be the “experience,” not talking about certain experience. In general, he tries to claim that the poet should capture the form, as well as the mood; because the basis of a poem should be reality and real life, and a poet can be called successful who mixes the essence of reality with the perfect form. He maintains that “the poem, if it be a true poem, is a simulacrum of reality […] by being an experience rather than any mere statement about experience or any mere abstraction from experience” (Brooks, 1947, p.194). 2. Maintaining the Organic Unity in Daisy Miller In the introduction to Daisy Miller, Elizabeth Hardwick writes that the novella can be read “as an intramural battle between middle-aged, deracinated American women” which have been “long abroad” and “a young, provincial American girl whose naturalness and friendliness are more suitable to hometown streets” rather than to the “mysteries of European society” (Hardwick, 2002, p. xi). Indeed, it is a trilateral battle between the discreet American expatriates, indiscreet American immigrants, and the mysteries of the European society. Winterbourne’s role is crucial in this battle, Sir William Empson(1906-1984) was an English literary critic and poet who was emphasizing on the close reading of the text. Empson’s most ground-breaking contribution to the literary society was Seven Types of Ambiguity. It was published in 1930.

3

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because he is a spectator who observes both sides of the battle with a conscience to help him judge all the characters. But as the battle between the old and the new continues, Winterbourne is forced to pick a side which at the end left his conscience mortified. The narrative starts by the meeting of Winterbourne with Daisy’s little brother, Randolph. Winterbourne was very amused by the quick replies of the child and “wondered if he himself had been like this in his infancy, for he had been brought to Europe at about the same age” (James, 2002, p.6). Winterbourne quickly notices that something is different about this child and his own infancy; maybe he does not expect from an eight-year-old boy to be so bold. Winterbourne notices certain peculiarities in the kid’s behavior. In Winterbourne’s first encounter with Daisy, the author mentions that in “Geneva, as he had been perfectly aware, a young man wasn’t at liberty to speak to a young unmarried lady” (James, 2002, p.7), but because there were in Vevey and Winterbourne was well aware of the conditions, he thought it is the best place for flirting with a young, innocent flower like Daisy. Here the author intentionally claims about the awareness of Winterbourne to suggest that, unlike Daisy, he is a man of discretion. Later in the narrative, Winterbourne describes Daisy’s habits and manners formless, as if she has “no idea whatever of form” (James, 2002, p.9). Living a great amount of his life in Europe, Winterbourne promptly understands the crudity of Daisy’s mannerism. “It was many years since he had heard a young girl talk so much” (James, 2002, p.11). Well, it is true that Daisy is an ignorant girl, but James also reveals to the reader the other character’s mannerism, which is being too judgmental about Daisy. As Winterbourne puts it himself, he tries to formulate everyone and Daisy’s behavior is a mystery because he could not “generalize” her. More or less, “all the characters in Daisy Miller: A Study judge people according to presuppositions of type” (Haralson & Johnson, 2009, p.223). Of course, Winterbourne is the representative of the judgmental Society of American expatriates. The interesting thing happens a few paragraphs later. After the author introduces both the examiner and the examinee, Daisy reveals her problem with Europe to Frederick. She asserts: “you see the most frightful things here. The only thing I don’t like […] is the society. There ain’t any society - or if there is I don’t know where it keeps itself. Do you?” (James, 2002, p.12) Daisy unintentionally reveals to the reader that this judgmental society has already decreed their verdict against Miller family and it is Daisy’s childish innocence that keeps her from understanding such a thing. Daisy tells Frederick that, back in Schenectady, she had “a great deal of gentlemen’s society.” Winterbourne is “amused” and “perplexed,” but “above all he was charmed;” because he had never “heard a young girl express herself in just this fashion” (James, 2002, p.13). The fact that Winterbourne is more charmed than being perplexed by Daisy’s confession implies that Winterbourne is more in favor of “studying,” or as Motley Deakin puts it, Winterbourne “typifies” her. James intentionally reveals an important side of Winterbourne’s character; he is not in passionate love with Daisy, instead he is the sort of man who prefers to be a bystander and categorizes women. James immediately delays the narrative to talk about the previous experiments of Winterbourne in Europe: He had known here in Europe two or three women-persons older than Miss Daisy Miller and provided, for respectability’s sake, with husbands- who were great coquettes; dangerous terrible women with whom one’s light commerce might indeed take a serious turn. But this charming apparition wasn’t a coquette in that sense; she was very unsophisticated; she was only a pretty American flirt. Winterbourne was almost grateful for having found the formula that applied to Daisy Miller. (James, 2002, p.13) We understand that Frederick engaged in some affairs in the past and maybe the results of them were not good for his reputation, so he prefers to be a bystander rather than to engage him-self in a passionate affair. Winterbourne cannot decide “whether Daisy is vulgar or naive,” and therefore he is “perturbed when Daisy does not fit into either of these boxes, but instead of reassessing his methods, he cuts Daisy down to size” (Haralson & Johnson, 2009, p.223) and then he is relieved to declare that Daisy is only an unsophisticated, American flirt; because Winterbourne is such a cautious person, as if Daisy was a sophisticated coquette, he would hold back all his desires to talk to her. Motley Deakin noticed the same manner in Winterbourne and claims that Frederick’s habit is to “categorize; he sees the type, not the individual. When Daisy first appears before him, his response is not “How pretty she is,” but “how pretty they are. […] unwilling to accept her in her charming uniqueness, he searches for a term to typify her” (Deakin, 2001, p.80). Deakin investigates further in the habits of Winterbourne. He argues that Winterbourne does not attach him-self with the object of his investigation; also, “he approaches his interests with this habit of making comparisons, even to the extent of trying to balance the attractions of the Italian cities Bologna and Florence against those other, quite different charms of Daisy” (Deakin, 2001, p.80). Deakin maintains that Winterbourne commits him-self to Daisy because he thinks this is a proper thing to do. He is not in pursuit of either love, or passion; and he always puts his footsteps on the safest routes in the society. He writes: Winterbourne’s purpose is to please his fancy, not to stir his soul. His attitude is mild, suggesting that he is committed because he thinks it is the proper thing to do rather than because he feels any great passion. His interests involve very little personal risk. Even his attraction to the pretty but socially déclassé Daisy leaves no blemish on him. (Deakin, 2001, p.80)

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There are other clues which James puts in the story in order to develop its organic unity. After reading another few pages, the reader understands that the narrative stays with Winterbourne rather than staying with Daisy. As the full title of the novella suggests, Daisy Miller “A Study,” the story is more about the judgments and opinions of others, rather than a self-revelation of the character. And one can observe that this aspect of the work has masterfully done. “The observing outsider is a common figure throughout James’s work, and the strictness with which Winterbourne’s narrative viewpoint frames Daisy’s story is an important development in James’s narrative technique.” James focalizes “the narrative within the consciousness of a single character.” The story takes place in “Winterbourne’s consciousness and implies the possibility of competing interpretations of Daisy’s character and conduct. Readers must first evaluate Winterbourne’s point of view in order to understand Daisy” (Haralson & Johnson, 2009, p.223). Maybe, “it is only the fortune hunter Giovanelli,” who observes “society with some objectivity, is able to sense that Daisy is ‘the most innocent’ of creatures who simply does what she likes” (Coffin, 1958, p.273). Winterbourne who was perplexed and confused by the words which Daisy uttered at Vevey, easily understands his aunt’s intention by the tone of her voice. “He at once recognized from her tone that Miss Daisy Miller’s place in the social scale was low” (James, 2002, p.18). It is true that Winterbourne’s logic classifies the object of his scrutiny by making comparisons; and if the reader exploits the same logic as Winterbourne, he will understands that Frederick who spent quite a while to understands Daisy’s intentions -at least Winterbourne thinks that he has succeeded to classify Daisy at this point of the novel- does not even have to wait to understand his aunt’s intention and the fact that James uses the words “at once” is a proof for such understanding. There are other examples of Mrs. Costello’s judgmental characteristics; After Frederick mentions Miller family to his aunt, Mrs. Costello retorts that Miller family is “horribly common. […] they are the sort of Americans that one does one’s duty by just ignoring” (James, 2002, p.18). Here, James again emphasizes on the concept of categorizing. From here to the end of the story, the text contains lots of ironical situations. Mrs. Costello, like Frederick, categorizes these new immigrants by using the word “sort,” but at the same time the author hints us that she and her nephew can be categorized as the enclosed, American expatriates. Mrs. Costello refers to Daisy as the “young lady” who has an “intimacy with her mama’s courier.” And Winterbourne asks from his aunt that does she believe that their intimate relation to be true? His aunt replies that “There’s no other name for such a relation. But the skinny little mother’s just as bad! They treat the courier as a familiar friend-as a gentleman and a scholar” (James, 2002, p.18). Aunt Costello exploits the word intimacy, because above all “intimacy” connotes the sexual friendship rather than a simple one; but we can observe that her explanation for the word is not quite fit. This is ironical because indeed other names are available for such relations. After introducing another American expatriate, James develops both ironical and sarcastic tone. James, very much a meddler in the narrative, comments that “Winterbourne listened to these disclosures” (James, 2002, p.18) and this is truly sarcastic because what James call as disclosures -and Frederick listens with interest to- are the blathers of an old lady, and cannot be considered as facts. The reader knows already that this is the blathers of an old woman, because James has already told the reader that Mrs. Costello has sporadic headaches that keep her from going outside too often; so again this is ironic because if Mrs. Costello goes outside rarely, how can she disclose this amount of information about the Millers? Later in the story, Winterbourne remembers that he had heard that the daughters of Mrs. Costello her-self are called “tremendous flirts” back in New York, so immediately one understands that Mrs. Costello cannot be a good judge to rely upon. As the story reaches its middle, James contrasts the lightheartedness and straightforwardness of Daisy’s behavior with the discreet and ludicrous behavior of Winterbourne. After Daisy asks for a meeting with Mrs. Costello, Frederick hides the real reason that the aunt does not want to see Daisy; instead he tries to evade the situation by asserting that “She’d be most happy, but I’m afraid those tiresome headaches are always to be reckoned with.” Daisy, who is too much lighthearted does not understand Winterbourne false excuse and insists: “Well, I suppose she doesn’t have a headache every day.” Winterbourne, who is trapped by the innocence of Daisy’s manner, comes with the ludicrous justification that “She tells me she wonderfully does.” Daisy which is a very straightforward girl, retorts that “She doesn’t want to know me? […] why don’t you say so! You needn’t be afraid! I’m not afraid!” (James, 2002, p.22) Author brings a situation which the straightforwardness of Daisy confronts with the timidity and the discretion of Frederick’s mentality. Maybe it is easy for Daisy, who is not financially relies upon anyone but his father, to claim that she is not afraid, but for Frederick which presumably relies on his aunt in financial matters, the sentence “I’m not afraid” is a little bit too bold to say. Deakin notices the same thing and asserts that Winterbourne is a “captive of women” in some sense and being held captive results from his lack of “initiative.” He writes: Winterbourne is presented as the captive of women, not their protective gallant. He is “at liberty to wander about” when his aunt wishes to be alone with her headache. “He had imbibed in Geneva the idea that one must always be attentive to one’s aunt,” certainly in part because the code requires it, but also in part, one would suspect, because she was in control of the “social sway,” […]Winterbourne’s nebulous means of monetary sustenance seems peculiarly vulnerable to a matriarchic image as overwhelming as Mrs. Costello. He is the captive as well of—or, one should say, “extremely devoted to”—a mysterious, older, foreign lady in Geneva who, with her erotically ambivalent significance, seems a most satisfactory and safe choice—if he indeed made the choice—for one so lacking in initiative as Winterbourne. (Deakin, 2001, p.80-81) Later, when Winterbourne accompanies Daisy to castle of Chillon, the reader is forced to notice the difference between Daisy’s actions and those in her surroundings. “Miss Miller was highly animated, She was in brightest spirits;” what

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shocks Winterbourne is that-unlike him- Daisy does not have a bit of shame or nervousness. “She was clearly not at all in a nervous flutter-as she should have been to match his tension; she avoided neither his eyes nor those of any one else; she neither coloured from an awkward consciousness when she looked at him” (James, 2002, p.30). These descriptions suggest that Daisy is not an “American flirt” in the sense that Winterbourne believes her to be. She is a simple girl, maybe uncultured, that is really a free spirited and likes to experience life in her fresh and youthful way, but although Daisy does not care about her surroundings, people “look at her a great deal.” And this implies that natural actions of Daisy were under scrutiny by the old, watchful European society. Another concept which contributes to the organic unity of the work is the amount of information that the author dedicates to each character. All the characters -more or less- are viewed from the window of Winterbourne’s mind; but what about Winterbourne him-self? James intervenes in the narrative to assert a point or so about Winterbourne, but the thing which is noticeable is that there are certain times in the story that James prefers not to give extra information to the reader, in order to add mysterious and secret atmosphere to his narrative. A very bold example from these sorts of mystifications can be observed here: Winterbourne was certain that nothing could possibly please him so much, but that he had unfortunately other occupations. […] The young man allowed that he was not in business, but he had engagements which even within a day or two would necessitate his return to Geneva. (James, 2002, p.32) James deliberately does not comment on the affairs and obligations of Winterbourne. And these obligations remain mysterious through the novel. One can assume that the author does not want to demolish the organic unity to astray and talk about Winterbourne’s affair. This assumption can be correct, but if we compare the amount of details which we derived from Daisy and other minor characters like Daisy’s father, with the amount of information which we know from Winterbourne -which is the main protagonist- we immediately understand that James has an intention for hiding certain facts about Winterbourne’s life. The reader knows that Winterbourne has some engagements back in Geneva that perhaps involves an unknown, mysterious and presumably not young, European lady. As we strive to understand more about Winterbourne’s life, James also makes us ponder that, do we really know anything about Daisy at all? As we take for granted every piece of information which we derive from Daisy’s life as a mere fact, it is very true that we really do not have enough information even about Daisy at all. Winterbourne is our observer which is a “misshapen assessment” to us. This tactic from James serves beautifully to the concept of organic unity, because at the end, Winterbourne understands that his logic did not apply to Daisy and he was wrong about her. “It was on his conscience he had done her injustice” (James, 2002, p.71). But the organic unity which James has created already serves the reader best; because for the reader the state of Winterbourne’s affairs is a mystery, so how can the reader trust a person like Frederick who hides his life from the reader? Winterbourne cannot be a truthful and trustworthy person to rely upon. Robert Weisbuch has noticed the same thing and asserts that Daisy’s continuing and finally ennobled simplicity is not what we usually expect from fiction, where characters generally complicate themselves in the course of their experiences. But James means for us to see Daisy’s complexity as not inherent. The terrible ambiguity, the vexing mystery of her status as innocent or vixen, have nothing to do with her inherent quality, simple as a Daisy can be; they are all evoked by Winterbourne’s misshapen assessment. It is not really her story but Winterbourne’s, and there the complications are killing. (Weisbuch, 2001, p.82) When Daisy goes to Rome, these killing complications seem to aggrandize rather than to lessen. Mrs. Costello who previously tried to beguile the reader about being disinterested in Daisy’s life, reveals to Winterbourne that in the time when Frederick was at Geneva, Daisy became “very intimate with various third-rate Italians, with whom she rackets about in a way that makes much talk” (James, 2002, p.35). The Kind of words that Mrs. Costello uses through the story shows that she is pretty much exaggerating everything she says about Daisy. She claims that Daisy has intimate relationship with “various” persons, but as the story continues the reader discovers that Daisy has only a friendship with an Italian called Giovanelli. James, little by little, increases pressure on Daisy. Another description which is available in the text is the time when Daisy walks with Giovanelli and Winterbourne in Pincio; James writes: “The slow-moving, idly-gazing Roman crowd bestowed much attention on the extremely pretty young woman of English race who passed through it, with some difficulty” (James, 2002, p.42). The fact that Roman crowd is “slow-moving” hinders Daisy from being joyful -and in consequence- and blissful as well. The pressure aggravates when Mrs. Walker tries to force Daisy to leave Giovanelli at Pincio. “It’s really too dreadful. […] That crazy girl mustn’t do this sort of thing. She mustn’t walk here with you two men. Fifty people have remarked her” (James, 2002, p.46). Having failed to bring Daisy back, Mrs. Walker forces Winterbourne to leave Daisy at Pincio. Finally, Mrs. Walker insistence makes Daisy annihilate herself in front of Winterbourne and Giovanelli and she confesses that “I’m all improper” (James, 2002, p.48). What is crucial to our understanding of the novella is that, James achieves organic unity without stating anything too boldly about any character. He meddles in the story, but only to the extent which reveals to the reader certain aspects of the characters. He tries to efface him-self from any bold comments about Europeans or Americans, and that is the thing which makes him a master of his art. As we studied his revolutionary essay “The Art of Fiction,” we can see that there is no contradiction between what he claims in his essay and what he writes in his work. What makes his fiction to be so close to reality is that he does not differentiate between “characters,” “incidents,” and “situations.” He mixes every

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element and every aspect of his work together, so that the only thing which comes as a result is a piece of life rather than to be certain “moral” or didactic goal. Sarah Wadsworth asserts that James is so skillful in his work that only a veteran reader can decipher and judge characters. She writes: So skillful is James in presenting the story through the eyes of this erring youth that the values and judgments of the supercilious, hypocritical American colony to which he is attached seem almost to become normative as one reads the novella. Indeed a survey of the criticism and scholarship on Daisy Miller suggests that only gradually have readers shaken off the prejudices of this close-knit clique and made way for generally positive and sympathetic readings of Daisy’s character, along with more clear-sighted and skeptical interpretations of Winterbourne’s. (Wadsworth, 2008, p.33) 3. Conclusion Although we cannot call James a pure Formalist, but without doubt his ideas in writing have certain similarities with the Formalists who succeeded him. The Concept of Organic Unity is the very example of this affinity which is claimed by both James and Brooks. We observed that how James exploits literary devices such as Irony in order to maintain the organic unity, and form a story around the central theme. Irony, which is a key device in the theories of ‘New Critics,’ helps the author to deliver his story with artistry. We observed that how James’ ideas of fiction, discussed in “The Art of Fiction,” conform with his own writing actually; and he writes similar to what he claimed in his revolutionary essay. References Brooks, C. (1947). The Well Wrought Urn; Studies in the Structure of Poetry. New York: Reynal & Hitchcock. Coffin, T. (1958). Daisy Miller, Western Hero. Western Folklore, 17(4), 273-275. doi:10.2307/1496191 Deakin, M. (2001). Motley Deakin on Winterbourne. In H. Bloom, Henry James (1st ed., pp. 79-81). Broomall, PA: Chelsea House Publishers. Encyclopedia Britannica,. (2015). organic unity | literature. Retrieved from http://www.britannica.com/art/organic-unity Haralson, E., & Johnson, K. (2009). Daisy Miller: A Study. In Critical Companion to Henry James: A Literary Reference to His Life and Work (1st ed., pp. 218-228). New York: Facts On File. Hardwick, E. (2002). Introduction. In H. James, Daisy Miller (1st ed., p. Xi-Xvii). New York: Modern Library. James, H. (2002). Daisy Miller. New York: Modern Library. . . . . . . .. . (2010). The Art of Fiction. In V. Leitch, The Norton Anthology of Theory and Criticism (2nd ed., pp. 744759). New York: W.W. Norton. Quinn, E. (2006). Organic Form. In A Dictionary of Literary and Thematic Terms (1st ed., p. 306). New York: Facts On File. Wadsworth, S. (2008). What Daisy Knew: Reading Against Type in Daisy Miller: A Study. In G. Zacharias, A Companion to Henry James (1st ed., pp. 32-50). Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell. Weisbuch, R. (2001). Robert Weisbuch on Winterbourne and the Doom of Manhood. In H. Bloom, Henry James (1st ed., pp. 81-83). Broomall, PA: Chelsea House Publishers.

Advances in Language and Literary Studies ISSN: 2203-4714 Vol. 6 No. 6; December 2015 Australian International Academic Centre, Australia

Flourishing Creativity & Literacy

“Reports from an Absurdist” —An Analysis of Artistic Features of Ukraine Diaries Yang Jing English Department, Nanjing Normal University-210097,Nanjing, China E-mail: [email protected]

Doi:10.7575/aiac.alls.v.6n.6p.46

Received: 09/06/2015

URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.7575/aiac.alls.v.6n.6p.46

Accepted: 25/08/2015

Abstract With 13 published novels and 5 children’s literature books, which have been translated into 25 languages, Andrey Kurkov has been recognized as one of the most renowned Ukrainian writers in the world of literature, and Ukraine Diaries is his first non-fiction literary work. This paper attempts to focus on Kurkov’s unique literary characteristics in the unusual combination of deceptive simplicity of style and the profound insights, coupled with acrid ridicule and subtle narration, which can all be attributed to the characteristics of “the Absurdist School”. The writer regards his living condition, as the report from Kiev shows, as kind of dilemma, or paradox: on the one hand, he feels frustrated with Russia intellectually despite the affinity to traditional culture in emotion; on the other hand, he feels more indignant about the European Union who brought painful experiences to his country and his people, in spite of his closeness to western culture and political system. Keywords: Ukraine Diaries, Andrey Kurkov, Absurdist 1. Introduction If any country becomes the headline news of global media all of a sudden, it is hard to imagine that its people could still live the same life as before. However, in his writings, the Ukrainian famous novelist Andrey Kurkov (1961- ) firmly believes that, at least in the very beginning, the Maidan Revolution broken out in November 2013 would finish before long like the former ones and people could come back to their normal life. But this time, the novelist, who has built his reputation by previous accurate political predictions, has to admit that he “does not know his country and the people well”. In his novel, The President’s Last Love published in 2004, Kurkov fabricates a plot that the President was poisoned by political opponents, and only six months later in the presidential election Viktor Yushchenko, the candidate, was really empoisoned. Besides, he predicts the disputes caused by natural gas price negotiations between Ukraine and Russia, and Russian government closed the oil and gas pipelines to Ukraine within two years. Similarly, in his newly published Ukraine Diaries (2014), Kurkov made an optimistic conclusion about the “seasonal revolution” in the country: the Ukrainian revolutions always begin after the autumn harvest and end in the next spring when people would go home and plant potatoes. Yet, the situation had not got any better until April 2014 when the book was finished. 2. An Overview of the Diaries Kurkov has been keeping diaries for thirty-five years, but he has never before thought about publishing his diaries extracts. However, “his thought changed this time”, as he “lived in an apartment with his wife and three children, only 500 yards away from Kiev’s Independence Square”, and “From the balcony, we could see smoke rising from the burning barricades and hear the loud explosions of hand grenades as well as gunshots.” As a journalist since his youth, he felt the responsibility to stand out for “showing the truth”. He intentionally supplements a subtitle “Reports from Kiev” to his dairies, whose tone at the beginning indeed appears rather relaxed and humorous, for example, “I drive the kids to school at first and then watch the revolution”— it is totally out of expectation that an ordinary demonstration would spark the historically unprecedented political crisis in this country. Thus you can see, as Kurkov said himself, he “has no intention to record the history”. Instead, his diaries are kept to “record the life of an ordinary person (and his families) during the unordinary periods, revolution”—maybe in which the significance of this diaries lie. Making peaceful petition is a normal political movement in democratic countries. It is especially common in Ukraine: revolutionaries busy with marching; ordinary people working; and children studying. Each goes his own way. The beginning of the revolution on the Independence Square (Maidan) was more of the same. The slogan was nothing but pro-Europe, anti-Russia and anti-corruption. Revolutionaries marched on the street. Patrols patrolled around to keep order and peace. Everything was as usual. Since the novelist himself was not a revolutionary, nor was he an official, he still went out every day, accompanying his parent to hospital to have an electrocardiogram, taking his family to the villa in the suburb which is eighty kilometers away from Kiev to grow vegetables, while conceiving a full-length novel which satirized Russian oligarchs in Lithuania. Like most people, he was expecting President Viktor Yanukovich and

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the government to make concessions to achieve political compromise and restore normal order, just as their predecessors did. As time passed by, the political situation got more turbulent. Rumors flew around the capital: Ukraine’s anti-EU elites in its western region claimed that one requirement for Ukraine’s admission to EU was to legitimize homosexuality; while government representatives asserted that American paratroops had landed in western Ukraine, and asked Russia to dispatch tank troops responsively. “I see them proceed westward to search through the country for those American soldiers and apologize to the public for disturbing them after coming back,” Kurkov recorded ironically. Then the authorities’ attitudes got tougher. Motorways were closed in the name of anti-terrorism. As a matter of fact, they were worried about more people flocking to the square. Onlookers were suspected of opposing the government if they stayed over half an hour. Besides, the number of secret police was sharply increased. Private gatherings in a couple of journalists’ houses were monitored, and some writers were interrogated for their improper political remarks. On the country, the strengthening of police forces failed to keep the society in order. Malicious incidents like theft and robbery frequently occurred, so did smashing windows and burning cars. Ukraine became the arena for domestic and international political forces overnight. Its president who ordered a crackdown on the masses ended up stepping down, but the political situation was hard to restore its stability due to underlying competitions between various forces. In this sense, the whole book can be regarded as a political allegory. 3. An Anyalisis of the Artistic Features Readers who expect to dig out startling inside stories would have unavoidable sense of loss: certainly the novelist recorded the origin of “Maidan Revolution”, the political games behind the parliament and the general election as well as historical events like the merger of Crimea, but all these seem to be solely backgrounds of the diaries and glowed dimly. The author’s focus, indeed, fell on the people and the families drawn into the flood of the revolution. He had to socialize with police officers for organizing his son’s 11 year’s old paintball birthday party; his daughter asked for more pocket money because of soaring prices; his wife felt alarmed and thus wished the whole family to migrate to England. At times, of course, he would have coffee or cognac with friends, once he even received a vacuum cleaner from them. But life was very different from that before the revolution. The current situation confused him a lot. He considered all things happening currently were “beyond his understanding”: why a peaceful petition would turn out to be a bloody violent clash? He even couldn’t find the right word to express himself. In confusion and puzzle, the novelist felt he “almost aged 5 years in 3 months.” The last part of the diary tells that Kurkov with his family went on their last holiday in Crimea, just in order to take a glimpse of this resort before Russian annexation. The author himself does not sleep well and suffers from sharp eyesight decrease. What’s worse, there was no progress in his full-length fiction. Therefore, he planned to go back to his dacha to grow vegetables—it was indeed not a relaxation but rather an option of bread earning. Well-known as the “post-Soviet Kafka”, or “Bulgakov the absurdist” in western literary circles, Kurkov’s unique literary achievement is the unusual combination of deceptive simplicity of style and the profound insights, coupled with acrid ridicule and subtle narration. One of the specialties of Ukraine Diaries lies in the dramatic irony that the author pretends to be ignorant of everything happening around him. Undoubtedly, the readers are aware of what happens in Ukraine—government corruption and political instability, the infamous president is going to be deposed and Crimea to be annexed. While in comparison, the author seems to be an outsider, knowing nothing about both the background and the current situation, and all significant historical events are scarecely mentioned. Even if their life is filled with gunfire, he would also just take down “routines in his everyday life”. That is because the most important thing for him in life, the novelist believes, is to “move on”. Kurkov claimed during an interview that absurdity was nothing unusual in Ukraine. His “discovery” of such absurdity was first enlightened by his brother’s arrest for being a dissident. The boy was officially convicted of “stealing ice cream” (so long as “anti-government” as a charge has not been invented then). Informed of the Judge’s particular interest in collecting badges (after endless inquiries through connections), their mother sacrificed all the grandfather’s badges of Tsarist Russia and brought them to the Judge as a bribe. Thankfully, his brother was sentenced to two year's probation as a consequence. Two months later those badges were auctioned publicly in an antique store. Embezzlement and corruption elude no one in Ukraine, the author concluded, not even the President, the Prime Minister, or all the parliament members. A total of 185 political parties are registered in such a small country. The author observed that you can, if you wish, actually “buy” a little one to take part in local elections and retrieve your investment by renting the party after elected. For example, Tymoshenko, the former Prime Minister, was once sent to court for embezzlement and corruption, and the Judge in charge of the case, was also demoted for the same conviction several months later. Officials come and go, leaving the public amazed at the absurd farces on end. Corruption tends to plague every corner of the country, save not even the most prestigious literature prize, which has been on sale in public. Another 100 winners were selected out of the President’s whimsical command just in order to help him gain more support. More ridiculous, once invited to have a talk with the Prime Minister, who asked him about his opinion on the current political situation, the novelist spent more than 50 minutes talking to himself continuously within this one-hour conversation; however, when the program was broadcast finally, it was the Prime Minister that turned to be the eloquent man, while the novelist was just standing there, listening attentively and nodding from time to time to express agreement. What a funny scene! Besides, according to the observation by Kurkov, during the revolution, flowers and candles were the only two businesses in flourish around the city. After the massacre of hundreds of demonstrators in February, 2014 in particular, the squares and streets were piled with bunches of flowers presented respectfully for those

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martyrs, and the churches had lighted much more candles than usual. “It seemed that only by doing so could the God see clearly what had happened in Ukraine”, teased by the writer. Except for the corrupted and incapable government…no one was willing to live under the control of such an absolutely corrupted and illiterate government who left nothing to his people but exploited the whole nation…sometimes, the write made a mock of part of the people. On his part, a large number of the so-called revolutionaries participated in the Maidan Revolution merely because they had nothing else to do. “Every morning, they came to the square, sang the national anthem, and then cleaned up the site before back home.” The next day, another group came and duplicated, just like the shift of workshops. They were supposed to form a duty team for order maintenance, but finally the team members changed to be Mafia at night. 4. Conclusion Andrey Kurkov has been living in Kiev since his childhood. His grandfather died in the Anti-Fascist War, however, now the writer himself was condemned as a fascist and his son was isolated at school, which puzzles him a lot. The country is becoming stranger and stranger to him for the time being. His attitude toward Russia, a powerful neighbor of Ukraine, is quite contradictory. On the one hand, as a writer who was born in Leningrad and received soviet education, he was unwilling to witness the relationship between the two countries to get worse, especially not willing to see Russia lose his reason day by day and go crazy as a result of flaunting his superiority. On the other hand, he protests against President Putin’s backstage manipulation which has intensified the situation in Ukraine. He believes that President Putin is planning to regain the glory of Soviet Union or even that of Tsar’s. However, Crimea is to Putin is what a stolen diamond to a thief. He can only appreciate the diamond privately instead of showing it off publicly. As a matter of fact, he was more indignant with the tricky and inconstant political tricks of EU than with Russia. The EU, so vociferous in its support for Ukrainian democratic course, suddenly fell silent and walked away from Ukraine, preferring to profit more from trade with its larger and powerful neighbor. The EU reacted much slowly to the subsequent action of Russia’s annexation of Crimea. “Though in the information age,” the writer satirized, “their access to information seems to rely on horseback.” All in all, “It’s bare money and interest.” What the EU did and said could sufficiently prove that “money is more important than democracy”. Finally he added some words in his postscript: “The spicy lesson that the EU taught Ukraine will inevitably impact on the future of our state.” Thus the writer ended his diaries with his parting admonition. With 13 published novels and 5 children’s literature books, which have been translated into 25 languages, Andre Kurkov has been recognized as one of the most renowned Ukrainian writers in the world of literature. Ukraine Diaries: Dispatches from Kiev is his first non-fiction literary work, which won him enormous acclaims from the international literati. References Kurkov, A. (2015). Ukraine Diaries: Dispatches from Kiev. London: Random House UK. Hoyle, B. (2014). Ukraine Diaries: Dispatches from Kiev by Andrey Kurkov. The Times, August 2. Thornhill, J. (2014). Ukraine Diaries by Andrey Kurkov. Financial Times, August 1. Pomerantsev, P. (2015). “Diary”. London Review of Books, 37(4), 38-39. Jing, Y. (2014). Reports of an Absurdist: A Review on Ukraine Diaries by Andrey Kurkov. Recent Development in Foreign Literature, 258(6), 48-50.

Advances in Language and Literary Studies ISSN: 2203-4714 Vol. 6 No. 6; December 2015 Flourishing Creativity & Literacy

Australian International Academic Centre, Australia

Influence of Speech Anxiety on Oral Communication Skills among ESL/EFL Learners Said Muhammad Khan Department of Applied Linguistics, Yanbu University College, PO box 31387, Yanbu Industrial City 41912, Saudi Arabia E-mail: [email protected]

Doi:10.7575/aiac.alls.v.6n.6p.49

Received: 15/06/2015

URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.7575/aiac.alls.v.6n.6p.49

Accepted: 28/08/2015

Abstract The realization of speech anxiety among ESL/EFL learners is important. Once understood, these feelings of fear or nervousness may be relieved and the desired objectives of learning the target language may be achieved. The study has attempted to measure the level of anxiety among ESL/EFL learners at HITEC University, Taxila, Pakistan. The current research has arrived at the conclusion that the target population is highly anxious in situation where they are required to speak English. The findings show that sources such as pedagogical, psychological, socio-economic, linguistic and cultural generate anxiety among the EFL learners. The study has suggested variety of strategies to treat anxiety in the academic context. It was found that communicative approach in classroom may be helpful in minimizing the negative impact of anxiety among language learners. Keywords: speech anxiety, communicative approach, communication apprehension, FLA 1. Introduction With the globalization, the university graduates are expected to be confident in oral communication so that they can function effectively in the academic and professional settings. Allen (2002) arrived at the conclusion that having confidence in oral communication can make graduates versatile in their personal, academic, professional and civic lives. To fulfill the demands of highly communicative global village, English has become the most desired language of the world. Every year, a lot of books are published and billions of dollars are utilized for learning English as a second or foreign language. Whenever such learners endeavor to learn and speak English either as a second or a foreign language, they experience a certain level of anxiety and claim to undergo a ‘mental block’ during oral communication (Horwitz et al., 1986). Researchers have found that this mental block or anxiety severely jeopardizes the language learners’ communicative competence. Despite the international market demands for a confident workforce with clear oral communication in English, researchers like Devi et al. (2008) found that most of the language learners have some form of anxiety that interferes with their level of confidence during their speech. This aspect of language and communication is called speech anxiety. Anxiety shakes the language learners’ confidence which adversely impedes their oral performance in the target language. Being fully aware of the debilitating effects of the multi-faceted dilemma of language anxiety, the present research project is deemed important in order to gain fuller understanding of communication apprehension and devise effective strategies to overcome anxiety in ESL/EFL classrooms. 1.2 Statement of the Problem Anxiety or low level of confidence restricts the chances of learning and speaking the target language hence pose serious threat to oral communication. Richmond and McCroskey (1989) opined that the high level of anxiety among language learners seriously hampers the interaction between teacher and learners which is extremely crucial to productive teaching and learning of the target language. Since anxiety is a multi-faceted dilemma language barrier for ESL/EFL learners, therefore this problem needs to be studied, discovered its sources and cured in the Pakistani academic setting. 1.3 Data Collection Data for the current research was collected from students of HITEC University enrolled in Communication Skills course. At a first step, Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety Scale— FLCAS questionnaire (adopted from Horwitz et al. 1986) was distributed to gauge the level of anxiety among the students of BS Mechanical Engineering 3rd semester. Approximately Two hundred students were enrolled in communication skills class in Fall 2011 semester. At the second step ten participants (five students, having highest score and five students having lowest score according to the FLCAS scale) were selected for a structured interview. The interview provided opportunity to the researcher to analyze the factors and influence of anxiety both among high anxious and low anxious students. 1.4 Research Questions 1.

