2000 Foot Filled Contour ............. 51. 9. "Fish-net" Plot of the 3000 Foot Contour ..... 52. 10. Three-dimensional Representation of the Shenandoah. National Park.
CQNCENTRATION PROFILES AND MAPPING OF AMBIENT AIR QUALITY IN
THE SHENANDOAH NATIONAL PARK by
ADIL N. GODREJ Thesis submitted to the Faculty cf the Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
MASTER OF SCIENCE in Sanitary Engineering
APPROVED:
May, 1982 Blacksburg, Virginia
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
My deepest gratitude to Dr. N. me
through
delightful
graduate
academic milieu
providing
to
an
work in,
relationship ——-
wonderful personal prods,
school,
Thomas Stephens for guiding exceptionally
and
also for
thanks for
the
the timely
for accepting responsibility at critical times,
for
the monetary aid and for most other things. To Dr.
J. Martin Hughes,
my sincere appreciation for the
many worthwhile discussions --- philosophical and otherwise, for
the apt
in what
guidance
throughout,
and
for the keen
interest
I was doing.
Grateful thanks to Dr.
Boris I.
Chevone for so graciously
accepting to serve on my committee at such short notice, providing new angles to my work,
for
and for all the advice in
the days prior to serving on my committee. Thanks to Dr. upto the
John M.
penultimate
Skelly for serving on my committee
stages
of my work,
and
for all
the
other help. My colleague Widom
is
and so-to-speak
thanked
for
his
"partner-in-crime"
wonderful
and
stimulating
friendship and help with a lot of the physical work.
settled into and understand the "system".
ii
Stuart
The Department of Civil Engineering is acknowledged for the monetary assistance provided to me. The National Park Service provided
the funding for the
data-gathering flights to the Shenandoah National Park,
thus
providing me with the data—base with which to work. Finally,
my thanks to the many people
in User Services -
iii
CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
....................
ii
Chapter page I.
INTRODUCTION
II.
LITERATURE REVIEW
III.
SYSTEM DESCRIPTIONS
...................· 1 .....
.
...........
7
................
18
Shenandoah National Park
............
18
Data Gathering System ............. 20 Data Display System (Existing) ......... 22 Data Display System (Developed) ........ 25
IV.
General ................... The PRECON Program .............
25 27
The SNP Program ............... SAS Programs Used to Display and Correlate Output from PRECON and SNP ........
35
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
..............
48
Output from Program PRECON ........... Output from Program SNP ............
48 55
Output from the SAS Program
..........
60
General Linear Models ............ Some General Comments on Flight Data Representations ............ Flight of August 13, 1981 .......... Flight of July 30, 1981 .......... Flight of August 10, 1981 ......... Flight of August 18, 1981 ......... Flight of August 21, 1981 .........
61
Flight of September 21,
·
1981
64 65 112 135 155 179
.......
202
Flight of September 23, 1981 ....... Flight of September 24, 1981 ....... General Comments on the Flights and the Data
225 245
Analysis V.
47
................
SUMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
265
.............
268
Summary ................... Conclusions .................
268 269
Recommendations
270
............... iv
REFERENCES
......................
272
Appendix page A.
USER'S GUIDE TO PROGRAM’PRECON
.........
275
General ................... Input and Output Units ............ Input Requirements and Formats ........ Main Arrays and Variables and Their Functions Subroutines and Their Functions .......
275 275 276 277 277
Main Program
...............
277
Function ROUND .............. Function IODDEV .............. DELETE .................. OUTLIN .................. FILLER ............._ ..... INIOUT .................. Changing the Program for Other Grid Areas . .
277 277 278 278 278 278 279
B.
SOURCE LISTING OF PROGRAM PRECON
........
280
C.
PROCEDURES FOR CALCULATIONS OF PARAMETERS IN PROGRAM SNP ............v ....
303
USER'S GUIDE FOR PROGRAM SNP
..........
306
...................
306
D.
General
Input and Output Units
............
306
Input Requirements and Format ........ Arrays and Variables and Their Functions . . . Subroutines and Their Functions ....... Main Program ...............
307 308 310 310
Integer Function BEFORE .......... Integer Function FS ............
311 311
Function ROUND
..............
Integer Function SEARCH
311
..........
311
AFTER ................... ALTO3 ................... DELETE .................. DPRHT ................... GRIDA ................... GRIDER .................. GRIDM ................... GRIDS ................... HEAD ................... INPUT ................... MEAN ...................
311 311 312 312 312 312 312 312 312 313 313
v
—
MEANER .................. MEANL ...................
313 313
NOXSUB
313
..................
OUT ....................
313
OUTLIN
..................
OUTPUT
313
..................
314
PARKER SOZSUB
.................. ..................
