An investigation of the effects of entertaining and interactive Web ...

AT THE MOVIES, ON THE WEB: AN INVESTIGATION OF THE EFFECTS OF ENTERTAINING AND INTERACTIVE WEB CONTENT ON SITE AND BRAND EVALUATIONS ARTHUR A. RANEY, LAURA M. ARPAN, and KARTIK PASHUPATI are assistant professors in the Department of Communication, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL; e-mail: [email protected] and [email protected]

Arthur A. Raney Laura M. Arpan Kartik Pashupati Dale A. Brill f

DALE A. BRILL now serves as senior vice president of marketing for VISIT FLORIDA.

ABSTRACT An experiment was conducted to examine the effects of including entertaining and/or interactive content on evaluations of automotive Web sites and automotive brands. Research participants visited and evaluated four Web sites from major automotive manufactures. The four sites exhibited varying degrees of entertaining content and interactivity. The highly entertaining site (which included a mini, suspenseful movie) was associated with the © 2003 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. and Direct Marketing Educational Foundation, Inc. f JOURNAL OF INTERACTIVE MARKETING VOLUME 17 / NUMBER 4 / AUTUMN 2003 Published online in Wiley InterScience (www.interscience.wiley.com). DOI: 10.1002/dir.10064

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most positive site evaluations, greatest intent to return to the site, and highest levels of arousal, as compared to the three other sites that included video product footage only, video footage and audio, or video footage and audio with an interactive feature. Significant increases in purchase intent were associated only with the brand featured in the site with the mini movie.

Film Festival,” which gives 25 filmmakers the opportunity to “weave specific images, feelings and emotions embodying Chrysler cars into their five-minute films to compete for the chance to produce a million-dollar feature film” (Friedman, 2003, p. 3). While the automakers are not the only ones attempting to market products using this new strategy—apparel store Aeropostale has announced similar plans (Cuneo, 2002)—the auto industry initiatives are the most ambitious and comprehensive to date. However, this type of “content/commerce convergence” or “branded entertainment” remains somewhat controversial, in that some practitioners have raised doubts about the effectiveness of such efforts (Kim, 2002). As a result, investigation into the value of these new marketing strategies is warranted. The World Wide Web offers automakers the ability to depict and market cars much in the same way a televised advertisement would, using action-oriented video sequences and vivid audio. Further, the Web offers consumers the ability to interact with automotive products in various ways. For instance, some sites allow users to “design” their own product by selecting paint and trim colors; others offer 360° views of both the interior and exterior of the auto. While most automotive sites have utilized both approaches to online marketing in recent years, the latest trend in distributing “movies” featuring products potentially transforms automotive Web sites into entertainment venues. The study described here attempted to answer the following question: Is the use of brand-centered video entertainment an effective Web marketing strategy (as compared to the use of video without an overt entertainment focus or interactive features) in terms of creating positive consumer attitudes toward the Web site (ASITE), the brand (ABR), and intent to return to the site? Additionally, if this new type of entertaining content seems effective, what is the process by which being entertained by a Web site affects attitude toward the site (ASITE), the brand (ABR), and purchase intent (PI)?

A notable trend in marketing communication over the last few years has been the growing convergence of media entertainment and advertising. As a recent article in Advertising Age notes, the intertwining of the two contents is not exactly new. For quite a few years, marketers have used strategies ranging from celebrity endorsement to music licensing for television commercials to product placement in movies and television (Kim, 2002). However, the increasing use of such strategies makes the study of such tie-ins more relevant than ever, especially as they begin to appear in new media environments. One of the most intriguing forms of content and commerce convergence is the attempt by marketers to create stand-alone entertainment vehicles around a particular brand. A muchpublicized example of this is a series of Internet films commissioned by the German luxury carmaker BMW (Hall, 2001; “Internet Movies,” 2001; Katz, 2001; Kim, 2002). BMW employed a number of well-known filmmakers such as John Frankenheimer, Guy Ritchie, and Ang Lee to make short feature films that were distributed exclusively through a Web site created specifically for this purpose. This Web site (http:// www.bmwfilms.com) was also publicized through advertising in television and other nonInternet media. Following BMW’s lead, Ford introduced a series of short films featuring its products on the online entertainment distributor Atomfilms.com. Furthermore, DaimlerChrysler announced their own film-based marketing communication strategies (Friedman, 2002), including the “Chrysler Million Dollar JOURNAL OF INTERACTIVE MARKETING

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LITERATURE REVIEW

that reactions to a persuasion attempt can prompt a wide set of counter-responses, including simple message rejection, active counterarguing, or careful message scrutiny. The Persuasion Knowledge Model (PKM) predicts that when a person begins conceiving of an agent’s action (e.g., an ad) as a persuasion tactic, a “change-of-meaning” will occur with respect to their interpretation of the ad. This change-ofmeaning occurs only when the target has conscious knowledge of a persuasion attempt. When audience members become aware of persuasion attempts, they use coping tactics, including a redefinition of their attitude toward the source (Friestad & Wright, 1994). In an effort to overcome consumers’ reactance to advertising, marketers have resorted to a variety of innovative brand communication strategies. These strategies attempt to do two things. First, they try to reduce reactance by using forms of brand communication that are not overtly recognizable as attempts to persuade. An example of this strategy is paid product placement in movies and television programs (including reality-based shows such as Survivor and talent shows such as American Idol). In such a strategy, the brand is highly visible in key scenes, but it is not necessarily a part of the narrative. In a second type of strategy, marketers try to create stand-alone entertainment vehicles around a particular brand. An example of this strategy is the sponsorship of video games, wherein players can earn extra points by slipping on Dole Bananas, talking on Nokia cellphones, and performing other brand-related activities (Richtel, 2002). Another example of this convergence of content and commerce was seen in the 1993 science-fiction film Demolition Man, which is set in the year 2032, in a world where all restaurants are Taco Bell franchises. As noted earlier, one of the more intriguing examples of content/commerce convergence is a series of Internet films commissioned by BMW through a content site distinct from the BMW corporate/brand presence Web site (Kim, 2002). One feature that sets BMW films apart from similar “mini movies” sponsored by other companies is its exclusive reliance on the videostreaming abilities of the Internet. In this re-