What is the level of speech anxiety among EFL/ESL Learners at HITEC University?

2.

What are the main causes of speech anxiety among these learners?

3.

How far the speech anxiety affects students’ learning oral communication skills?

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1.5 Aims and Objectives One of the major objectives of the research study is to measure the level of apprehension among English language learners especially in the Pakistani context. Measuring the level of anxiety may be helpful in developing teachers and students’ awareness regarding anxiety and its negative influence on oral communication. Discovering the sources that provoke anxiety among language learners has also been one among many objectives of the study. Diagnosing the anxiety-provoking factors may be helpful in devising effective medication for this unsettled phenomenon. To know the negative influence of anxiety on oral communication has also been one among the objectives of the research study. Realizing the importance of oral communication in the contemporary world, the study may be supportive for language instructors, students and policy makers to make EFL/ESL learners confident communicators if incorporated in language pedagogy. 2. Literature Review Speech anxiety is broadly used to refer to the apprehension experienced by an individual when required to speak either in L1 or L2. Horwitz et al (1986) define this anxiety ‘as a type of shyness characterized by fear or apprehension about communicating [orally] with people.’ MaCroskey, (1970) defines it simply as a fear related to oral communication. physical, psychological, social and temporal dimensions of context play a critical role in speech. Listeners’ status and the context make the speaker uneasy and apprehensive to speak confidently. Friedman, 1980 (as cited in Taylor, 1987) claims that speech anxiety may be specific to just a few setting e (e.g. public speaking) or may exist in most everyday [oral] communication situations or may even be part of general anxiety trait that arises in many facets of an individual’ life. Among all four language skills, speaking is supposed to be the most anxiety-provoking skill. MacInttyre and Gardner (1991) have pointed out that the skill producing most anxiety is oral communication. We can simply conclude on what Scovel (1991) believes that anxiety a state of nervousness and hesitation or fear caused by the expectation of something intimidating. Speech anxiety is a general phenomenon experienced by majority of L2 learners effecting both language and educational achievements. Horwitz (2001) believes that anxiety is perceived intuitively by many language learners, negatively influences language learning and has been found to be one of the most highly examined variables in all of psychology and education. Speech anxiety/apprehension is a part of broader concept of language anxiety. Horwitz and Cope (1986) suggest that language anxiety has three components: 1) communication apprehension 2) test anxiety 3) fear of negative evaluation. Learners who demonstrate speech anxiety/communication apprehension feel uncomfortable when required to communicate orally in the target language in front of others. Students who experience test anxiety consider oral production as a test situation rather than a chance for improving communication skills (Tesiplakides, 2009). Learners who exhibit fear of negative evaluations deem errors as a danger to their image not as an accepted part of learning process. As a consequence, they are silent and do not participate in activities in ESL classroom (Ely 1986) 2.1 Influence of Anxiety on Speaking Skills Speech anxiety makes language learners frightened and shakes their confidence which results in avoidance and withdrawal from speaking activities in EFL/ESL classes. McCroskey (1984) found that if students with high speech anxiety are given the opportunity to choose their subjects, they would probably prefer those subjects where speaking skills are not focused. High apprehensive language learners cannot organize his/her speech properly and deliver confidently which makes them reticent and shy. They think about the anticipated threat rather than selection of words and organization of ideas. Malimabe, (1997) believes that whenever a student with high levels of Speech anxiety tries to engage himself/herself in oral communication he/she becomes irrelevant at times and prefer to be in a large, rather than in a small group asking no question in the class. Since L2 learners’ thinking process is infected by fear and uneasiness when they speak, it also effect both content and manner of the message they want to convey in the target langue. (Zheng, 2008) claims that anxiety influence both speed and accuracy and its arousal can impact even the quality of communication output as the retrieval of information may interrupted by the ‘freezing-up’ moments that students encounter when they get anxious Richmond and Falcoine (1977) discovered that learners with high levels of Speech anxiety were predisposed to have poorer self-esteems than students with low Speech anxiety which in turn affects academic success negatively. Students, who participate in classroom discussion, usually get more attention and welcoming treatment from the instructors but shy students are considered back-benchers and dull. McCroskey and Daly (1976) concluded that even instructors tend to ignore or consider learners with high Speech anxiety or apprehension as low achievers, and as a result, do not expect much from them. 3. Research Methodology A blend of both quantitative and qualitative methods (pragmatic approach) was adopted for the intended research. Data collected through FLCAS questionnaire was analyzed quantitatively and data collected through interviews was investigated qualitatively. Due to this very fact, the result of the research reflects both the approaches. Data collected via FLCAS from 200 students enrolled in communication skills course was examined quantitatively to measure the level of speech anxiety among EFL learners. Based on the result of the questionnaire 10 subjects (Five high anxious and five low anxious) were selected for semi structured interviews. Data collected via interviews from high as well low anxious subjects was analyzed qualitatively. The detailed interviews with the 10 selected participants helped the researcher to correlate and authenticate the findings of FLCAS questionnaire and also validate the findings of previous researchers.

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4. Findings and Discussion Based on the result of FLCAS questionnaire, 10 students were selected for interviews. Five high anxious students were interviewed along with five less anxious students. Questions related to anxiety-provoking factors, symptoms of anxiety and remedies of anxiety were asked from all the 10 selected subjects. The following factors were held responsible for anxiety by the subjects. 4.1 Pedagogical Factors The ten selected subjects of the study continuously referred to pedagogical factors and held them responsible for their high as well as low level of speech anxiety during their interviews. Pedagogical sources were declared the most important factors that produce anxiety among ESL/EFL learners in a language classroom. These instructional sources are the combination of stressful classroom environment and language teachers’ teaching methodology. Evaluative and stressful classroom settings were referred to, as the main source of high and low levels speech anxiety by the selected subjects of the current study. During the interview session, the high anxious subjects pointed out that classroom is a place where they are judged, their mistakes are highlighted, and their grades are affected whenever they take part in any speaking activity. This type of feelings can be very easily observed in the remarks of one of the highapprehensive subjects when he says, “…when I speak … I think people are jugging me”. The other high anxious subject blamed his fellow students and the teacher by saying “our English teacher and the students make strange facial expressions and look on me when I speak English in the class. There strange look and smile make afraid”. This shows that classroom environment is not supportive and learners are not encouraged to speak. All these remarks given by high and low anxious participants of this research indicate that EFL/ESL classroom environment can be a major source of apprehension for learners of a language which is consistent with the findings of Tusi (1996) and Daly (1991). 4.1.1 Poor Educational and Economic Background In accord with the findings of previous researchers such as Khattak Z. et al. (2011), I also found that the ESL/EFL learners’ poor educational as well as poor economic background is one among the major sources of speech anxiety. The less anxious participants of this study gave due credit to their schooling and previous educational background for their confidence and communicative competence. In response to the researcher’s question regarding the reasons of his low anxiety, one of the two confident subjects replied, “… [The] reason of my low level of anxiety while speaking English … the first and foremost is my schooling. We were provided with an environment where teachers and students mostly communicated in English Language. Secondly, daily assemblies were conducted in which students had to present and perform in English Language which boosted my confidence a great deal and helped me overcoming the fear of audience” 4.1.2 Psychological Factors During the interviews with the selected participants, psychological sources were also held responsible for language learners’ high as well as low levels of apprehension. There are various psychological variables that make ESL/EFL learners anxious in setting where they are required to speak English. These diverse psychological variables e.g. learners’ personality traits, and learners’ self-perception that have been highlighted by the subjects Analyzing the interviews of 10 selected participants, the current research found that personality traits, such as extraversion as well as introversion are directly linked to low or high level of anxiety. The introvert language learners are more vulnerable and expected to be anxious in circumstances where they have to communicate in English. During the interview with the researcher, one of the high anxious subjects replied, “I am not friendly, I do not like talking to people, and mixing up with them. I am not very talkative” Some previous researchers on language anxiety have reached the conclusion that learners’ apprehension may be aggravated by their perfectionist tendencies (Gregresen and Horwitz, 2002) and learners self-related perception (Krashen, 1985). After analyzing the interviews, the current research has also diagnosed a few self-related perceptions among the subjects of this study which is consistent with the findings of previous researchers on language anxiety. Tobias (1986) found that highly apprehensive learners think negative about their own selves and have low-perceived self-esteem about their own performance in the target language. The same negative thoughts about their selves are very clear in the remarks of highly anxious subjects during the interview. One of the participants said, “And during speaking I feel that if I speak wrong, all the people will laugh on [at] me and then I can’t speak English correctly” 4.1.3 Linguistic Factors The previous researchers on language anxiety such as Lightbown and Spada (2006) and Tanveer (2007) have reported that English language pronunciation, irregular grammar rules and vocabulary are also responsible for speech anxiety in situation where learners are required to communicate in English Language The current research has also found that linguistic factors aggravate student’s anxiety which needs to be investigated and researched. After in-depth analysis of the interviews with the subjects, the current research reached at the conclusion that Pakistani ESL/EFL learners commonly think in their native language and then translate it into English during their oral communication. This translation from native language to English impedes learners’ fluency which causes anxiety in formal settings. One of the highly anxious subjects replied to a question during an interview, “before speaking I make sentences in my own language, and I convert it, but when I go to speak it, I can’t speak it with exact vocabulary…”

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4.1.4 Social Factors The previous researchers on FLA believe that socio-cultural factors cause more fear among EFL learners than the other factors. The present research has also discussed three different aspects of social factors (limited exposure to L2, learners’ family background, and social status) responsible for provoking anxiety among ESL learners in Pakistan. During the interview session, the subjects of this study gave mild discredit to their limited exposure in the target language for their anxiety. This limited exposure badly affects learners’ fluency in the target language which results in apprehension in situation where they are required to speak the target language (Lightbown and Spada, 2006). When I asked one of the highly anxious subjects of this study regarding the reasons of his anxiety, he replied, “The main reason is that we haven’t [been] provided [with] any environment for speaking English”. Feelings of the same type are also reflected in the expressions of another high anxious subject when he says, “Since speaking in English is something new for me, so I make many mistakes and these mistakes make me worried”. The intended research has concluded from the interviews of highly anxious learners that they consider English language as a status symbol. The one who speaks English in accent like native speakers is considered wealthy and talented as one of the participants said, “Yes it gives extraordinary status when you speak English like American or British. People consider you talented. If you are a good speaker, you impress them” These remarks of the high apprehensive subjects of the study clearly indicate that they use English as a status symbol rather than just a tool to communicate. These feelings of associating social class with language make them think inferior, that trouble fluency and trigger anxiety when they speak in the target language. This association of language with a status symbol or with some ones talent makes the EFL/ESL learners suffer from inferiority complex. These feelings of inferiority trouble learners’ fluency that results in nervousness and communication apprehension as Pica (1987) found that difference between speaker’s and listener’s status may also be one factor of speech anxiety. 4.2 Impact of Speech Anxiety Speech anxiety makes language learners frightened and shakes their confidence which results in avoidance and withdrawal from speaking activities in EFL/ESL classes. One of the high apprehensive subjects of this study revealed in response to the question of influence on anxiety on his language, “Due to fear I cannot speak well, otherwise when I am alone, I really make good dialogues. I think in English alone. I think the main reason of my poor English is my confidence, my confidence level is very low. I can’t speak in front of others even if I know the answer”. These remarks of an anxious subject clearly show a very alarming situation that anxiety negatively influences learners’ speech and doesn’t let them speak even if they have enough information. In connection with the same question another high anxious participant said, “I am teaching tuition to my brother, I speak better English, I feel very confident at that time. But in front of teacher and the classmate I forgot every thing”. Both the statements of subjects who experience high anxiety clearly show that anxiety cast negative influence on learners’ productive skills and EFL instructors need to consider this multi-faced phenomenon. 4.3 Remedies of Speech Anxiety The participants of this study, in their interviews, suggested change in their classroom environment. They think that strict classroom settings must be replaced with friendly environment where one can speak and practice the target language easily. In the strict formal place, students fear making mistakes and this fear does not let them practice the new language. One of the high anxious subjects suggested, “I will request all teachers to be friendly in the class, please not make strange expressions at their students. They should ignore our mistakes. They should focus on speaking” To make the language learners comfortable and classroom less anxiety-producing place, the language instructor’s role has been declared important. A language teacher plays an important role in both decreasing as well as increasing anxiety of language learners. The participants of this study suggested that a language teacher must be friendly, focusing communicative competence of learners and tolerating learners’ mistakes. One of the participants, suggested, “I would request the teacher also, not just to teach grammar rules, but use English for communication, encourage students to speak…tolerate students mistakes, be friendly. And must not deduct marks on speaking mistakes”. Classroom environment is stated extremely crucial when it comes to language anxiety and apprehension. The participants of this study showed that classroom procedure and continuous evaluation of their activities make them apprehensive as this affects their grades in their entire academic careers. Eliminating and minimizing the other anxiety provoking factors will also play pivotal role in decreasing foreign language anxiety. 5. Conclusion Hence it goes without saying that speech anxiety and apprehension is the major problem of English language learners that impedes their communicative competence. In Pakistan, English is taught to students since Kindergarten, but students lack confidence and effective communication skills. Despite studying English for years, having sufficient linguistic competence, students at the University level lack effective speaking skills. Since they have all the required linguistic knowledge but due to their lack of confidence they can speak the target language confidently. In this highly communicative world, students’ communication skills are as necessary as other professional skills. This lack of confidence is a serious threat to English language learners’ communicative behavior which leads to avoidance behavior. As practice makes a man perfect and language has to be practiced if one wants to learn and speak well. Once a learner stops practicing the target language, speaking skills can never be developed and whenever the learner is supposed to speak English, he/she will be confused, nervous and anxious.

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Gaining effective oral communication skills in English is a multidimensional process which depends on various factors. Low confidence of ESL/EFL learners during their speech is the total sum of the outcome of all the factors discussed above. Among these anxiety-proving factors, socio-economic and cultural factors of the language learners have been investigated in the study. However these are the not the only factors responsible for learners’ anxiety, teachers’ communicative competence, instructors’ training, their beliefs and attitude coupled with methodology have also been proved responsible for language learners’ anxiety. References Allen, T. (2002). Charting a communicative pathway: Using assessment to guide curriculum development in a revitalized general education plan. Communicative Education, 51(1), 26 – 39. Daly, J. (1991). Understanding communication apprehension: An Introduction for language educators. In E. K. Horwitz & D. J. Young (Ed.), Language anxiety from theory and research to classroom implications. New Jersey: Prentice Hall. Devi, S. I. & Feroz F. S. (2002). Oral communication apprehension and communicative competence among Electrical Engineering undergraduates in UTeM. Journal of Human Capital Development,1(1), 1-10. Ely, C. M. (1986). An analysis of discomfort, risk taking, sociability and motivation in the L2 Classroom. Language Learning, 36, 1-25. Gregersen, T., & Horwitz, E. K. (2002). Language learning and perfectionism: Anxious and non-anxious language learners’ reactions to their own oral performance. The Modern Language Journal, 86(4), 562-570. Horwitz, E. K., Horwitz, M. B., & Cope, J. (1986). Foreign language classroom anxiety. The Modern Language Journal, 70, 125-132. Horwitz, M. B., Horwitz, E. K., & Cope, J. (1991). Foreign language classroom anxiety. In E. K. Horwitz & D. J. Young (Ed.), Language anxiety: From theory and research to classroom implications, Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Horwitz, E. K., Horwitz, M. B., & Cope, J. (1986). Foreign language classroom anxiety. The Modern Language Journal, 70, 125-132. Horwitz, E. K. (2001). Language anxiety and achievement, Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 21, 112-126. Khattak, Z. I., Jamshed, T., Ahmad, A., Baig, N. M. (2011). An investigation into the causes of English language learning anxiety in students at AWKUM. Procedia Social and Behavioral Sciences, 15(20), 1600-1604. Krashen, S. D. (1976). Formal and informal environment in language acquisition and language learning. TESOL Quarterly, 10, 157-168. Krashen, S.D. (1985). The Input Hypothesis: Issues and Implications. New York: Longman Lightbown, P. M., & Spada, N. (2006). How languages are learned. 3rd edi., United Kingdom: Oxford University Press. MacIntyre, P. D., & Gardner, R. C. (1991). Language anxiety: Its relationship to other anxieties and to processing in native and second languages. Language Learning, 41, 513-534. Malimabe, M.M. (1997). Communication apprehension in Qwaqwa secondary schools. MA dissertation. Potchefstroom University for Christian Higher Education. Mccroskey, J. C. & Daly, J.A. (1976). The teacher's expectations of the communication apprehensive child in the elementary school. Retrieved from http://www.jamescmccroskey.com Mccroskey, J. C. (1984). The communication apprehension perspective. Retrieved from http://www.jamescmccroskey.com Onwuegbuzie, A, J., Bailey, P., & Daley, C. E. (1999). Factors associated with foreign language anxiety. Applied Psycholinguistics, 20(2), 217-239. Pica, T. (1987). Second language acquisition, social interaction and the classroom. Applied Linguistics, 8 (1), 3-21. Richmond, V.P. & Falcione, R.L. (1977). Studies of the relationship between communication apprehension and selfesteem. Human Communication Research. Retrieved from http://www.jamescmccroskey.com Richmond, V. P., & McCroskey, J. C. (1989). Communication: apprehension, avoidance, and effectiveness, 5th ed. Needham Heights, MA: Allyn and Bacon. Scovel, T. (1991). The Effect of affect on foreign language learning: A review of the anxiety research. Language Learning, 28(10), 129-41. Tanveer, M. (2007). Investigation of the factors that cause language anxiety for ESL learners in learning speaking skills and influence it casts on communication in the target language, M.Ed. ELT thesis. University of Glasgow. Taylor, H. H. (1987). Communication apprehension: The quiet student in your classroom, ERIC Clearinghouse on Reading and Communication Skills Urbana IL. Tobias, S. (1986). Anxiety and cognitive processing of instruction. In R. Schwarzer (Ed.), Self-related cognition in anxiety and motivation. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. Tsui, A. B. M. (1996). Reticence and anxiety in second language learning. In K. M. Bailey & D. Nunan (Eds.), Voice from the language classroom (pp. 145-167). New York: Cambridge University Press. Young, D. J. (1992). Language anxiety from the foreign language specialist’s perspective: interviews with Krashen, Omaggio Hadley, Terrell, and Rardin. Foreign Language Annals, 25, 157-172. Zheng, Y. (2008). Anxiety and second language learning revisietd. Canadian Journal for New Scholars in Education , 1 (1), 1-12.

Advances in Language and Literary Studies ISSN: 2203-4714 Vol. 6 No. 6; December 2015 Flourishing Creativity & Literacy

Australian International Academic Centre, Australia

The Effect of Focus on Form and Task Complexity on L2 Learners’ Oral Task Performance Asghar Salimi English Department, Faculty of Humanities, University of Maragheh, Maragheh, Iran E-mail: [email protected]

Doi:10.7575/aiac.alls.v.6n.6p.54

Received: 19/06/2015

URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.7575/aiac.alls.v.6n.6p.54

Accepted: 01/09/2015

Abstract Second Language learners’ oral task performance has been one of interesting and research generating areas of investigations in the field of second language acquisition specially, task-based language teaching and learning. The main purpose of the present study is to investigate the effect of focus on form and task complexity on L2 learners’ oral task accuracy. To this end, sixty intermediate learners of English as a foreign language attending an English institute were chosen as the participant of the study and were divided into three groups control and two experimental groups with and without focus on form strategy. ANOVA and Independent Sample T-test were employed as the statistical means of analysis. The results a of analysis revealed significant differences among the performance of the groups. The study carries significant implications for syllabus and task designers, curriculum developers and language teachers. Keywords: Accuracy, Focus on form, Task, Task-based language teaching, Task complexity 1. Introduction Many students encounter unique problems in their study of English. One of the problems that most foreign language learners, including English language learners, encounter in their process of language learning is attaining a satisfactory level of oral production. This may be due to different reasons such as anxiety, low self-esteem, high affective filter, task features etc. Few studies have been conducted designed to offer solutions to the problem and improve the students’ proficiency in English. The researcher proposed using a procedure based on the use of tasks as the central part of planning and instruction in language teaching called Task-Based language Teaching (TBLT) to enhance the oral performance of EFL learners. TBLT puts tasks at the center of the methodological focus. It views the learning process as a set of communicative tasks that are directly linked to the curricular goals they perform. As a recent development in the field of second language (L2) teaching, Task-Based Language Teaching (TBLT) has inspired a lot of pedagogical innovations and theoretical investigations among L2 teachers and researchers. Today, language teachers look upon TBLT as a fruitful approach to L2 instruction that has the potentiality to provide them with new insights into the most effective ways an L2 can be taught. It is hypothesized that task features have some positive or negative impact on learners` performance in terms of accuracy, fluency, and complexity. The role that tasks play has important place for some researchers in the field of second language acquisition who are interested in developing pedagogical application of second language acquisition theory. A central issue in TBLT involves the impact of task complexity on L2 learners’ performance. L2 researchers have begun a research to test the frequent claims that helps to support of TBLT. They have accepted experiments to investigate whether the superiority of TBLT over more traditional approaches to language teaching and learning can be supported by research findings, what are learners’ attitudes towards task-based pedagogy, how TBLT can be employed to improve learners’ language skills (i.e., listening, speaking, reading, and writing),what cognitive processes are involved in task performance, etc. Of these research topics, the most flourishing one has centered on the question of what factors increase the difficulty with which L2 learners perform and process pedagogical tasks. Besides, focus on form within TBLT has received a lot of attention in literature and research since 1990s.However, there are paucity of research to have investigated the joint investigation of the effects of task cognitive complexity and focus on form on L2 learners' oral task performance in terms of accuracy, fluency and complexity. The main purpose of the present study is to investigate the effect of focus on form and task complexity on L2 learners’ oral task accuracy. 2. Literature Review One of the main issued in TBLT is how to define and determine the complexity of a task. This is of importance since this kind of knowledge can contribute language teachers have a better understanding of task performance, design, and development. As (Robinson, 2001) argues, task complexity “is the result of the attentional, memory, reasoning, and other information processing demands imposed by the structure of the task on the language learner” (p. 28). Moreover, task complexity can affect grading and sequencing decisions in a language teaching syllabus. Task complexity is derived from the cognitive demands of a task makes in the conceptualization phase. This is based upon the idea that intricate concepts require using grammatically complex structures, and therefore cognitively complex

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tasks are complex both in terms of conceptualization and linguistic formulation. However, tasks may make various complexity demands on the conceptualization and formulation phases. As in specific occasions, ordering tasks in terms of cognitive complexity can be difficult since tasks might make different demands on different phases of language performance. A central issue in task-based language learning is that, while performing a task, learners need to coordinate the amount attention they allocate to different aspects of the task in order to meet the linguistic demands of the task. Such a view raises questions concerning how attentional resources can be used, coordinated and directed to different aspects of language production during task completion. There are two important models of task complexity in field of TBLT as following: 1) Skehan and Foster’s (2001) Limited Attentional Capacity Model and 2) Robinson’s (2001, 2005) Cognition Hypothesis. In their model, Skehan and Foster (2001) consider attention and memory as limited in capacity. They argue that the increase of task complexity will lead to the reduction of available amount of attention and memory resources. Therefore, some aspects of performance will be attended while others will not. In addition, they sate that cognitively more demanding tasks draw learners’ attention away from linguistic forms. However, Robinson (2001, 2005b) argues that attention is related to voluntary regulation. This model states that ordering tasks from cognitively simple to complex allows learners to performing real-world tasks successfully. This model supports the idea that increasing task's cognitive load and processing complexity will lead to increase in the accuracy and complexity but not the fluency. This study is based on Sheehan's model. Skehan (1998) suggested a three-way distinction for the analysis of task difficulty as following: 1) Code complexity (vocabulary load and variety; linguistic complexity and variety); 2) Cognitive complexity (familiarity of topic, discourse or task; amount of computation and organization, and sufficiency of information 3) Communicative stress (time pressure; scale; number of participants; length of text; modality; stakes; opportunity for control); Also, they later added learner factors (intelligence; breadth of imagination; personal experience) to this taxonomy. Furthermore, as Long (1996) argued focus on form is mainly motivated by, Schmidt’s (1990) noticing hypothesis. Schmidt stated that noticing is a cognitive process that involves attending to the input learners receive and is inevitably a conscious process. He proposed that it is a necessary condition for second language learning. Schmidt (2001) has argued that attention correlates two vital stages for second language acquisition as following: 1) Noticing, i.e. registering formal features in the input, 2) Noticing the gap, i.e. identifying how the input to which the learner is exposed differs from the output the learner is able to generate This study set out to investigate the effect of focus on form and task complexity on EFL learners 'oral task performance in terms of accuracy. 2.1 Studies conducted on task complexity and focus on form Skehan and Foster (1999) investigated the effects of task structure and processing load on L2 learners’ performance on a narrative retelling task. They found that the structured task generated more fluent speech in all four conditions. Ishikawa (2006) studied the impacts of task complexity and language proficiency on L2 written narrative production. He considered four modes of production as dependent variables namely accuracy, structural complexity, lexical complexity, and fluency. He found that the low-proficiency learners seemed benefited more when task complexity was manipulated from here-and-now to there-and-then. Rahimpour (2007) investigated the impact of task complexity on L2 learners’ oral performance. He reported that there-and-then task led to more accuracy while here-and-now task led to more complexity. He also found that here-and-now task led to more fluency than there-and-then task. Kuiken and Vedder (2008) conducted a study on university students who performed two writing tasks with different cognitive complexity. The students were divided into low- and high-proficiency groups. They implemented linguistic performance in terms of syntactic complexity, lexical variation, and accuracy. They concluded that (a) with regard to syntactic complexity and lexical variation, hardly any significant differences were found between the complex and noncomplex tasks; (b) no interaction of task type and proficiency level could be observed. Hosseini and Rahimpour (2010) explored the effects of task complexity on L2 learners' written performance on narrative pictorial tasks of here-and- now and there-and then. They found that cognitively more demanding tasks led to more fluency, but not accuracy and complexity. Rezazadeh, Tavakoli, and Eslami-Rasekh (2011), investigated the role of task type in foreign language written production in terms of accuracy, fluency, and complexity. They used two types of tasks (instruction task and an argumentative task) used in the study. They concluded that learners in the instruction-task group performed significantly better than those in argumentative-task group in terms of accuracy, fluency, and complexity. Salimi et al (2011) investigated the effect of task complexity on L2 learners’ written performance. They found out that task complexity did not have a significant effect on accuracy. Regarding the accuracy and fluency of written production, it

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was revealed that task complexity had a significant effect on accuracy and fluency of the learners. For complexity of written production, they found that L2 learners’ written complexity was significantly affected by task complexity. Salimi and Dadashpour (2012b) conducted a study to find out the effect of task complexity on L2 learners’ language production. Their study was based on the comparison of two models of task complexity namely Robinson's cognition hypothesis and Skehan's trade-off model. They found out that task complexity led to an increase in the domains of fluency and complexity but not accuracy. Salimi, Alavinia, and Hosseini (2012) investigated the effects of strategic pretask planning and task complexity on L2 learners’ written performance in terms of accuracy. The findings of the study revealed that pre-task strategic planning time in both simple and complex task led to more accuracy. As Ellis (2009) argues, “the only characteristic common among all task-based approaches is the inclusion of a focus on form” (p. 225). Moreover, advocates of task-based language teaching “do not view attention to form as an optional element of task-based language teaching, but as necessary to ensure ‘noticing’, which Schmidt (1994) viewed as a requisite for acquisition to take place” (p. 232, emphasis added). Focus on form techniques are essential parts of task-based language teaching, just as tasks are an ideal environment for cultivating focus on form. As proponents of Focus on Forms, Long and Crookes (1992, p.43) pointed out that "tasks provide a vehicle for the presentation of appropriate target language samples to learners-input which they will inevitably reshape via application of general cognitive processing capacities and for the delivery of comprehension and production opportunities of negotiable difficulty". Furthermore, according to a more SLA perspective to advocacy of TBT, issues such as learn ability, the order of acquisition of particular L2 structures, and the implications of the input, interaction and output hypothesis are central issues (Lynch & MacLean, 2000). One of the most important issues in research on language learning tasks concerns the interaction between task complexity and focus on form. Previous studies on the effects of task complexity have largely addressed such issues as L2 written production (Kuiken &Vedder, 2008), fluency and lexical complexity (Ong & Zhang, 2010), etc. Reviewing previous research makes it clear that there are only a few studies which examined both the effects of Focus on Form and Task complexity, most of the researches are about just Focus on form or only about Task complexity. The present study intends to fill this gap by examining how task complexity combined with focus on form affects EFL learners’ oral performance. 2.2 Research question and hypothesis The above literature review yielded the following research question and research hypotheses: RQ1: What are the effects of Focus on form and Task complexity on L2 learners’ oral performance in terms of accuracy? Research hypotheses H1: Learners receiving Focus on form will outperform group who do not receive any Focus on form in terms of accuracy in simple and complex tasks. 3. Methodology 3.1 Participants and setting The participants of the study were 6o Iranian male EFL learners, who had been in upper intermediate level of language proficiency in English. The participants were studying in Jihad Daneshgahi Language Institute in Tabriz. The participants were from different L1 backgrounds, including Turkish and Persian. They aged between 18- 25 and had been studying English in that institute for about three years. They were randomly selected on the basis of their performance on Oxford Proficiency Test (OPT) (2004) which was administered among the learners of intermediate and upper-intermediate of the institute to make sure about the proficiency level of the learners prior the experiment. They were randomly separated in half into two groups of simple and complex. Then, each group was divided into two control and experimental groups as following: simple experimental (simple task with focus on form), simple control (simple task without focus on form), complex experimental (complex task with focus on form), and complex control (complex task without focus on form). In order to control the variables of gender, all males who had obtained the criteria were included in the study. 3.2Instructional material The participants of the study received instruction from 5 units of Four Corners 3 by Richards and Bohlke (2012). These books are commonly used in language institutes all over the country to teach English as foreign or second language. They are written on the basis of communicative and task-based approaches to language teaching and learning. 3.3 Data Collection Material A pictorial valid decision making tasks (one simple and the other complex task) were extracted from Gilabert 2007; Salimi Asadollahfam, and Dadashpour, 2010). A simplified "fire chief task" used in cognitive psychology was utilized. In this task, the learners were presented with a building where a fire has broken and where a number of people need to be rescued. The problem in the complex version required from learners not just one decision, but a long series simultaneously. In both versions of the task learners were instructed to specify the actions they would take to determine the order of their actions and justify their option for actions and specific order. In the simple task, there are similar types of people (i. e people with no particular roles) in the building who were faced with similar degrees of danger, the fire being relatively static, and the smoke blowing away from the building. In the complex one, learners had to deal with

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specific types of people (e.g. a pregnant woman, an elderly man, an injured person, a hero, etc). The factors in the task are also intricately related and dynamic (e.g. the different fires moving towards the people and the smoke blowing into building through the ventilation system) and they have fewer resources (i.e. a single fire truck), which is thought would force learners to prioritize, and later justify their actions (Gilabert, 2007). 3.4 Procedure First the researcher chose upper intermediate level classes at Jihad Daneshgahi institute in Tabriz branch and administered OPT (2004) in order to make sure that participants are at the same level of proficiency. Based on the results of the OPT (2004), 60 students out of 100 students were chosen as the participants of the study. The participants were then randomly classified into two groups simple and complex, thirty in each group. Then, they were participants of each group were divided into two control and experimental groups as following: simple experimental (simple task with focus on form), simple control (simple task without focus on form), complex experimental (complex task with focus on form), and complex control (complex task without focus on form). The participants of experimental groups received form-focused instruction. That is, they were taught on the basis of the principles and strategies of focus on form. When the teacher wanted to teach them a new grammatical point, she did not teach them directly, rather she tried to draw the learners’ attention to newly presented structure implicitly by highlighting it on the board or providing ample amount of examples. However, in the control groups, the learners were taught based on the traditional method of teaching or focus on forms, i.e. they were instructed based on the principles of the traditional approach of PPP (presentation-practiceproduction). In these groups, when the teacher wanted to present a new grammatical form, she explained the new points of grammar directly to the learners. All the groups received instruction for a semester of eighteen sessions during summer course in 2014. At the end of the treatment, the participants of all groups were given the simple version of the decision-making task to perform it. After two weeks of interval the participants were given complex version of the same decision-making fire task. Their oral task performances were recorded with a tape recorder by the researcher. After that, the oral performances of the participants were transcribed and measured by the researcher on the basis of the measures of accuracy, complexity, and fluency proposed by Ellis (2003). In order to ensure about the reliability of the quantification of the oral data, they were re-quantified by another M.A in TEFL who was familiar with issues involved in the research. 4. Data Analysis and Results To compare the means of accuracy of two groups, appropriate statistical means of analysis were run and the results are presented as the following: 4.1 Independent-Samples T-test of accuracy of complex task with and without focus on form Table 4.1 shows the mean differences of accuracy of learners’ oral task performance in complex task with and without focus on form. Table 4.1 The mean differences of accuracy of accuracy of learners’ oral task performance in complex task with and without focus on form N Mean Std. Deviation Complex 15 0.84 0.12 +FOF Complex 15 0.79 0.17 FOF According to table 4.1, the mean of oral accuracy of the participants receiving focus on form instruction in complex task (0.84) is higher than the learners who did not receive form-focused instruction (0.79). That is, learners who were taught on the basis of focus on form strategies produced more accurate oral language than learners who received traditional instruction. Figure 4.1 clearly shows the mean differences of accuracy of learners’ oral task performance in complex task with and without focus on form.

Figure 4.1 The mean differences of accuracy of learners’ oral task performance in complex task with and without focus on form The results of the Independent Samples-T-test for comparing the means of accuracy of learners’ oral task performance in complex task with and without focus on form are provided in table 4.2.

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Table 4.2 Independent Samples T-Test for the means of accuracy of learners’ oral task performance in complex task with and without focus on form Levene’s Test T-test Equality of Means for Equality of Variances 95% Confidence F Sig. t df Sig (2Mean Std. Interval of the tailed) Differen Error Difference ce Differen ce Lowe r Upper Equal variances 1.77 0.19 0.97 28 0.33 0.05 0.05 -0.05 0.16 assumed Equal variances 0.97 25.59 0.33 0.05 0.05 -0.05 0.16 not assumed The results of applying Independent Samples T-test for comparing the means of accuracy of learners’ oral task performance in complex task with and without focus on form were provided in the above table. According to the data presented in the table, the learners receiving form-focused instruction outperformed the learners who did not receive focus on form instruction in terms of accuracy of their oral task production. 4.2 Independent-Samples T-test of accuracy of simple task with and without focus on form Table 4.3 shows the mean differences of accuracy of simple task with and without focus on form. Table 4.3 The mean differences of accuracy of accuracy of learners’ oral task performance in simple task with and without focus on form N Mean Std. Deviation Simple +FOF 15 0.82 0.10 Simple -FOF 15 0.77 0.13 As the data presented in the above table show, the learners receiving focus on form instruction produced more accurate language (0.82) than the learners receiving focus on forms instruction (0.77) in their oral production in simple task. This means that learners who were instructed according to focus on form strategies performed better than the others in terms of oral accuracy in simple task. Figure 4.2 clearly shows the mean differences of accuracy of learners’ oral task performance in simple task with and without focus on form.