314 314
TIMES ................... TIMING ..................
314 314
UPLVL ...................
314
VRBS ................... XYROUN .................. XYSUB ...................
314 315 315
Changing the Program for Other Grid Areas
.
315
E.
SOURCE LISTING OF PROGRAM SNP ..........
316
F.
SOURCE LISTING OF SAS PROGRAM USED TO DRAW PLOTS
389
VITA
.........................
403
ABSTRACT
vi
.
LIST OF TABLES
Rägä 1.
10-scan File Data .................. 21
2.
Possible Values of
3.
Possible Values of IOUT in Program SNP
4.
Cross-reference List of IOUT Usage
5.
Error Codes for Program SNP
6.
Parameters Used for General Linear Models
7.
Normal Ranges of Measured Parameters
IOUT in Program PRECCN
vii
......
33
.......
37
.........
39
.............
41
......
.......
63 266
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure
1.
Shenandoah National Park
2.
.............
19
Horizontal Flight Plot
..............
23
3.
Spirals Over the GSMNP
..............
24
4.
Area of the Grid in the Shenandoah National Park
5.
Rounding and Interpolation Procedures
6.
Possible Orientations of Two Consecutive Points .
.
31
7.
1500 Foot Contour Outline .............
49
8.
2000 Foot Filled Contour
51
9.
"Fish-net" Plot of the 3000 Foot Contour
.....
52
10.
Three-dimensional Representation of the Shenandoah National Park .................
54
11.
Option 10 Output for the Flight of July 30,
.
56
12.
Flight of August 13,
1981:
.
66
13.
Flight of August 13,
1981: Dew Point
.......
67
14.
Flight of August 13,
1981:
15.
Flight of August 13,
1981: NOx Concentration
.
69
16.
Flight of August 13,
1981: NO Concentration ....
70
17.
Flight of August 13,
1981:
NO2 Concentration
.
71
18.
Flight of August 13,
1981:
Temperature
......
72
19.
Flight of August 13,
1981: Relative Humidity
20.
Flight of August 13,
1981:
21.
Flight of August 13,
. 28
.......
.............
SO; Concentration
Visual Range
1981 .
.
......
.
.
.
.
.
68
.
73
Ozone
.........
74
1981: Bscat
.........
75
viii
.
30
22.
23.
Flight of August 13, 1981: Percentage Distribution of Altitude .................. Flight of August 13,
of SOZ 24.
1981:
76
Percentage Distribution
.....................
77
Flight of August 13, 1981: Percentage Distribution of Dew Point ..................
78
25.
Flight of August 13, 1981: Percentage Distribution of Visual Range ................·79
26.
Flight of August 13,
1981:
Percentage Distribution
of NOx ..................... 27.
Flight of August 13,
of NO 28.
1981:
of NO;
Percentage Distribution
.....................
Flight of August 13, •
.
„
.
•
1981: •
•
•
80
81
Percentage Distribution „
•
„
•
„
.
„
„
•
•
•
•
•29. Flight of August 13, 1981: Percentage Distribution
of Temperature 30.
.................
Flight of August 13,
1981:
Percentage Distribution
of Relative Humidity .............. 31.
Flight of August 13,
1981:
Flight of August 13,
1981:
Flight of August 13, •
of
.
.
1981: .
.
.
85
Percentage Distribution
of Bscat .................... 33.
84
Percentage Distribution
of Ozone .................... 32.
83
86
Percentage Distribution „
„
„
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
„
„
•34. Flight of August 13, 1981: Frequency Distribution
of Altitude 35.
Flight of August 13,
of SO2 36.
37.
.................. 1981:
Frequency Distribution
.....................
Flight of August 13,
1981:
88
89
Frequency Distribution
of Dew Point ..................
90
Flight of August 13, 1981: Frequency Distribution of Visual Range ................
91
ix
38.
39.
40.
Flight of August 13, 1981: Frequency Distribution of NOx .....................
92
Flight of August 13, 1981: Frequency Distribution of NO .....................
93
Flight of August 13, of NO2
.
.
1981:
Frequency Distribution
.......,
.
.
„
.
.
.
„
.
.
.
.41. Flight of August 13, 1981: Frequency Distribution
42.
43.
44.
of Temperature .................
95
Flight of August 13, 1981: Frequency Distribution of Relative Humidity ........-......
96
Flight of August 13, 1981: Frequency Distribution of Ozone ....................
97
Flight of August 13,
1981:
Frequency Distribution
of Bscat. 45.
Flight of August 13,
1981:
.
98
Frequency Distribution
„ „ „ „ „ „ „ • •46. „ of . . . . . . . . .
.
Flight of August 13,
1981:
Altitude vs.
SO2
.
100
47.
Flight of August 13,
1981:
Altitude vs.