Recent developments in technology have provided marketers with a plethora of media channels through which they can reach their target audience. Media developments in the last three decades have included the widespread diffusion of cable television (augmented more recently by digital cable and satellite TV) and the commercialization of the Internet. At the same time, technology has also empowered consumers and provided them with several devices to avoid involuntary exposure to advertising. Older examples of such devices are the simple TV remote control that lets people mute the sound or change channels, and VCRs that allow people to time-shift viewing and fast-forward through commercials. (Some newer VCRs even detect commercials automatically and zip through them for the viewer.) Newer examples of such devices include Personal Video Recording devices (PVRs) such as TiVo and ReplayTV that allow viewers to digitally record multiple channels and watch them without commercial interruption, and software programs that allow internet users to detect and suppress pop-up ad windows. Advertising-supported content providers, such as traditional television and cable networks, are feeling threatened by some of these developments, as they undermine the fundamental business model of companies such as the broadcast networks. For example, Jamie Kellner, former Chairman-CEO of Turner Broadcasting, decried the spread of PVRs and openly expressed concerns that ad-supported TV networks may someday be faced with a crippled business model (Kim, 2002).

Avoiding Reactance to Advertising In terms of a theoretical framework, the consumer’s desire to avoid commercials is perhaps best explained by the Persuasion Knowledge Model (Friestad & Wright, 1994, 1995), which in turn draws from reactance theory (Brehm, 1972). Reactance theory proposes that if people receiving a communication are conscious that such communication has persuasive intent, it motivates some form of resistance by the audience. Petty and Cacioppo (1981) have noted JOURNAL OF INTERACTIVE MARKETING

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the user (Heeter 2000; Jee & Lee, 2002; Yoo & Stout, 2001). That is, “regardless of the number of interactive functions a web site provides, consumers’ perception of that Web site’s interactivity may be influenced by how many interactive functions they perceive the web site to provide” (Jee & Lee, 2002). The interest in this study will be on perceived interactivity. It has been hypothesized that perceived interactivity will have a positive influence on attitudes toward the Web sites, attitudes toward the brand, and purchase intention (Jee & Lee, 2002). Yoo and Stout (2001) report that consumers’ “intention to interact” with a Web site positively influenced their attitudes toward the Web site and purchase intention. Ghose and Dou (1998) also found that greater interactivity was an important predictor of experts’ evaluation of the quality of a Web site. Why should interactivity have an impact on viewers’ attention and attitudes? One possible explanation is that compared with passive viewing, interactivity results in greater arousal in the viewer. Newell, Henderson, and Wu (2001) cite various research studies finding that arousing messages intensify the emotional experience of viewers, thereby facilitating encoding and subsequent recall of these stimuli. Research based on the “intensity perspective” posits that increased arousal positively affects information processing and recall of the central stimuli (e.g., TV program) while inhibiting (negative effect) recall of peripheral stimuli such as advertisements embedded in such programs (Mundorf, Zillmann, & Drew, 1991). In this context, it should be noted that a key difference between an interactive Web site and traditional television advertising is that in an interactive brand-presence Web site, the brand-related messages are central, rather than peripheral, stimuli. Therefore, the arousal induced by interactivity should facilitate, rather than inhibit, processing of brand-related information. Commercial Web sites (including those of auto brands) make use of a variety of interactive devices in the hope of enticing visitors to the site to stay longer, and to return to the Web site. For example, marketers use online games to keep visitors on a site longer, thus potentially

gard, the BMW films Web site can be seen as an attempt to not only reduce consumer reactance to advertising through entertainment, but also as a means of enhancing the manner in which the product is displayed on the site. Such a strategy is consistent with the findings of academic research that has identified entertainment (along with interactivity) as a key motive for consumers’ Internet usage (Eighmey, 1997; Papacharissi & Rubin, 2000). Marketers have tried to combine entertainment and interactivity in the form of online contests and sweepstakes (Youn & Larson, 2002). While strategies such as BMW’s online movies are undoubtedly novel, some critics have wondered if such “branded entertainment” is really effective in terms of enhancing attitudes toward the brand (Kim, 2002).