Figure 4.2 The mean differences of accuracy of learners’ oral task performance in simple task with and without focus on form The results of the Independent Samples-T-test for comparing the means of accuracy of learners’ oral task performance in simple task with and without focus on form are provided in table 4.4. Table 4.4 Independent Samples T-Test for the means of accuracy of learners’ oral task performance in simple task with and without focus on form Levene’s Test T-test Equality of Means for Equality of Variances F Sig. t df Sig (2Mean Std. Error 95% Confidence tailed) Difference Difference Interval of the Difference Lower Upper Equal variances 1.59 0.21 1.07 28 0.29 0.04 0.04 -0.04 0.13 assumed Equal variances 1.07 26.12 0.29 0.04 0.04 -0.04 0.13 not assumed

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The results of applying Independent Samples T-test for comparing the means of accuracy of learners’ oral task performance in simple task with and without focus on form were provided in the above table. As the data presented in the table show, the learners receiving form-focused instruction outperformed the learners who did not receive focus on form instruction in terms of accuracy of their oral task production in simple task. 4.3 Independent-Samples T-test of accuracy of simple and complex tasks with focus on form The mean differences of accuracy of simple and complex tasks with focus on form are provided in the following table. Table 4.5 The mean differences of accuracy of accuracy of learners’ oral task performance in simple and complex tasks with focus on form N Mean Std. Deviation Simple +FOF 15 0.82 0.10 Complex+ 15 0.84 0.12 FOF According to the data provided in table 4.5, the learners who were taught according to form-focused instruction strategies produced more accurate language (0.84) in complex task than simple task (0.82), i.e. learners receiving focus on form in complex task outperformed learners receiving the same instruction in simple task. Figure 4.3 vividly indicates the mean differences of accuracy of learners’ oral task performance in simple and complex tasks with focus on form.

0.84

0.82 Simple +FOF

Complex+ FOF

Figure 4.3 The mean differences of accuracy of learners’ oral task performance in simple and complex tasks with focus on form Table 4.6 shows the results of the Independent Samples-T-test for comparing the means of accuracy of learners’ oral task performance in simple and complex tasks with focus on form. Table 4.6 Independent Samples T-Test for the means of accuracy of learners’ oral task performance in simple and complex tasks with focus on form Levene’s Test for Equality of Variances F

Equal variances assumed Equal variances not assumed

1.36

Sig.

0.25

T-test Equality of Means

t

df

Sig (2tailed)

Mean Difference

Std. Error Difference

95% Confidence Interval of the Difference Lowe r

Uppe r

-0.64

28

0.52

-0.02

0.04

-0.11

0.05

-0.64

26.89

0.52

-0.02

0.04

-0.11

0.05

Table 4.6 presents the results of applying Independent Samples T-test for comparing the means of accuracy of learners’ oral task performance in simple task with and without focus on form. According to the data presented in the table, the learners receiving form-focused instruction produced slightly more accurate language in complex task than the learners who received the same instruction in simple task.

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4.4 The comparison of the means of fluency of simple and complex tasks with and without focus on form One-Way ANOVA was employed to compare the means of fluency of simple and complex tasks with and without focus on form. The results of the analysis are provided in the following table. Table 4.7 The results of One-Way ANOVA for the comparison of the means of fluency of simple and complex tasks with and without focus on form Sum of Mean Between

Squares

df

Square

F

Sig.

2112.49

3

704.16

2.27

0.09

17364.25

56

310.07

19476.75

59

Groups Within Groups Total

The data presented in table 4.23 shows that there was a meaningful difference between the performances of the participants who received and did not receive focus on form instruction in simple and complex tasks in terms of fluency of their oral task performance. The mean differences of the four groups of learners in simple and complex tasks with and without focus on form are presented in the following figure.

Figure 4.4 The mean differences of accuracy of simple and complex tasks with and without focus on form This means that focus on form and task complexity had significant effects on the L2 learners’ oral task performances in terms of accuracy. 5. Discussion and Conclusion The effects of task complexity and focus on from on the accuracy of L2 learners’ oral task performance was explored as part of this study. The results of the data analysis regarding the oral accuracy of the learners were provided in chapter four in tables 4.2, 4.4, 4.6, and 4.8 and figures 4.1, 4.2, 4.3, and 4.4. The finding of the study revealed that there were significant differences between the oral performances of the learners who received focus on form instruction and those who received traditional instruction both in simple and complex tasks. According to the findings of this study, the most accurate language was related to the learners who received focus on form instruction on complex task while the least accurate language was for the learners who received traditional instruction on simple task. That is, task complexity and focus on form were effective on the oral task production of the learners in terms of accuracy. The findings of this study in terms of accuracy are in line with the findings of Kuiken, Mos and Vedder (2005), Rahimpour (2007), Kuiken and Vedder (2008), and Hejazi (2012). Kuiken, Mos and Vedder (2005) manipulated task complexity by varying the number of elements to be considered in a writing task. Specifically, they asked Dutch learners of Italian with high and low proficiency levels to write a recommendation letter to a friend about where to visit for a holiday. Five destination choices were given and the participants were required to choose only one based on a varying number of criteria (i.e., three in the simple and six in the complex task). They examined three categories of L2 production measures: syntactic complexity; lexical variation; accuracy. Their results showed that there were no task complexity effects on lexical and syntactic complexity. In contrast, analyses on accuracy data yielded significant interactions between task complexity and proficiency; namely, greater written accuracy was observed when task complexity and proficiency were both high. Rahimpour (2007) studied the effect of task complexity on L2 learners’ oral performance. The results showed that there-and-then task (complex task) led to more accuracy. However, the finding of the present study in terms of accuracy ran against the findings of Hosseini and Rahimpour (2010), Salimi et al (2011), and Salimi and Dadashpour (2012). Hosseini and Rahimpour (2010) investigated the effects of task complexity on L2 learners' written performance on narrative pictorial tasks of here-and- now and there-and then.

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The results of the study demonstrated that cognitively more demanding task (there-and- then) had no significant effects on accuracy. Salimi et al (2011) investigated the effect of task complexity on L2 learners’ written performance. They found out that task complexity did not have a significant effect on accuracy. Salimi and Dadashpour (2012) conducted a study to find out the effect of task complexity on L2 learners’ language production. Their study was based on the comparison of two models of task complexity namely Robinson’s Cognition Hypothesis and Skehan’s Trade-off Model. They found out that task complexity led to an increase in the domains of fluency and complexity but not accuracy. The findings of this study in terms of accuracy can be attributed to the limited attention model proposed by Skehan and Foster (2001). Skehan and Foster’s (2001) limited attentional capacity model views attention and memory as limited in capacity; therefore, they suggest that increasing task complexity reduces the pool of available attention and memory resources. As a result, some aspects of performance will be attended to while others will not. Skehan and Foster (2001) also claim that cognitively more demanding tasks draw learners’ attention away from linguistic forms so that enough attention need to the content of the message. Also, the findings of the study can be imputed to Schmidt’s noticing hypothesis (Schmidt, 1990, 2001). This hypothesis holds that noticing, a cognitive process that involves attending to the input learners receive, is inevitably a conscious process and is a necessary condition for second language learning. Schmidt (1990, 2001) has argued that attention and its subjective correlates noticing, i.e. registering formal features in the input, and noticing the gap, i.e. identifying how the input to which the learner is exposed differs from the output the learner is able to generate, are essential processes in L2 acquisition. Attention is generally considered a necessary condition for changing input into intake in the field of SLA (Schmidt, 1990, 2001). Nothing in the target language is available for intake into a learner‘s existing system unless it is consciously noticed. It can be concluded that engaging learners in the performance of tasks with high amount cognitive complexity along with form-focused instruction can make learners’ attentional resources be drawn more to the linguistic forms of the language and as a result of this, they produce. It can be said the more the complexity of the task, the more the learners’ efforts to have more accurate production. 5.1 Pedagogical Implications The findings of the present study may be helpful for second/foreign language researchers, language teachers, and syllabus and task designers. The findings of this study can add some new points to the literature of SLA and may provide the researchers of second language acquisition with some new insights and findings. Language teachers may benefit from the results of this study in that they can employ the strategies of form-focused instruction in their classes to improve their teaching and student’s learning. Also, they can employ tasks with different complexity levels and demands to make their learners produce and learn language. Syllabus designers can use the findings of this study to design their syllabuses in ways that they involve task with different levels of task complexity and cognitive demands as well as they lend themselves to strategies of form. References Doughty, C. (2001). 'Cognitive underpinning of focus on form' In P. Robinson(Ed.). Cognition and second language instruction. Cambridge: Cambridge University press. Ellis, R. (2003). Task-based language learning and teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Ellis, R. (2009). Task-based language teaching: Sorting out the misunderstandings. International Journal of Applied Linguistics 19 (3), 229-246. Foster, P. (1999). Task-based learning and pedagogy. ELT Journal, 53(1), 69-70. Foster, P., & Skehan, P. (1996). The influence of planning and task type on second language performance. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 9, 12-20. Foster, P., & Skehan, P. (1999). The influence of planning and focus of planning on task-based performance. Language Teaching Research, 3, 215-247. Gilabert, R. (2005). Task complexity and L2 narrative oral production. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation. University of Barcelona, Spain. Gilabert, R. (2007). Effects of manipulating task complexity on self-repairs during L2 oral production. International Review of Applied Linguistics, 45, 215-240. Hejazi, M. (2012). Teacher's error correction: A key factor in developing Iranian EFL learners' speech accuracy. Theory and Practice in Language Studies, 2(3), 619-624. Hosseini, P. & Rahimpour, M. (2010). The Impact of Task Complexity on L2 Learners' Written Narratives. CCSE, 3 (3), 198-205. Ishikawa, T. (2006). The effects of task complexity and language proficiency on task-based language performance. The Journal of Asia TEFL, 3(4), 193-225. Kuiken, F., Mos, M. &Vedder, I. (2005). Cognitive task complexity and second language writing performance. In Eurosla Yearbook 5, Susan H. Foster-Cohen, Maria del PilarGarcía Mayo and Jasone Cenoz(eds.), 195-222. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. Kuiken, F., & Vedder, I. (2007). Task complexity and measures of linguistic performance in L2 writing. International Review of Applied Linguistics, 45(3), 261-284.

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Kuiken, F., & Vedder, I. (2008). Cognitive task complexity and written output in Italian and French as a foreign language. Journal of Second Language Writing, 17, 48-60. Long, M. (1985). A role for instruction in second language acquisition: task-based language teaching. In K. Hyltenstam and M. Pienemann (Eds.), Modeling and assessing second language acquisition (pp.77-99). Clevedon: Multilingual Matters. Long, M. H. (1996). The role of linguistic environment in second language acquisition. In W.C.Ritchie and T.K.Bhatia (Eds.). Handbook of second language acquisition. (pp.413-463). San Diego; Academic Press. Lynch, T. & J. Maclean. (2000). Exploring the benefits of task repetition and recycling for classroom language learning. Language Teaching Research, 4, 221-50. Ong, J., & Zhang, L.J. (2010). Effects of task complexity on the fluency and lexical complexity in EFL students' argumentative writing. Journal of Second Language Writing. Doi: 10.1016/J.JSLW Prabhu, N.S. (1987). Second language pedagogy. Oxford University Press. Rahimpour, M. (2007). Task complexity and variation in L2 learners’ oral discourse. Working Papers in Language and Linguistics, University of Queensland, 1-9. Rezazadeh, M., Tavakoli, M. & Eslami-Rasekh, A. (2011). The Role of task type in foreign language written production: Focusing on fluency, complexity, and accuracy. International Education Studies, 4(2), 169-176. Robinson, P. (2001). Task complexity, task difficulty, and task production: exploring interactions in a componential framework. Applied Linguistics, 22(1), 27-57. Robinson, P. (2003). The cognition hypothesis, task design, and adult task-based language learning. Second Language Studies, 21(2), 45-105. Robinson, P. (2005). Cognitive complexity and task sequencing: studies in a componential framework for second language task design. International Review of Applied Linguistics, 43, 1-32. Robinson, P. (2007). Task complexity, theory of mind, and intentional reasoning: effects on L2 speech production, interaction, uptake and perceptions of task difficulty. International Review of Applied Linguistics, 45(3), 193-213. Rosa, E, & O’Neill, D. (1999). Explicitness, intake, and the issues of awareness: Another piece to the puzzle. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 21, 511-553. Salimi, A. & Dadashpour, S. (2012a). Task complexity and SL development: Does task complexity matter? ProcediaSocial and Behavioral Sciences, 46, 726-735. Salimi, A. & Dadashpour, S. (2012b). Task Complexity and Language Production Dilemmas (Robinson's Cognition Hypothesis vs. Skehan's Trade-off Model). Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 46, 643-652. Salimi, A., Alavinia, P., & Hosseini, P. (2012). The effect of strategic planning time and task complexity on L2 written accuracy. Theory and Practice in Language Studies, 2 (11), 2398-2406. Salimi, A. & Yousefi, M. (2009). The effect of task complexity on L2 learners' uptake in EFL context. A paper presented at 7th International TELLSI Conference. University of Yazd, October, 20-22 Schmidt, R. (1990). The role of consciousness in second language learning. Applied linguistics, 11, 129-58. Schmidt, R. (1994). Deconstructing consciousness in search of useful definitions for applied linguistics. AILA Review, 11, 11-26. Schmidt, R. (2000). 'Attention" in P. Robinson (Ed.): Cognition and second language instruction. (PP. 3-32). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Skehan, P. (1996). A framework for the implementation of task-based instruction. Applied Linguistics, 17(1), 38-62. Skehan, P. (1998a). Task-based instruction. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 18, 268-286. Skehan, P. (1998b). A cognitive approach to language learning. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Skehan, P. (2003). Task-based instruction. Language Teaching, 36, 1-14. Skehan, P. & Foster, P. (1999). The influence of task structure and processing conditions on narrative retellings. Language Learning, 49(1), 93-120. Skehan, P. & Foster, P. (2001). Cognition and tasks. In P. Robinson (Ed.), Cognition and second language instruction (pp.183-205). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Swain, M. (1998). 'Focus on form through conscious reflection' in C. Doughty and J. Williams (Eds.). pp: 64-81. Van Patten, B. (1990). Attending to content and form in the input: an experiment in consciousness. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 12, 287-301. VanPatten, B. & T. Cadierno. (1993). Explicit instruction and input processing. Studies in second Language Acquisition, 15, 225-41. Willis, D., & Willis, J. (2001). Task-based language learning. In R. Carter and D. Nunan (Eds.), The Cambridge guide to teaching English to speakers of other languages (pp.173-179). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Advances in Language and Literary Studies ISSN: 2203-4714 Vol. 6 No. 6; December 2015 Australian International Academic Centre, Australia

Flourishing Creativity & Literacy

Power in Play: A Foucauldian Reading of A.O. Soyinka’s The Trials of Brother Jero Mahboobeh Davoodifar (Corresponding author) English Language and Literature Department Azarbaijan Shahid Madani University E-mail: [email protected] Moussa Pourya Asl School of Humanities, Universiti Sains Malaysia 11800 USM, Pulau Pinang. Penang, Malaysia E-mail: [email protected]

Doi:10.7575/aiac.alls.v.6n.6p.63

Received: 11/06/2015

URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.7575/aiac.alls.v.6n.6p.63

Accepted: 01/09/2015

Abstract This work utilizes Foucault’s articulations on the power strategies of our contemporary society. To him the subject’s constitution is never a purely passive effect of power on the subject but requires the subject’s own activity. This necessitates the existence of a dynamic, mutually affecting relationship, implying that one can be both dominated and dominate at different times and in different contexts. This article aims to analyze the Nigerian Noble Laureate, Wole Soyinka’s play The Trials of Brother Jero, a prophetical play that criticizes the ills of society through its satirical depiction, in the light of Foucault’s conceptualizations on power. To do this, the article first clarifies Foucault’s mature understanding of the operation of power and then attempts to provide an in-depth analysis of the structure of the power regime and its relations in the play, tactics of domination, and more importantly, the characters’ relations to the existing system of power. The study of the language and the dialogue of the main characters, Brother Jero, Amope, Chume and a Member of Federation House not only exposes the sources of operating power relations, but it also highlights the characters’ desire for power and the way it flows and slips from one character to another. The findings of the paper reveals that power is not concentrated on merely one character or institution within the play, rather, it circulates, and through the active resistance of the dominated characters, it constantly engenders new meanings within the structure of the play. In The Trials of Brother Jero, different characters have the desire to use power against each other and the resistance of each of them indicates that power is neither possessive nor repressive. Keywords: Michel Foucault, Power, Pastoral Power, Resistance, Wole Soyinka 1. Introduction The Trials of Brother Jero, widely known as one of Soyinke’s (1934-?) most popular plays, was first published in 1964, and then appeared as a performance at the Greenwich Mews Theatre in New York City in 1967. The play is a popular comedy in the language (perhaps it is the only work by Soyinka that is written in simple English) of the masses. For the most part, it mocks the effects of the rapid spread and wide popularity of Christianity across Africa. The playwright touches upon the issue with a common figure of the time: i.e. a corrupt priest, a phony preacher named in the play as Prophet Jero, who proselytizes by deceiving his followers. In the play, Jero buys a velvet cape from a woman trader, Amope, on credit, for which he declines to pay and hence gives rise to numerous other conflicts of the play. Through the element of satire, the play thus successfully reveals the contradictions in blind faith and following; and highlights many of the social and political imbalances of Nigeria in the early 1960s. Perhaps, this is why, Osoba (2014) suspects, its audience tend to cut across social and intellectual classes. This being said, it is easy to note that the play engages directly with the current socio-political and religious atmosphere of the contemporary Nigeria (2). A quick overview of Soyinka's career reveals that his works, i.e. his plays, novels, and poetry, combine elements of African cultural tradition, particularly the traditional Yoruban folk drama with European dramatic form to create sense of satire. His interest in the Yoruba culture has made him mainly focus on the problems his people are experiencing or may undergo in the postcolonial period. Thematically, his works deal with various leitmotifs and dichotomies: existentialism, the crisis of identity, nationhood and Africa’s political turmoil, tradition versus modernity, and the more importantly, in terms of its relevance to the present article, the flow of the power and its relationality. As a dramatist, poet, novelist, literary critic, theatre director, sometimes actor, Soyinka was the first Nigerian Noble Prize winner for literature in 1986. His works have hence received much public and critical reception. In an interview with Ahmed Yerima, the dramatist and social commenter, which was conducted at National Theatre of Nigeria, Lagos, the interviewer commented on The Trials of Bother Jero that the issues presented in the play were a kind of prophecy, maintaining that it “was written in 1960, at the time of writing the play, the issue of the religious proliferation was not a

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big thing then but at the moment is a big issue” (Adeoye and Jays, 222). Moreover, in a review published in African Quarterly and the Arts, The Trials of Brother Jero, Akin Adesokan has called it “perhaps the most performed of Soyinka’s plays and either its comedy or its accessibility has helped it stay in various repertories, or on the reading lists (90). Since its publication, the play has also been the target of much critical discussion. Critics have taken widely different approaches to read it from various perspectives. Some have focused on the way satire has been used to expatiate the socio-political problems of Nigerian Society (Abisola 2011; Kammampoal 2013; Sanka and Addei 2013; Beatrice & Gyimah 2013). Others have utilized linguistic lenses, functional meaning and language (Ekpe, Oden, & Essien-Eyo 2013; Osoba 2014). Beatrice & Gyimah, for instance, in their paper entitled “Soyinka as Satirist: A Study of The Trials of Brother Jero” introduce Soyinka as a satirist and further explain the tools of satire such as irony, exaggeration and invective in the play. They believe that “satire is a mode of writing that exposes the failings of individuals, institutions, or societies to ridicule and scorn” (269). Meditating on satire as a social commentary and criticism, they highlight the power of language to communicate messages to the audience. Though this paper is successfully done, it is limited to the discussion of the power of the language, and thus fails to study the notion of power. Furthermore, the article excludes the power of characters and institutions that could unveil certain unique aspects of the play. In an attempt to fill out this gap, our paper investigates this play meticulously in the light of Foucauldian theory of power relations and pays particular attention to different characters in the play, their use of language, and the contribution of the language they use to the notion of the power in the play. The reason for that is power has been one of the recurrent themes in major Works of Soyinka. For instance, in The Lion and The Jewel (1959), the struggles among characters to win the village belle clearly explains the theme of power and this is approved by the fact that the Bale of the village wins her hand. Another instance can be A Dance of the Forests (1960), Soyinka’s first major work, in which for the gathering of the tribes, two powerful and glorious forefathers are invited. However, the least powerful ones that have been violently abused are brought to the feast. The repetition of the notion of the power has made the researchers ponder the applicability of it to The Trials of Brother Jero. In addition to the recurrence of theme of power in Soyinka’s works, the fact that The Trials of Brother Jero has been categorized as a political play makes it valuable to be analyzed with regard to Foucauldian theory of power. 2. Theoretical Background Providing a genealogy of the subject in his History of Sexuality, Foucault states, “[i]t seemed appropriate to look for the forms and modalities of the relation to self by which the individual constitutes and recognizes himself qua subject” (6). Then, he begins to explore the technologies and practices that formulate the self; thereby examining the power strategies of our contemporary disciplinary society. Power is one of the recurrent themes in Foucault’s works, which are largely concerned with the relations between social structures and institutions and the individual (Mills, 33). Unless one appreciates the general definition of the notion of power, one would not be able to easily comprehend it in Foucauldian terms. In general, power is the ability of an agent that desires to impose its will over the wills of the powerless (Goudarzi and Ramin, 2014). In defining power, Foucault emphasizes that he does not intend to provide a theory of power, rather, he is involved in the ways the network of power relations operates, how power strategies structure our field of experience. This examination entails an account of power as a tool of analysis. In his first volume of The History of Sexuality, he stresses that “power is exercised from innumerable points, in the interplay of non-egalitarian and mobile relations” (94). Hence, power is not exercised on a marginalized and subordinate group by a privileged and dominant one. These roles are dynamic, suggesting that there is “no binary and all-encompassing opposition between rulers and ruled” (94). So, it is easy to conclude that one can be the subject and the object of power at the same time, one can be both dominated and dominate at different times and in various contexts. However, in both cases, both sides are actively involved, implying that when even one is dominated, this is not a purely passive relationship. Foucault believes that the power relations are implicated in all our social relations. His definition of power departs from the Marxist articulations of the concept that consider it as a possession through which the powerful can suppress the powerless. Foucault’s theory of power suggests that the system of power relations is omnipresent, that is, it can be found in all social interactions. As he asserts, “it seems to me that power is always already there’, that one is never ‘outside’ it” (Taylor, 15). Power is not a fixed possession but a flow which circulates and is exercised and practiced. As he explains in one of his interviews published as “Critical theory/ intellectual theory”, “I am not referring to power with a capital P, dominating and imposing its rationality upon the totality of the social body. In fact, there are power relations. They are multiple; they have different forms, they can be in play in family relations, or within an institution, or an administration” (Foucault, 38). Foucault studies power not only as a macro power in institutions, but also in smaller circles such as families and trivial conversations among family members, friends or even taxi drivers and passengers which he refers to as micro power; thus pointing to the unfixed status of power relations. In this context, Sara Mills points to the relationality and unsteadiness of the power regime and claims that Foucault’s work is very critical of the notion that power is something which a group of people or an institution process and that it is only concerned with oppressing and constraining. What Foucault’s work tries to do is to move from thinking about power beyond the view of power as repression of the powerless by the powerful to an examination of the way that power operated within everyday relations between people and institutions (33). In this regard, Yuan Yu (2014) concurs with Mills asserting that to Foucault, power is relations. As he observes, power is “not a thing, it is a relationship between two individuals, a relationship which is such that one

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can direct the behavior of another or determine the behavior of another” (244); therefore, individuals also play a significant role in practicing power. In The History of Sexuality, Foucault states that ‘where there is power there is resistance. Should it be said that one is always “inside” power, there’s no “escaping” from it (95). With regard to this statement we come to know the importance of individuals in power relations. In order to be a relation, where power is exercised there has to be someone who resists. Foucault argues that where there is no resistance, there is not, in effect, a power relation (Mills, 40). His view of power involves certain features including: 1) the impersonality, or subjectiveness, of power, meaning that it is not guided by the will of the individuals; 2) the relationality of power, meaning that power is always a case of power relations between people as opposed to a quantum possessed by people; 3) the decenteredness of power, meaning that it is not concentrated on a single individual or class; 4) the multidirectionary of power, meaning that it does not flow only from more to the less powerful; 5)the strategic nature of power, meaning that it has a dynamic of its own (Kelly, 38). This study aims to analyze the existing power relations in The Trials of Brother Jero. To do this, we will focus on and utilize the language and dialogue of the play and attempt to address questions like: Where is the first point in the play in which power is shown for the first time? How is power practiced and circulated by characters? Where and when do characters resist the dominating power in the play? 3. Discussion The Trials of Brother Jero is a story of a day in the life of a self-named prophet, Jero. This corrupt preacher is proud of demonstrating his wise and cunning nature to the public. The play begins a monologue in which we learn about Brother Jero: The audience is told that he was born a prophet and thus, his view of prophethood as a trade is revealed at the very outset of the play. We learn that Jero acquired his current beach-side realty in the name of the Old Prophet, his former master, by formulating a campaign against the other prophets. The Old Prophet, however, is also already driven off his own land. Midway into the monologue, the Old Prophet enters to curse Jero, “wishing his downfall via women”. The day is presented to us as one in which the wish is nearly fulfilled. Hereafter, a messenger in the government, called Chume and Amope, his ill-tempered wife appear. Chume is Jero’s most faithful penitent. However, unbeknownst to him, Brother Jero owes Amope a sum of money for a velvet cape that he bought from her. Determined to get her money, Amope camps outside his door and after a brief confrontation Jero sneaks out to the beach. In Scene 3, we see Chume joining Jero at the beach. The scene goes on with Chume listing his grievances about his wife and requesting to beat her. Jero, however, prohibited Chume from doing so. While the rest of the congregation is gathering, Jero notices a fight between a Drummer Boy and a woman. Being distracted, he leaves to attempt to mitigate it. In the meantime, Chume temporarily takes over Prophet Jero’s sermon, empowered. Returning to the congregation, Jero, very exhausted, finds out that Amope is in fact Chume's wife. There, we see him granting permission to beat her, hoping it will take care of his problems as well. In the following scene, Chume is eventually emboldened to speak with Amope, whereby he finds out that her debtor is in fact Brother Jero, and that his sacred life is built on a web of lies. Instead of beating Amope, he runs back to confront Jero. In the final scene we see Jero in the process of converting another penitent. The new member is a Member of the House who is yearning to become a Minister. Chume arrives with one determined intention in his mind: that of killing Jero. Jero, however, escapes, but, ironically, his fleeing is interpreted as a sign of his divinity by the Penitent. And when he comes back, his newest Penitent is more strongly convinced of his status as a Prophet, dedicating himself to Jero as his "Master." Going back to the beginning lines of The Trials of Brother Jero, it starts with Jero’s monologue as: JEROBOAM: I am a prophet. A prophet by birth and inclination. You have probably seen many of us on the streets, many with their own churches, many inland, many on the coast, many leading processions, many leading processions to lead, many curing the deaf, many raising the dead. In fact, there are eggs and eggs (145). The starting lines of the play are important to the discussion since it is the very first point in the play where the reader becomes familiar with the existing power hierarchies within the narrative. Brother Jero calls himself a prophet, a priest, a pastor. Christianity and prophethood of Jero reminds us of the Foucauldian notion of disciplinary technologies of religion. As Foucault writes: It has often been said that Christianity brought into being a code of ethics fundamentally different from that of the ancient world. Less emphasis is usually placed on the fact that it proposed and spread new relations throughout the ancient world. Christianity is the only religion that organized itself as a church. As such, it postulates in principle that certain individuals can, by their religious quality, serve others not as princes, magistrates, prophets, fortune-tellers, benefactors, educationalists, and so on but pastors. However, this word designates a very special form of power. (333) In this context, it is clear that this is the church and the pastoral power which gives power to Brother Jero. He calls himself a prophet and renames his duty as a trade. What he is doing, nevertheless, is not practice, preach or pray. What he does is to empower him through weakening his flock and keeping them dissatisfied: “I am glad I got here before any costumers- I mean worshippers- well, if you like customers. I always get that feeling every morning that I am a shopkeeper waiting for customers’ (153). Likening the people to the customers assures the reader that people need him and they come to him since they consider him as someone who has power, the pastoral power that he has gotten from the

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church. This becomes crystal clear especially the time when we read about the day he bought the velvet cape from Amope. He says: “I don’t know how she found out my house. When I bought the goods off her, she did not even ask any question. My calling was enough to guarantee the payment (152). Having this in mind, Beatrice & Gyimah state that “the woman, Amope, was kind enough to give the white gown and velvet cape to prophet Jero on credit. Jero confessed to us that, when he ‘bought the goods off her’, she did not even ask any questions”. This means that Amope showed him great respect and consideration as a man of God (274). However, in the light of Foucauldian reading, it can be said that Amope was under Jero’s pastoral power. In fact there are instances in the play that illuminate the ways Jero is trying to make people notice his holiness and power; the time, for instance, when he says “God curse that woman! I never thought she would dare affront the presence of a man of God” (153). There are also a few times when Jero reminds people of the presence of a man of God. To believe that Jero possesses power and is trying to suppress other characters and turn their relationship into a master-slave one is a Marxist view of power. In this regard, Althusar tells us that power is possessed by the powerful; and consequently, the less powerful are nothing but puppets that are doomed to accept the wills of the system and institutions (Goudarzi and Ramin, 2036). Rejecting this theory, Foucault asserts that power is not something to be held or possessed by governments, systems and institutions since it is not something fixed and stable. On the contrary, power in power relation is dynamic and for this reason it can be productive (ibid). In terms of the story, Jero, who is exploiting his flock as customers, is not the only person in power. The fact that Amope is sitting in front of Jero’s house and he is afraid to come out and, as a result, wants to flee from the window, introduces Amope to the reader as a new source of power in the play. This incident helps the reader vote against the fixity of the power and enables them to see it like a net or relation and creates another center for the power showing the decenteredness of power hierarchies. Chume, Amope’s husband, who has been trying to get the permission to beat his wife and avoid himself from madness, can be considered an angel of the power. Chume is under the influence and power of Brother Jero and is almost begging for the permission of beating his wife. This form of power is what Foucault calls disciplinary power. For Foucault, as it is for Gramsci, power can be productive to discipline and regulate people (Gandhi and Bakhshizadeh, 2). In Foucault’s words, disciplinary power strives to make the body “more obedient as it becomes more useful, and conversely” (Taylor, 28). Therefore, Chume wants to regulate Amope, and he wants to do it only once, since he sincerely believes in the disciplinary power. Foucault insists that knowledge and power go hand in hand. In another scene, Chume confesses to Brother Jero that he has to beat his wife because in the morning she went to an area to lay siege for one week in front of her debtor’s house. In their article entitled “Exploring the Foucauldian Interpretation of Power and Subject in Organization” Anita Valikangas and Hannele Seeck assert that pastoral power is a relationship, where the pastor aims to modify the spirit and the will of the guided person into a certain direction, with the help of spiritual guidance and subject’s confession (9). Through Chume’s confession Jero gets the knowledge. Upon knowing this, Brother Jero changes his mind. JERO: I wonder really what the will of God would be in this matter. After all, Christ himself was not averse to using the whip when occasion demanded it. Chume: (eagerly)… no, he did not hesitate. JERO: in that case, since, Brother Chume, your wife seems such a wicked, willful sinner, I think … CHUME: Yes, Holy one ….? JERO: You must take her home tonight … CHUME: Yes … JERO: And beat her. CHUME: (Kneeling, Claps Jero’s hand in his) Prophet! JERO: Remember it must be done in your own house. Never show the discord within your family to the world. Take her home and beat her. (162) Here the exploitive nature of Prophet Jero is exposed: how he cheats on others to achieve his selfish interest (Abisola, 42). In “Prison Talk”, Foucault states that it is not possible for power to be exercised without knowledge. As he states “that the exercise of power perpetually creates knowledge and, conversely, knowledge can constantly induce effects of power” (52). The cooperation of knowledge and power is undeniable. With regard to the relation of knowledge and power, Foucault asserts that the set of procedures which produce knowledge and keep knowledge in circulation can be termed as ‘episteme’ (Mills, 71). There are two epistemes in the play that contribute to the production and circulation of knowledge. During the confession, the pastor aims to gain more knowledge on his subjects. The result of confession is that the subject begins to produce a certain kind of truth about him- /herself (Valikangas and Seeck, 9). It is during the confession that Chume reveals the woman who has laid siege in front of Jero’s house is his wife and it is with the help of this knowledge that Jero finds a way to fight against Amope’s power on him. The other instance is when Chume gets the permission to beat his wife. When he arrives at Jero’s house, he has been transformed. He is not the same person who obeys and listens to Amope. He thinks he has become a man and Amope should listen to whatever he says. While arguing with Amope, he acknowledges that the debtor is Prophet Jero. Chume who has been following and obeying Jero throughout the play

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wants to go back and confront him. He becomes a source of power over Jero again and when Jero hears his words from a distance, he tries to hide himself in the darkness. Jero tries to preach a member of Federation House. In the beginning the member does not care about Jero’s prayers and words, saying “(with great pomposity) go and practice your fraudulence on another person of greater gullibility” (168). Jero’s knowledge of the fact that the member is looking for a promotion helps him make the member believe his prophecies that he is going to be the war minister. As soon as the member hears it, he behaves with a pleading manner. Upon Jero’s disappearance he says “Prophet! Prophet! (Turns sharply and rapidly in every direction, shouting) Prophet, where are you? Where have you gone? Prophet! Don’t leave me, prophet, don’t leave me” (170). Jero wants to use the influence of the member to send Chume to an asylum for one year and this shows that almost every character in this play has a desire for power. What is crucial to the analysis is the resistance that characters have shown to each other’s power. Jero who was the first character in power, bought a velvet cape from Amope, and in fact he had no intentions of paying for it: “God curse that woman! I never thought she would dare affront the presence of a man of God. One pound eight for this little cape! It’s sheer robbery” (153). Amope, contrary to all the male characters of the play, not only does she let go of her money, but she is also brave enough to call the prophet’s name, calling him bearded rogue, spindle-leg toad and dirty beggar. Even though we do not side with and appreciate Amope’s insulting habit, we, likewise Mireku-Gyimah, admire her industry and desire to succeed. In a similar way, we also acknowledge her refusal to be cowed before a man and an opportunistic Christian leader at that. Here, she is an individual because she is different from many African women that are only abused first by men, and second, in the “Prophet Jero” churches (Mireku-Gyimah 270). The fact that Amope is an individual assures us that we are dealing with Foucauldian power. The notion of the individual is problematic for Foucault; nevertheless, it is in the relationship between the individual and the institution that we find power operating most clearly (Mills, 33). 4. Conclusion With regard to the Foucaudian theory of power, Wole Soyinka’s The Trials of Brother Jero promises a profound understanding of the play. Foucault’s articulations on the power strategies of our contemporary society reveals that the subject’s constitution in the society is never a purely passive effect of power on the subject but requires the subject’s own activity. This necessitates the existence of a dynamic, mutually affecting relationship in the hierarchal structure of the system of power, implying that one can be both dominated and dominate at different times and in different contexts. The Nigerian Noble Laureate, Wole Soyinka’s play The Trials of Brother Jero is a prophetical play that criticizes the ills of society through its satirical depictions. A study of the play in the light of Foucault’s conceptualizations on power demanded us first clarify Foucault’s mature understanding of the operation of power and then provide an in-depth analysis of the structure of the power regime and its relations in the play, tactics of domination, and more importantly, the characters’ relations to the existing system of power. The study of the language and the dialogue of the main characters, Brother Jero, Amope, Chume and a Member of Federation House not only exposes the sources of operating power relations, but it also highlights the characters’ desire for power and the way it flows and slips from one character to another. The findings of the paper revealed that power is not concentrated on merely one character or institution within the play, rather, it circulates, and through the active resistance of the dominated characters, it constantly engenders new meanings within the structure of the play. In The Trials of Brother Jero different characters have the desire to use power against each other and the resistance of each of them indicates that power is neither possessive nor repressive. The power is in play and it is not limited to the class the characters belong to, a trader, a priest, a messenger and a member of Federation House. At specific times they control each other and as the power circulates, a different character gets a significant role in the play. The main question which is still worth pondering address the socio-political aspects of the power strategies of the play. References Abisola, O.O. (2011). Satire and Social Meditation in Wole Soyinka’s: A Case Study of The Trials of Brother Jero and A Play of Giants. Diss. University of Ilorin. Beatrice, Patricia and Mireku-Gyimah. (2013). Soyinka as a Satirist: A Study of The Trials of Brother Jero. International Journal of English and Literature, 4(6). -------------.Contemporary English Language Theatre in Nigeria. African Quarterly on the Arts. Vol. I. No. 4, Londen Review. Ekpe, S.I., Anita, N.O., and Ako, O.E. (2013). Soyinka’s Language Engineering in the Jero Plays and The Beautification of Area Boy. Studies in Literature and Language, 6.3. Foucault, M. (1978). The History of Sexuality. Vol. I. Trans. Robert Hurley. New York: Pantheon. ------------. (1990). History of Sexuality, Vol. 2: The Use of Pleasure, trans. R. Hurley (New York: Vintage Books, Random House, p.6. ------------. (1980). Power/knowledge: Selected interviews and other writings 1972-1977. Ed. Colin Gordon. Trans. Colin Gordon, Leo Marshal, John Mepham, Kate Soper. New York: The Harvester Press. ------------. (2000). Ed. James D. Faubion. Power. Vol. 3. Trans. Robert Hurley and others. New York: The New Press.