Dew Point
101
48.
Flight of August 13, 1981: Altitude vs. Visual Range ....................
102
49.
Flight of August 13,
1981:
50.
Flight of August 13,
51. 52.
Altitude vs.
.
.
.
.
.
103
1981: Altitude vs. NO
.
.
.
104
Flight of August 13,
1981: Altitude vs. NO2
.
.
.
105
Flight of August 13,
1981:
.................
106
Flight of August 13, 1981: Altitude vs. Relative Humidity ...................
107
54.
Flight of August 13,
1981:
Altitude vs.
Ozone
.
.
108
55.
Flight of August 13,
1981:
Altitude vs.
Bscat
.
.
109
56.
Flight of July 30,
.
.
113
Temperature 53.
1981:
x
NOx
Altitude vs.
SO2 Concentration
.
‘.
57.
Flight of July 30,
1981: NOx Concentration
.
114
58.
Flight of July 30,
1981: NO Concentration ....
115
59.
Flight of July 30,
1981: NO2 Concentration
.
116
60.
Flight of July 30,
1981: Ozone
.........
117
61.
Flight of July 30, 1981: Percentage Distribution of Altitude ................... 118
62.
Flight of July 30, 1981: Percentage Distribution of SO2 ..................... 119
63.
Flight of July 30, 1981: Percentage Distribution of NOx ..................... 120
64.
Flight of July 30,
1981:
.
.
.
Percentage Distribution of
NO ...................... 65.
Flight of July 30,
NO2
1981:
121
Percentage Distribution of
.....................
122
66.
Flight of July 30, 1981: Percentage Distribution of Ozone .................... 123
67.
Flight of July 30, NO/NO2
1981: Percentage Distribution of
....................
124
68.
Flight of July 30,
1981: Altitude vs.
....
125
69.
Flight of July 30,
1981: Altitude vs. Dew Point .
126
70.
Flight of July 30,
1981:
Altitude vs.
Visual Range 127
71.
Flight of July 30,
1981:
Altitude vs.
NOx
....
128
72.
Flight of July 30,
1981: Altitude vs.
NO
....
129
73.
Flight of July 30,
1981: Altitude vs.
NO2
....
130
74.
Flight of July 30,
1981:
Temperature
131
75.
Flight of July 30, 1981: Altitude vs. Relative Humidity ...................
132
76.
Flight of July 30,
1981:
77.
Flight of July 30,
1981: Altitude vs. xi
Altitude vs.
Altitude vs.
SO2
Ozone
.
.
.
133
Bscat .
.
.
134
78.
Flight of August 10,
1981:
NOx Concentration
79.
Flight of August 10,
1981:
NO Concentration
80.
Flight of August 10,
1981:
NO2
81.
Flight of August 10,
1981:
Ozone
82.
Flight of August 10,
1981:
Percentage Distribution
of Altitude 83.
84.
.
136
.
.
137
.
.
138
........
139
.
Concentration
.................
140
Flight of August 10, 1981: Percentage Distribution of NOx .................... 141 l Flight of August 10, 1981: Percentage Distribution
of NO 85.
.
....................
Flight of August 10,
of NO2
1981:
142
Percentage Distribution
....................
143
86.
Flight of August 10, 1981: Percentage Distribution of Ozone ................... 144
87.
Flight of August 10,
of NO/NOZ
1981:
Percentage Distribution
..................
88.
Flight of August 10,
1981:
Altitude vs.
Dew Point
89.
Flight of August 10,
1981:
Altitude vs.
Visual
Range
....................
145 146
147
90.
Flight of August 10,
1981:
Altitude vs.
NOx
.
.
.
148
91.
Flight of August 10,
1981:
Altitude vs.
NO
.
.
.
149
92.
Flight of August 10,
1981:
Altitude vs.
NOZ
.
.
.
150
93.
Flight of August 10,
1981:
Altitude vs.
.................
151
Flight of August 10, 1981: Altitude vs. Relative Humidity ...................
152
95.
Flight of August 10,
1981:
Altitude vs.
Ozone
.
.
153
96.
Flight of August 10,
1981:
Altitude vs.
Bscat
.
.
154
97.
Flight of August 18,
1981:
SO2 Concentration
.
.
156
Temperature 94.
xii
98.
Flight of August 18,
1981:
NOx Concentration
99.
Flight of August 18,
1981:
NO Concentration
.
.
157
.
.
158
.
.
159
........
160
.
100.
°Flight of August 18,
101.
Flight of August 18,
1981:
Ozone
102.
Flight of August 18,
1981:
Percentage Distribution
of Altitude 103.
.................
Flight of August 18,
of SOZ 104.
1981: NO2 Concentration
1981:
Percentage Distribution
....................