Interactivity and Entertainment as Vehicles for Commercial Effectiveness Over the last two decades, researchers have suggested that attitude toward an ad (AAD) is a good indicator of the ad’s effectiveness in terms of creating (or strengthening) attitudes toward the brand (ABR), and thereby enhancing purchasing intentions (PI) with respect to the brand (Brown & Stayman, 1992; MacKenzie & Lutz, 1989; Muehling & McCann, 1993). Other researchers have suggested that commercial Web sites possess several of the characteristics of an advertisement, and therefore the attitude toward a Web site should lead to consequences similar to those associated with attitudes toward the ad (Jee & Lee, 2002). Interactivity. Researchers have also proposed that the perceived interactivity of a Web site has a positive influence on attitudes toward the Web site. Several researchers have identified interactivity as a key motivation for consumers’ use of the Internet (Eighmey, 1997; Papacharissi & Rubin, 2000). Interactivity has previously been defined as the extent to which a user, in real time, can modify the form and/or content of a mediated environment (Steuer, 1992). However, some studies have indicated a difference between the actual level of interactivity on a Web site and the level of interactivity perceived by JOURNAL OF INTERACTIVE MARKETING

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acters (both protagonists and antagonists) in the drama and the outcomes associated with those characters as essential components in the entertainment (or enjoyment) process. Several characteristics of drama further promote those affective dispositions toward dramatic characters and the resulting anticipatory emotions. Most importantly for the purpose of this project is drama’s ability to generate suspense; many viewers indicate this as the chief reason for seeking out dramatic entertainment in the first place (Vorderer & Knobloch, 2000). Carroll (1996, p. 74) identified suspense as the “emotional response to narrative fiction.” Suspense then becomes important for enjoyment of dramatic fare by influencing levels of viewer/user arousal in relationship to the characters and their plights in the narrative. In fact, suspense increases with more intense feelings toward characters and more active expectations for positive outcomes. The empathic distress caused by these relationships and subsequent expectations generate excitation, and furthermore generate increased enjoyment when satisfying resolutions are presented. Evidence for this relationship is well established (e.g., Hoffner & Cantor, 1991; Vorderer & Knobloch, 2000; Zillmann, 1980, 1991b). Therefore, it follows that a Web site (or any other media channel) containing suspenseful or arousing media content with a satisfying resolution would be perceived as more enjoyable and entertaining than one that does not. The preceding paragraphs discuss the traditional conceptualization of media entertainment. To date, however, “entertainment” research in relationship to Web sites has not taken this approach. For instance, Chen and Wells (1999) operationalized a Web site’s entertainment value as “fun, exciting, cool, imaginative, entertaining, and flashy” (p. 32). Such an approach is understandable and instructive; in fact, it is upon such conceptualizations that we better understand the influence of entertainment value on Web usage. However, given the increasing integration of traditional media content (e.g., feature films) on Web sites, it is reasonable to expect that understanding a Web

increasing exposure to the brand, and to advertising and promotional materials (Youn & Larson, 2002). Entertainment. The relationship between media entertainment and arousal has long been established, with various types of media entertainment content and the inclusion of various formal features identified as influencing the level of autonomic and/or cortical arousal experienced by a viewer (e.g., Zillmann, 1991a; Lang, 1994). Applying the literature from more traditional media forms to the current project, it follows that attempts by online automotive sites to use video footage of their products in motion can enhance the potential for emotional responses—namely, arousal—from consumers viewing such footage (Detenber, Simons, & Bennett, 1998; Reeves et al., 1985). As the present study will demonstrate, automakers— leaders in the integration of video and other interactive features into their consumer Web sites—vary in their use of online video. Some feature video with an audio component, while others have video without audio. Whatever the case, it appears that most automotive Web sites use video as a means of showing the advertised product in motion and/or as a means of highlighting specific product features. What appears to differentiate the BMW Films Web site from other automaker Web sites is the fact that it uses video primarily to entertain—in the more traditional, media-studies sense of the word—and only incidentally to showcase the product (although admittedly in a rather unsubtle manner). Entertainment scholarship has focused on a variety of media content: drama, humor, sexuality, horror, violence, music, and video games, among others (for the most comprehensive review of media entertainment to date, see Zillmann & Vorderer, 2000). Arguably, chief among these is dramatic fare. The enjoyment of dramatic entertainment has been most comprehensively explained by the so-called disposition theory of drama (Zillmann, 1994, 2000), support for which is widespread (for an overview, see Raney, 2003). The theory identifies a media consumer’s emotional dispositions toward charJOURNAL OF INTERACTIVE MARKETING

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tivity, action footage and music, or action footage only. H3: Users will rate a Web site demonstrating a product using a feature film as more entertaining than those using interactivity, action footage and music, or action footage only. H4: Users will rate a Web site demonstrating a product using a feature film as more arousing than those using interactivity, action footage and music, or action footage only. H5: When a brand’s Web site demonstrates the product using a feature film, users will rate the brand more favorably than they will when the site demonstrates the product using interactivity, action footage and music, or action footage only.

site’s entertainment value will become a much more complex proposition. Summary. Based on the recent literature about the impact of interactivity and entertainment on attitudes toward the Web site (in particular, Chen & Wells, 1999; Eighmey, 1997; and Papacharissi & Rubin, 2000), one should expect that Web sites with entertaining and/or interactive features would be rated more positively than Web sites with just video or audio elements alone. However, as stated above, conceptualizations of an entertaining Web site have, to date, ignored more traditional understandings of entertainment from media and entertainment studies. In contrast, Web sites showcasing products in feature films do contain elements more traditionally associated with media entertainment (e.g., arousal- and suspense-inducing narratives). Furthermore, recent entertainment research indicates that attempts to introduce interactive elements (e.g., the ability to manipulate the outcome of a narrative) into traditional media entertainment may, in fact, decrease enjoyment of those traditional media contents (Vorderer, 2000; Vorderer, Knobloch, & Schramm, 2001). Therefore, one might expect that the more traditional forms of entertainment, at least for now, still result in higher levels of arousal which should lead to more favorable evaluations or perceptions of entertainment than do newer, more interactive forms. As a result, an integration of these two literature traditions might suggest that a featurefilm site would be rated more positively than an interactive site, as well as sites with video and/or audio elements without overt entertainment orientations. In line with such an integration, the following hypotheses were tested:

Filmmaking offers a new (and expensive) approach to online marketing that inherently relies on entertainment content delivered via the Web for the purpose of enhancing attitudes toward the brand and purchasing intent. It is possible that the mechanisms associated with the media entertainment process— or better, the enjoyment of media entertainment process—apply in this situation. As stated previously, higher levels of arousal associated with suspense have been key contributors to the enjoyment of entertainment fare, so it is likely that arousal would contribute to greater perceptions of web site entertainment. However, such a proposition has yet to be tested, and operationalizations and examinations of web site entertainment thus far have not accounted for the possible contributing factors of arousal and suspense. Therefore, a research question was examined and a model proposed to provide an initial test of the process by which more traditional forms of entertainment made available on a web site might affect intended marketing outcomes associated with visiting a site:

H1: Users will rate more favorably a Web site demonstrating a product using a feature film than those using interactivity, action footage and music, or action footage only. H2: Users will indicate greater intent to return to a Web site demonstrating a product using a feature film than those using interacJOURNAL OF INTERACTIVE MARKETING

RQ: How do perceptions of entertainment associated with a Web site affect users’ intent to return to the site and purchase intent (PI)? The model in Figure 1 proposes a positive effect of viewing an entertaining Web site on ●

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Procedures Participants were recruited from undergraduate communication courses at a large university in the southeastern United States. During the recruitment process, all participants completed a pretest questionnaire measuring attitudes about automobiles in general and specific automotive brands. All respondents received class credit for their participation. Posttest data were collected in the university’s Communication Research Center during five testing sessions, each lasting approximately 45 minutes. During the course of the testing session, each participant used a laptop computer with wireless Internet access. Each laptop was running a Web browser with a homepage specially designed for the research. The homepage included a brief set of instructions and nine hyperlinks. Four led to different automotive Web brand-presence Web sites, four led to corresponding Web surveys about the Web sites, and a final link led to a short demographic survey. After a brief introduction, the participants were instructed to view the four Web sites in the order listed on the homepage and to complete the corresponding survey after viewing each Web site. After all four ads had been viewed and surveys completed, the demographic questionnaire was completed. Participants were instructed to remain seated at their laptops until everyone had completed the project; participants were allowed to quietly surf the Web during this time. After all individuals had completed the final survey, the participants were debriefed, thanked, and dismissed.

FIGURE 1

Proposed Effect of Viewing Entertaining Web Sites on Attitude Toward the Site, Attitude Toward the Brand, and Purchase Intent (or Desire to Return to Site)

attitude toward the site, attitude toward the brand, and purchase intent or desire to return to the site. Previous research has suggested that higher levels of arousal associated with viewing entertainment should result in higher levels of enjoyment (Hoffner & Cantor, 1991; Vorderer & Knobloch, 2000; Zillmann, 1980, 1991b). Accordingly, the model proposes higher levels of arousal should be associated with higher ratings of entertainment associated with viewing the site. Previous research has also found more positive attitudes toward web sites associated with greater perceptions of entertainment associated with the site (Chen & Wells, 1999). Therefore, the model predicts that those who perceive the site as more entertaining should have more positive attitudes toward the site. More positive attitudes toward the site should result in more positive attitudes toward the brand, which should, in turn, be associated with stronger purchase intent or with greater desire to return to the site (Jee & Lee, 2002). This model was tested as a limited, initial attempt to integrate traditional theories associated with media entertainment with newer research on perceptions of Web sites. Initial validation of the proposed model could suggest fruitful future investigations that integrate both research streams.

Stimulus Materials Four brand-presence Web sites for four different automotive brands served as the stimulus materials for the study. The four Web sites differed primarily in their use of video. The first Web site utilized video without audio— hereafter, video only ad—and depicted a Buick product in typical driving conditions (similar to a television commercial). The second Web site was a video and audio (i.e., music) presentation— hereafter, video and audio ad—featuring a Mer-

METHODOLOGY Sample Eighty-seven individuals participated in the study. The majority of the participants were female (82.8%), Caucasian (83.9%), and either owned or leased a car (95.4%). The mean age of the sample was 20.47 years. JOURNAL OF INTERACTIVE MARKETING

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participants to indicate the likelihood that they would purchase the brand in question on three 7-point, semantic differential scales: likely– unlikely, probable–improbable, and definitely would consider– definitely would not consider. Responses for all participants were again averaged across all four brands and analyzed for reliability. As in previous research (MacKenzie & Lutz, 1989), the scale proved reliable (␣ ⫽ 0.93). As a result, the responses for each item in the scale were averaged for each participant, yielding four factors called PI video only brand, PI video and audio brand, PI interactive brand, and PI film brand.

cedes Benz product in typical driving conditions (again, similar to a television commercial). A Saturn product was featured in the third Web site; it began with a video and audio presentation and ended with an interactive feature allowing the user to navigate within the Web site to find more information about the product. The third Web site will be referred to as the interactive brand ad. The fourth Web site featured a BMW product in a short (approximately 8-minute) cinematic presentation; the film told the fictional story of a hired driver, at the instruction of his passenger, eluding a series of would-be thieves. The fourth Web site will hereafter be referred to as the film brand ad. (In the subsequent discussion in this paper, all references to “ads” pertain to these brand-related videos, and not to Web banner ads.) All four video ads were displayed unedited, directly from the automotive Web sites. Four different presentation orders were used to mitigate differences in responses due to the sequence in which the participants encountered the Web sites. Participants were randomly assigned to one of the four presentation orders.