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Goudarzi, A., and Zohre, R. (2014). Foucauldian Power and Identity in John Steinbeck’s The Grapes of Wrath. International Research Journal of Applied and Basic Sciences 8(11). Kammampoal, B. (2013). The Transformative Vision of Modern Society in Wole Soyinka’s The Trials of Brother Jero. International Journal of Education and Research, 1(10). Kelly, M.G.E. (2009). The Political philosophy of Michel Foucault. Londen: Routledge. Mills, S. (2003). Michel Foucault. Londen: Routledge. Osoba, J. (2014). A Linguistic Analysis of Wole Soyinka’s The Tials of Brother Jero. Crossroads. A Journal of English Studies, 4(1). Sanka, C.G., and Cecilia, A. (2013). Comedy As A Way Of Correcting the Ills of Society A Critical Reading of Wole Soyinkas The Trials of Brother Jero and Harold Pinters Caretaker. International Journal of Scientific and Technology Research, 2(9). Taylor, D. (2003). Michel Foucault Key Concepts. Londen: Routledge. Valikangas, A. and Hannele, S. (2011). Exploring The Foucaldian Interpretation of power and subject in Organizations. Journal of management and organization, 17(6). Yu, Y. (2014). A Study of Power Relations in Pinter’s Plays from Foucault’s view. International Journal of Humanities and Social Science, 4(7).

Advances in Language and Literary Studies ISSN: 2203-4714 Vol. 6 No. 6; December 2015 Flourishing Creativity & Literacy

Australian International Academic Centre, Australia

Acculturation Attitudes and Sociocultural Adaptation of Chinese Mainland Sojourners in Hong Kong Yuanyi Ma School of Foreign Languages, Guangdong Institute of Science and Technology Jinwan District, Zhuhai, Guangdong Province, China Faculty of Humanities, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University E-mail: [email protected] Bo Wang (Corresponding author) Centre for Translation Studies, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University Hung Hom, Kowloon, Hong Kong E-mail: [email protected]

Doi:10.7575/aiac.alls.v.6n.6p.69

Received: 28/06/2015

URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.7575/aiac.alls.v.6n.6p.69

Accepted: 03/09/2015

Abstract Within these years, there has been a significant increase in the number of Chinese Mainland sojourners studying in Hong Kong. Due to the huge differences in various aspects like language, culture, cultural value, it would be considerably difficult for the Chinese Mainland students to adapt to the Hong Kong environment. This article investigates the ways for a group of doctoral students from Chinese Mainland to acculturate in Hong Kong. With the help of questionnaires, the difficulties that the sojourners have encountered in social situations are measured. It is found out that age and gender may have influenced the participants’ acculturation strategies, and interpersonal relationship is that which the subjects have the most difficulties with, while academic domain is the area with the least difficulties. Meanwhile, the results have shown that competence of local language is not a determinant factor of the sociocultural adaptation, and female subjects seem to adapt better than male subjects. Keywords: sojourner, acculturation, sociocultural adaptation, acculturation strategy 1. Introduction There has been a significant increase in the number of Mainland student studying in the higher institutions of Hong Kong ever since the formulation of the policy that allows Mainland graduates from local higher institutions to work in Hong Kong (Guo, 2014). For example, as informed by the Academic Secretariat of the Hong Kong Polytechnic University, in the year of 2014, the number of Chinese Mainland students studying in the institution has reached 3,421 (excluding outpost and distance learning students), and 4,448 (including outpost and distance learning students). Considering the huge differences in language, culture, value system, life pace, etc., it would be a real challenge for Chinese Mainland students to fit into this new and unfamiliar culture. Therefore, this article aims to investigate the ways for Chinese Mainland students to acculturate in Hong Kong, and to measure sociocultural adaptation in terms of the difficulties the students have encountered in social situations. 2. Literature Review 2.1 Studies on Acculturation Attitudes Acculturation is believed to occur “when two independent cultural groups come into continuous first-hand contact over an extended period of time” (Redfield, Linton, & Herskovits, 1936, cited in Berry, Kim, Power, Young, & Bujaki, 1989: 186). It is also defined as “the process of learning and acquiring the elements of the host culture” (Shibutani & Kwan, 1965, cited in Wiseman, 1995:176). During the process of acculturation, two major orientations of attitudes are found. One is to maintain and develop uniqueness of one’s own culture, cultural identity and customs. The other is to recognize the value of intercultural contact and to seek positive relations with a much larger society. Based on these two major orientations, four acculturation attitudes are found, namely assimilation, integration, separation, and marginalization (Berry et al., 1989). To explain in simple terms, the four attitudes are all those adopted by different kind of people, assimilation by those who value intergroup relation but not cultural maintenance; integration by those who value both cultural maintenance and intergroup relations; separation by those who value cultural maintenance but not intergroup relations; while marginalization by those value neither intergroup relation nor cultural maintenance. As mentioned above, Berry, et al. (1989) have classified acculturation attitudes into four major types and provided a detailed description of the design and validation of the culture-specific measurement of acculturation attitudes for French-Canadians, as well as Hungarian, Korean, and Portuguese immigrants in Canada. The design, validation and

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conduction of the Acculturation Attitude Statements (a questionnaire) are described in detail by Berry, et al. (1989). The construction of the acculturation attitude questionnaire generally involves forming an initial item pool, judging of representativeness of the items, phrasing positive and negatively, and finally forming an 80-item questionnaire measuring four orientation of acculturation attitudes. Although proved highly reliable, and valid, this questionnaire is far from perfect due to its ambiguous intergroup relation dimension, considerate length, heavy attendant demand and culture-specific design that is no easy for test construction (Ward & Kennedy, 1994). Following Berry et al.’s (1989) study, more researches (e.g. Searl & Ward, 1990; Ward & Kennedy, 1994; JasinskajaLahti & Liebkind, 2000; Leung, 2001; Ataca & Berry, 2002; Virta, Sam, & Westin, 2004; Ouarasse, & Vijver, 2005) are carried out to measure acculturation attitudes. Some studies (Ward & Kennedy, 1994; Jasinskaja-Lahti & Liebkind, 2000) construct questionnaires based on the model designed by Berry et al. (1989), which form two questions regarding each of the acculturation attitudes for targeted domains of life. One study (Ataca & Berry, 2002) focuses on eleven attitude domains (friendship, lifestyle, social activity, food, holiday celebration, language use, decoration, newspaper readership, child-rearing style, children’s values, children’s moving out); while two other studies (Virta, Sam, & Westin, 2004; Jasinskaja-Lahti & Liebkind, 2000) focus on five domains (marriage, cultural traditions, language, social activities, and friends). Meanwhile, there are also some studies that are only targeted at either co-national (Leung, 2001) or host-national identification (Ouarasse, & Vijver, 2005). Some factors are found related to acculturation attitudes. For example, gender may be significantly related to acculturation attitudes. Length of residence is positively related to the identification of host-culture, and negatively related to ethnic culture. Also, higher education level may boost host culture identification. At the same time, age is reported to be significantly but inconsistently related to acculturation attitude (Ouarasse, & Vijver, 2005). The present study uses the Acculturation Index designed by Ward & Kennedy (1994), which measures both co-national identity and host-national identity. Another advantage of the index is that, coupled with median split technique, it can classify subjects into four acculturation domains (Ward & Kennedy, 1994). 2.2 Studies on Sociocultural Adaptation The concepts of Psychological Adaptation and Sociocultural Adaptation (henceforth PA and SA respectively) are two major dimensions of the acculturation process. PA refers to “the feelings of well-being and satisfaction”, while SA is related to the “ability to ‘fit in’” (Searle & Ward, 1990: 450), “to acquire culturally appropriate skills” (Ward & Kennedy, 1999), or “negotiate in interactive aspects of the new culture” (Searle & Ward, 1990: 450). SA has been repeatedly measured in studies like Searle and Ward (1990), Ward and Kennedy (1994), Klemens and Bikos (2000), Ataca and Berry (2002), Brisset, Safdar, Lewis and Sabatier (2010), and Sochos and Diniz (2012). The measurement of SA, also the one adopted in current study is the Sociocultural Adaptation Scale (SCAS) (Ward & Kennedy, 1999), which is a “behavioral and cognitive measure that explores how an individual adjusts to a society in terms of cultural learning and functional social skills” (Klemens & Bikos, 2000: 726). Its original version was in the form of a 16-item questionnaire developed in the 1990s that has been first used to measure cross-cultural SA of Malaysian and Singaporean students in New Zealand (Searle & Ward, 1990). While in Klemens and Bikos (2000), several adaptations and revisions are done to “include items based on the host country studied” and to “provide overall improvement to the measure” (ibid: 726). Similar to Furnham and Bochnner’s (1982) Social Situations Questionnaire (SSQ) (Furnham & Bochner, 1982), SCAS requires respondents to rate the amount of difficulties encountered in a certain situation with a five-point scale (i.e. no difficulty / slight difficulty / moderate difficulty / great difficulty / extreme difficulty). One difference between SSQ and SCAS is that “difficulty is not explicitly framed in affective terms relating to anxiety, discomfort, and embarrassment” (Ward & Kennedy, 1999: 662). An advantage of the SCAS lies in its flexibility and modifiability to suit the need of different sojourner samples. The 1999 version of SCAS contains 40 items, but most versions contain 20-23 items, while most of the items are applicable to different sojourner groups (Ward & Kennedy, 1999). 2.3 Chinese Sojourners in Other Cultures Sojourners are defined as those who “live in another culture for a period of time, with the initial, continuous intention of returning to their native land” (Dion & Dion, 1996:457). Since sojourner students are generally under the pressure of adapting to the different culture and the demanding student life, researches have thus usually been focused on sojourner adjustment and stress faced by sojourner students. Dion and Dion (1989) have conducted a review of various researches that have explored the factors that lead to adaptation difficulties for Chinese sojourners in other cultures. Studies examined in Dion and Dion (1989) include Graham (1983), Dion and Toner (1988), Chataway and Berry (1989), Pak, Dion and Dion (1991). The difficulties faced by Chinese students include parental pressure to achieve excellent academic achievements, racial discrimination, interracial dating, and maintenance of Chinese identity in an assimilationist, cultural environment (Dion & Toner, 1988; Pak, Dion & Dion, 1991). Similar findings are reported by Chataway and Berry (1989), as compared to their hostnational peers, Chinese student in Canada experienced higher trait anxiety, greater racial prejudice, and communication problems. Graham (1983) has reported the difficulties in cultural exclusion and communication with local Samoan students. It is found that while under the situation of unfamiliar foreign culture, Hong Kong Chinese students owe their academic excellence to the priority they give to school work rather than personal problems. A longitudinal study (Zheng & Berry, 1991), after repeated measurement of acculturative stress, reveals that Chinese sojourner students experience

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an increase in acculturative stress from pre-departure after three to four months post-arrival, before declining slowly for several years back to the pre-departure baseline. 3. The Study 3.1 Subjects The subjects in the present study are 10 students enrolled in a doctoral program of a Hong Kong higher institution. All of them come from Mainland China, and have spent approximately 8 months in Hong Kong (with one or two exceptions). Their age ranges from 20 to 40. Most of them have jobs in higher institutions in Mainland China. 3.2 Questionnaire The questionnaire consists of three parts: personal profile, acculturation index, and measurement of sociocultural adaptation. For personal profile, information on gender, age, months of having stayed in Hong Kong, times of visiting Hong Kong before the study experience, and the ability of speaking Cantonese would be collected. Researchers of previous studies have been interested in measuring a respondents’ level of acculturation in a host society. The most frequent demographic indicators they use include “length of time in the country of residence, location and years of schooling, age at time of immigration…” (Dion & Dion, 1996: 459). However, these indicators are not satisfactory enough to reflect individual differences. The above information is collected for the following reasons. First, gender is found related significantly to acculturation attitudes. It is reported that women are more assertive about their original culture and slower than men in accepting the host culture (Ouarasse, and Vijver, 2005). Age range of the subjects is mostly between 30-40, with one or two exceptions. Several demographic questions like, “Months of staying in Hong Kong”, and “times visiting Hong Kong”, “ability of speaking Cantonese” are included to identify whether these two factors affect acculturation attitudes and sociocultural adaptation. The second part of the questionnaire is the acculturation index (cf. Ward, & Rana-Deuba, 1999). 21 cognitive and behavioral questions including aspects in clothing, pace of life, food, religious beliefs, material comfort, self-identify, accommodation, values, friendships, family life, etc. are included. It is a 7-point scale rating, enquiring the subjects to indicate the similarity between their own life experience and those of their co-nationals and again with the hostnationals. If the life experiences of subjects are similar to both co-nationals and host-nationals, integration strategy is used; if similar to only co-nationals, or host-nationals, separation or assimilation strategy is used; if similar to neither group, separation strategy is used. The 6 items from the original 21-item questionnaire are deleted, including family life, accommodation/residence, perceptions of co-nationals, perceptions of host nationals, worldview, and employment activities. Two reasons are involved in doing this. One is to shorten the list, the other is to deduct those irrelevant to the subjects’ experiences like family life, employment activities, or items that are too abstract like world view, perceptions of co-nationals, perceptions of host nationals. The score of the index ranges from 15-105. The final part of the questionnaire is the measurement of sociocultural adaptation, which is a revised version of the Sociocultural Adaptation Scale devised by Ward & Kennedy (1999). The original scale is made up of 41 items of social situations, and requires respondents to indicate the degree of difficulty they encounter in those social situations, using a five-point scale (no difficulty / slight difficulty / moderate difficulty / great difficulty / extreme difficulty). The range of difficulty is from 0 to 84. Some adaptations have been made to the questionnaire to include fewer items, and to make it better organized. Altogether 4 sections (interpersonal relationship, public situations, academic situations, ideology domain) are made upon the original items. 20 items are deleted for reasons of irrelevance or unimportance. For example, “going to social events/gathering/functions”, “worshiping in your own way”, “relating to older people”, “accepting/understanding the local political system”, “understanding the locals’ world view”, etc. are deleted due to their irrelevance; meanwhile, items like “getting used to the pace of life”, “following rules and regulations”, “adapting to local accommodation”, “dealing with the climate”, “adapting to the local etiquette”, etc. are deleted because of their unimportance. 3.3 Results and Discussion The calculation of acculturation attitudes follows the method of Ward and Rana-Deuba (1999). 7 valid questionnaires are collected. Median scores are first obtained for co-nationals and host-nationals, which is 95 for co-nationals, and 49 for host-nationals. Subjects with a co-national acculturation score higher than 95 would be seen as valuing co-nationals identification, and those with a host-national score higher than 49 would be seen as valuing host-national identification. Then, among the 7 subjects, 2 cases of assimilation, 2 cases of integration, 2 cases of separation and 1 case of marginalization are found. Interestingly, the 2 cases of separation and 1 case of marginalization are exactly the two youngest and one oldest subjects in the group. Similar to the findings of Ouarasse, & Vijver (2005), this may give some proof that age may be an influential factor in acculturation attitude. As for the gender factor, the two female subjects in the sample each feature integration and assimilation, with one young subject (aged between 20-30) having low conational identification, and high host-national identification. This is contradictory to the previous studies that women are more assertive to their own culture and slower in accepting the host-culture (Ouarasse, & Vijver, 2005). But the limited sample size may to some extent affect the reliability of the result. As to the sociocultural adaptation, 10 valid questionnaires are collected. The total degree of difficulties ranges from 7 to 40. The average scores for each section (interpersonal relationship, public situations, academic situations, ideology domain) are 14.6, 2.7, 1.9 and 4.5 respectively. The result indicates that most difficulties encountered by subjects occur in interpersonal domain, followed by the ideology domain, even fewer difficulties are met in the public situations, and the least are met in academic situations. It is reflected that the interpersonal relationship may be the area that is most

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influential to the sociocultural adaptation of the subjects. Also, since the subjects equally have high educational level (students of a doctoral program), it is no wonder that academic domain is the area that they meet with least amount of difficulties. According to the profiles given by the subjects, 4 of them are capable of communicating in Cantonese. A comparison is thus to be made upon those who speak and do not speak Cantonese — the local language spoken in Hong Kong. In the domain of interpersonal relationship, those who can speak Cantonese have an average score of 26.2 in degrees of difficulties, while the average number for those who cannot speak Cantonese is 21.8. This contrast shows that language competence may not be the dominant factor in sociocultural adaptation. In terms of gender, the average score for female subjects is 20.2 while male subjects has an average score of 25.8, which reflect the fact that female sojourners in Hong Kong are adapting better than their male peers. This finding does not conform to those of Ouarasse and Vijver (2005), who hold that women are slower in accepting the host culture. 4. Conclusion The present study has found out that age and gender may influence acculturation strategies. The measurement of sociocultural adaptation shows that interpersonal relationship is the area that the subjects have the most difficulties with, while academic domain is the area with the least difficulties. Also, the results have shown that competence of local language is not a determinant factor of the sociocultural adaptation; while female subjects seem to adapt better than male subjects. Due to the limited sample size, the study is very primitive in nature. Further research involving larger number of subjects is expected to be carried out so as to find out more about the influence of gender, age, education, and language on Chinese Mainland sojourners’ acculturation strategy and sociocultural adaptation, as well as the relationship between the above two constructs. References Ataca, B., & Berry, J. W. (2002). Psychological, sociocultural, and marital adaptation of Turkish immigrant couples in Canada. International Journal of Psychology, 37(1), 13-26. Berry, J. W., Kim, U., Power, S., Young, M., & Bujaki, M. (1989). Acculturation attitudes in plural societies. Applied Psychology, 38(2), 185-206. Brisset, C., Safdar, S., Lewis, J. R., & Sabatier, C. (2010). Psychological and sociocultural adaptation of university students in France: The case of Vietnamese international students. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 34(4), 413-426. Chataway, C. J., & Berry, J. W. (1989). Acculturation experiences, appraisal, coping and adaptation. Canadian Journal of Behavioral Science, 21, 295-309. Dion, K. L., & Dion, K. K. (1996). Chinese adaptation to foreign cultures. In M. H. Bond (Ed.), The Handbook of Chinese Psychology (pp.457-478). Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. Dion, K. L., & Toner, B. B. (1988). Ethnic differences in test anxiety. The Journal of Social Psychology, 128(2), 165172. Furnham, A. F., & Bochner, S. (1982) Social difficulty in a foreign culture: An empirical analysis of culture shock. In Bochner, S. (Ed.) Culture in contact: Studies in cross cultural interaction (pp. 161-198). Oxford: Oxford University Press. Graham, M. A. (1983). Acculturative stress among Polynesian, Asian and American students on the Brigham Young University-Hawaii campus. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 7, 79-103. Guo, S. S. (2014). Xiangjiang Maibo-Neidisheng http://www.hkpecs.org/eNewsDetail.asp?enews_id=731.

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Ip, M., & Pang, D. (2005). New Zealand Chinese identity: Sojourners, model minority and multiple identities. In Liu, J. H., McCreanor,T., McIntosh, T., & Teaiwa, T. (Eds.), New Zealand identities: Departures and destinations (pp. 174190). Wellington: Victoria University Press. Jasinskaja-Lahti, I., & Liebkind, K. (2000). Predictors of the actual degree of acculturation of Russian-speaking immigrant adolescents in Finland. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 24(4), 503-518. Klemens, M. J., & Bikos, L. H. (2009). Psychological well-being and sociocultural adaptation in college-aged, repatriated, missionary kids. Mental Health, Religion and Culture, 12(7), 721-733. Leung, C. (2001). The sociocultural and psychological adaptation of Chinese migrant adolescents in Australia and Canada. International Journal of Psychology, 36(1), 8-19. Ouarasse, O. A., & Vijver, F. J. van de (2005). The role of demographic variables and acculturation attitudes in predicting sociocultural and psychological adaptation in Moroccans in the Netherlands. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 29(3), 251-272. Pak, A. W. P., Dion, K. L., & Dion, K. K. (1991). Social-psychological correlates of experienced discrimination: Test of the double jeopardy hypothesis. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 15(2), 243-253.

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Redfield, R., Linton, R., & Herskovits, M. J. (1936). Memorandum on the study of acculturation. American Anthropologist, 38, 149-152. Searle, W. & Ward, C. (1990). The prediction of psychological and sociocultural adjustment during cross-cultural transitions. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 14, 449-464. Shibutani, T. & Kwan, K. (1965). Ethnic stratification: A comparative approach. New York: Macmillan. Sochos, A., & Diniz, M. (2012). The role of attachment in immigrant sociocultural adaptation and psychological distress. Journal of Community & Applied Social Psychology, 22(1), 75-91. Virta, E., Sam, D. L., & Westin, C. (2004). Adolescents with Turkish background in Norway and Sweden: A comparative study of their psychological adaptation. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 45(1), 15-25. Ward, C., & Kennedy, A. (1994). Acculturation strategies, psychological adjustment and sociocultural competence during cross-cultural transitions. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 18, 329-343. Ward, C., & Kennedy, A. (1999). The measurement of sociocultural adaptation. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 23(4), 659-677. Ward, C., & Rana-Deuba, R. (1999). Acculturation and adaptation revisited. Journal of Cross-cultural Psychology, 30, 422-442. Wiseman, R. L. (Ed.). (1995). Intercultural communication theory. California: Sage. Zheng, X., & Berry, J. W. (1991). Psychological adaptation of Chinese sojourners in Canada. International Journal of Psychology, 26(4), 451-470.

Advances in Language and Literary Studies ISSN: 2203-4714 Vol. 6 No. 6; December 2015 Flourishing Creativity & Literacy

Australian International Academic Centre, Australia

On the Comparative Impact of Self-assessment and Teacherassessment on Iranian EFL Learners' Academic Motivation Asghar Salimi (Corresponding author) Department of English, University of Maragheh, Maragheh, Iran E-mail: [email protected] Vahid Nowrozi Larsari Department of Teaching English Language, Sarab Branch, Islamic Azad University, Sarab, Iran E-mail: [email protected]

Doi:10.7575/aiac.alls.v.6n.6p.74

Received: 18/06/2015

URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.7575/aiac.alls.v.6n.6p.74

Accepted: 02/09/2015

Abstract Nowadays, the function of language teaching and testing has been paid much attention by researchers. There is an overall notion in the literature that motivation, as driving force, is one of the likely learners' traits. The aim of this study was to examine the comparative impact of self-assessment and teacher-assessment on learners' academic motivation. The participants were 60 intermediate students in two groups at Novin-Rezvan Foreign institute. At the beginning of semester, the instructor gave a motivation questionnaire as pre-test to the students, and then both groups were put to the similar content and instructional method for reading strategies. There was only one difference, i.e., the students in the experimental group self-assessed themselves, whereas the students in another group were assessed by the teacherassessment. At the end of treatment session, a post-motivation questionnaire was given to the students to assess level of their motivation. Two t-tests were run, and the results showed that self-assessment play an important impact on Iranian EFL learners' academic motivation. Keywords: Motivation, Self-assessment, Teacher-assessment, Assessment 1. Introduction It is generally claimed that it is indispensable to evaluate the learners’ performance by the use of a diversity of assessment strategies. Actually, assessment is considered as a fundamental element for language teaching and testing, allowing them to monitor their needs and focus on student’s views of development (Harris, 1997). Yet, in traditional classrooms, are dominant in Iran, the teacher is the only evaluator (as cited in Birjandi & Tamjid, 2010). Such assessment is acceptable in terms of tests whose items have one correct answer, but in performance tests, such as reading tests, the evaluation is not so straight-forward (Birjandi & Tamjid, 2010). Alternative assessment including selfassessment, learners are trained to assess their own learning progress, and can recognize their own strengths and weakness so as to compensate for the restrictions of teacher-assessment (Noonan, 2000). Besides, motivation is regarded as a basic role in the achievement of language learning and teaching (Nakanishi, 2002). Dörnyei (2000) also contends that motivation offers the main incentive to engage in learning among learners. Hence, the aim of the present study is to see if self-assessment and teacher-assessment have an important impact on academic motivation learners' motivation. 1.1 Research Question Q1: Is there any statistically significant difference between the impact of self-assessment and teacher-assessment on Iranian EFL learners' academic motivation? 1.2 Hypotheses H01: There is no statistically significant difference between the impact of self-assessment and teacher-assessment on Iranian EFL learners' academic motivation. 2. Review of the Related Literature 2.1 Assessment According to Wang and Wang (2007), the word “assessment” originates from ‘ad sedere’ – means to sit down beside (as cited in Birjandi & Tamjid, 2010). They also discussed that the etymology of assessment is mainly based on the learner guidance and feedback. Many methodologists such as Erwin (1991) stated assessment as “the process of defining, analyzing, understanding, and using information to upsurge students’ learning and development” (p.14). Angelo (1995) defines: “assessment is an ongoing process aimed at understanding and improving student learning. It involves making our expectations explicit and public; setting appropriate criteria and high standards for learning quality; systematically gathering, analyzing and interpreting evidence to determine how well performance matches those expectations and standards” (p.7). Richards and Schmidt (2002) believes that assessment is a methodical method

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to assemble material and make implications and conclusions about pupils' performance. In addition, Airasian (1994) defined assessment as gathering, separating and explaining information to make to make decisions on student performance. He also states that “in classroom, assessment can be done conducted to diagnose student problems, to judge their academic performance, to provide feedback to student and to plan instruction” (p.16). 2.2 Self-assessment According to Naeini (2011), self-assessment has obtained significant consideration in recent years to put emphasis on evaluate of students’ language capabilities. Also, self-assessment relates to checking learners’ performance on a language learning task after completing or monitoring their success in using a language (Richards & Schmidt, 2002). They also believed that self- assessment is an example of a meta-cognitive strategy in second language learning. According to Mousavi (1995), self-assessment is the learners’ own assessment of their language ability, in terms of their capability to use the language in various contexts. In this regard, Harris (1997) maintained that self-assessment plays as an important role in language learning, helps the learner to increase independency which the learner can monitor his/her progress his/her individual needs. Liang (2006) defined the term “self-assessment” as follows: * Self-assessment plays as a central role in a learner-based curriculum. * Self-assessment is different from teacher-assessment for different evaluation purposes. * Self-assessment is an ability to evaluate learning progress and learning effectiveness. 2.3 Advantages of self-assessment According to researchers such as Coombe & Canning (2002) have discussed the application and advantages of selfassessment as follows: * Enhancing and improving learning and teaching. * Raising learners’ awareness of their own learning and teaching. * Developing learner’s autonomy. * Reducing the burden of assessment placed on teachers. * Developing range of evaluation into effective contexts. Harris (1997) also believes that one of the main reasons for introducing self-assessment, that is, self-assessment is a key learning strategy for autonomous language learning, which enables the students to monitor their progress and relate learning to individual needs. In this regard, Dickson (1987) suggests three main points for applying self-assessment in language learning and teaching. First, Self-assessment leads toward evaluation, which is as a basic educational objective in its own place. Secondly, Self-assessment also plays an important role in self-determination. Thirdly, Self-assessment is one way of declining the assessment burden on the teacher. 3. Methodology 3.1 Participants The participants of this study were EFL learners from Novin-Rezvan foreign languages institute in Rasht with the range of 17 to 25 years old. There were 90 learners in intermediate level who were given PET as the homogenization test. Those participants whose scores fell between one standard deviation above and below the mean were selected and they were defined as intermediate EFL learners in this study. Then, the researcher divided them into two groups randomly. Each group consisted of an equal number of 30 participants. One experimental group treated with self-assessment and the other one with teacher-assessment. For evaluating the writing and speaking part of the PET, there was another rater who helped the researcher to rate the paper. Prior to the actual administration, the tests were piloted among 30 students with the same language proficiency level and almost the same characteristics of the 90 students who took the test later. 3.2 Instrumentation 3.2.1 Gardner’s Attitude/Motivation It is prepared by Gardner (2004) to assess the subjects’ degree of motivation. It includes 25 items and in front of each item six alternatives including “Strongly disagree”, “Moderately disagree”, “Slightly disagree”, “Slightly agree”, "Moderately agree", and “Strongly agree”. The scoring procedure of the questionnaire was from one to six Likert scale. The participants were instructed to answer each item by putting an underline/circle around these alternatives as quickly as possible. It is necessary to note that reliability of this questionnaire was assessed by using Cronbach’s Alpha Coefficient. If it is greater than 0.7, a scale is considered reliable. Hence, Cronbach’s Alpha Coefficient for this measurement is 0.76 indicate that it has sufficiently coefficient alpha scores. 3.2.2 The Preliminary English Test (PET) In order to homogenize the participants, the researcher used PET test (Appendix A). The sample of the test which was used in this study included three sections of reading (five parts), writing (three parts), and listening (four parts). The reading section of this language proficiency test had 35 items including five three-option multiple-choice items, five matching, 10 true/false, and 15 four-option multiple choice items. For the writing section, there were three parts including five sentence transformation items in the first part and in the other two parts, students were required to write one essay for each part; in other words, in the second part students were required to write a short communicative message about 35-45 words, and for the third part, they were required to write a longer piece of continuous writing

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about 100 words. The allotted time for the PET reading and writing parts was one hour and 30 minutes. In the listening section, students were required to answer 13 three-option multiple-choice items and six filling-the-gap items and six true/false items. The allotted time for the PET listening part was 30 minutes. It is necessary to mention that with the aim of saving time, the researcher used only reading, writing, and listening parts of the PET. To conduct the speaking part of the PET, a qualified examiner was required and since such qualified examiner was professionally not allowed to engage in any application of the PET and all Cambridge ESOL exams, for that matter, without the direct supervision of Cambridge, it was thus not possible for the researcher to run the speaking part of the test in its genuine manner. Moreover, the main focus of the study was reading comprehension, thus the speaking section was not administered in this study. Therefore, as a whole, this test had 65 closed-ended items and two open-ended writing tasks; each section valued 25 marks, adding up to 75 marks on the whole. Before the main administration, the test was piloted with 30 students at intermediate level with the same characteristics of the target sample. Item analysis and reliability estimates were carried out after the pilot administration and three items out of the 65 total items were found to be malfunctioning and were excluded. The allotted time for answering the remaining 62 items and the two tasks was two hours. 3.3 Procedure To achieve the purpose of this study, the following steps were taken: At the beginning of the study, 90 learners of intermediate level at Novin-Rezvan Foreign languages institute were selected through non-random selection. Then, PET already piloted among 30 subjects with similar characteristics was administered to homogenize the participants regarding their overall language proficiency. Next 60 participants, whose scores fell between one standard deviation above and below the mean, were selected. Then, they were randomly divided into two groups and two classes so that every member had an equal chance to be located to each group. In the next step, the participants were asked to fill in Attitude/Motivation Test Battery (AMTB) questionnaire to measure their motivation. In fact, the researcher gave a pre-motivation questionnaire to the students before teaching the reading strategies. From the second session on, the regular class teaching syllabus contained teaching and practicing section one of the reading strategies for five sessions. After that these two groups were taught the same strategies and then a reading comprehension test was administrated. For self-assessment group (experimental group), the students were assessed by the students themselves, while the students of the control group received instruction on the same reading strategies and practice those strategies, but there was no self-assessment given to them. Instead, traditional teacher-assessment was used to assess them. After the end of treatment session, the researcher required the participants fill out the Attitude/Motivation Test Battery (AMTB) questionnaire again to measure their motivation after applying the treatments. Finally, obtained data was analyzed to test the proposed null hypothesis of the study. The results of the posttest showed whether using self-assessment and teacher-assessment instruction has any significant impact on the learners’ motivation. 4. Results and Discussions In order to fulfill the purpose of this study which was to compare the impact of self-assessment and teacher-assessment on Iranian EFL learners' academic motivation, the researcher asserted the following question and hypothesis: Q1: Is there any significance difference between the impact of self-assessment and teacher-assessment on Iranian EFL learners' academic motivation? H0: There is no significant difference between the impact of self-assessment and teacher-assessment on Iranian EFL learners' academic motivation. The researcher conducted a series of calculation and statistical routines in order to test the hypothesis and come up with certain results which are explained. The above research question sought to find out whether self-assessment and teacher-assessment has any strong impact on Iranian EFL learners' academic motivation or not. The scores in the questionnaire were analyzed. The particular analysis used was paired sample T-test. Within both experimental and control groups. Table 4.1 Descriptive statistics for experimental and control Group Group N Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error Mean Experimental Group 30 5.0760 .39484 .07209 Control Group 30 5.0773 .55310 .10098 Experimental Group 30 5.0773 .55310 .10098 Post Control Group 30 5.1747 .30643 .05595 Table 4.1 shows the results of descriptive statistics for the two groups. Experimental group is the self-assessment and control group is related to the teacher-assessment. As it can be observed, the experimental group has M=5.0760 and SD=.39 in the pre-motivation questionnaire, and M=5.0773 and SD=.55 in the post-motivation questionnaire. Based on the obtained results, the difference between the scores of the pre and post-motivation tests in the experimental group or the self-assessment is insignificant. In addition, the results of the control group indicates M=5.0773 and SD=.55 in the pre-motivation questionnaire, and M=5.1747 and SD=.30 in the post-motivation questionnaire. Pre

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4.2 Paired Samples Test for the experimental group Paired Differences Mean

Pair 1

PRE POST

Std. Deviati on

-.00133

Std. Error Mean

.64309

.11741

t

df

Sig. (2tailed)

-.011

29

.045

95% Confidence Interval of the Difference Lower

Upper

-.24147

.23880

Table 4.2 contains the results of the paired sample test for the pre- and post-motivation tests in the experimental group or the self-assessment group. As it can be seen, the differences between the scores of the motivation questionnaires in the pre- and post-motivation in the experimental group are significant since the level of significance is .045 which is smaller than the threshold level 0.05. 4.3 Paired Samples Test for the control group Paired Differences Mean

Pair 1

PRE POST

Std. Deviatio n

-.09733

.68853

Std. Error Mean

t 95% Confidence Interval of the Difference Lower Upper -.35444 .15977

.12571

-.774

df

Sig. (2tailed)

29

.445

Based on the results of table 4.3, the paired sample test is utilized for the control group or the teacher-assessment group. A close look at the table indicated that the significance level is .44 >0.05, indicating that there are not statistically significant differences between the scores of the pre- and post-motivation tests.