Posttest Questionnaire The participants completed a separate survey for each Web site viewed. The posttest questionnaires were hosted by the Web-based survey service provider Surveypro.com. All data were collected and stored electronically on Surveypro’s server and downloaded for analysis. As with the pretest, each survey contained the attitude toward brand (ABR) and purchasing intent (PI) measures (though technical limitations in the Web survey-construction program required the bipolar semantic differentials used in the pretest to be changed to unipolar, Likert-type items for the posttest). Observed Cronbach’s alpha indicated that the scales were again reliable; alphas were 0.79 and 0.94, respectively. Therefore, the responses on each of the items in the two scales were averaged for each brand, yielding an ABR and a PI posttest value for each of the four types of Web site. Four additional measures were included on the posttest instrument. Previous research has shown that attitudes toward a persuasive message can influence brand attitude, which in turn can influence consumers’ intentions to purchase a given product (Homer, 1990; Lutz, 1985; MacKenzie & Lutz, 1989). Therefore, an attitude toward the advertisement (AAD) scale measured responses to each of the four ads. The scale was comprised of seven 7-point Likerttype items (1 ⫽ “Not at all agree”; 7 ⫽ “Completely agree”): The ad was informational, good, unpleasant, favorable, enjoyable, and irritating, and I disliked the ad. Responses for all

Pretest Questionnaire Between 3 and 7 days prior to the main testing session, all participants completed a pretest measure. The pretest instrument included an attitude toward brand (ABR) scale for the four automotive brands in the study. Based on scales used in several other research studies (e.g., MacKenzie & Lutz, 1989), the measure asked participants to give their general impression of the particular brand on a series of six 7-point, semantic differential scales (e.g., good– bad, unpleasant–pleasant, favorable– unfavorable). Responses for all participants were averaged across all four brands and analyzed for reliability. The scale proved reliable, with an observed Cronbach’s alpha of 0.86. As a result, the responses for each item in the scale were averaged for each participant, yielding four factors called ABR video only brand, ABR video and audio brand, ABR interactive brand, and ABR film brand. The pretest questionnaire also included a purchasing intent (PI) scale for the four automotive brands in the study. The measure asked JOURNAL OF INTERACTIVE MARKETING

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from Chen & Wells, 1999; Chen, Clifford, & Wells, 2002) that measured how entertaining the participants found the Web site to be. The part of the Web site that I visited was fun, exciting, cool, imaginative, entertaining, and flashy. Responses were again indicated on a 7-point Likert scale (1 ⫽ “Not at all agree”; 7 ⫽ “Completely agree”). As with past research, the measure proved reliable (␣ ⫽ 0.96). Therefore, the responses for the six items were averaged for each participant, yielding a single factor called site entertainment. Finally, the likelihood of an individual returning to the Web site on which he or she viewed each Web site was also measured using four items: I am likely to visit the site again; I am likely to tell a friend about the site; if I was buying a car, I would probably visit the site again; if a friend was buying a car, I would probably tell him/her about the site. Responses were again indicated on a 7-point Likert scale (1 ⫽ “Not at all agree”; 7 ⫽ “Completely agree”); the measure proved reliable (␣ ⫽ 0.94). Therefore, the responses for the six items were averaged for each participant, yielding a single factor called return to site.

participants were averaged across all four brands and analyzed for reliability. As in previous research, the scale proved reliable (␣ ⫽ 0.90). As a result, the responses for each item in the scale were averaged for each participant, yielding four factors called AAD video only brand, AAD video and audio brand, AAD interactive brand, and AAD film brand. Research has repeatedly indicated that arousal impacts responses to media messages (Lang, 1994; Zillmann, 1991a). Furthermore, research indicates that the inclusion (or exclusion) of certain formal features (e.g., motion, sound) influences one’s perceived level of arousal (Detenber, Simons, & Bennett, 1998; Kellaris & Mantel, 1996; Reeves et al., 1985). Because the ads used in the study differed in formal features and in an attempt to investigate the role of arousal in the responses, the researchers included a measure of arousal in the posttest. Based on the literature noted above, the authors created a two-item arousal scale specifically for this study: “The ad was suspenseful” and “The ad was arousing.” Responses were indicated on a 7-point Likert scale (1 ⫽ “Not at all agree”; 7 ⫽ “Completely agree”). The measure proved reliable with an observed Pearson correlation coefficient of 0.526 (p ⬍ .001). Therefore, the responses for the two items were averaged for each participant, yielding a single factor called arousal. Additionally, from the entertainment literature, arousal has been associated with enjoyment of various media contents (e.g., Hoffner & Cantor, 1991; Vorderer & Knobloch, 2000; Zillmann, 1980, 1991b). More specifically, increased arousal has been associated with increased enjoyment or entertainment. Similarly, research indicates that entertainment is a key motivation in consumers’ use of Web sites (Eighmey, 1997). Furthermore, research indicates that the perceived level of entertainment (or enjoyment) impacts a viewer’s/user’s response to and perceptions of the site (Chen & Wells, 1999). In an attempt to understand the role of entertainment in the current study— while maintaining this study’s position within the growing new technology literature—the researchers included a set of six items (derived JOURNAL OF INTERACTIVE MARKETING