4.4 Independent Samples Test experimental and control group Levene's Test for

t-test for Equality of Means

Equality of Variances F

Sig.

t

df

Sig. (2-

Mean

Std. Error

95% Confidence

tailed)

Difference

Difference

Interval of the Difference

P

Equal variances

R

assumed

E

Equal variances

4.341

.042

Lower

Upper

-.011

58

.991

-.00133

.12407

-.24969

.24703

-.011

52.464

.991

-.00133

.12407

-.25025

.24759

not assumed

Table 4.4 shows the independent sample test of both experimental and control groups for the pre-test. The equal variance assumption was examined to conduct the independent sample test. To this end, the Leven’s test for equality of variances was used in order to investigate the equal variance assumption. The obtained results indicated that the level of significance of the Leven’s test (.04) is lower than .05, suggesting that the equal variance assumption is not supported. Hence, the second row of data is examined regarding the mean score of the t-test. In addition, the results indicated that the level of significance of the t-test (-.011) for the equality of means is .99 that is higher than the level of significance .05, indicating that the differences between the mean scores of both experimental and control groups in the pre-test are not statistically significant. 4.1 Post-test Results The researcher administrated the motivation post-test to both experimental and control groups once the treatment period was over for each of them. 4.2 Post-Test Descriptive Statistics To test the null hypothesis which stated there is no significant difference between the effects of self-assessment and teacher-assessment on the EFL learners' motivation, an independent samples t-test had to be run to compare the mean scores of both groups. The descriptive statistics of the motivation post-test of both groups are shown in Table 4.5.

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Table 4.5 Descriptive Statistics of the motivation Post-test group POST

experiment= assessment control= assessment

N

Mean

Std. Deviation

Std. Mean

self-

30

5.2117

.49134

.08971

teacher-

30

5.1747

.30643

.05595

Error

As Table 4.5 shown, the teacher-assessment group turned out to obtain a lower mean, namely 5.1747, than the selfassessment group who obtained a mean of 5.2117. Moreover, the skewness ratio obtained by both groups fell within the acceptable range of ±1.96, which revealed normality for both distributions. Therefore, the first assumption for running an independent-samples t-test in order to compare the mean scores of the two experimental groups was observed and as a result, running as independent-samples t-test was legitimate.

4.3 Testing the Null Hypothesis To verify the null hypothesis of the study that stated "there is no significant difference between the impact of selfassessment and teacher-assessment on Iranian EFL learner's academic motivation, the researcher conducted an independent sample t-test. Table 4.8 shows the independent samples t-test results on the two groups on the motivation post-test. Table 4.6 Independent Samples Test for experimental and control group Levene's Test for Equality of Variances F

P O S T

Equal variances assumed

7.763

Equal variances not assumed

Sig.

.007

t-test for Equality of Means

t

df

Sig. (2tailed)

Mean Difference

Std. Error Difference

95% Confidence Interval of the Difference Lower

Upper

.350

58

.0034

.03700

.10572

-.17463

.24863

.350

48.595

.0034

.03700

.10572

-.17550

.24950

Based on the obtained results of Table 4.6, the equal variance assumption is investigated to conduct the independent sample test of both groups for the post-test. At first, Levene’s test for equality of variances is utilized to investigate the equal variance assumption. As it can be observed, the level of significance of the Levene’s test (.00) is lower than the threshold 0.05, highlighting that the equal variance assumption is not supported. Therefore, the second row of data is investigated concerning the mean. The results indicate that the level of significance of the t-test is (.72) for equality of means. There are statistically significant differences between the mean scores of both groups in the post-test. Based on Table 4.7, as the mean score of the self-assessment group (5.2117) was higher than the mean score of the teacherassessment group (5.0773), it was found that self-assessment group had significantly more significant effect on the learners' motivation compared to teacher-assessment. In fact, self-assessment as alternative assessment had significantly more positive impact on the motivation of EFL learners compared to teacher-assessment. Therefore, selfassessment can provide a motivating and low tension and apprehension situation for second language learning. This finding is compatible with the findings of Birjandi and Tamjid (2010). Also, they made an attempt to investigate the role of self-assessment in promoting Iranian EFL Learners' motivation. They investigated the role of journal writing as a self-assessment teaching in promoting Iranian EFL learners' motivation. The subjects were 60 intermediate learners in two groups. The experimental group was treated with journal writing. At the beginning and end of the treatment session, both groups took test for their homogeneity, and filled out a questionnaires concerning motivation. The findings showed that writing journals play a role in developing the learners’ motivation. 5. Conclusion and Implication The present study has provided empirical evidence on the comparative study of the effectiveness of self-assessment and teacher-assessment on learners' academic motivation. With respect to the obtained findings, the researcher came to a certain conclusion that self-assessment has an important impact on learners' academic motivation. Also, the researcher provided some pedagogical implications so as to increase the place of self-assessment in Iranian education context. First of all, To begin with, it may hopefully increase students’ and teachers’ awareness of these powerful strategies (Birjandi & Tamjid, 2010). In fact, since self-assessment is not common in Iranian educational systems, it is

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hoped that we should raise students’ and teachers’ awareness of self-assessment. Therefore, through the incorporation of self- assessment activities into everyday ELT instruction, students can gain a better comprehending of the expected learning outcomes, find their strengths and weaknesses, and set goals for future improvement (Birjandi & Tamjid, 2010). Secondly, by creating a supportive environment in the assessment, the students can have a better understanding of the learning outcomes (Liang, 2006). For instance, extensive teacher feedback for modeling is an example of creating a supportive environment in the assessment (Liang, 2006). Thirdly, the teachers who aim at utilizing selfassessment in their classes should decide on “clear criteria to base their assessment on. Both teachers and students need to agree on clear criteria to use while assessing the students’ performance” (Liang, 2006.p.1). In fact, He also mentioned that “well-defined scoring criteria and good descriptors lead to provide a close guidance in the assessment” (p.1). Fourth, the researchers believe that directed knowledge develop a sense of responsibility, so-called autonomy (Birjandi & Tamjid, 2010). Fifth, it is recommending that teachers should cognizant of the motivation of the students, because, they can increase self-assessment easily in their classroom (Giang, 2008). References Angelo, T. A. (1995). Reassessing (and Defining) Assessment. The AAHE Bulletin, 48 (2), November 1995, pp. 7-9. Airasian, P. W. (1994). Classroom assessment (2nd ed.). New York: McGraw Hill Coombe, C. , & Canning , C (2002) .Using Self-assessment in the classroom : Rationale and Suggested Techniques. Retrieved in September 7 , 2010 from : http:// www3.telus.net/linguisticsissues/selfasess2.html. Covington M. V. (2000). Goal theory, motivation, and school achievement: An integrative review. In ST Fiske, DL Schachter, C Zahn-Waxler (Eds.), Annual review of psychology, 51: 171-2000. Palo Alto, CA: Annual Reviews Dickinson, L. (1987). Self-instruction in language Learning .Cambridge University Press. Dornyei Z. (2000). Motivation’ & ‘Motivation Theories. In M. Byram (Ed.) Routledge Encyclopedia of Language Teaching and Learning. London: Routledge, pp. 425-435. Dornyei, Z. (2009). The L2 Motivational Self System. In Z. Dornyei & E. Ushioda (Eds.) Motivation, Language Identity and the L2 Self. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters. Erwin, T.D. (1991). Assessing Student Learning and Development, Jossey-Bass. Harris ,M. (1997). Self-assessment of language learning in formal settings. ELT 51(1), 12-20. Hotard, D. J. (2010). The effects of self-assessment on student learning of mathematics. The Interdepartmental Program in Natural Sciences. pp. 1-72 Jack C .Richards & Richard Schmidt. (2002). Dictionary of language teaching & applied linguistics, London: Pearson Education Limited. Liang, J. (2006). Overview of Self-assessment in the Second Language Writing Classroom. Paper presented at the 2006 TESOL Convention, Tampa, Florida. Available: http://secondlanguage writing.com/documents/overview.doc. Oscarson, M. (1989). Self-assessment of Language Proficiency: Rationale and Applications. Language Testing,6(1), 1-13. Mousavi, A. (1991). A dictionary of language testing (2nd ed.). Tehran: Rahnama Publication Naeini, J. (2011). Self-assessment and the impact on language skills. Educational Research, 2(6), 1225-1231. Nakanishi, T. (2002). Critical Literature Review on Motivation. Journal of Language and Linguistics. Vol. 1(3) pp. 278-290. Noonan, B. (2000). Demystifying Assessment Leadership. Educational Administration, University of Saskatchewan. 2(3). pp.1-20 Rahman, F., Jumani, N., & Basit, A. (2010). Motivating and de-motivation factors among learners. International Journal of Academic Research. 2(1), p.206-212 Tamjidi, N . & Birjandi, P. (2010) . The Role self-assessment in Promoting Iranian EFL learner’s Motivation .English Language Teaching , Vol. 3, No. 3; September 2010. Wang, H., & Wang, Y. (2007) . The Addition of an Affect Test and Self-assessment into ESL Writing Assessment: Process and Effect . Asian EFL Journal ,20.

Advances in Language and Literary Studies ISSN: 2203-4714 Vol. 6 No. 6; December 2015 Australian International Academic Centre, Australia

Flourishing Creativity & Literacy

Language Testing: an Overview and Language Testing in Educational Institutions of Bangladesh Md. Mahroof Hossain (Corresponding author) Department of English, Z.H Sikder University of Science & Technology Bhedorgonj, Modhopur, Kartikpur, Shariatpur, Bangladesh E-mail: [email protected] Md. Kawser Ahmed Z.H Sikder University of Science and Technology, Bangladesh E-mail: [email protected]

Doi:10.7575/aiac.alls.v.6n.6p.80

Received: 13/06/2015

URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.7575/aiac.alls.v.6n.6p.80

Accepted: 05/09/2015

Abstract Test is procedures for measuring ability, knowledge or performance. Testing can be defined as a method of assessment and improvement of the students. Language testing in any point is an extremely multifarious task that ought to be based on method as well as exercise. The results of assessments are used for one or more purposes. So they have an effect on those who are assessed and on those who use results. The knowledge of the fundamental doctrine of testing is important for the instructor, as instructors have to make test for the institution as well as for the candidates of the external examination. Many instructors to do have the right knowledge about testing so that the language test may have harmful effect on education any they fail to measure what they want to measure. This study aimed mainly of clarifications of notions of testing system, its impacts on education process and the different steps for a qualified test development. This article also presents the characteristics of good test as well as it presents a study which is based on the university students about the test technique that is commonly used in educational institution of Bangladesh. This article will be helpful for the instructors to develop their testing system and make their teaching an effective one for the students. Keywords: Language testing, Evaluation and assessment, EFL context 1. Introduction Today practical language learning is taking place in various non-formal ways. Different organizations are taking many practical steps but the educational institutions cannot cope with these ones. If they fail to take up the newer ways, means and technologies, the whole language teaching learning can go to other sectors making the educational institutions lame. Life-oriented English must be taught to the students. Language is one of the medium of communication. Through communication one can express his or her idea, feelings and also share his problem to others and as well as can get the solution of the problem. Language is the most significant tool to make communication. Without language it becomes quite impossible for a human being to communicate his or her opinions to others and the educational process will not be possible to continue. This necessity compels us to learn a language and use the language suitably. To acquire a language or to learn a language is not an easy process, it requires a lot of uphill struggle to learn a language. The objective of this article is to help language teachers write better tests and by writing good test helps the students to acquire the target language. The whole article focused on the testing system; it presents the opinion that test construction is a matter of problem solving, with every teaching situation setting a different testing problem. A well constructed testing system is not enough to say that it is the appropriate test for testing the candidates. It also requires giving importance to the philosophy of testing and how they can be useful in practice. 2. Testing Testing system is an essential part in teaching as it helps us to know the stage of the candidates or the students and depending on the level we as teachers can take advance steps for the development of their quality. Testing system may have a constructive or unconstructive effect on the learners. Backwash is known as the effect of testing and learning. Language test construction and valuation describes the process of language test construction plainly and broadly. Davies (1968:5) once wrote that ‘the good test is an obedient servant since it follows and apes the teaching’. The proper connection between teaching and testing is surely that of partnership. It is true that there may be occasions when the teaching programme is potentially good and apt but the testing is not, we are then likely to experience from harmful backwash. This would seem to be the condition that led Davies in 1968 to confine testing to the role of servant to the teaching. But equally there may be occasions when the teaching is poor or inapt and when testing are able to make use of a beneficial influence.

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2.1 Magnitude of Testing The main problem of tests is that often the test which is organized fail to measure accurately what they intended to determine. As a result student’s true capabilities are not always reflected. Language abilities are not easy to evaluate. The first of the test is test content and test techniques. Reliability is an important criterion for testing. Testing is reliable when it measures consistently. Unreliability has two factors. The first is the communication between the person taking the test and features of the test itself. As human beings are not machine and it is difficult for the human being to perform in exactly the same way on two different situations. As a result we get some dissimilarity in the scores a person gets on the test, depending on the time, mood of test takers. The second difficulty of unreliability is in the scoring process of a test. When we find different scores are given by different makers in the equal test to the same candidates the test become unreliable. 3. Objectives of tests The main purpose of testing is to find out what the students have achieved at the end of the semester or what the progress of the student’s is during the semester. This kind of assessment is known as formative and summative assessment. When teachers try to find out the improvement of their students, to observe how they have develop and to pinpoint out what they should have learned and finally use this information to modify their future teaching plans. This kind of assessment is known as formative. It can also be a kind of advice to the students. When the assessment is used at the end of the term, semester or year with a view to measuring what has been gained both by groups and by individuals, this kind of assessment is known as summative assessment. So language testing system is important in our teaching arena. A successful testing system should have the following criteria: 3.1 It should produce truthful measures of the abilities in which we are paying attention. 3.2 It has a useful effect on teaching 3.3 It should be cost-effective in terms of time and money. 3.4 It should be carried out in a proper way and fairness should be maintained. 4. Different Types of Test Language test are carried out with specific intention in mind. As we use them to gain information about the students, we may categories tests according to the kinds of information being required. We may put them into the subsequent divisions: a. Ability tests. b. Situation test c. Achievement tests. d. Investigative test. e. Aptitude test. However, of the several tests mentioned above, achievement test will be the most appropriate one for someone who wants to find out how thriving a language programme has been. 4.1 Ability test When it is intended to measure people’s skill in a language without having any guidance in that language it is named as ability test. Ability test does not have any content or language course. The most renowned ability tests are Cambridge IELTS and the American TOEFL tests in that they want to have a picture of a candidate’s ability to apply what they know. These kinds of test are very useful for future and often used by different education bodies, employers and immigration. 4.2 Situational test Placement tests are designed to place students at an apposite level in a programme or course on the basis of their present level of proficiency. It is aim to find out new students into group roughly the same level. This type of test is not related to any type of course taken so that it start simple but get more difficult to furnish for a number of abilities. It is aimed to know the general standard rather than test exact language points. The fours skills of testing methods are usually based on common human experience- something everyone can rely on. An interview is useful as we gauge the student’s spoken accuracy and fluency at the same time as putting a face to a filing number. 4.3 Achievement test Achievement test is related to a particular course of study or programme. On the basis of their testing system it is categorized into two tests. One is final achievement test and another is progress achievement test. The main aim of achievement test is to find out what has been learnt over a longer period of time. 4.4 Investigative test The most popular test to pinpoint the areas of difficulty the students faced as well as the strengths and weaknesses of the students is known as investigative test. The results also demonstrate which areas need revising with the class or individuals.

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4.5 Aptitude test Aptitude test assesses learner’s ‘aptitude’ for learning a language. This type of test tries to measure the students’ probable performances in a foreign language which he has not started to learn. There are many factors that are considered by aptitude test. These are intelligence, age, motivation, phonological sensitivity and sensitivity to grammatical patterning. 5. Characteristics of good test All good tests possess three qualities: Validity, reliability and practicality. However, the supposition that good items will inevitably produce a good test may not always come true. Test developers, should go one more steps to determine the characteristics of the total test. In other words, simply putting good individual items together would not be sufficient for a test to function satisfactorily. (Farhady and Jafarpur and Birandi, 2010). To guarantee the quality of a test other factors and guiding principles including the administration process and scoring procedures are indispensable. In general it is noteworthy that an efficient test can be marked by certain characteristics that be considered as cornerstone of testing; reliability, validity and practicality. (Farhady, et..al,2010). It would be pointless to try to write tests without basic understanding of the principles behind them. So, a teacher who is constructing his own test or selecting a standard instrument for use in his class or school understands what these concepts mean and how to apply them. 5.1 Validity The first criterion of a good test is validity. When a test measures what it is believed to measures it is known as validity. A number of producers are related to determine the validity. One producers is what exactly the test measures and another is how well the test measures. 5.2 Reliability The perception of reliability is defined as ‘the consistency of measurement’ (Bachman and Palmer 1996). In other words, a test is reliable to the degree that whatever it measures, it measures it every time. Reliability may be of two types: test reliability and scorer reliability. Thus, to be reliable a test must not be resilient in its measurement. Reliability should focus on students score that the students should produce the same scores regardless of how many version of test the candidates takes. 5.3 Practicality The focal point of practicality is management system. It is not enough for a test to be highly reliable and valid it should it should also be easy and cheap to construct, administer, score and interpret. So practicality is closely related to costcutting measures in time and in money. 6. Common test techniques that are used in different educational institution in Bangladesh Test techniques are important to validate students correctly. Test techniques are one kind of techniques that are used to point out the behaviour of candidates that will tell us about their language skills. According to Hughes (2003) what we need are techniques that: 7.1. Will extract behavior which is reliable and valid pointer of the ability in which we are interested. 7.2 will elicit behavior which can be reliably scored. 7.3 are as cost-effective of time and effort as possible 7.4 will have a beneficial backwash effect, where this is pertinent. 7. Multiple Choices Multiple choice items take many forms, but their basic structure is as follows: There is a ‘stem’ Arif has been here ------ half an hour And a number of ‘options’, one of which is correct, the others being ‘distractors’. It is the candidate’s task to identify the correct or most suitable option. Multiple choice scoring is fast and cost-effective. A further significant advantage is that since in order to response the candidate has only to make a mark on the paper. As it is possible to include more items; so that it is likely to make for greater test reliability. The difficulties with multiple choice areas as follows: 8.1 The technique tests only recognition knowledge 8.2 Sometimes guessing can bring unknowable outcome on test scores. 8.3 It restricts what can be tested. 8.4 It is very complicated to write successful items. 8.5 It is easy to cheat. 8.6 Backwash may be harmful. 8. Yes/No and True/False items Where in multiple choice we have several choices to choose the correct option, but in Yes/No or true / false items we have only two option to choose the correct option. One of the pitfalls of such items is that the test of such items is that the test taker has a 50% chance of choosing the correct response by chance alone.

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9. Short-answer items In listening and reading test short answer is a common test technique. It has particular advantage over the multiple choices a. Guessing will contribute less to test scores; b. The technique is not limited by the need for distractors. c. Cheating is likely to be more difficult. d. Items are easier to write. The disadvantage of this kind of item is that responses may take longer and so reduce the possible number of items. Another disadvantage is that the test taker has to produce language in order to respond. Scoring may take longer. 10. Gap filling items Filling a gap with a word is also a common technique in testing. Gap filling items for reading or listening work best if the missing words are to be found in the text. For testing grammar and vocabulary gap filling items can help a lot. But it does not work well where the grammatical element to be tested is discontinuous and so need more than one gap. If in testing the gap filling item is used it is essential for the test takers to give clear instruction that only one word can be put in each gap. In respect of this criterion we can value gap filling items highly. It is valued because it has advantages of the short answer technique. 11. A Study In this section, we shall look in detail at a study which was made to find out the success rate of language test techniques that are used in the educational institution of Bangladesh. 11.1 Area of investigation It is true that students are still unable to communicate in English in their daily life in spite they attain good grades in the public examination in our country. So, It is necessary to change the evaluation system to find out whether students are becoming proficient at key test vocabulary, grammar and idioms; however, this will not help the students in gaining effective balanced skills that combine listening, speaking, reading and writing competencies. So there are lots of complexities in preparing language testing items for a test. 11.2 Objectives The study was conducted to achieve the following objectives: a. To find out whether the item used in test are beneficial for the students. b. To find out the item used in language testing is probing successful in language testing. c. To find whether the existing language testing system are helpful for the students to learn English. d. To find out the students suggestions how they think the language testing item should be improved. 11.3 Questionnaires There is no scope of taking questionnaire lightly because it is a powerful tool for evaluation. It is seen that at present closed format questions are chosen. Except some Yes/No questions, all are the multiple-choice questions, which offer a number of answer options. Closed format questions have many advantages in respect of time, efforts and money. 11.4 Subjects Subjects were 300 students of a University named Z.H Sikder University of science and Technology. All of them were native speakers of Bangla who were enrolled in two different course named Basic English language and Functional English and who were judged to be an intermediate –high level of proficiency in English. 11.5 Research Methodology The present research was a descriptive survey type study. The researchers provide a question paper to all the students. The students are asked to answer the questions provided to them. 11.6 Procedure of data collection After providing the questionnaire form, the researcher has collected the information from different classes and the total number of students was about 300. The collected data were about 300. The collected data were analyzed through the application of percentage. 11.7 Results The study was conducted on 300 students among them different types of answers were given by the students. Most of the students that is around 86% students said that the items provided to them in exam for language development is appropriate. They were provided a question that which item is useful for language development. Around 60% give the answer that multiple choices help them a lot in language development other than other language item used in the exam for language testing.

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Around 75% students give the opinion that the language item used in the language test makes us to use accurate grammar in language. Around 80% students give the following suggestion how the testing system should be and which item they think should be included in the language item. a. Language items should focus on grammar. c. Multiple choices help us to develop our reading skills. So multiple choices item should be included in language testing system. d. The language item should focus on all the four skills reading, writing, listening and speaking. e. Fill in the gaps is effective for language testing because it helps to enrich vocabulary. Fill in the gaps is an effective item for language testing. f. Language items should focus on creative skills. g. Reliable testing item should be included in language testing system.

Figure 1. Diagram of the students’ opinion given on different question shown in percentage 12. Recommendations We need to take further steps to improve this stream of education. The following recommendations can help a lot for the improvement of this education system: a. It is necessary to keep in mind the communicative approach while setting up the questions. b. Every skill should be tested through different items. c. It is necessary to set up innovative questions paper so that students can answer them using their knowledge of English. d. It is necessary to change the question pattern every year so that the students will be encouraged to read, to learn instead of memorizing the textbook content. 13. Conclusion Testing is an important part of teaching process. It can be defined as a discipline of teaching. Whilst Alderson (1997) and others have argued that testers have long been concerned with matters of fairness and that striving for fairness is an aspect of ethical behavior, others have separated the issue of ethics from validity, as an essential part of the professionalizing of language testing as a discipline (Davies 1997). Tests are frequently used as instrument of educational policy, and they can be very powerful. (Shohamy, 2001). References Hughes, A. (2003). Testing for language teachers. Cambridge university press. Davies, A. (1968). Language testing symposium: a psycholinguistics perspective. Oxford: Oxford University press. Farhady, H., Jafarpur, A., and Birjandi, P. (2010). Testing language skills from theory to Practice. Iran: SAMT Bachman, L.F., and Palmer A.S (1996). Language Testing in practice. Oxford. Oxford University Press. Alderson, J.S. (1997). Ethics and Language Testing. Paper Presentation at the annual TESOL conventions, Orlando, Florida. Davies, A, (1997). Demands of being Professional in language Testing. Language testing, 14(3). Shohamy, E. (2001). The powers of Tests. London: Longman.

Advances in Language and Literary Studies ISSN: 2203-4714 Vol. 6 No. 6; December 2015 Flourishing Creativity & Literacy

Australian International Academic Centre, Australia

Development and Validation of a Materials Preparation Model from the Perspective of Transformative Pedagogy Hamed Barjesteh Department of English, Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran E-mail: [email protected] Parviz Birjandi (Corresponding author) Department of English, Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran E-mail: [email protected] Parviz Maftoon Department of English, Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran

Doi:10.7575/aiac.alls.v.6n.6p.85

Received: 18/06/2015

URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.7575/aiac.alls.v.6n.6p.85

Accepted: 07/09/2015

Abstract This study is a report on the design, development, and validation of a model within the main tenets of critical pedagogy (CP) with a hope to implement in education in general and applied linguistics in particular. To develop a transformative L2 materials preparation (TLMP) model, the researchers drew on Crawford’s (1978) principles of CP as a springboard. These principles provide the theoretical framework of the ELT program in general, but they need to be adapted to the specific features of L2 materials development. To this end, Nation and Macalister’s (2010) model of materials development were utilized to base different aspects of materials preparation. The newly developed model has driven 22 principles which was validated through a stepwise process. It was administered among 110 participants in 15 cities of Iran. Exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses were performed. The results indicated a high level of internal consistency and satisfactory construct validity. The TLMP model could be conducive for language policy makers, ELT professionals, materials and curriculum developers. Keywords: Critical pedagogy, materials development, transformative model, ELT community, development, validation 1. Introduction Critical language pedagogy (CLP) encompasses a diverse set of approaches in education that has alternately been referred to as participatory approach, pedagogy of inclusion, pedagogy of possibilities, emancipatory, dialogic, radical, engaged, transformative, postmodern pedagogy (Giroux, 1988; Hovey, 2004; Kincheloe, 2005; Pennycook, 1990; Shor & Freire, 1987). It derives its doctrine from different critical theories-including queer theory, post-colonialism, postmodern, anti-racism and feminism- of the Neo-Marxist Frankfurt school as a revolt to the traditional school (Heras, 1999). The proponents of CLP believe that education is interwoven with social, cultural, political and economic construction in everyday life to be questioned and urged for progress in a society. They maintain that CLP is a new paradigm in thinking about education. This paradigm contends that education is influenced by the social structure; therefore, it can lead to the development of status quo (Kincheloe, 2008). From a CLP perspective, education is conceptualized as a “vehicle for social control, for ethnic assimilation and reproduction of privileging norms” (McLaren, 2000, p. 129). Advocates of CP maintain that education including literacy programs foster direction of development in human beings (Shor, 1996).This framework has colored English language teaching (ELT) as confirmed by the hegemony of apolitical, asocial and cognitive-linguistic view of language (Pennycook, 1990). CP incorporates problem posing method by interrogating the received knowledge. This led students not to be the only consumer of knowledge. Freire (1970, p.77) criticized a model of language teaching what he coined “banking model”. He posits that this model endeavors to “control thinking and action, leads men and women to adjust the world, and inhibits their creative power” (Freire, p. 77). He suggests the problem posing instruction with a transformative perspective that entails learners' real life issues and engages them in an open-ended process of problem solving (Larson-Freeman & Anderson, 2011). Drawing from L2 professional literature on transformative pedagogy, transformation refers to a paradigm shift in perspective that lead the habit of mind to be more permeable (Cranton, 2011). When CP comes to play, both transformation and action aim to change students’ view (Mayo, 2004). This makes CP different from most other pedagogies because it invites learners to use their knowledge in a cycle of reflection and action (Wink, 2000). This doctrine implies that literacy program is unlikely to end in the classroom but will affect a wider society. This point of view is in line with the objectives of universities as they stand on the pedestal of teaching, research, and service. However, a large number of them depend on teaching rather than research (Gourley, 2012). To help students to be the

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transformative agents in the society, the proponents of CP suggest that the theoretical framework needs to be in constant interaction with learners' real life situation so that both knowledge and transformative action are increased (Kincheloe, 2008). Many practitioners have endorsed the educational side of CLP and its contribution to learners’ critical consciousness. Upon encroaching CLP, ELT practitioners have started to “engage themselves in an academic debate about the putative neutrality of ELT and the need to consider the social and political implications of ELT” (Cox & Assis-Peterson, 1999, p. 434). Currently, some applied linguists (Canagarajah, 1999; Crooks, 2009; Pennycook, 1994; Phillipson, 1992) highlight the social, political, and cultural notion of CP in ELT. They maintain that ELT is culture-bound and education in CP endeavors to leave a transformative effect on learners by motivating them to reflect on their learning through providing a linkage between students’ knowledge and their real life situation in a dialogical method, i.e., interaction between teacher and learners. Canagarajah (2005) states that although CP as a new paradigm was introduced to the educational discourse almost two decades ago, it is practically absent from ELT context. Many authors attribute this to its lack of empirical consequences. Similarly, Ford (2014) asserts that the last few decades have seen a growing interest in CP both in ESL/EFL contexts. He argued that despite the great potential of CP, its implications have not been well acknowledged, and most of the works done have been restricted to the theoretical aspect of CLP. Pennycook (1990, p. 24) states that CP incorporates a set of ideologies that aims "not only to change the nature of schooling, but also the wider society." However, while taking a radical critical stance implies emanticipatory and transformative action (Giroux, 1988), a more practical approach particularly in an EFL context like Iran is reflected in calling materials development and classroom practices into question. Unlike many related studies (Abdollahzadeh & Baniasad, 2010; Aliakbari & Allahmoradi, 2012; Bruenig, 2005; Cox & Assis-Peterson, 1999; Davari, 2011; Gafarsamar & Davari, 2011) emphasizing the importance of democratic and oppression free education at the theoretical level, this study gains significance as it highlights the way in which ELT materials developers can apply this theory to practice. The general dissatisfaction with the efficiency of the mainstream ELT in Iran has been discussed in an Iranian ELT context that can mostly be attributed to the centralized top-down educational management and policy. Many authors (Hayati & Mashhadi, 2010; Maftoon, Yazdani Moghadam, Gholebostan, & Beh-Afarin, 2010) among others criticized the EFL materials arguing that the public schools do not meet the needs of Iranian students. Due to this dissatisfaction, private English institutes in Iran use internationally marketed materials in their classroom. Reviewing the private school book series, we see western cultural norms and values are widespread in many EFL textbooks in Iran, leaving very limited room for the inclusion of local cultures and issues. Pennycook (1990) highlights that one can conclude that language education will be better prepared to implement its underlying social, political, and cultural responsibilities if it reflects the tenets of CLP. In the ELT educational context of Iran, the market demands have led to a highly uncritical approach to language education, which is clearly revealed in the poverty of studies on incorporating a critical perspective on materials development. Now, given the crucial role of ELT materials, EFL teachers, and the rapid spread of English in Iran the need is felt to accommodate ELT materials in the EFL classroom to serve the local needs. While a growing body of literature argues that CP has not yet started to creep into the practical aspect, this paper explores the applicability of CP to educational discourse to address this gap. In following this tendency, and with particular reference to the researchers' own teaching context in a second language (L2) teaching methodology classroom context of an M.A. level in Iran, this paper aims to develop and validate a transformative L2 materials development (TLMP) model with the hope to implement in the educational context of Iran. This newly developed model can help materials developers and EFL teachers incorporate its principles for developing and evaluating ELT materials. 2. Method 2.1 participants This study adopted a stratified random sampling. The population was stratified according their level of education, type of participants, and gender. The respondents were 50 prospective EFL teachers, 45 private language institution teachers holding M.A. degrees, and 15 university instructors holding Ph. D in teaching English as a foreign language (TEFL). A total number of 110 participants, 43 males and 67 females, comprised the subject pool of the present study. Their ages ranged from 24 to 51. Regarding their teaching experience, 80% of the participants had more than three years of classroom teaching experience. 2.2 Sampling Procedures Describe With the absence of a reliable, valid, and comprehensive model to develop EFL materials within the framework of CLP in the context of Iran, this study attempted to develop and validate a transformative model in order to implement the proposed model in an L2 methodology course at M.A. level in Ayatollah Amoli University, Amol, Iran. To develop the model, the major principles of CP (Crawford, 1978) and Nation and Macalister's (2010) model of materials development were drawn as the springboard. Based on extensive review of the available literature on CP, Crawford's (1978) principles of ELT curriculum design were found to be comprehensive enough to serve as the basis of the course. The principles provided a theoretical framework for the ELT program in general, but they need to be tailored to the specific features of L2 materials development for the purpose of this study. Thus, another preliminary step to take before developing the model was to think of a framework upon which to base different aspects of materials development. To this end, the researchers drew on Nation and Macalister's (2010) model of materials development.