RESULTS Attitude Toward Brand (ABR) To have a better understanding of the initial attitudes held toward the brands, responses to the ABR pretest measure were analyzed using a GLM repeated-measures procedure. As one might expect, significant differences were observed: F(3, 258) ⫽ 128.20, p ⬍ 0.001. The participants had the most positive attitudes toward Mercedes Benz (video and audio brand; M ⫽ 6.31, SD ⫽ 0.74). Attitudes toward Mercedes Benz were significantly more positive than attitudes toward BMW (film brand; M ⫽ 6.17, SD ⫽ 0.71), which were significantly more positive than attitudes toward Saturn (interactive; M ⫽ 4.69, SD ⫽ 1.15), which were significantly more positive than attitudes toward Buick (video only; M ⫽ 4.33, SD ⫽ .91). Significant differences were again observed in the posttest ABR measure: F(3, 252) ⫽ 95.87, ●

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T A B L E 1

Means and Standard Deviations for Site-Specific Variables by Condition Film

AAD Return to Site Site Entertainment Arousal

Interactive

Video and Audio

Video Only

M

SD

M

SD

M

SD

M

SD

5.50a 4.76a 6.17a 5.96a

1.12 1.68 .92 1.12

4.92b 3.58b 4.09b 3.19b

1.15 1.73 1.50 1.37

4.23c 3.37b 3.64c 2.84b

1.17 1.72 1.34 1.32

3.95d 2.46c 3.13d 2.45c

1.04 1.23 1.34 1.05

Note: Superscripts indicate significantly different ( p ⬍ 0.05) values across rows, not columns.

p ⬍ 0.001. However, in the posttest, the participants held the most positive attitudes toward BMW (film brand; M ⫽ 6.24, SD ⫽ 0.81), which was similar to the attitudes toward Mercedes Benz (video and audio brand; M ⫽ 6.19, SD ⫽ 0.75). The attitudes held toward those two brands were again significantly more positive than those held toward Saturn (interactive; M ⫽ 4.67, SD ⫽ 1.22) and toward Buick (video only; M ⫽ 4.39, SD ⫽ 0.96). To analyze changes in attitudes toward each brand between the pretest and the posttest (as speculated in H5), four additional GLM repeated-measures procedures were conducted. In each case, no significant differences were observed (p ⬎ 0.1). Therefore, the participants’ attitudes toward each of the four brands, while fluctuating slightly, did not change significantly from the pretest to the posttest; in other words, the ads did not significantly increase (or decrease) positive attitudes toward each automotive brand. As a result, H5 was not supported.

four ads. As Table 1 indicates, significant differences were observed: F(3, 252) ⫽ 36.69, p ⬍ 0.001. Participants evaluated the film brand ad more positively than the other three ads. The interactive Web site was also evaluated more positively than the video and audio and video only Web sites. The video and audio Web site was rated significantly more positively than the video only Web site. As a result, H1 was supported. Return to Site. As predicted in H2, users should indicate greater intent to return to the site featuring the film than the other three sites. Intent to return to the site was operationalized as the likelihood that the participants would return to or tell a friend about the site. The GLM repeated-measures procedure indicated significant differences in intent to return to the site: F(3, 252) ⫽ 33.80, p ⬍ 0.001. More specifically, the respondents indicated that they were significantly more likely to return to the site containing the film ad than any other site. Furthermore, the participants reported that they were significantly less likely to return to the site containing the video only ad than the site containing either the video and audio only or interactive ad. As a result, H2 was supported.

Site-Specific Variables Attitude toward ad (AAD). To measure reactions to the stimulus material, participants were asked to complete the attitude toward the ad (AAD) measure for each ad (based on MacKenzie & Lutz, 1989). It was predicted (in H1) that the site containing the feature film would be rated more favorably than the other three sites. A GLM repeated-measures procedure was used to test for differences in attitudes toward the JOURNAL OF INTERACTIVE MARKETING

Site Entertainment. H3 predicted that a Web site using a feature film would be rated more entertaining than those using interactivity, action footage and music, or action footage only. As expected, the participants reported that they ●

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Buick (video only; M ⫽ 2.19, SD ⫽ 1.23) was significantly lower than the other three brands in the pretest. Significant differences were also observed in the posttest PI measure: F(3, 252) ⫽ 16.30, p ⬍ 0.001. Again, the participants indicated that they were equally as likely to purchase a BMW (film brand; M ⫽ 4.18, SD ⫽ 2.05) as a Mercedes Benz (video and audio brand; M ⫽ 3.91, SD ⫽ 2.10). As in the pretest, purchasing intent toward Buick (video only; M ⫽ 2.35, SD ⫽ 1.31) was significantly lower than all three brands. Also, the participants indicated that they were more likely to purchase a BMW than a Saturn (interactive; M ⫽ 3.37, SD ⫽ 1.92), presumably because of exposure to the ads. Furthermore, in contrast with the ABR measure, exposure to the ads did apparently have an impact on purchasing intent, at least in one case. With the film brand (BMW), participants reported a significantly higher purchasing intent after exposure to the Web advertisement (M ⫽ 4.23, SD ⫽ 2.05) than before (M ⫽ 3.92, SD ⫽ 1.95): F(1, 86) ⫽ 4.01, p ⬍ 0.05. No significant differences (p ⬎ 0.1) in PI were observed between the pretest and posttest in the other three cases.

enjoyed the film ad Web site significantly more than the sites containing the other three ads: F(3, 252) ⫽ 114.22, p ⬍ 0.001. The respondents also enjoyed the site containing the interactive ad significantly more than the one containing the video and audio ad, which was enjoyed significantly more than the site containing the video only ad. The reader will recall that participants were exposed only to the ads on each site. As a result, H3 was supported. Arousal. Finally, H4 predicted that users would report different levels of arousal across the four sites. A GLM repeated-measure procedure indicated that participants did report higher levels of arousal for the film ad than for the other three ads: F(3, 252) ⫽ 171.75, p ⬍ 0.001. Furthermore, the participants reported significantly less arousal following the video only ad than following either the video and audio or the interactive ad. As a result, H4 was supported. Table 1 reports the means and standard deviations observed on the four site-specific variables for each of the four sites.