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More specifically, an attempt was made to classify Crawford's principles into Nation and Macalister's (2010) categories as meaningfully as possible so that it would be clear as to what should be done throughout the course. Finally, the researchers developed the TLMP model. The first draft of the proposed model comprised 22 principles reflecting the main tenets of CP. To probe the validity of the model, the principles of the developed model were put into a five-Lickert scale format questionnaire. After collecting the data, the preliminary and final validation were conducted to probe the content validity, reliability, and factor analysis of the proposed model. 2.3 Instrumentation 2.3.1 TLMP Model To develop the model, the researchers classified Crawford (1978) principles of CP into Nation and Macalister's (2010) principles of materials development. In so doing, the literature was extensively searched with the hope of finding a transformative model for L2 materials development that could be readily used as the instrument of the present research. After a long and extensive search, the researchers became convinced of the necessity of developing a transformative L2 materials preparation (TLMP) model. Thus the TLMP model was proposed (See Appendix for the principles of the TLMP model). 2.3.2 Crawford's (1978) Principles of Curriculum Design and Nation and Macalister's (2010) Principles of Materials Development Crawford (1978) proposed 20 principles of curriculum design informed by Freire's philosophy. The principles deal with nine dimensions: (1) purpose, (2) objectives, (3) content definition, (4) learning strategies, (5) learning materials, (6) planning, (7) teacher role, (8) student role, and (9) evaluation. Crawford's principles need to be adapted to the features of L2 materials development for the purpose of this study. Thus, the researchers drew on Nation and Macalister (2010) classification of curriculum principles. Nation and Macalister's (2010) allocate three groups for the principles of language curriculum development: (a) content and sequencing, (b) format and presentation, (c) assessment and evaluation. The first group of principles is concerned with what goes into a language course and the order in which language items should appear. The second group of principles is about to what actually happens in the classroom during learning, and the last group deals with monitoring, assessment, and, to some degree, evaluation. After developing the model, the following stepwise process was conducted to probe the validity of the proposed model. 3. Results and Discussion 3.1 In Preliminary Validation, Content Validity for the TLMP Principles To assure the content validity of proposed principles, five experts holding Ph.D. degrees in TEFL were asked to read the proposed principles and determine the content validity of each principle. Four indices (comprehensiveness, relevance, clarity, and wording) were assessed for each principle. The experts were asked to score each of the indices based on four-point content validity index (CVI) from 1 to 4, corresponding to poor (1), fair (2), good (3), and excellent (4), respectively. It was calculated by tallying the results of panel of experts, working independently, to evaluate the principles based on the four indices. Next, the following indices were computed: (a) item CVI, which indicated the validity for each principle, (b) scale validity index (SVI), which signified validity for the whole model; (c) inter-rater agreement, which delineated the extent to which the experts agree on the validity of the principles, and (d) comprehensiveness score, which unveiled how well the experts agreed that the principle was comprehensive. To compute the item validity index (IVI), the scores were divided into two classifications: (a) good /excellent, (b) fair/poor. The IVI for each principle (comprehensiveness, relevance, clarity, and wording) was calculated as the experts who scored the principle good or excellent. For each index, a cut-off point of 0.75 was considered as acceptable validity. The principles with IVI less than cut-off point were re-examined. What follows presents the information about the content validity index and the scale validity index for the TLMP principle: 3.2 Content validity for items The item CVI for comprehensiveness was .93 for 22 principles. The corresponding index for relevance was .90 for the principles. The CVI for clarity and wording was .84 and .91, respectively. The principles that received a score below .80 for item CVI were revised by the researchers and the experts, and some modifications were made based on consensus. After analyzing the results, three principles for comprehensiveness, four principles for relevance, five principles for clarity, and 3 principles for wording were in the unacceptable range. Based on this evaluation, the principles that did not meet the pre-assumed criteria were modified due to the lack of minimum content validity based of the judgment of the five experts. Then three other TEFL experts were asked to comments on the modified version. The modified items with score above .79 were retained as the appropriate items. 3.3 Scale validity index Using the average approach, the overall SVI for comprehensiveness, relevance, clarity and wording were .88. The interrater agreement for the four indices were .89, respectively. The overall comprehensiveness score rated by the experts was 93%. Table 1 shows the CVI for the principles of the TLMP model based on the experts' opinions.

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Table 1. Content validity index for the principles of TLMP model Item content validity index

Scale

Comprehensiveness

Relevance

Clarity

Wording

Validity index

.93

.91

.84

.90

.88

Inter-rater agreement

Comprehens-

.89

.93

iveness score

3.4 Final validation: Reliability and factor analysis At this stage, the researchers needed to assure that the participants understood the principles proposed in the TLMP model in the way it was intended and the instrument could serve its intended purpose. To make this happen, Dornyei (2007, p. 112) suggests that a questionnaire should be administered to "a group of about 50 respondents who are in every way similar to the target population the instrument was designed for." To pilot the principles of the proposed model, it was administered to 90 prospective EFL teacher, 60 private language school teachers, and 20 university instructors in 15 cities of Iran. The recipients were informed that their responses to the questionnaire would be an indication of their consent to take part. A number of received questionnaires were not usable because the participants had left many items blank or had skipped the demographic section. 110 questionnaires including 50 prospective EFL teachers, 45 private language school teachers, and 15 university instructors were qualified for the use. Once the data were collected from the pilot group, the data were fed to the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) version 20. According to Dornyei (2007), three aspects of response patterns needed to be taken care of, that is, “missing responses or signs of misunderstanding, the range of responses elicited by each item and internal consistency” (p. 113). The questionnaires were scanned for the respondents who had clearly misunderstood the questionnaire (for instance, those agreeing with all items or with many completely opposite items) or had left many items blank ( more than an acceptable number to be replaced by neutral). The range of elicited responses by each item was checked by the SPSS software to “exclude items that are endorsed by almost every one or by almost no one” (Dornyei, p. 113). The internal consistency of the questionnaire enjoyed a reliability of .79. This reliability index is acceptable and strong in educational research (Hatch & Lazaraton, 1991). The results are presented in Table 2. Table 2. Reliability Coefficient for the TLMP model Cronbach’s Alpha N .79

110

Measuring the reliability and content validity, however, does not confirm the validity of a newly developed model. That is to say, a further step is needed to fully validate the model, which is to confirm its construct validity. In so doing a factor analysis was run. According to Pallant (2005), principal component analysis (PCA) is the most commonly used approach for the factor analysis. Therefore, PCA was picked to confirm the construct validity of the TLMP model in this research. The TLMP questionnaire makes use of a five-point Likert scale; that is, the respondents choose out of five options and score from one to five on each item. Thus, the minimum possible score is 22 and the maximum is 110. However, some items may be related to a single variable and can be grouped together. In other words, it may be possible to reduce the 22 items into a smaller number of factors, each covering a number of items related to the same factor. Thus, the researchers applied factor analysis in order to decide primarily which items should be eliminated from the list of expressions representing the principles for materials development and then to see if the researchers could arrange different items related to the same principles under the same category. Prior to running the factor analysis, the assumptions had to be checked. The first assumption was the inter-correlation among the variables. To know about inter-correlation among the variables, one needs to obtain a correlation matrix by running the correlation analysis. In the case of TLMP, the value of determinant is .001, which is larger than .00001. According to the results displayed in the correlation matrix, none of the items were excluded because there were significant correlation among all the items and there were no muli-collinearity. Another requirement is the factorability of the data. Thus, factor analysis was run with principal components chosen as the extraction technique. Bartlett’s Test of Sphericity (BTS) and the Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) measure of sampling adequacy help to determine the factorability of the data (Kaiser, 1970, cited in Pallant, 2005). ) Table 3 indicates the results of BTS and the KMO. The results enjoy the value of .63 and .000. Simply put, the first null hypothesis suggesting that transformative L2 materials preparation model will not show a good internal consistency was rejected. Table 3. BTS and the KMO measure of sample adequacy. Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin measure of sample adequacy

.632

Bartlett’s Test of Sphericity

Approx. Chi-Square

673.67

Df

231

Sig.

.000

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Table 4 presents information about initial eigenvalues, extraction, and rotation data. Eigenvalue is the sum of squared loading for a factor. It conceptually represents the amount of variance account for by a factor. The results are presented in table 4. In this table, only the first seven components recorded eigenvalues above 1(4.05, 2.52, 1.62, 1.59, 1.39, 1.36, 1.18). These seven components explained 62.52% of the variance. The table below indicates that the first factor account for 18.44%, factor 2 (11.49%), factor 3 (7.38%), factor 4 (7.25%), factor 5 (6.34%), factor 6 (6.22%), and factor 7 (5.40) in all 22 variables. Table 4. Total Variance Explained for the TLMP Principles Component Initial Eigenvalues Total % of Cumulative % Variance 1 4.057 18.442 18.442 2 2.527 11.489 29.930 3 1.624 7.384 37.314 4 1.594 7.247 44.561 5 1.396 6.347 50.907 6 1.369 6.223 57.130 7 1.187 5.396 62.526 8 .971 4.415 66.941 9 .951 4.324 71.265 10 .843 3.834 75.099 11 .777 3.531 78.630 12 .679 3.085 81.715 13 .612 2.781 84.496 14 .553 2.515 87.011 15 .539 2.451 89.462 16 .486 2.210 91.671 17 .440 1.999 93.670 18 .385 1.750 95.421 19 .357 1.625 97.045 20 .286 1.298 98.343 21 .195 .888 99.231 22 .169 .769 100.000 Extraction Method: Principal Component Analysis.

Extraction Sums of Squared Loadings Total %of Variance Cumulative% 4.057 2.527 1.624 1.594 1.396 1.369 1.187

18.442 11.489 7.384 7.247 6.347 6.223 5.396

18.442 29.930 37.314 44.561 50.907 57.130 62.526

Often running KMO, many components are extracted. Thus, it is of great significance to look at the change (elbow) in a Scree Plot (Pallant, 2005). Only component above this point are retained. The results are presented in Figure 1.

Figure 1. Scree plot of the Eigenvalues for a factor analysis on the TLMP principles Since in the extraction procedure the eigenvalue was set at 1 and above, the extract components have eigenvalue greater than 1. Figure 1 indicates only the first seven components qualify for this point of view. This means that the seven components explained 62.5 percent of the whole variance. Thus, it is possible to reduce the original 22 principles to seven and lose only 37.5% of the information. An analysis of the ScreePlot disclosed a clear break after the third component. Using the Catell's (1966) ScreePlot, it was confirmed to keep three components for the further analysis. To help identifying the factors, rotated component matrix was conducted. Table 5 determines what the components represent.

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Table 5. Rotated Component Matrixa for the components of the TLMP Model Component 1 2 3 P 7 Time on Task

.730

.061

.072

P 4 Fluency

.721

-.093

-.109

P 8 Depth of Processing

.706

.060

-.168

P 3 Comp. input

.663

.051

-.159

P 6 Deliberate Learning

.622

-.007

-.246

P 10 Learning style

.607

.003

.181

P 9 Integrative motivation

.603

.094

-.234

P 5 Output

.560

.112

.085

P 11 Frequency

.143

.324

.308

P 13 Spaced retrieval

.143

.837

-.102

P 14 Language system

.193

.775

.098

P 12 Strategies and Autonomy

.081

.647

-.184

P 17 Learning burden

.032

.525

.397

P 18 Interference

-.184

.409

.135

P 21 Teacher role

-.110

-.153

.314

P 22 Student role

-.165

-.054

.562

P 1 motivation

.528

-.147

-.003

P 15 Keep moving forward

.076

.514

.428

P 20 Feedback

-.270

-.137

.444

P 16 Teachability

-.011

.433

.145

P 2 Four strands

.329

.223

-.025

P 19 Ongoing needs

-.046

.056

.059

Extraction Method: Principal Component Analysis. Rotation Method: Varmix with Kaiser Normalization. a. Rotation converged in 5 iterations. As table 5 demonstrates, component 1 encompasses principles 7,4,8,3,6,10,9,5,1,2. This set of principles is labeled format and presentation. Component 2 encompasses principles 11, 13, 14, 12,17,18,15,16. This set of principles is labeled content and sequencing. Component 3 encompasses principles 21,22,20,19. This set of principles is labeled monitoring and assessment. The components and their corresponding principles are summarized in Table 6. Table 6. Components and their corresponding principles Components Principles 1.

Format and presentation

7,4,8,3,6,10,9,5,1,2

2.

Content and sequencing

11,13, 14, 12,17,18,15,16

3.

Monitoring and assessment

21,22,20,19

The three factor solution explained 37.5% of the variances with component 1 contributing 17%, component 2 11.75%, and component 3 contributing 8.5%. It should be noted that since items with loading factors below .3 were ignored, the number of items in the questionnaire was confirmed to 22 principles. Therefore, the final validated version of the TLMP model was used for the main study. The TLMP model is in line with Aghagolzadeh and Davari (2012) who strongly believe in empowering learners to make them the agent of transformation in the local and global arenas and reducing the cultural and social implications of English in a country such as Iran. They suggest bringing CP in to play as an alternative approach in ELT. However, they did not propose a practical guideline in order to apply the principles of CP into EFL classroom in Iran. It is also in line with a number of studies (Akbari, 2008; Aliakbari and Faraji,2011; Kumaradivelu, 2001) among others provide some useful suggestions for introducing CP into ELT classrooms, but these suggestions are still very broad without a practical framework to be applied in an EFL classroom. The proposed model contradicts with the findings of (Baladi, 2007; Gore, 1993; Kanpol, 2009; Sarroub & Quadros, 2015) who consider CP as a critical educational theory, which is restricted at the theoretical level. Likewise, Pennycook (2001) believes that CP has been its inclination to "remain at the level of grand theorizing rather than pedagogical practice" (p. 130). Similarly, Johnson (1999) makes the same point arguing that CP is not enough "to capture the complex essence of teaching especially of EFL/ESL" (p. 564). Put

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differently, they believe that there is no room for the practical aspect of CP in the classroom discourse. The same critics might level toward the newly-developed model. Such a claim can be justified by the promising findings of the present study. Thus the proposed model suggests that one should avoid jumping to this conclusion that CP is only at the theoretical level and devoid applicability. 4. Conclusion The pedagogical implication of CLP in education, in general, and applied linguistics in particular, led the evolution of critical viewpoint toward ELT industry. While there is a body of literature that considers the theory of CP, Shor (1996) and Sweet (1998) among others assert that there is less literature that addresses the ways in which EFL/ESL teachers and materials developers apply this theory in practice. Some authors like Kumaradivelu (2001) have attempted to present some guidelines for the post-method learners, teachers and teacher educator, but still some of these guidelines might not be very practical. In a similar vein, Akbari (2008) provides some useful suggestions for introducing CP into ELT classrooms, but these suggestions are still very broad without a practical framework to be applied in the classroom. Similarly, Aliakbari and Faraji (2011) recommend the application of CP in ELT classrooms, but they did not provide practical guidelines/principles for implementing this theoretical underpinning of CP in a classroom. To address the gap, the present study was conducted as a preliminary step to develop and validate a transformative model for materials development. The proposed model has driven 22 principles that reflect students' real life situation in a dialogical method. This model aimed to foster learners' critical awareness, and critical consciousness, as well as help them become critical reflective by a linkage between theory and practice so that they find the pedagogical application. The model considers teaching as a cycle of reflection and action by embracing learners’ critical needs analysis. The TLMP model suggests that critical ELT materials should co-built around problem posing by inviting learners examine the course content from the practical context of the classroom. It highlights that as much as possible should be spent focusing on reflective task to foster learners’ intellectual ability. ELT materials should integrate both social development and language skill development to aid students surpasses the understanding of the texts. In addition, the language focus should speed up both collective social transformation and cognitive development, and learners should have an opportunity to work with materials in the ways that most suit their culture, society, and learning style. The model suggests that both students’ critical language awareness and their linguistic skills should be evaluated through self-assessment and dynamic assessment. Students are active decision makers who participate in assessing their performance. Materials should consider teacher as a coordinator, a co-learner, and a problem poser. The TLMP model was developed and validated in an educational context of Iran with the hope to implement in the ESL/EFL context. This model aimed to develop learners’ critical consciousness. Many authors believe that CP is an ivory tower in the EFL/ESL contexts. Gore (1993) criticizes CP as it lacks applicability. She maintains that CP offers too little strategies to use in practice. Thus, she considers CP as an educational theory rather than pedagogy. Keesing-Styles (2003) postulates that critical theorists provide little account for what attempts are made within their classrooms to implement the principles of CP that they espouse. Similar criticism might also level against the newly developed model. Such criticism might be justified to this claim that “one cannot give the ten steps for a critical pedagogy” (Kanpol, 1998, p. 3). Each situation is different. CP struggles against any formulaic enterprise in which learners are regarded as passive recipients of deposits of prescribed materials. Therefore, the main feature of the TLMP model is that it is dynamics of how CP materials can be developed. The TLMP model could pave the ground for the local materials developers and EFL teachers as a touchstone to develop and adapt ELT materials in a way that gears to the learners' needs, culture, society, and learning style. However, teachers should plan for the possible risks and difficulties involved. References Abdollahzadeh, E., & Baniasad, S. (2010). Ideologies in the imported English textbooks: EFL learners and teachers’awareness and attitude. Journal of English Language Teaching and Research, 53 (217), 1-17. Aghagolzadeh, F., & Davari, H. (2012). The rationale for applying critical pedagogy in expanding circle countries: The case of Iran. Journal of Language Teaching and Research, 5(3), 823-828. Akbari, R. (2008). Transforming lives: Introducing critical pedagogy into ELT classrooms. ELT Journal, 62(3), 276283. doi: 10.1093/elt/ccn025 Aliakbari, M., & Allahmoradi, N. (2012). On Iranian school teachers’ perceptions of the principles of critical pedagogy. International Journal of Critical Pedagogy, 4(1), 154 -171. Aliakbari, M., & Faraji, E. (2011, September). Basic principles of critical pedagogy. Paper presented at international conference of economics development & research, Retrieved from www.ipedr.com. Baladi, N. (2007). Critical pedagogy in the ELT industry: Can a socially responsible curriculum find its place in a corporate culture? (Unpublished master’s thesis). McGill University, Montreal, Canada. Bruenig, M. (2005). Turning experiential education and critical pedagogy theory into practice. Journal of Experiential Education, 28(2), 106-122. Canagarajah, A. S. (1999). Resisting linguistic imperialism in English teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Canagarajah, A. S. (2005). Critical pedagogy in L2 learning and teaching. In E. Hinkel (Ed.), Handbook of research in second language teaching and research (pp 931-951). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

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Catell, R. B. (1966). The scree test for the number of factors. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 1, 245-276. Cox, M. I. P., & Assis-Peterson, A. A. D. (1999). Critical pedagogy in ELT: Images of Brazilian teachers of English. TESOL Quarterly, 33(1), 433-484. doi: 10.5539/elt.v5n2p101 Cranton, P. (2011). A transformative perspective on the scholarship of teaching and learning. Higher Education Research and Development, 30, 75–86. Crawford, L. M. (1978). Paulo Freire’s philosophy: Derivation of curricular principles and their application to second design (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of Minnesota. United States. Crooks, G. (2009). The practicality and relevance of second language critical pedagogy. Language Teaching, 1(16), 116. doi:10.1017/S026144480 9990292 Davari, H. (2011). Linguistic imperialism or global understanding: ELT in globalization from an Iranian Perspective (Unpublished master’s thesis). Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran, Iran. Dornyei, Z. (2007). Research methods in applied linguistics. New York, NJ: Oxford University Press. Ford, D. R. (2014). A critical pedagogy of ineffability: Identity, education and the secret life of whatever. Educational Philosophy and Theory, 46(4), 380-392. doi: 10. 1080/00131 857. 2013.779218 Freire, P. (1970). Pedagogy of the oppressed. New York, NY: Continuum. Ghaffar Samar, R., & Davari, H. (2011). Liberalist or Alarmist: Iranian ELT Community's Attitude to Mainstream ELT vs. Critical ELT. TESOL Journal, 63(5), 63-91. Giroux, H. A. (1988). Teachers as intellectuals: Towards a critical pedagogy of learning. South Hadley, MA: Bergin & Garvey. Gore, I. M. (1993). The struggle for pedagogies: Critical and feminist discourses as regimes of truth. New York: Routledge. Gourley, B. (2012). Higher education as a force for societal change in the twenty-first century. In L. McIlrath, A. Lyons & R. Munck (Eds.), Higher education and civic engagement: Comparative perspectives (pp. 31–40). New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan. Hatch, E., & Lazaraton, A. (1991). The research manual: Design and statistics for applied linguistics. Boston: Heinle & Heinle. Hayati, A. M., & Mashhadi. A. (2010). Language planning and language-in-education policy in Iran. Language Problems and Language Planning, 34(1), 24–42. Heras, A. I. (1999). Taking action with family and community members: Critical pedagogy as a Frame work for educational change. In Z. Cline & J. Necochea (Eds.), Advances in confluent education. Stanford, CT: JAI Press. Hovey, R. (2004). Critical pedagogy and international studies: Reconstructing knowledge through dialogue with the subaltern. International Relations, 18(2), 241-254. Kanpol, B. (1998). Critical pedagogy for beginning teachers: The movement from despair to hope. Online Journal of Critical Pedagogy, 2(1). Retrieved from http://users.monash.edu.au/~dzyngier/ Kanpol, B. (2009). Critical pedagogy for beginning teachers: The movement from despair to hope. Retrieved from: http://users.monash.edu.au/~dzyngier/Critical%20Pedagogy%20For%20Beginning%20Teachers%20Barry %20Kanpol.htm Keesing-Styles, L. (2003). The relationship between critical pedagogy and assessment in teacher education. The Journal of Radical Pedagogy, 5(1), 1-20. doi: 10.1177/105382590502800205 Kincheloe, J. L. (2005). Critical pedagogy primer. New York, NY: Peter Lang Publishing. Kincheloe, J. L. (2008). Critical pedagogy primer (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Peter Lang. Kumaravadivelu, B. doi: 10.2307/3588427

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Larson-Freeman, D., & Anderson, M. (2011). Techniques and principles in language teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Maftoon, P., Yazdani Moghadam, M., Gholebostan, H., & Beh-Afarin, S. R. (2010). Privatization of English Education in Iran: A Feasibility Study. The Electronic Journal for English as a Second Language, 13(4), 1-13. Mayo, P. (2004). Liberating praxis: Paulo Freire’s legacy for radical education and politics. Dordrecht, the Netherlands: Sense Publishers McLaren, P. (2000). Paulo Freire’s pedagogy of possibility. In S. Steiner, H. M. Krank, P. McLaren, & R. E. Bahruth (Eds.), Freirean pedagogy, praxis and possibilities: Projects for the new millennium (pp. 1-21). New York, NY: Falmer Press. Nation, I. S. P., & Macalister, J. (2010). Language curriculum design. New York, NY: Routledge. Pallant, J. (2005). SPSS survival manual: A step by step guide to data analysis using SPSS for windows (2nd ed.). Maidenhead: Open University Press.

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Pennycook, A. (1990). Critical pedagogy and second language education. System, 18(3), 303–314. Pennycook, A. (1994). The Cultural politics of English as an international language. London, Longman. Phillipson, R. (1992). Linguistic imperialism. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Sarroub, L. K., & Quadros, S. (2015). Critical pedagogy in the classroom discourse. In M. Bigelow & E. K. Johanna (Eds.), The Routledge handbook of educational linguistics (pp. 252–260). New York & Abingdon. Shor, I. (1996). When students have power: Negotiating authority in a critical pedagogy. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. Shor, I., & Freire, P. (1987). What is the "dialogical method" of teaching? Journal of Education, 169(3), 11-31. Sweet, S. (1998). Practicing radical pedagogy: Balancing ideals with institutional constraints. Teaching Sociology, 26, 100-111. Wink, J. (2000). Critical pedagogy: Notes from the real world. New York, NY: Longman. Appendix Principles of transformative L2 materials preparation (TLMP) model A Motivation Four strands Comprehensible input Fluency Output Deliberate learning Time on task Depth of processing Integrative Motivation Learning style

FORMAT AND PRESENTATION ELT materials should motivate students to reflect on their learning by linking their knowledge to their real life situation in a dialogical method, interaction between teacher and learners. ELT materials have learners focus on how to make meaning by incorporating their socioeconomic status. Materials should help the learners become critical reflective by providing comprehensible receptive activity in both listening and reading through discussion. ELT materials should make use of discussion through cultural and political topic of great concern to participants. Critical ELT materials are co-built around problem posing by inviting learners examine the course content from the practical context of the classroom in both speaking and writing. Materials should foster an enriched language learning context by drawing explicit linkage between theory and practice so that learners find the pedagogical application. As much as possible should be spent focusing on reflective tasks to foster learners’ intellectual ability. ELT materials should help learners process the course content thoughtfully (develop their critical literacy) by in-depth analysis of the discussed topic. ELT materials should integrate both social development and language skill development to go beyond the understanding of the texts. Learning materials in ways that most suit their culture, society, and learning style.

B Frequency Strategies and autonomy

CONTENT AND SEQUENCING Contents should be negotiated with the best possible coverage of humanized pedagogy. Materials should help learners become self-directed through contextualization

Spaced retrieval

ELT materials should provide repeated opportunities for learners to retrieve information from authentic materials. The language focus should speed up both collective social transformation and cognitive development. ELT material should progressively help learners develop critical awareness of their own sociopolitical context. Teaching is a cycle of reflection and action by embracing learners’ critical needs analysis. Materials should help learners challenge their own assumptions concerning the course. ELT materials should sequence from more familiar to less familiar hidden curriculum by incorporating learners’ background experience into the new context.

Language system Keep moving forward Teachability Learning burden Interference C Ongoing needs & environment analysis Feedback Teacher role Student role

MONITORING AND ASSESSMENT Both students’ critical language awareness and their linguistic skills should be evaluated through alternative assessment. Learners should receive implicit feedback that allows them to develop critical thinking. Materials should take into account teacher as co-learner, coordinator, and a problem poser. Students are active decision makers who participate in assessing their performance.

Advances in Language and Literary Studies ISSN: 2203-4714 Vol. 6 No. 6; December 2015 Australian International Academic Centre, Australia

Flourishing Creativity & Literacy

Lexion: That Which Upholds or Bears an Archetype Introducing Lex and Lexion to Modern English Helen Russ School of Business Western Sydney University, NSW Australia E-mail: [email protected] / [email protected]

Doi:10.7575/aiac.alls.v.6n.6p.94

Received: 18/07/2015

URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.7575/aiac.alls.v.6n.6p.94

Accepted: 07/09/2015

Abstract Derived from the Etruscan and Greek alphabets, Latin is a classical language that has influenced modern languages such as English, French, Italian and Spanish. With its Latin and Greek roots, this paper argues that the word lexion is an appropriate and necessary addition to the English language. Lex in Latin means, law, syllabus, statute and dharma. Lex in Ancient Greek means ‘the Word’ or logos. Drawing from Plato, this paper argues that lexion is the lore, law and dharma that upholds or bears an idea or perfect Form. A lexion emerges at the confluence of forces aligned with the archetype, thus forming the metaphysical body or spirit of an organisation. It is argued that a new term is necessary to name this phenomenon as current terms, while appropriate in some contexts, are often inadequate, limited and at times misleading. This paper outlines the benefits in introducing a new term. Keywords: archetype, lex, lexion, metaphysical, organisational spirit, Plato 1. Introduction In The Republic, Plato argued that behind physical phenomenon are perfect Forms or archetypes (Jowett, 1891, Book V11, p.1165; Louth, 2007). Perfect Forms exist in a non-dimensional, less emanated (incarnated) level of creation. They are the divine blueprint or essence of what we experience with the physical senses (Louth, 2007; Sagan 2007; Miller, 1974; Jowett, 1891). This paper argues that a term is needed. Through the process of emanation, a perfect Form will be upheld by lore, laws and dharma that support, bear and shape its emanation (Russ 2014). At the confluence of forces aligned with the perfect Form a new 'form’ emerges. Drawing from Latin and Ancient Greek, this paper names lexion as what upholds or bears an idea or perfect Form (lex). This paper outlines the traditional meaning of lex, from both Greek and Latin, to renew its use for a modern audience. It defines the modern definition of lex and lexion. Terms such as the corporate being (Sagan, 2007), metabeing (Bodeau, 1999), egregore, (Delaforge, 1988) a psychic entity (Dubuis, 2000), corporate angel (Wink, 1986), the metaphysical body (Russ, 2014), the super-organism (Bloom, 1995) and meme (Dawkins, 2006), have been used to describe the phenomenon being considered. This paper discusses why these terms are inadequate and what are the benefits in the introduction of a new term. 2. Definitions ‘In the Beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God, and the Word was God’ (John 1:1, King James Version). This paper introduces new terminology by utilising the original meaning of ‘The Word’, as creative emanating principle and the original meaning of ‘law’ as the principle of order and structure. The words lex and lexion are re-introduced by drawing on the original Greek and Latin definitions. The nature of this research demands an explanation of the origins of the term lex. While original definitions of ‘The Word’ and ‘law’ are important in defining the meaning of the term Lex, the current scholarly discourse around meanings, definitions and appropriate usage is exhaustive. As this discourse draws from the original definitions the discussion will be limited as such. Definitions of ‘The Word’ can be traced to esoteric, religious and philosophical sources at least into early Ancient Greek times in the work of Heraclitus and Plato (Jowett, 1891; Singh, 1963). In Greek lexis originally meant ‘speech’ or ‘word’ (Harper, 2014). Lexicon was used to describe a compendium of words. Lexicology was the study of words and a lexicon was the preferred word for dictionary in Greek, Syriac, Hebrew and Arabic (Harper, 2014). Lex relates to the Greek lexikos, meaning ‘of or for words’, lego meaning ‘to say’, and logia meaning ‘the study of’ (Liddell, 1940; Harper, 2014). According to Liddell, lex is derived from the suffix logos meaning speech, oration, discourse, quote, study calculation and reason. Esoteric interpretations of logos define it as the 'divine Word' or emanating principle (Harper, 2014; Sagan, 2007). The meaning behind lex in Greek refers to both the ‘regular word’ used in every day speech and a metaphysical definition of ‘The Word’ or logos referring to the divine emanating principle. The Latin word lex is described as ‘law, precept, regulation, principle, rule, mode or manner’. It is also described as a covenant, agreement, a condition or stipulation (Lewis, 1891, p.468; Smith, 1855, p.328). The Phraseological Latin–

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English Dictionary defines lex as 'a law, proposed or enacted, a rule or regulation and a condition' (Yonge, 1856, p.291). By the 1500s lex was defined as a system or body of laws, a particular or specified law (Collins English Dictionary, 2015; Ruby, 1986), but the term has much older roots. In the Bible lex was used as a prefix to laws. For example, in Ecclesiastes the Ten Commandments are referred to as the Lex Mosi or the Law of Moses crystallising the law of God into simple instructions (McCullough, 1981). In Ancient Rome, lex was also used as a prefix to enacted laws. For example, Lex Valeria (509–300 BC) granted Roman citizens the legal right to appeal against a capital sentence (Lentz, 1993). Lex Regia, were royal laws used and enacted by the kings of ancient Rome who held the roles of political, military, religious and judicial chief (Watson, 1991). In ancient Rome, the word lex preceded any legal ruling. Singh (1963) suggests it was Heraclitus (535–475 BC) who first spoke philosophically of the idea of law but he argues that the idea of law was integrated into earlier works of Homer (8th century BC) and into the Ionian ideas (8th–6th century BC) about world-order, the Pythagorean concepts (570–495 BC) of measure, cosmos and the legal structuring of society. St Augustine, a Roman philosopher (354–430 AD) was aware of the writings of Cicero (107 BC–44 AD) when he discussed lex aeterna (or cosmic logos) describing an eternal law (Chroust, 1973; Singh, 1963). Much later Erasmus discusses the law of God as lex aeterna, lex Divirza and, lex Dei (McCullough, 1981, p.91). The original essence of the word ‘law’ appears to refer to eternal, cosmic or divine laws; laws that are immutable, unchangeable or eternal and govern the unfolding cosmos. Finally from Hindu philosophy 'dharma' has been translated as ‘law’ (Rocher, 1977). 'Dharma' is a Sanskrit word meaning ‘to hold, maintain, keep’. It is also defined as what is established or firm and therefore law. 'Dharma' is a complex term encompassing meanings of right conduct, duty, social justice, ethos, custom, quality, model and responsibility (Arokiasamy, 1986, p.17; Horsch, 2004; Ramkumar, 2010). It is derived from an older term from Vedic Sanskrit meaning bearer or supporter (of deities) and in a religious sense it is seen as a reflection of Rta (Day, 1982). In a similar way to ‘law’, 'dharma' is the principle that remains constant and in so doing it regulates the course of change. It is also that which upholds or bears the law. The paper argues that sourcing the esoteric essence of the term lex from both Greek and Latin leads to similar phenomena. Interpreting the work of Plato and Heraclitus particularly suggests that the archetypal meaning of ‘law’ and the archetypal meaning of ‘The Word’ refer to the creative power that structures creation. To understand the intellectual standpoint behind this interpretation, it is necessary to provide a context. 3. The context Plato described creation as levels of emanation from ‘The One’ (Jowett, 1891; Louth, 2007; Miller, 1974; p.xxxixxxiii). ‘The emanation model is a basic aspect of Platonic, neoplatonic and Kabalistic theory, according to which God created the universe through a process of emanation, or radiation’ (Coudert, 1995). A Platonic cosmology embodies 'The One' or ‘The Good’, which is an eternal unity beyond duality. It is pure spirit, a non-dimensional reality with no time, space or gravity (Sagan, 2007; Miller, 1974; Leadbeater, 1902). ‘The One is truth ineffable, one touches it, one is united with it by theoria, but one cannot define it’ (Louth, 2007, p.5). The second dimension was described by Plato as comprising intelligible (or intermediary) realms embodying the logos or understanding (Langlois, 1971) where attention is the focusing force (Palmer, 1994). They are fluid dimensional and non-dimensional realms governed by laws of duality, where laws of time and space are not fixed (Heindel, 1909). The third dimension is material creation or dimensionality. This level is the visible world, where gravity is the focusing force and laws of limits, time and space apply (Leadbeater, 1902; Besant, 1912). Plato argued that what we experience with the physical senses is an emanation of a perfect Form from the world of Ideas (intelligible realms) (Jowett, 1891; Louth, 2007; Rommen, 1998). Confirmed in ancient Indian texts (Rgv. X65.7) Miller (1974) says that, ‘one aspect is manifested on earth, but the real or vital essence remains invisible’ (p.14). ‘The One’ described by Plato is immutable, unchangeable, eternal and infinite in its multiplicity (Jowett, 1891, p.676; Miller, 1974, p.xxxiii). The essential unity of all ‘Being’ is stressed by Heraclitus in his fragment ‘One out of all and all out of One’ (Singh, 1963, p.42). The world of Ideas or perfect Forms embody the natural unity of 'The One'. Emanation occurs when Will aligns with a perfect Form or archetype and a reflection of the Form emerges in creation (Russ, 2014; Miller, 1974, p.xxxi). Each emanation carries the essence of first principles, rules, patterns or laws that make it so, that govern its existence, that shape its being. Each emanation reflects ‘the laws’ (lex aeterna) within the world of Ideas, the perfect structure that upholds the perfect Forms. 4. The importance of names In Cratylus Plato argues that names are linked to the essence of things, to their essential or eternal nature (Jowett, 1891, p.365-424). Plato suggests that ‘true’ names are first principles aligned with the world of Ideas. True names are living forms, connected to their perfect Form. According to Beck (1995), the biblical Adam knew ‘the intrinsic nature’ of things and gave names to worldly phenomenon by translating the divine eternal word. The ‘Adamic signatures can still be partially read in the words we use for things’(p.58). Beck also argues that the Hindu tradition suggests that ‘individual letter potencies (sakti), ….leave an impression or trace (samskara)’ (p.61). According to Plato, the shape, sound and structure of letters and syllables are linked to archetypal essences in intelligible realms (the world of Ideas) (p.372-4). ‘Each word … was the inner specific character or essence of its respective reality’ (Beck, 1995, p.58). The act of naming something facilitates its emanation. Wolfson (1970) quotes Athanasius when he says that ‘the Word, is a “generated being” (γέννημα) or a “son” and, as such, he is “the proper offspring (γέννημα) of the essence,” (p.53). The name is the living form in creation that reflects the harmony in archetypal realms. In the Bible, Adam’s commission

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is to name worldly phenomenon. ‘To know is to name; to name is to know;’ (Ryken, Wilhoit, Longman III 2010, p.10). In Kabbalah there is a ‘direct relationship between letters, names, words and essence’. ‘God in one fashion or another created the world using language’ (Katz,1995, p111). By naming, there is emanation. The ‘Word’ is a living Form, it is shape and sound aligned with an archetype. According to Plato, words are instruments and an instrument used in alignment with its true Form brings harmony (Jowett 1891, p.372). True names’ have potency, they are connected to ‘The One’ (Jowett, 1891; Louth, 2007), indicating the importance of names that are aligned with archetypal realms. Plato also argues that the true nature of things cannot be known without studying the phenomenon beyond its name (Jowett 1891, p372). According to Russ (2014), Miller (1974), Sagan (2007) it is possible to explore the interior essence of phenomenon through a process of internalisation of consciousness. Metaphysical mapping described by Russ (2014, p.145-149) sources the archetypal essence behind material phenomenon. In Cratylus Socrates claims that words in different languages can be sourced to similar archetypal essences the the same way an awl made from different iron is still drawing from the essence of awl-ness (Jowett 1891, p.372). This paper argues that the archetypal essence of the terms, ‘law’ in Latin and ‘The Word’ in Greek can be traced to the term, lex which, it is argued are referring to similar phenomenon. 5. Linking 'The Word' and 'the Law' Since Plato (428–348 BC) at least, the concept of law has been linked to the quest for virtue which means being aligned with the perfection in the world of Ideas (McCullough, 1981; Lewis, 2008 p.633). Kessler (1944) argues that Plato’s objective realism rests on his faith in the existence of ‘absolute values [or in] the reality of Ideas, as the cause of true being and true knowledge’ (p.35). Kretzmann (1988) quotes Cicero when he says that, ‘the very definition of the term “law” inheres the idea and principle of choosing what is just and true’ (p.100). According to Plato the engine driving harmony within the world is the quest for virtue resting on principles of justice (McCullough 1981, Jowett 1891, Rommen, 1998; Kessler, 1944). Justice is achieved through the principle of reason which is known by being aligned with the world of Ideas. ‘The just law of the perfect state flows from the principle of reason (logos) by a process of logic (dialectic)’(Kessler, 1944 p.37). Miller (1974) suggests that the divine statutes of law can be traced to ‘the cosmic order’ and ‘the right reflecting of which brings well-being’ (Miller, 1974, p.51; Ruby, 1986). In essence ‘true law’ is embedded within the perfection of the world of Ideas. Heraclitus (frag 91) confirms, ‘human law partakes of the law of nature, which is at the same time a divine law’ (Singh, 1963, p.467; Ruby, 1986). The quest for law is a quest for the perfection and harmony of the world of Ideas. Esoteric scholars suggest that ‘the Word’ or logos is the first emanating principle (Miller, 1974). The creative power with which the divine manifests the creation (Word, Sagan, 2007). ‘The Word’ (lex) to Heraclitus was the principle of order and knowledge, that gives structure to the creation. According to Singh (1963) ‘The Word’ is what Heraclitus (535–475 BC) calls the logos, ‘the principle of “fixed measure” which governs the Cosmos’ (p.462). The Stoic philosophers identified the term with the divine emanating principle pervading the universe (Rommen, 1998). It is argued that the ‘fixed measure’ described by Heraclitus is what Plato described as a perfect Form or archetype. The archetypal essence of ‘the law’ (lex) is embedded within the perfection and harmony in the world of Ideas or the world of archetypes. To western esoteric philosophers ‘the Word’ (lexis) is a creative force from which the creation emanates (Miller, 1974; Sagan, 2007; Besant, 1912). It is the divine emanating principle. ‘In the Beginning was the Word’ (John 1:1, Bible, King James Version). Lex is therefore the principle of emanation. This paper argues that lex is the emanating perfect Form, with embedded patterns, rules or laws. This paper argues that ‘The Word’, logos (lex) is an archetype in emanation through the power of Will and ‘the law’ (lex) is the structure, or archetypal patterning embedded within an emanation. It suggests that at their esoteric source, ‘The Word’, logos (lex) and ‘the law’ (lex) are synonymous. Heraclitus said that ‘“the Word” or logos, the principle of “fixed measure” which governs the Cosmos, [and] the law that regulates the entire natural and human order are fundamentally identical’ (Singh, 1963, p.462). Rommen (1998) also links them when he says that “the ‘law” emanates from the logos, which in turn is itself “the law” of things’ (p.36). ‘The law’ is ‘The Word’, and ‘The Word’ is ‘the law’. ‘The Word’ or logos (lex), the emanating principle, is the fixed measure or law (lex) that governs the cosmos. 6. Lex and Lexion in English By taking advantage of the original Latin words for ‘law’, and Greek word for the ‘creative word’ or logos and to and prevent confusion with the modern definitions, the term lex is used. For the purposes of this discussion lex is the emanating force from (what Plato defined as) the world of Ideas. A lex is an emanating archetype. A lexion is defined as that which upholds the lex. A lexion is the metaphysical essence behind the visible laws, lore, dharma, conditions, behaviours, rules, beliefs, desires, patterns, principles and conditions that uphold and bear a perfect Form. The lexion is the metaphysical vehicle for the lex. The lex is perfect, pure, in harmony with the unity of ‘The One’. It is a force that by its very nature it embodies cosmic, divine or natural laws or principles. Each lex is a emanation of a perfect Form, expressing itself. The lexion emerges as convergent Will forces align with the emanating perfect Form. For the purposes of this discussion, lex refers to 1) the eternal, immutable principles behind the laws that govern creation such as the law of gravity, the law of the seasons, the law that defines the growth patterns of a seed, the cycle of life and death, the laws of mathematics, astronomy, physics and geometry; 2) it refers to the essential perfect Forms behind laws constructed by the State, religions and the individual designed to move towards harmony, 3) it refers to the

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perfect Forms behind the lore or body of knowledge that a group holds about traditions, behaviours, obligations and rights. Lex is the archetype in motion, it is the emanating principle, emerging in response to a vacuum, a lack, an emptiness or a lack of fullness. The lex is the ‘perfect’ response to the vacuum, activated by Will forces aligned with its perfect Form. The lex remains constant while emanating. The lexion forms as Will forces align with the lex. By definition, the lexion is the metaphysical form which holds, supports and bears that which remains constant and in so doing regulates the course of change. The lexion is the metaphysical body that carries bears and upholds the lex within intelligible realms. It is often recognised as the essence or spirit behind an ideology or group. Take Rock and Roll, for example. Rock and Roll is a movement, a music style, a way of life, an attitude. For Rock and Roll to exist in creation, in the world of Ideas as defined by Plato, there must be an archetype or perfect Form of Rock and Roll-ness. Something divine, eternal, immutable and cosmic. Something that is unchanging and perfect. Something that is the pure essence of Rock and Roll-ness. The Rock and Roll lex is the emanating perfect Form. The Rock and Roll lexion emerges as multiple forces of Will align with the Rock and Roll lex facilitating emergence. The archetype ‘is’, the lex ‘is becoming’. The lexion upholds, bears and supports the emanating lex. In a similar way, an organisation established to ‘serve’ is a reflection of a lexion that emerges from the confluence of forces aligned with the perfect Form or archetype of ‘service’. Experientially the organisational lexion is the essence behind the beliefs, attitudes, behaviours, lore, laws, dharma, mental frameworks, rules, patterns and customs that uphold and bear the organisational lex. It is the metaphysical body behind the visible artefacts of culture. It is beyond the scope of this research to present a detailed model of the phenomenon that is a lexion, its behaviour, nature and metaphysical structure. The work of Russ (2014), Bodeau (1999) Wink (1986) and Sagan (2007) can be researched in detail and are discussed briefly below. 7. Previous studies The phenomenon of a lexion is not new. Within Western esoteric literature, but also drawing on the work of western philosophy, psychology and sociology, researchers have discussed the phenomenon using different names. For example, corporate being (Sagan, 2007), metabeing (Bodeau, 1999), egregore, (Delaforge, 1988) a psychic entity of a group (Dubuis, 2000) corporate angel (Wink, 1986), the metaphysical body of an organisation (Russ, 2014) and meme and meme-complex, (Dawkins, 2006) are all terms used to describe the phenomenon being discussed. Scholars within the western esoteric tradition have described the concept of the lexion. Bodeau (1999) defines what she calls the 'metabeing' as the composite or collective consciousness within societies, groups and organisations. Bodeau’s work focuses on becoming aware of the 'metabeing'. She considers it important that people become responsible for their role within it, as organisational dysfunction can be linked to the health and harmony of the 'metabeing'. Sagan (2007) describes 'corporate beings', as astral beings that manipulate the functioning of organisations. Sagan discusses corporate culture and describes the influence of upper currents (world trends or emotional waves) that affect the harmony and destiny of organisations. The western esoteric tradition refers to an 'egregore' or the psychic entity of a group (Dubuis, 2000, p.8; Delaforge, 1988, p.6), primarily relating to traditions such as the Masonic Lodge, esoteric orders and churches. These groups wanted to understand the relationship between individuals and the consciousness of the group with the goal of maintaining organisational integrity. From similar western esoteric roots, Wink (1986), a theologian, draws on the work of Jung to describe the ‘corporate angel’ which encompasses the public face of organisations and the shadow. Similar to Bodeau, Wink encourages members of the organisation to consciously address the 'corporate angel' actively. The focus of these writers is to develop an active conscious dialogue and exchange between the spirit of the organisation and individual members (Russ, 2014). The primary motive is integrity of the group in the long term. In 1976, drawing from principles of genetics, Dawkins coined the term ‘meme’ as a unit of cultural transmission and ‘meme-complex’ to refer to a stable set of memes working in concert (2006, p.192–6). Memetics is a theory without a methodology (Aunger, 2006; Edmonds, 2002; Rose, 1998). It draws analogies with principles of genetics to suggest that memes, like genes, rest on principles of replication, longevity, fecundity and imitation (Wilkins, 1998; Brodie, 1996). Memetics is based on an analogy (Edmonds, 2005; Atrans, 2001). It does not have etymological roots and to date there is no way to test the analogies. Spiral dynamics is a management approach based on the meme-complex (Beck and Cowan, 1996). Here memes are systems of core values or collective intelligence that are active in any group. An organising principle, they act like an attractor for mini-memes aligned with its vibration. Beck and Cowan describe memes as the 'amino acids of our psycho-social “DNA”’ that act as the magnetic force which bind ideas into cohesive thought packages (p.11). Dawkins initiated interest in a phenomenon that needs discussion, study and critique but the lack of methodological framework and the fact that he is resting on analogies means that his work has tended to create confusion rather than clarity and has largely stalled in rigorous academic circles (Russ, 2014). Russ (2014) links the metaphysical and western esoteric definitions of the phenomenon with memetics when she argues that Dawkins was attempting to define the metaphysical body of organisations when he coined the term meme-complex. Drawing from the cosmology of Plato, Russ argues that the organisational metaphysical body is a ‘reflection of a perfect archetype into emanation through the power of the collective Will of people united in a joint purpose. It is the metaphysical body or the vehicle of thoughts and emotions for an organisation’ (p.284). Russ argues that the metaphysical body emerges at the confluence of forces within intelligible realms. The definition proposed by Russ is the closest to that defined as the lexion, but it also lacks the links to linguistic roots. 8. Discussion

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Researchers have attempted to describe and define the phenomenon of the lexion with greater and lesser success. The common theme is that definitions have generally been limited to defining the phenomenon as some form of collective or composite consciousness. A psychic being that is both created by and influences the people who make it up (Dubius, 2000; Delaforge, 1988; Bodeau, 1999; Heindel, 1909; Besant, 1912; Wink, 1986). Writers have discussed the phenomenon, its behaviour and its relationship to its members, but there has been no discussion that properly defines and understands its nature. The terms psychic entity of a group (Dubius, 2000), corporate being (Sagan, 2007), metabeing (Bodeau, 1999) and corporate angel (Wink, 1986) are helpful in that they suggest that there is a consciousness, a being, a group mind but these terms describe the phenomenon. With no linguistic roots and no theoretical framework, the term meme (rhyming with gene) tends to create confusion (Russ, 2014, p.21; Aunger, 2006; Edmonds, 2002; Atrans, 2001). Currently there is no adequate term that describes the collective spirit behind ideologies, organisations, movements or nations. Current terms do not provide linguistic clues towards what or how the phenomenon comes into being, its structure or appropriate management. While current terms are useful in the context, they are limiting and at times misleading. No word has provided a theoretical structure and background for the phenomenon that is a lexion. No term recognises its true nature as an emanation of a lex, or archetype. By introducing lexion, management consultants, corporations, movements and nations have a term that aligns with its etymological roots both practically and metaphysically. The metaphysical roots of lexion can be sourced to essences behind what is described as ‘the Word’ and ‘law’ in Greek and Latin respectively. The meaning matches the term. Terminology structures the nature of future discourse, according to Plato it creates and supports harmony within creation (Jowett 1891). Inappropriate terminology leads to misunderstandings and confusion. Lexion has etymological integrity and through its introduction to modern English, scholars have a term that facilitates rigorous and well founded discourse. 9. Conclusion Lexion provides meaning that resonates through Latin, Greek, Hebrew, Arabic and English (Harper, 2014). This theoretical framework rests on the work of Heraclitus and Plato particularly, but many other scholars have contributed to the discourse and refined understandings. The definitions of lex and lexion are aligned with the original definitions which mean the term sits comfortably within languages that have been influenced by Ancient Greek or Latin. Describing a lexion as that which upholds or bears an archetype is a modern definition that brings clarity to a phenomenon that has been shrouded in mystery. The association with esoteric schools, its lack of definition, the lack of a theoretical framework and the mysterious nature of the phenomenon itself has hindered open and rigorous discussion. Defining lex as an emanating archetype and the lexion as emerging at the confluence of forces aligned with the lex (archetype), describes the phenomenon in a way that is aligned with a vast tradition of scholarly research. Introduction of the terms lex and lexion provides a platform that allows the concept to emanate, to be discussed, critiqued and developed. References Arokiasamy, S. (1986). Dharma, Hindu and Christian according to Roberto de Nobili: Analysis of its meaning and its use in Hinduism and Christianity. Gregorian and Biblical Press. Retrieved from http://riccilibrary.usfca.edu/view.aspx?catalogID=352 Atran, S. (2001). The trouble with memes: inference versus imitation in cultural creation. Human Nature, 12(4), 351– 381. Retrieved from http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs12110-001-1003-0#page-1 Aunger, R. (2006). ‘What's the matter with memes?’ Richard Dawkins: How a Scientist Changed the Way we Think: Reflections by Scientists, Writers, and Philosophers, ed. by Alan Grafen and Mark Ridley. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Beck, D. E., & Cowan, C. C. (1996). Spiral dynamics: Mastering values, leadership, and change: Exploring the new science of memetics. Cambridge, Mass., USA: Blackwell Business. Beck, G. L. (1995). Sonic theology: Hinduism and sacred sound. Motilal Banarsidass Publ. Besant, A. (1912). Man and his bodies (theosophical manual no. VII) (Second Edition ed.). Adyar, Theosophical Publishing House. Retrieved from http://www.anandgholap.net/Man_And_His_Bodies-AB.htm Bloom, H. (1995). The Lucifer Principle: A scientific expedition into the forces of history. New York, New York: Atlantic Monthly Press. Bodeau, D. (1999). Metabeings and individuals: Aids and obstacles to growth. Massachusetts USA: First Parish Unitarian-Universalist of Bedford. Retrievable online from http://www.anzam.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfmanager/562_ANZAM2011-313.PDF Brodie, R. (1996). Virus of the mind: The new science of the meme. Integral Press. Chroust, Anton-Hermann (1973) 'The Fundamental Ideas in St. Augustine's Philosophy of Law,' American Journal of Jurisprudence, 18(4).

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Coudert, A. P. (1995). Causation, Language, and the Kabbalah. In Leibniz and the Kabbalah (pp. 136-154). Springer Netherlands. Dawkins, R. (2006). The selfish gene (First published in 1976. 30th anniversary edition, 3rd ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. Day, T. P. (1982). The conception of punishment in early Indian literature. Ontario: Wilfrid Laurier University Press. Delaforge, G. (1988). The Templar tradition: yesterday and today. Gnosis Magazine, 6, 8–14. Dubuis, J. (2000). The fundamentals of esoteric knowledge. (B. Donvez Trans.). (Third ed.). Winfield IL USA. Triad Publishing. Retrieved from http://www.scribd.com/doc/23958243/Dubuis-Jean-The-Fundamentals-of-EsotericKnowledge#scribd Edmonds, B. (2002). Three challenges for the survival of memetics. Journal of Memetics—Evolutionary Models of Information Transmission. 6 (2), 45-50. Retrieved from http://connection.ebscohost.com/c/articles/7893837/threechallenges-survival-memetics Edmonds, B. (2005). The revealed poverty of the gene-meme analogy—why memetics per se has failed to produce substantive results’. Journal of Memetics—Evolutionary Models of Information Transmission, 9 (1), 1–4. Retrieved from http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=bth&AN=17256475&site=ehost-live Harper, D. (2014). OnLine etymology dictionary. http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?allowed_in_frame=0&search=lex&searchmode=none

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Heindel, M. (1909). The Rosicrucian Cosmo-Conception (Seventh ed.). Mt. Ecclesia, Oceanside, California, U.S.A: The Rosicrucian Fellowship International Headquarters. Horsch, P. (2004). From creation myth to world law: The early history of dharma. Journal of Indian Philosophy, 32(5– 6), 423–448. Retrieved from http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10781-004-8628-3#page-1 Jowett, B. (1891). The complete Plato. Translated by Benjamin Jowett (3rd Edition of Dialogues of Plato ed.). University of Adelaide Library: http://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/p7plato/ Katz, S. B. (1995, July). The Kabbalah as a Theory of Rhetoric: Another Suppressed Epistemology. In Rhetoric, Cultural Studies, and Literacy: Selected Papers from the 1994 Conference of the Rhetoric Society of America (Vol. 6, p. 109). Psychology Press. Kessler, F. (1944). ‘Natural law, justice and democracy—some reflections on three types of thinking about law and justice’. Tul.L.Rev., 19, 32. Retrieved from http://digitalcommons.law.yale.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=3729&context=fss_papers Kretzmann, N. (1988). Lex iniusta non est lex—laws on trial in Aquinas' court of conscience. Am.J.Juris., 33, 99. Langlois, W. G. (1971). Persistent voice: Essays on Hellenism in French literature since the 18th century, in honor of Professor Henri M. Peyre (First ed.). 11 Rue Massot Geneva: Librairie Droz. Leadbeater, C. W. (1902). Theosophical manual. no. 6 the Devachanic plane or The Heaven World Its Characteristics And Inhabitants (Second Edition Ed.). London And Benares: The Theosophical Publishing Society. Retrieved from http://www.anandgholap.net/Devachanic_Plane-CWL.htm Lentz, J. C. (1993). Luke’s portrait of Paul. Cambridge UK: Cambridge University Press. Lewis, C. T. (1891). An Elementary Latin Dictionary (Internet ed.). Internet Archive Franklin Square: Harper and Brothers. Lewis, V. B. (2008). Higher law and the rule of law: The platonic origin of an ideal. Pepp.L.Rev., 36, 631-640. Liddell, H. G., Scott, R., & Jones, H. S. (Eds.). (1940). A Greek-English Lexicon/compiled by Henry George Liddell and Robert Scott (Perseus Digital Library ed.). Oxford: Clarendon Press. Retrieved from http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057&redirect=true Louth, A. (2007). The origins of the Christian mystical tradition: From Plato to Denys (Second ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. McCullough, C. D. (1981). The concept of law in the thought of Erasmus. Erasmus of Rotterdam Society Yearbook, 1(1), 89-112. Retrived from http://booksandjournals.brillonline.com.ezproxy.uws.edu.au/content/journals/10.1163/187492781x00076 Miller, J. (1974). The Vedas. Harmony, meditation and fulfilment (First ed.). London: Rider & Company. Palmer, H. (1994). Living deliberately. Altamonte Springs Florida: Star Edge International. Ramkumar, M. (2010). The Kautilya way. E-International Relations. Rocher, L. (1977). Hindu conceptions of law. Hastings LJ, 29, 1283. Rommen, H. A. (1998). The natural law: A study in legal and social history and philosophy Liberty Fund Inc. Rose, N. (1998). Controversies in meme theory. Journal of Memetics—Evolutionary Models of Information Transmission, 2(1), 43. Retrieved from http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=bth&AN=2304871&site=ehost-live

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Ruby, J. E. (1986). The origins of scientific law. Journal of the History of Ideas, 47(3), 341–359. Russ, H. (2014). Memes and organisational culture; what is the relationship. (Doctoral dissertation) University of Western Sydney Press, University of Western Sydney. Ryken, L., Wilhoit, J. C., & Longman III, T. (Eds.). (2010). Dictionary of biblical imagery. InterVarsity Press. Sagan, S. (2007). A language to map consciousness. Clairvision School. [Online] http://www.clairvision.org Singh, R. (1963). Herakleitos and the law of nature. Journal of the History of Ideas, 457–472. Smith, W. (1855). A smaller Latin-English dictionary: abridged from the larger dictionary. Oxford University Collection. John Murray Albemarle St London. Retrieved from https://archive.org/details/asmallerlatinen00smitgoog Watson, A. (1991). Legal origins and legal change. (pp. Chapter 8) Continuum International Publishing Group. Wilkins, J. S. (1998). ‘What’s in a meme? Reflections from the perspective of the history and philosophy of evolutionary biology’. Journal of Memetics, 2(1), 21. Wink, W. (1986). Unmasking the powers: The invisible forces that determine human existence (First ed.). Philadelphia: Fortress Pr. Wolfson, H. A. (1970). The Identification of ex nihilo with Emanation in Gregory of Nyssa. Harvard Theological Review, 63(01), 53-60. Yonge, C. D. (1856). Phraseological Latin-English dictionary. London: Richard Bentley New Burlington St. Retrieved from https://archive.org/details/aphraseological00yonggoog Notes Following convention, capital letters have been used in several places to make a distinction in meaning. When referring to phenomenon at a non-manifested level a capital is used. When referring the manifested level a small case first letter is used. For example: •

The term perfect ‘Form’ refers to Plato's’ archetype. The capital ‘F’, is used to differentiate it from a ‘form’ in the general sense.

•

In a similar way, the ‘Word’ (capital W) refers to the creative impulse from which the creation emanates as opposed to the word in general usage.

•

‘Will’ is also given a capital letter, when it is used as a noun. When referring to the Will of people as a force of consciousness a capital is used. The capital is used to differentiate it from will as an auxiliary verb, as in I will come to the party.

•

In a similar way to Form, Ideas are given a capital when referring to what Plato described as the world of Ideas.

•

‘The One’, and ‘The Good” described by Plato uses capitals to differentiate it from conventional uses of the terms.

Advances in Language and Literary Studies ISSN: 2203-4714 Vol. 6 No. 6; December 2015 Flourishing Creativity & Literacy

Australian International Academic Centre, Australia

Mandarin, Suzhou Dialect and English: Multilingualism in Suzhou Sibing Xu Department of Foreign Languages, HKU SPACE Global College Suzhou No. 1, Ren’ai Road, Dushu Lake, Higher Education Town, SIP, Suzhou, P. R. China E-mail: [email protected]

Doi:10.7575/aiac.alls.v.6n.6p.101

Received: 03/07/2015

URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.7575/aiac.alls.v.6n.6p.101

Accepted: 06/09/2015

Abstract This paper explains the situation of Mandarin, Suzhou dialect and English in Suzhou, the relation between language policy and language use, discusses the positive and negative consequences that multilingualism in Suzhou might have for the society, and focuses on the change of language use in Suzhou and provides suggestions for the maintenance of Suzhou dialect. The multilingualism in Suzhou is a new phenomenon of the 21st century, and has led to different personal attitudes towards language use and language choice. The right balance among the three, Suzhou dialect as the local language, Mandarin as the national language and English as the global language, is worth researching for longterm harmonious development. Keywords: Mandarin, Suzhou dialect, English, multilingualism, Suzhou 1. Introduction Sociolinguistics is relevant to the relationship between language and the different context in which it is used (Holmes, 2008). As a subject of exploring language variation and social differentiation, it draws on theory and practice from diverse fields. Within various subfields of sociolinguistics, multilingualism is an emerging phenomenon around the world. Take Asian as an example, Singapore has four official languages — English, Mandarin, Tamil and Malay; while many African countries reported that in officially English Nigeria 80 million people use 400 languages (Edwards, 2002). China is a vast dialectal complex including hundreds of local varieties, each of which can be viewed as a distinct object for research (Norman, 2003). Therefore, this study analyzes language choices and language use in Suzhou, my hometown in Jiangsu Province, Southeast China, where we interact, shape and switch under the impact of multilingualism. The Suzhou Municipal City has been chosen to be the focus of this study for the following reasons. First, with a history of more than 2500 years and a tradition of splendid ancient civilization, the city is the heart of ‘Wu Culture’ during the Song Dynasty (Zhi, 1998). Under the impact of Wu Culture, it emerged numerous Wu dialects since ancient times. Suzhou dialect is considered to belong to well-defined dialect groups Wu and evolves its phonetic features from time to time. Therefore, the unique form of written and spoken Suzhou dialect is still in use in different situation. Second, Figure 1 below shows the location of Suzhou in the southwest of Jiangsu Province. It covers an area of 8848 square kilometers. According to the most recently released statistical data from Administrative Bureau of Suzhou, the population of Suzhou was 13 million in 2012, which becomes the second largest immigrant city in China. This is a challenging demographic, social and economic issue for the city; more importantly, the large floating population has also influenced the language use in Suzhou. In terms of economy, Suzhou has been consecutively ranked among the top 10 fastest developing cities in China. On one hand, Suzhou is attracting numerous international tourists due to its UNESCO World Heritage status. On the other hand, with the fast development of Singapore Suzhou Industrial Park (SIP), those foreign enterprises have bought foreign immigrants whose national language is English, thus stimulating the need of English (Inkpen and Pien, 2006). Therefore, it is a combination of old and new, oriental heritage and western culture. Fourth, the multilingualism of Mandarin, Suzhou dialect and English in Suzhou has been selected as the topic of this paper because Suzhou is my hometown where I formerly studied and lived for more than twenty years, and witnessed rapid urban development and language situation change in Suzhou all these years. Therefore, I am familiar with the city and its language identity.

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Figure1. The Location of Suzhou in Jiangsu Province (A Part of Wu District in the Past) (Source: http://www.johomaps.com/as/china/chinamap1.html) This paper explores multilingualism in a geographic context in China. Focus is upon the Suzhou dialect, Mandarin and English languages in their political, social and economic contexts in general. Theoretically, we wonder what the language facts are in the past of Suzhou, what factors it is to prompt the change of language use in Suzhou, and what development trend the multilingualism in Suzhou will be. In order to describe positive and negative consequences that multilingualism might have for a society, the central issues in this paper are as follows: (1) Explain the situation of Mandarin, Suzhou dialect and English in Suzhou, the relation between language policy and language use. (2) Discuss the positive and negative consequences that multilingualism in Suzhou might have for the society. (3) Focus on the change of language use in Suzhou and provide suggestions for the maintenance of Suzhou dialect. 2. Literature Review The literature on multilingualism in a regional context in China will be reviewed with particular attention to the following two parts: (1) Review theoretical frameworks of language policy in general, and language policy from particular perspective in Suzhou. (2) Look at multilingualism in China with particular focus on Suzhou dialect and its proliferation of English. 2.1 Language and Language Policy What is language? Language, a set of “very specific universal principles which are intrinsic properties of the human mind and part of our species”, perhaps is the current best answer given by Chomsky (Chomsky, 1986). However, when we consider multilingualism phenomenon, it is always in several particular languages with particular dialects and pronounced with particular accents (Downes, 1998). Thus, language, from this perspective, becomes more complex. According to Spolsky’s model (2006, Figure 2), language policy is composed of three elements: language practice, language ideology, and language management activities. Language practice is how a group of people selected language, and accepted rules of language choice and variety within a speech community (Spolsky, 2011). Language ideology can not only influence national agendas about language policy, but also impact on personal attitudes regarding their choices of different languages (Yang, 2012). Moreover, language ideology is a prerequisite regarding the role of each language and reflects its usage order in a multilingual society (Zhou, 2011). In order to reveal the multilingual ideologies in Suzhou towards the Suzhou dialect, Mandarin and global language — English, the exploration of language policy is helpful. Based on Shohamy’s study, the most powerful mechanism that puts the ideology into practice is laws and regulations (2006). Therefore, the specific policy and language use in the context of Suzhou will be discussed.

Figure 2. A Model of Language Policy

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2.2 Mandarin Language Policy Based on northern dialects and the normative grammar in modal modern-language works, Mandarin, commonly used by modern Han nationality, takes the pronunciation of Beijing speech as a standard. Mandarin is the most important communication tool of modern Han nationality, at the same time a statutory national common language (Huang Borong, 2008). Language policy maintains the language use within a community, and enables powerful groups to facilitate national, political, social and economic agendas (Shohamy, 2012). In mainland China, Mandarin has been recognized as the standard language because of the political and cultural significance (Li and Thompson, 1989). After the establishment of People’s Republic of China in 1949, Beijing became the national centre of politics, economy and culture, playing an important role in the process of the formation of Mandarin. At the beginning of the 20th century, the vernacular movement advocated people to write Chinese the way it is spoken, toghether with the national language movement, which enhanced the representativeness of Beijing speech colloquially. It serves to promote the standardization process of Mandarin as the national language (Chao, 1971; Duanmu, 2002). The constitution of China stipulates that the state promotes the nationwide use of Mandarin, out of consideration for its importance. The promotion of Mandarin may further break down dialect barriers and favour social intercourse. In the context of more and more international communication, the further promotion of Mandarin will be helpful in reducing the difficulties of language communication. According to the policies on the promotion of Mandarin in future, the following points should be noted (Huang Borong, 2008): First, the teaching-in-Chinese schools at different levels use Mandarin as teaching language. Second, Mandarin should be used as working language in the official activities of institutions and enterprises. In fact, the previous language policy focused mainly on the position and role of Mandarin, however, with the development of ecomomy and culture in resent years, how to banlance effectively the relation between Mandarin and dialects is facing language policy makers and the topic of this kind does not appear to be fully discussed. 2.3 Suzhou Dialect China is a populous country with numerous local dialects (fangyan), which can be divided into seven types: northern dialect (Mandarin dialect), Wu dialect, Xiang dialect, Gan dialect, Min dialect, Hakka dialect and Cantonese (Zhou, 2000). Historically, Suzhou used to be the capital of Wu State three thousand years ago, and its dialect is typical of Wu region, difficult to be understood by the peoples speaking other dialects, and is also a literary language, in which there have been so many literatures written from the 14th century onward. In the ancient city of Suzhou, Suzhou Tanci, a traditional storytelling that combines singing, instrumental music and a mixture of narrative registers and dialogue was popular, but this art is disappearing gradually because the dialectal variation in Suzhou (Bender, 1998). In modern Suzhou dialect, the co-existence of old and new style stll exists. The old style is what the older generation of Suzhou says, and sounds quite pure and proficent, while the new style refers to the variation of Suzhou dialect because of urbanization and migaration. Facing this rapid change, Suzhou government has carried out a local biligual education policy with the aim of maintaining local dialect for cultural preservation and economic development. The using frequency of Mandarin and Suzhou dialect in Suzhou has been investigated and examined through sociolinguistic analysis (Wang Ping, 2003). Wang has pointed out that, in general, the using of Suzhou dialect is decreasing while that of Mandarin is increasing. Until the 1950s, the natives just talked in Suzhou dialect to the outsiders, and basically, all the students spoke Suzhou dialect no matter on what occasions. But now students almost all speak Mandarin in classroom. There are many reasons leading to such major changes, among those are two primary reasons: the language policy and the greatly accelerated speed of social development. At present, Suzhou is in a period of unprecedented development and workers have been pouring in Suzhou from all over the country. According to the statistics in 2012, the population of migrants in Suzhou outnumbered the local inhabitants. In today’s Suzhou, you'd better use Mandarin in public occasion when talking to strangers in order to communicate smoothly. 2.4 English in Suzhou Like elsewhere in the world, the English as a global lingua franca appears in Suzhou with a rapid pace. The expansion of English is mainly due to two reasons. First, influenced by the modernization and economic progress, the English education in Suzhou has been promoted even since kingdergarden. Studies from a number of fields demonstrated the history of English education in China (Adamson, 2004; Jin, 1995; Yong, 1995), the changes in English pedagogy and Enlish curricula (Hevia, 2003; Mckay, 2008, Zheng, 2008), and English learning attitudes and motivation that influence English teaching and learning (Yihong, 2007; Yong & Campbell, 1995). These studies have been conducted to provide us an overall situation of English in China. Second, as a historical and cultural city, the development of international tourism will impact upon the teaching of English. Suzhou attracted a lot of foreign tourists every year, which has brought the fashion of learning English. Jaworski (2010) has argued that international tourism has impacted upon the teaching of global languages such as English (Jaworski and Thurlow, 2010). Along with the acceleration of globalization, the increasing impact of English in Suzhou is obvious. From the perspective of research, the relation between Mandarin and dialects, the relation between Mandarin and English, have been discussed, but more complex languge phenomena concerning the relations between Mandarin, dialect and English, for example, in Suzhou, are less noticed.