Purchasing Intent (PI) In several studies, attitude toward a particular brand has been shown to impact a consumer’s intent to purchase a product that bears the name of that brand (Brown & Stayman, 1992; Muehling & McCann, 1993). Therefore, one might expect that an analysis of the PI factors might yield results similar to those observed with the ABR measures. This was precisely the case. Again, GLM repeated-measures procedures were utilized to investigate differences in purchasing intent between brands at the pretest and the posttest, as well as changes in purchasing intent between the two testing sessions. As with the pretest ABR measure, significant differences were observed on the pretest PI measure: F(3, 258) ⫽ 21.76, p ⬍ 0.001. The participants stated they were equally likely to purchase a BMW (film brand; M ⫽ 3.92, SD ⫽ 1.95), Mercedes Benz (video and audio brand; M ⫽ 3.87, SD ⫽ 1.90), and Saturn (interactive; M ⫽ 3.69, SD ⫽ 1.90) product. Purchasing intent toward JOURNAL OF INTERACTIVE MARKETING

Process and Effects of Entertainment and Interactivity on Evaluations of the Site and Brand Path analyses were conducted to better understand how the various features of online ads might predict purchase intent for the products, as well as promote return visits to the Web sites. While GLM analyses did not indicate significant changes in attitude toward the brand after one exposure to the web sites, these analyses may illuminate the process by which exposure to such sites could influence attitudes and key, related behaviors. The model in Figure 1 was tested to examine the Research Question and proposed a positive effect of viewing an arousing, entertaining Web site on attitude toward the site, attitude toward the brand, and purchase intent or desire to return to the site. Explanations of variables and relationships among them were described in the Methods section above. Path analyses to test the model were conducted using LISREL ●

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T A B L E 2

Descriptive Statistics and Correlations for Variables Used in Path Analyses (n ⫽ 87) Correlations Variable

M

SD

1

2

3

4

5

6

ABR2 Arousal AAD Site Entertainment Return to Site Purchase Intent

5.38 3.28 4.66 4.32 3.60 3.51

.52 .88 .69 .90 1.01 1.04

1.0 .18 .56** .46** .58** .56**

1.0 .36** .70** .47** .29**

1.0 .68** .59** .35**

1.0 .68** .41**

1.0 .66**

1.0

* p ⬍ .05. ** p ⬍ .01.

Predicting purchase intent. The model in Figure 1 was first tested with purchase intent as the ultimate dependent variable (outcome). All proposed paths in the model were significant at p ⬍ .05. Entertainment ratings were strongly and significantly predicted by the reported level of arousal: 48% of the variance in the entertainment rating was explained by the arousal variable. Entertainment level was, in turn, a strong predictor of attitude toward the site (AAD), accounting for 46% of the variance in those ratings (AAD). Approximately 29% of the variance in the purchase intent variable was explained by the path from attitude toward the brand after viewing the site (ABR2). The model was a good fit for the data: The Standardized Root Mean Square Residual (SRMR) was .07; and the Comparative Fit Index was .97. The Chi-Square value for the model was 12.40 (6, p ⫽ .05).

8.12 and employing Maximum Likelihood estimation. Because the arousal variable exhibited a high degree of skewness (1.13), predominately driven by responses to the BMW site, square root transformations for all variables were performed before path analyses were conducted. Means, standard deviations, and correlation coefficients for variables (before transformation) included in the path analyses are shown in Table 2. While the sample size for the current study is smaller than ideal for using path analysis, structural equation modeling scholars have acknowledged that smaller samples can be used with models that are fairly simple in nature, include highly reliable latent variables, and are evaluated using fit indices shown to be less sensitive to variations in sample size (Holbert & Stephenson, 2002). The models in the current study fit these first two criteria. Also, resulting path models in the current study were evaluated with two of the fit indices and cutoff criteria recommended when smaller sample sizes are employed (Hu & Bentler, 1998, 1999). Comparative fit index at a minimum of CFI ⬎ .95, and standardized root mean square residual (SRMR) at a minimum of ⬍ .08. Finally, although Chi-square estimates have been shown to be quite sensitive to variation in sample size (Schumaker & Lomax, 1996), Chi-square values are also reported for additional information on degrees of freedom (Holbert & Stephenson, 2002). JOURNAL OF INTERACTIVE MARKETING

Predicting Return to Site. Next, the model proposed in Figure 1 was tested with intent to return to the site substituted for purchase intent as the ultimate dependent variable (outcome). As shown in Figure 3, all paths that were significant in Figure 2 were significant in the model predicting desire to return to the site. LISREL’s modification indices also suggested a direct path from entertainment level to intent to return to the site. Additionally, in this model, attitude toward the brand at time 2 was a weaker predictor of the final dependent variable (return to the site) than it was in the model dis●