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3. Discussion: Multiligualism in Suzhou After reviewing the language policy and language usage in multilingual context—Suzhou, the positive and negative effects will be discussed through political, social, economic and cultural situation in this section. 3.1 Positive Consequence of the Multilingualism in Suzhou Cook (2002) emphasized the main function of language is to communicate effectively. More than ninety percent of Suzhou citizens have the bilingual capabilities of Mandarin and Suzhou dialect, and in public, Mandarin is still the vital tool for daily use. According to a large-scale survey carried out in Suzhou (Weiqi, 2010), it shows that Suzhou dialect is still preferred as the first language and family communication, in the meanwhile, Mandarin dominates in public situation (See Figure 3 for the language situation). Therefore, Suzhounese are aware of the practical value of Suzhou dialect and Mandarin, and shift between these two languages for the convenience of communication. The role and importance of Mandarin is chiefly responsible for the change from the monolingualism of Suzhou dialect half a century ago to the multilingualism in Suzhou nowadays. Over the past few years, the promotion of Mandarin has made remarkable effects, especially in educational fields. Language

Number of People

Percentage

Mandarin

48

8.1%

Mandarin and Suzhou Dialect

529

89.8%

Mandarin and Other Dialect

1

0.2%

Figure 3. Language Situation of Suzhou Native Primary and Secondary Students (Weiqi, 2010) English the world over can be seen as a creation of multilingualism today. It is identified as a foreign language with no official status in many countries, but is increasingly used for the purpose of wider communication (Jessner and Onysko, 2006). It should be pointed out that, for most well-educated Suzhounese, English is considered to be necessary due to increased mobility and globalization, and the ability to use English is a skill in increasing demand by employers. The job market in Suzhou provides more opportunities to English speakers, especially international business. In addition to the career advantages in international enterprise, the domestic market including tourism, social services and education also encourages multilingual users. In recent years, the enormous growth of foreign tourists has stimulated economic and social development, among this process, the multilanguage plays an essential role in giving visitors access to the heritages, modern lifestyles, and culture and traditions of Suzhou. Take Suzhou Tanci, a style of Chinese professional storytelling as an example (Figure 4), native tour guides usually switch to Suzhou Dialect or Mandarin to provide unique cultural experience to tourists. Many service staffs from hotels, restaurants and airlines are required to master English fluently in order to offer active support for visitors. In addition, mass media nowadays has a greater impact on the daily life in Suzhou. For instance, Suzhou Daily (local newspaper) follows the Mandarin style and syntax with special dialectal section and English section. There are also several television and radio broadcasts in Suzhou featuring English programs and dialectal programs, which has a profound impact on the widespread of languages because the media are such an integral part of our daily life. Edward (2008) emphasized that the media play an active role in the standardization of spoken and written language, and the process of multicultural globalization.

Figure 4. Suzhou Tanci 3.2 Negative Consequence of the Multilingualism in Suzhou In Wang’s (2003) study, Suzhou dialect has achieved its dominant position until the 1950s. At that time, a majority of the immigrants from the north Yangtze Delta engaged in Suzhou’s manual labor or service industry due to historical reasons. But native people still insisted in speaking mother tongue (Suzhou dialect) to them although they could not understand sometimes. According to my father’s recall, teachers at that time hardly used Mandarin in classroom, and

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even Chinese teachers spoke little Mandarin, if spoke, with a dialectal accent. All citizens used Suzhou dialect during their daily life, and Mandarin could be heard only from broadcasts or films. However, it is quite another story now, and in fact, students almost all speak Mandarin in classroom. With the process of globalization, the status of Suzhou dialect has reduced to a condition of minority language (Jiang & Ji, 2008). Through the analysis of language use and attitudes of speakers in economically developed and traditional Suzhou, Mandarin has acquired its dominant role while English has become a “high language”. The promotion of Mandarin and proliferation of English does not come without adverse effects. First and foremost, it renders a host of indigenous language obsolete. The balance between the promotion of Mandarin and the maintenance of Suzhou dialect is an important task for language planners. Under condition of the successful popularization of Mandarin, even Suzhou dialect with a significant influence has been threatened, so an issue should be taken into account seriously: in what position should dialects be? The fact is that Suzhou dialect use has declined considerably among the younger generation, and its power has been challenged. Speaker’s choice of language constructs their group identity, in places where there is speech community there will often be same social norms too, about legislation, politics and unity. Although the promotion of Mandarin nationwide has laid its foundations in the interests of national unity, being multilingual might strike the balance of regional order, especially under the present flow of migrants from other provinces and foreign visitors. Furthermore, compared with English and Mandarin as higher status, Suzhou dialect user has been referred to “lower” social class; the discrimination based upon their language use will be probably associated with people’s occupation, education and social relationship. Finally, the expansion of Mandarin and Chinese has eroded the local cultural heritage and cultural identity. For instance, Kunqu and Pingtan, two traditional operas among the oldest and most influential arts in Suzhou have been afflicted with embarrassing situation. Especially young people, do not appreciate the traditional art, and even some native people, can hardly enjoy it because the linguistic variation. Many operas and other folk arts use dialect as a communication tool, so the extinction of those dialects will influence the maintenance of traditional arts in the future. 4. Conclusion Speaking multiple languages enables communications with a larger number of people, and also develops the society into cosmopolitan city. The global spread of English has brought economic development, cultural assimilation and English education. Especially in recent years, the growth of regional interest in Suzhou was affected mostly by tourism industry and international business, which has resulted in the prevalence of multilingualism as a multicultural symbol in Suzhou Municipal city. However, in the meantime, the loss of local language has widespread repercussions on society as a whole. Bourdieu (1991) argued that saving market is helpful to save its language. In the developing Suzhou, the tourism market has been growing with a fast speed, and the Suzhou local government has implemented specific language policies to enhance the role of Suzhou dialect. It was suggested that teaching material aiming at maintaining Suzhou dialect for children should be compiled together with the introduction of local history and tradition, as language and culture are constantly related. Some linguists also pointed out that if it was possible to adjust the policy of Mandarin promotion from kindergartens to primary school in order to leave spaces for native children’s mother tongue—Suzhou dialect (Wang Ping, 2003). In short, the multilingualism in Suzhou is a new phenomenon of the 21st century, and has led to different personal attitudes towards language use and language choice. The right balance among the three, Suzhou dialect as the local language, Mandarin as the national language and English as the global language, is worth researching for long-term harmonious development. References Adamson, B. (2004). China's English: A History Of English In Chinese Education, Hong Kong University Press. Bender, M. (1998). Suzhou Tanci Storytelling In China: Contexts Of Performance. Oral Tradition, 13, 330-376. Bourdieu, P. & Thompson, J. B. (1991). Language And Symbolic Power, Harvard University Press. Chao, Y. R. (1971). Some Contrastive Aspects Of The Chinese National Language Movement. Monda LingvoProblemo, 3, 31-39. Chomsky, N. (1986). Knowledge Of Language: Its Nature, Origin, And Use, Praeger Publishers. Cook, V. (2001). Using The First Language In The Classroom. Canadian Modern Language Review/La Revue Canadienne Des Langues Vivantes, 57, 402-423. Downes, W. (1998). Language And Society, Cambridge University Press. Duanmu, S. (2002). The Phonology Of Standard Chinese, Oxford University Press, Usa. Edwards, J. (2002). Multilingualism, Routledge. Edwards, V. (2008). Multilingualism In The English-Speaking World: Pedigree Of Nations, Wiley-Blackwell. Hevia, J. L. (2003). English Lessons: The Pedagogy Of Imperialism In Nineteenth-Century China, Duke University Press Books.

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Holmes, J. (2008). An Introduction To Sociolinguistics, Allyn & Bacon. Huang Borong. (2008). Modern Chinese, Beijing, China: Higher Education Press, 6. Inkpen, A. C. & Pien, W. (2006). An Examination Of Collaboration And Knowledge Transfer: China–Singapore Suzhou Industrial Park. Journal Of Management Studies, 43, 779-811. Jaworski, A. & Thurlow, C. (2010). 11 Language And The Globalizing Habitus Of Tourism: Toward A Sociolinguistics Of Fleeting Relationships. The Handbook Of Language And Globalization, 53, 255. Jessner, U. & Onysko, A. (2006). Linguistic Awareness In Multilinguals: English As A Third Language. The South Florida Journal Of Linguistics, 151. Jiang Jin. (2008). A Study Of The Protection Of Suzhou Dialect——A Survey On The Status Quo Of The Dialects In The Region Of Suzhou, Journal Of Suzhou College Of Education, 3, 35-39. Jin, L. & Cortazzi, M. (2002). English Language Teaching In China: A Bridge To The Future. Asia Pacific Journal Of Education, 22, 53-64. Li, C. N. & Thompson, S. A. (1989). Mandarin Chinese: A Functional Reference Grammar, Univ Of California Press. Mckay, S. & Bokhorst-Heng, W. D. (2008). International English In Its Sociolinguistic Contexts: Towards A Socially Sensitive Eil Pedagogy, Routledge London. Norman, J. (2003). The Chinese Dialects: Phonology. The Sino-Tibetan Languages, 72-83. Shohamy, E. (2012). Language Policy: Hidden Agendas And New Approaches, Routledge. Thurlow, C. & Jaworski, A. (2010). Tourism Discourse: Language And Global Mobility, Palgrave Macmillan. Wang Ping. (2003). An Investigation Of The Using Frequency Of Putonghua And Suzhou Dialect In Suzhou, Language Teaching And Research, 1, 29-36. Weiqi, Y. (2010). The Popularization Of Putonghua And The Maintenance Of Suzhou Dialect——A Survey On Language Situation Of Native Students In Suzhou. Applied Linguistics, 3, 60-69. Yang, H. (2012). Naxi, Chinese And English: Multilingualism In Lijiang. Macquarie University, Sydney, Australia. Yihong, G., Yuan, Z., Ying, C. & Yan, Z. (2007). Relationship Between English Learning Motivation Types And Self‐Identity Changes Among Chinese Students. Tesol Quarterly, 41, 133-155. Yong, Z. & Campbell, K. P. (1995). English In China. World Englishes, 14, 377-390. Zheng, X.-M. & Davison, C. (2008). Changing Pedagogy: Analysing Elt Teachers In China, Continuum London, New York. Zhi, Q. (1998). A Preliminary Study On Regional System Of Wu Culture, Acta Geographica Sinica, 2, 123-131. Zhou, M. (2000). Language Policy And Illiteracy In Ethnic Minority Communities In China. Journal Of Multilingual And Multicultural Development, 21, 129-148. Zhou Qingsheng. (2010). A Review On The Study Of Sociolinguistics In China, Applied Linguistics,4, 10.

Advances in Language and Literary Studies ISSN: 2203-4714 Vol. 6 No. 6; December 2015 Flourishing Creativity & Literacy

Australian International Academic Centre, Australia

Acoustic Analysis on the Palatalized Vowels of Modern Mongolian Sangidkhorloo Bulgantamir The National University of Mongolia, The School of Sciences, Faculty of Humanities, Department of European Studies Mongolia, Ulaanbaatar, Mogolia E-mail: [email protected]

Doi:10.7575/aiac.alls.v.6n.6p.107

Received: 15/07/2015

URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.7575/aiac.alls.v.6n.6p.107

Accepted: 04/09/2015

Abstract In Modern Mongolian the palatalized vowels [ȧ, ɔ̇, ʊ̇] before palatalized consonants are considered as phoneme allophones according to the most scholars. Nevertheless theses palatalized vowels have the distinctive features what could be proved by the minimal pairs and nowadays this question is open and not profoundly studied. The purpose of this work is to determine the acoustic and articulator features of the vowels preceding the palatalized consonants and the corresponding plain vowels of Modern Mongolian, Khalkha dialect. In the introduction, the definitions on the palatalized vowels and the previous traditional, experimental analysis of the palatalized vowels are discussed. Therefore, in the second section we presented the results of comparison of the short palatalized vowels and the corresponding plain vowels: (1) methods of the experimental study, (2) results of the acoustic features of palatalized and plain vowels. In result of this observation the formants, the length and the pitch of the short palatalized vowels differ more or less in comparison with corresponding plain vowels. Keywords: Mongolian, Khalkha dialect, vowel, palatalized, plain, acoustic 1.

Introduction

In phonetics, palatalization refers to any articulation involving a movement of the tongue towards the hard palate. Palatalization has phonemic or allophonic in different languages. In Mongolian, the palatalized vowels occur before palatalized consonants and before front vowel [i] in second syllable. In Mongolian the palatalized consonants [pʰʲ, pʲ, tʱʲ, tʲ, gʲ, mʲ, nʲ, ɮʲ, xʲ, rʲ, wʲ] have contrastive distribution: am (mouth) – amʲ (life); xar (see) – xarʲ (come back home); pot (think) – potʲ (being); ʊr (overgrowth) - ʊrʲ (invite). But the palatalized vowels are considered phonetic and have complementary distribution (Vandui, 1961; Moomoo, 1979; Luvsanvandan, 1999; Tsoloo, 2008; Nadmid, 1978; Ramstedt,; Vladimirtsov, 1987; Poppe, 1955; Sanjeev, 1959; Svantesson et all., 2005; Puthaval, 2011). But some scientists say the opposite: the palatalized vowels are phonemic while the palatalized consonants are phonetic (Tomortseren, 1970). From the historic phonetics point of view, the vowel [i] in the second syllable influences and palatalizes not only preceding consonant but also initial vowel: CM (Modern Mongolian) xȯnʲĭ / xȯnᶨ (sheep) < MM (Middle Mongolian) qonʲin < AM (Ancien Mongolian) qonʲi < PM (Proto-Mongolian) qonʲin [i] in non initial syllables was reduced and while [i] was lost, the palatalized consonant became phonemic, which influences on preceding pharyngeal vowels. This phenomenon demonstrates the abundance of regressive assimilation in Mongolian. The influence of front vowel like [i] palatal would be strong: high F2 vowels would have the greatest fronting effect on adjacent sounds or neutralize it had become allophonic or phonemic. The Khalkha dialect has seven vowels: [ɐ, ɔ, ʊ, e, o, u, i]. The non-pharyngeal vowels [e, o, u] never occur before palatalized consonants, but only pharyngeal vowels [a, ɔ, ʊ] suffer the palatalization. In Modern Mongolian the palatalized vowels [ȧ, ɔ̇, ʊ̇] are phonetic (allophonic) since they occur only before palatalized consonants. In this study on palatalized vowels, we stick to only phonetic elements of identification, with the exception of phonological pertinence. Of course, the taking into account of palatalization will prove to be especially valuable at the phonological analysis, but it is necessary to identify it first as phonetic facts. When the pharyngeal vowels [a, ɔ, ʊ] are followed by a palatalized consonant, their pronunciation is changed1. Then the result of this study will help them to find solutions to resolve it. The data of investigation may be used on computational phonology, e.g. automatic recognition, text-to-speech synthesis, and then it can be used to improve the software of textto-speech of Mongolian language designated for the deaf people. In this way we try to give a description of the main phonetic features as stress, intensity, pitch and formants.

1

Mongolian as being characterized by a distinction between front vowels and back or pharyngeal vowels. The vowel harmony rules are strict in Mongolian. The vowel i was neutral to vowel harmony, it can occur in either class. These pharyngeal vowels become more closed, centralized and palatalized.

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In traditional phonetics many scientists have studied the palatalization of the pharyngeal vowel in Khalkha in phonological and historical perspectives. For example, Academician Luvsanvandan (1999) determined that the place of articulation of the vowels before [i] is in front. Also there may be mentioned researchers Vladimirtsov (1987) who indicated the nuance and the change of their pronunciation under the influence of [i] and Poppe (1955) who compared this change in the different dialects as Ordos, Khalkha, Buriat, Chahar and Kalmyk. Professor S. Moomoo (1979) that defined the phonetic system of Mongolian by experimental means in Russia. Although, he studied only the consonantal palatalization. Juha Janhunen (2003, p.185) divided Mongolic dialects into two groups based on the feature of palatalness of their phonological systems, particularly of consonantal palatalization. These two well-defined groups are palatalization dialects (Khalkha and Chakhar) and umlaut dialects (Khorchin, Kharachin and Juu Uda). There are few experimental studies on the vocalic palatalization of the Mongolian. Only Svantesson et al., in their studies on the phonology of Mongolian, made the acoustic comparative analysis of the palatalized long vowels [ä: ɔ̈: ʊ̈:] and the diphthongs [ai ɔi ʊi], (Svantesson et al., 2006, p.10) concluded that the pronunciation of long and short vowels before the consonants palatalized change considerably and the final part of the vowel is close to i. 2. Acoustic analysis 2.1 Methodology of the experimental study The source of words for this data is a large dictionary Mongol xelnii delgergui tajlbar tol’ published by Mongolian Academy of Science in 2008. Around 54 high-frequency words are chosen and recorded in the phonetic laboratory of Inner Mongolia University in 2011. The instrumental phonetic investigation is based on acoustic data of those isolated monosyllabic words2 recorded by a male speaker, S1. In addition, data gathered from two males and a female speaker in order to check the measurements obtained from S1. All the speakers are native and from Mongolia3. The recordings were analyzed in the ESPS/Waves+ environment using the speech analysis program Praat 5.2.214 2.2 Results 2.2.1 Vowel length

Figure 1. Word duration (ms).

Figure 2. Vowel duration (ms).

In Figure 1, when we compare the duration of the same type words (e.g., VC am / am' and CVC dal / dal'), the duration of the words with palatalized vowel is shorter than of the corresponding words without. We also compared the duration of the palatalized and plain vowels in Figure 2 where it can be concluded that the duration of palatalized vowels may be shorter than their corresponding plain vowels. 2.2.2 F1 and F2 We can see in Figure-3, Figure-4 that F1 of the palatalized vowel [ȧ, ɔ̇, ʊ̇] is decreasing and his F2 is increasing. The parameters here are the average of the all fifty four words. Furthermore when we observe F1 from the final part of the palatalized vowel, it is more closed and front than the rest. Moreover it should be noted that the disparity between plain [ʊ] and palatalized [ʊ̇] is smaller than [ȧ, ɔ̇]. We discuss it below in the figure 5.

VC/CVC type monosyllabic words are chosen. Speaker 1: D. Naranjargal, m., age 27, khalkha; Speaker 2: A. Bilegsaikhan, m., age 20, khalkha; Speaker 3: Dz. Enkhbayar, f., age 25, khalkha. 4 Software was written by Paul Boersma and David Weenink, Professors of Phonetic Sciences in the Institute of Phonetic Sciences of the University of Amsterdam. 2 3

ALLS 6(6):107-110, 2015

Figure 3. Average F1 (Hz) of the plain and palatalized vowels

109

Figure 4. Average F2 (Hz) of the plain and palatalized vowels

Figure 5. F1-F2 (Hz) of the plain pharyngeal ([a, ɔ, ʊ]) and palatalized ([ȧ, ɔ̇, ʊ̇]) vowels of Mongolian In Figure 5 we can see the change of every pharyngeal vowel and the difference of change degree between [ȧ, ɔ̇] and [ʊ̇]. This disparity may be related to the feature of [round] of vowel [ʊ̇], which is shown by F3. But in this case, F3 is almost equal for [ɔ] (2531 Hz) and [ʊ] (2566 Hz). According the acoustic theory of speech production (Fant, 1960), when the constriction is in the middle, labialization leads to the lowest F2 value and the degree of the effect of labialization is larger when the constriction is fronted than when the constriction is back. Hence, [ʊ] is more protruded, back and closed than [ɔ]. When the sound is the most rounded, back and high, it is more insensitive to the palatalization. Moreover, Moosmüller’s (2006) study on the aspects of vowel formant interpretation found the following: constriction locations are less sensitive to small displacements, whereas displacements in constriction degree yield monotonous changes in formant frequencies. According to this conclusion, the constriction degree of [ȧ, ɔ̇,] may be more important than [ʊ̇]. 2.2.3 Pitch The pitch was measured at the beginning, middle and end of the vowels. In the beginning and middle the pitch was almost similar for palatalized and plain vowels. (Figures 6, 7)

Figure 6. Pitch in the beginning of vowels. Series 1 – corresponding plain vowels; Series 2 – palatalized vowels

Figure 7. Pitch in the middle of vowels. Series 1 – corresponding plain vowels; Series 2 – palatalized vowels

ALLS 6(6):107-110, 2015

But in the end of the palatalized vowels the pitch was more falling than their plain vowels. (Figure 8)

110

Figure 8. Pitch in the end of vowels. Series 1 – corresponding plain vowels; Series 2 – palatalized vowels Those observations approve what Svantesson et al. (2005) assume that when these vowels (long or short) are followed by a palatalized consonant, their pronunciation is changed so that the final part of the vowel becomes more [i]-like. But it is less explicit and less perceptive for short vowels than long vowels. 3.

Conclusion  The measurements show the palatalized vowels contrast with the corresponding plain vowels in the isolated monosyllabic words.  Palatalized vowels are more closed than their plain vowels. E.g., [а] is near low and back vowel, palatalized [ȧ] is middle or low middle and central vowel; [o] middle and back, palatalized [ȯ] high middle and central, [ʊ] low middle and back, palatalized [ʊ̇] near high and back.  The sound [ȧ] is most influenced by the palatalization while the sound [ʊ̇] is less influenced. As a deduction, we could conclude that when the sound is the most rounded, back and closed, it is more insensitive to the palatalization.  The length of palatalized vowels is shorter of 30 % than the plain vowels.

References Boë, L.J. (1972). Introduction à la phonétique acoustique, Grenoble, France: Travaux de l’Institut de Phonétique de Grenoble. Bulgantamir, S. (2014). Acoustic analysis of vowels, Acta Mongolica, 14 (385), 19-35. Crystal, D. (2008). A Dictionary of linguistics and phonetics, Singapore, China: Fabulous Printers Pte. Fant, G. (1970). Acoustic theory of speech production, with calculations based on X-ray studies of Russian articulations. The Hagues, Netherlands: Mouton. Janhunen, J. (2003) Mongolic languages, New York, Unites States of America: Routledge. Ladefoged, P. (2004). Phonetic Data Analysis: An Introduction to Fieldwork and Instrumental Techniques, Malden, Massachusetts: Blackwell Publishing. Bold, L. (2008). Mongol xelnij delgergui tajlbar tol’, Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia: Bembi san. Möömöö, S. (1979). Mongol xelnij avia züi, Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia: National Press. Möömöö, S. (2009). Xel shinjlelijn onol, xėrėglee, Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia: Admon. Moosmüller, S. (2006). Some relevant aspects of vowel formant interpretation, Retrieved from https://www.kfs.oeaw.ac.at/publications/MS2006_vowel_formants_GLS65.pdf. Nadmid, J. (1978). Mongol xelnij örgöltöt üjeijn jerijn bogino egshig, Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia: National Press. Poppe, N. (1955). Introduction to Mongolian Comparative Studies, Helsinki, Finland: Suomalais-ugrilainen Seura. Puthuval, S. (2011). Comparative Phonology of Regional Varieties of Mongolian, Retrieved from: http://courses.washington.edu/lingclas/451/puthuval_draft6.pdf Sanjaa, J., Nadmid, J. (2008). Mongol xelnij aviazüj ba avialbarzüj, Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia: Press of the University of Education. Svantesson, J.-O., Tsendina, A., Karlsson, A., Franzén, V. (2005) The phonology of Mongolian, New-York, United States of America: Oxford University Press. Tömörtseren, J. (1970). Xalxijn ayalguunij egshig avianij tarnaishral, SLL Xel zoxiol sudlal, 4, 143-150. Tsoloo, J. (1976). Orčin üeijn mongol xėlnii avia züi, Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia. Vandui, E. (1961). Mongolyn utga zoxiolyn xelnij avialbar (phoneme), SLL Xel zoxiol sudlal, III, 6, 3-17. Vladimircov, B. Ja. (1989). Sravnitel’naja grammatika mongol’skogo pis’mennogo jazyka i xalxaskogo narecija: vvedenie i fonetika, Moscow, Russia: Nauka.

Advances in Language and Literary Studies ISSN: 2203-4714 Vol. 6 No. 6; December 2015 Australian International Academic Centre, Australia

Flourishing Creativity & Literacy

The Impacts of Presenting New Words in SemanticallyRelated Sets on Vocabulary Learning Xingrong Wang School of English, Tianjin Foreign Studies University No. 117 MachangRoad, Hexi District, Tianjin 300204, China E-mail: [email protected]

Doi:10.7575/aiac.alls.v.6n.6p.111

Received: 03/07/2015

URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.7575/aiac.alls.v.6n.6p.111

Accepted: 08/09/2015

Abstract This paper mainly explores the impacts of presenting new words in semantically-related (SR) sets on vocabulary learning. 38 students from two classes of Grade 2 in Taiyuan Foreign Language School (Senior High School Section) participate in the whole process. The same vocabulary items unknown to all students are taught to them in 4 lessons. The difference between the experimental group and control group is that words are taught in SR sets in the former and in the latter words belonging to the same SR sets are taught in different lessons. Independent Samples T-test is employed to see if there would be a significant difference between the two groups’ performance in the English-Chinese translation tests of those words. The result shows that there doesn’t exit a significant difference between the two groups in SHT test, but in the LT test two weeks later, SU group performs significantly better than SR group. The research findings may provide some enlightenment for foreign language researchers. Keywords: Semantically-related (SR) sets, Senior high school students, Semantic field theory, Interference theory 1. Introduction 1.1 Importance of the Problem Vocabulary learning is important in Second Language Acquisition (SLA). As the famous linguist Wilkins once said, “Without grammar, very little can be conveyed; without vocabulary, nothing can be conveyed” (1972, p. 111). Then there comes a question: As vocabulary learning is of such great importance, which way should teachers adopt to present vocabulary items so as to best benefit the learning? Presenting vocabulary in SR sets could be seen in many EFL textbooks (Pu 2004, p. 3). Some vocabulary books also put words of a certain category together to facilitate memorizing (e.g. TOEFL Vocabulary Classified). Besides, many writers suggest teaching words in SR sets and have their justifications (Nation, 2000, p. 6). Although many theorists and practitioners endorse this way of presenting vocabulary, there is not enough empirical evidence to support this position. In recent years, many researchers found that presenting vocabulary in SU sets led to the best outcome of students, while a minority of them found the contrary was better. However, some of these studies used artificial words rather than words from a natural second language. And some provided different words to the experimental and control groups. Besides, few studies in this area have taken senior high school students as subjects; therefore, in the present study, whose purpose is similar to the previous ones, 38 senior high school students were chosen as the subjects and the same new English words were presented to both groups in different manners. 1.2 Theoretical Background Semantic field theory is based on an assumption that the vocabulary of a language consists of many interrelating networks of relations between words, not of a long random list of words. These interrelating networks are semantic fields (Channell, 1981, p. 117). It was psycholinguists who established the concept of semantic field (AlShaikhi, 2011, p. 17) and it was J. Trier, a German Scholar, who brought the semantic field theory to its puberty in the 1930s (Guo, 2010, p. 51). According to Trier’s theory, vocabulary in a language is semantically related and forms a complete lexical system, which changes constantly, so we should study the words as an integrated system, only in which a word is meaningful (cited in Wu, 1988, pp. 94-95). In Linguistics: A New Course Book, the relations between words could be divided into different categories: synonymy (e.g. answer-reply, deep-profound), antonymy (e.g. pass-fail, marriedsingle), homonymy (e.g. flour-flower, toe-tow), hyponymy (e.g. vegetable: potato, cabbage and carrot), meronymy (e.g. body: head, neck and leg) and etc. (Liu and Wen, 2006, pp. 120-126). Interference theory puts forward a different opinion that presenting words in SR sets could not facilitate vocabulary learning process. The interference theory was formulated by McGeoch and McDonald. In their study, it was found that when students were presented with synonyms, they performed poorest (1931, p. 587). According to Robert Waring, this finding, along with others, led to the formation of “Interference Theory”, which states that “when words are being learnt at the same time, but are too ‘similar’ or share too many common elements, then these words will interfere with each

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other thus impairing retention of them”(1997, pp. 261-262). The interference theory provides considerable explanation to the poor performance of the SR group in many studies. 1.3 Related Studies The research on the impact of presenting new words in SR sets on SLA started with Tinkham. He presented related and unrelated artificial words to 20 nonnative adult advanced-level English speakers and found that the participants learnt unrelated words more quickly than related words (1993, pp. 371-380). Waring in 1997 replicated Tinkham’s study in 1993 and the result of his study was the same with Tinkham’s (1997, pp. 262-263). Finkbeiner and Nicol got the same result as the above two. In the study, they also used artificial words as the material for 47 undergraduates, but they presented the same 32 words from 4 categories for both groups. In SR group, related items were blocked into groups of eight, while in SU group, words were scrambled within a block. However, as the 32 items came from 4 categories, it is inevitable that words of the same category may appear in the same block. This situation also happened in Hashemi and Gowdasiaei’s study (2003, pp. 369-383). Instead of using artificial words, Papathanasiou in Greece used 120 English words with 60 related sets and 60 unrelated sets. The result showed that adult beginners performed significantly better in the SU vocabulary tests than in the related ones, while children of intermediate level showed no significant difference between them (2009, pp. 313-322). The research by Hashemi and Gowdasiaei showed a very different result. 60 students ranging from 20 to 30 in two classes in Iran had been taught 100 words and expressions from 13 different lexical sets in different ways in four lessons, respectively. The breadth and depth of their knowledge of the words were tested before and after the instruction. The results showed that students in the SR group achieved better results than students in the SU group (2005, pp. 340-361). While in China, there were only a few researches in this area and their conclusions all support that of Tinkham. One was conducted by Pu, in which 100 students of the first year in junior high school were chosen as the subjects. 50 students were taught 20 SU sets and the others were taught 20 SR sets. Students’ knowledge of the words were tested before and after the instruction (2004, pp. 30-41). Another was made by Zhang and Sheng. 80 university freshmen were taught 20 new words in SR sets and 20 new words in SU sets. Immediate and delayed tests were given after the instruction (2009, pp. 18-23). From the review of the related studies, it can be found that in many studies concerning this topic, words for SR group and SU group are different. Some presented the same words to both groups, but in SU group the words of the same SR sets may appear in the same lesson. 2. Research Design and Methodology 2.1 Research Question This study aims to address the following research question: Are there significant differences between presenting new words in SR sets and in SU sets to high school students in the SHT and LT tests? 2.2 Sample Description 55 students from two classes of Grade 2 in Taiyuan Foreign Language School (Senior High School Section) in Shanxi, China took the pretest and participated in the material collection part. However, only 38 of those participants attended all the sessions, obeyed all the instructions and remained to the last, with 19 in Class One as SR group (the experimental group) and 19 in Class Two as SU group (the control group). They have learnt English for 7 years and the English proficiency levels of the two groups, as defined by their mid-term English exam scores, were found to be roughly equal. 2.3 Material Collection The paper test has two parts. The first part is about basic personal information--- class, sex, years of learning English and student ID number. In the second part, 105 English words are presented with a blank after each one. Students are required to put a “√” in the blank if they know its meaning. This part is designed in the purpose to collect the material for the study. All the words are GRE vocabulary, with at least one third of them appearing on a newspaper for senior high school students, namely Shanghai Students’ Post. Besides, these words form 31 SR sets, which belong to five types of relationships---synonymy, hyponymy, homonymy, antonymy and meronymy. The words are presented sporadically on the paper. 60 words are expected to be collected as the final material for the study. The material must have two features. First, the material must be words that are unknown to all the students, to ensure that in the SHT and LT tests, if one writes down the meaning of a word, it is not from his/her previous storage of vocabulary, but is learnt from the instruction session. Second, in the material, there shouldn’t be any single word which has lost its counterpart(s) in a SR set (see Appendix I.). 2.4 SHT and LT Tests Both tests adopt L2-L1 translation, which is because Nation said it “has the advantages of being quick, simple, and easily understood” (cited in AlShaikhi, 2011, p. 48). One point is given to a student if he/she gives the right Chinese translation to an English word. The right translation is the translation which is taught in class.

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2.5 Procedures The study was conducted during normal English class hours and their English teacher was present during all the treatment phase. Four days before the treatment, students spent 25 minutes doing the papers for the material collection in class. It was found only 39 out of 105 words were unknown to all students. Among the 39 words, some lost their counterparts in the SR set, so some other words were added to make a total of 56 vocabulary items from 22 SR sets. The added words were tested before every lesson to make sure they were new to the subjects. Four 20-minute lessons were given to each group to teach the 56 vocabulary items with about 14 per lesson. There was a two-or-three-day interval between two lessons. Before each lesson, the vocabulary items to be learnt in that lesson were written on the blackboard, along with their Chinese translation. For the added words, a star mark was written before it and students were asked whether they knew them. Among all the added words, “emolument” was known to one student, so the pair of antonyms containing it---“expenditure” and “emolument” was deleted from the total 22 SR sets, leaving 54 words as the final material. Of the 20 minutes, 15 minutes were used for teaching the new words. The instruction for both classes includes the pronunciation and the meaning of every word, and the sentences containing it. For the SR group, words belonging to the same SR sets were taught together in each lesson (see Appendix II.). For the SU group, words belonging to the same SR sets were taught in different lessons (see Appendix III.). After the 15 minutes, students were given 2 minutes to review the words. Then the blackboard was cleaned, the SHT test papers were handed out and students were given three minutes to do the L2-L1 translation. After that, students handed in the papers, no matter they finished it or not. Two weeks after the instruction ended, the participants took the LT test with the same 54 items presented sporadically on the paper. 3. Research Findings and Discussion 3.1 Data Analysis The data collection includes the data coming from the pretest (their mid-term exam), the SHT test and the LT test. The data for this study are analyzed by SPSS 17.0. The pretest, which is actually their mid-term exam, was aimed to ensure the rough equality of the proficiency of the two groups. The total mark of the test paper is 150. Table 1. A Comparison of the Scores for the Pretest between SR Group and SU Group

Pretest

Group

N

Mean

Std. Deviation

T

Sig

1

19

137.1579

5.38788

1.910

.064

2

19

133.8947

5.14128

Table 1 shows that the mean score of SR group (m=137.1579, std=5.38788) and the mean score of SU group (m=133.8947, std=5.14128) are not significantly different (t=1.910, p=.064>.05). Table 2. A Comparison of the Scores for the SHT Test between SR Group and SU Group Group

N

Mean

Std. Deviation

T

Sig

SHT test 1

19

48.6316

4.37430

1.478

.148

2

19

46.0526

6.22248

The full scores for both the SHT and LT tests are 54. The results of the SHT test show that the mean score of SR group (m=48.6316, std=4.37430) is higher than that of SU group (m=46.0526, std=6.22248); however, no significant difference (t=1.478, p=.148>.05) is found between the two groups. Table 3. A Comparison of the Scores for the LT Test between SR Group and SU Group

LT test

Group

N

Mean

Std. Deviation

T

Sig

1

19

14.2632

9.35618

-2.381

.023

2

19

22.5789

12.00609

The results of the LT test show that the mean score of SR group (m=14.2632, std=9.35618) is lower than that of SU group (m=22.5789, std=12.00609) and significant difference (t=-2.381, p=.023