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film site did change rank with respect to the other brands from the pretest to the posttest. Initially, BMW’s mean attitude toward the brand score was equivalent to that of Saturn (the brand associated with the interactive site). However, BMW’s posttest score was significantly higher than Saturn’s. Additionally, the brand associated with the film site was the only brand to exhibit significant individual increases in purchase intent. While entertaining content did seem to enhance perceptions of the brands and of the sites associated with them, it should also be noted that no brand, including the two with the least entertaining and interactive sites, experienced significant decreases in evaluations or purchase intent, even when the sites for those brands were viewed in conjunction with more entertaining or interactive sites. The current study also attempted to enrich the study of online marketing content by integrating the perspective of more traditional entertainment research from media studies. This perspective, especially in terms of the effects of arousal, allowed for an enhanced understanding of how Web content such as a suspenseful, action-oriented film could affect site- and brand-related evaluations. The key findings from the path analyses suggest that the perceived entertainment level associated with the Web sites was a very strong predictor of attitudes toward the sites. Entertainment level was an indirect predictor of purchase intent and attitude toward the brand, via its effect on attitude

FIGURE 2

Resulting Path Model of the Effect Viewing Entertaining Web Sites on Attitude Toward the Site, Attitude Toward the Brand, and Purchase Intent. † p ⬍ .10, * p ⬍ .05, ** p ⬍ .01.

played in Figure 2. In other words, attitude toward the brand became less important when predicting the desire to return to the site than when predicting purchase intent. Approximately 53% of the variance in return to the site ratings was explained by this model. The model in Figure 3 was a good fit for the data: The Standardized Root Mean Square Residual (SRMR) was .04; and the Comparative Fit Index was .98. Chi-Square for the model was 8.81 (11, p ⫽ .06).

DISCUSSION This study attempted to examine the effects of a new form of entertainment—the mini film—in marketing products via the Web in contrast to more common approaches to such marketing (i.e., showing product footage and offering interactive product displays). Tests of hypotheses related to the site-specific variables of attitude toward the site, perceptions of site entertainment levels, self-reported arousal while viewing the site, and intent to return to the site indicated significant preferences for the film-based approach as well as a stable hierarchy of preferences: film-based site, interactive site, site with video product footage and audio, and site with video footage only. These findings are in line with previous research suggesting positive effects associated with increased levels of entertainment and interactivity on promotional Web sites. While participants’ individual attitudes toward the auto brands displayed on the Web sites did not increase significantly from pre- to posttest evaluations, the brand associated with the JOURNAL OF INTERACTIVE MARKETING

FIGURE 3

Resulting Path Model of the Effect Viewing Entertaining Web Sites on Attitude Toward the Site, Attitude Toward the Brand, and Desire to Return to Site. † p ⬍ .10, * p ⬍ .05, ** p ⬍ .01. ●

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riod than any other age group (U.S. Census Bureau, 2002); therefore, university students are most likely to encounter the Web-based marketing efforts of automakers examined in this study. Second, the automotive industry maintains a commitment to target younger and younger individuals for car sales in an attempt to secure life-long brand loyalty (e.g., Healey, 2000; Kiley, 2002; Schepp, 2002); this commitment leads to innovative marketing strategies such as those examined herein to reach those younger audiences. And if, as one industry expert notes, “around 60% of car buyers stay with the brand of car they first purchased while in their twenties” (Schepp, 2002), then the effectiveness of these marketing strategies surely must be examined with their target audiences. Further, although the findings reported here suggest that inclusion of entertaining content on a Web site has the potential to increase brand attitudes and purchase intent (via attitude toward the brand in the latter case), the least popular brand in the current study also had the least entertaining and interactive site. Future research should examine the ability of entertaining content to enhance attitudes and purchase intent for less popular brands. Finally, the arousal variable employed by this study is limited in terms of scope (two items) and because it was a self-reported variable. Direct, physiological measurement of arousal with established methods and indicators (Gunter, 2000) would be preferable in future studies. In summary, the findings from this study suggest the ability of entertaining and interactive elements on Web sites to positively affect attitudes toward and intent to return to the site, and to indirectly affect purchase intent. As more high-profile organizations begin to create entertainment pieces specifically for Web-marketing sites, the continued study of the efficacy of such practices seems warranted. Additionally, comparisons of the effects associated with different types of entertaining content (e.g., drama, humor, or games) in Web-marketing would seem fruitful, as would comparisons of entertainment and Web-marketing across different product categories.

toward the site. Perhaps more importantly, the path analyses also indicated that participants’ levels of arousal strongly predicted perceived entertainment levels of the sites. Finally, the path analyses indicated that entertainment level was a strong, direct predictor of desire to return to the site. The implications of this finding should be underscored. The path from perceived entertainment associated with the site to intent to return to the site represents a situation in which a consumer will seek repeated exposure to (rather than avoid or simply tolerate) a Web-based promotion, which should, in turn, strengthen positive brand attitudes and related behaviors over time. Therefore, although the single-exposure situation employed in this study did not result in significant changes in brand attitudes, the path analyses suggest a mechanism by which entertaining Web content might facilitate such changes. Exposure to arousing, entertaining ads should influence attitude toward the ads, which should positively influence attitude toward the brand. Because such content apparently increases return traffic to a Web site, one would expect that subsequent repeated exposure would lead to increased positive attitudes toward the brand. A major influence in this process appears to be arousal. Therefore, content providers might seriously consider including suspenseful and/or action-oriented content on their sites. While path analyses using smaller samples must always be interpreted with caution, this study used fit indices and a model appropriate for smaller samples. The findings from the path analyses seem to suggest the usefulness of further investigations of the processes in the two resulting models that integrate traditional effects of mediated entertainment with marketing outcomes associated with Web site content.

Limitations The use of student subjects is a limiting factor in many studies, but this population is appropriate for the current study for two reasons. First, according to the 2001 U.S. Census data, collegeaged individuals (i.e., 18 –24 years) are more likely to access the Internet within a 30-day peJOURNAL OF INTERACTIVE MARKETING

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