Flight of August 18,
161
1981:
162
Percentage Distribution
of NOx ....................
163
105.
Flight of August 18, 1981: Percentage Distribution of NO .................... 164
106.
Flight of August 18, of NGZ
„
„
„
•
•
1981: Percentage Distribution •
•
.
.
•
.
„
„
•
„
•
.
.
„
.107. Flight of August 18, 1981: Percentage Distribution
of Ozone
...................
166
108.
Flight of August 18, 1981: Percentage Distribution of NO/NO2 .................. 167
109.
Flight of August 18,
1981:
Altitude vs.
SO2
.
168
110.
Flight of August 18,
1981:
Altitude vs.
Dew Point
169
111.
Flight of August 18,
1981:
Altitude vs.
Visual
Range
.
.
....................
170
112.
Flight of August 18,
1981:
Altitude vs.
NOx
.
.
.
171
113.
Flight of August 18,
1981:
Altitude vs.
NO
.
.
.
172
114.
Flight of August 18,
1981: Altitude vs. NO2
.
.
.
173
115.
Flight of August 18,
1981:
.................
174
Temperature 116.
Flight of August 18,
1981:
Altitude vs.
Altitude vs.
Relative
Humidity ................... 117.
Flight of August 18,
1981: Altitude vs. Ozone . xiii
.
175 176
118.
Flight of August 18,
1981:
Altitude vs.
119.
Flight of August 21,
1981:
120.
Flight of August 21,
121.
Bscat
.
.
177
S0; Concentration
.
.
180
1981:
NOx Concentration
.
.
181
Flight of August 21,
1981:
NO Concentration
.
.
182
122.
Flight of August 21,
1981: N02 Concentration
.
.
183
123.
Flight of August 21,
1981:
Ozone
........
184
124.
Flight of August 21,
1981:
Percentage Distribution
of Altitude 125.
.................
Flight of August 21, of
SO2
„
„
.
.
„
.
1981: .
„
.
185
Percentage Distribution „
„
„
.
.
.
„
„
.
„
.
.126. Flight of August 21, 1981: Percentage Distribution
of NOx ....................
187
127.
Flight of August 21, 1981: Percentage Distribution of NO .................... 188
128.
Flight of August 21, of NO2
•
.
„
„
.
1981: Percentage Distribution .
.
„
.
„
.
•
„
•
„
•
„
„
•
•129. Flight of August 21, 1981: Percentage Distribution
of Ozone ................... 130.
Flight of August 21,
of NO/NO;
1981:
190
Percentage Distribution
..................
191
131.
Flight of August 21,
1981: Altitude vs.
S02
.
192
132.
Flight of August 21,
1981:
Dew Point
193
133.
Flight of August 21, 1981: Altitude vs. Visual Range ....................
194
134.
Flight of August 21,
1981:
Altitude vs.
NOx
.
.
.
195
135.
Flight of August 21,
1981:
Altitude vs.
NO
.
.
.
196
136.
Flight of August 21,
1981: Altitude vs.
N02
.
.
.
197
137.
Flight of August 21,
1981:
.................
198
Temperature
xiv
Altitude vs.
.
.
Altitude vs.
138.
Flight of August 21,
1981:
Altitude vs.
Relative
Humidity ...................
199
139.
Flight of August 21,
1981:
Altitude vs.
Ozone
.
.
200
140.
Flight of August 21,
1981:
Altitude vs.
Bscat
.
.
201
141.
Flight of September 21,
1981:
SO2 Concentration .
203
142.
Flight of September 21,
1981: NOx Concentration .
204
143.
Flight of September 21,
1981:
.
205
144.
Flight of September 21,
1981: NOZ Concentration .
206
145.
Flight of September 21,
1981: Ozone .......
207
146.
Flight of September 21, 1981: Percentage Distribution of Altitude ...........
208
Flight of September 21, Distribution of SO2
1981: Percentage .............
209
Flight of September 21, Distribution of NOx
1981: Percentage .............
210
Flight of September 21, 1981: Percentage Distribution of NO ..............
211
Flight of September 21, Distribution of NO2
1981: Percentage .............
212
Flight of September 21,
1981:
147.
148.
149.
150.
151.
Distribution of Ozone
NO Concentration
Percentage
............
213
Flight of September 21, 1981: Percentage Distribution of NO/NO2 ............
214
153.
Flight of September 21,
215
154.
Flight of September 21, 1981: Altitude vs. Dew Point....................216
155.
Flight of September 21, 1981: Altitude vs. Visual Range ....................
217
156.
Flight of September 21,
1981:
157.
Flight of September 21,
1981: Altitude vs.
152.
xv
1981: Altitude vs.
Altitude vs.
SOZ
.
NOx
.
218
NO .
.
219
158.
Flight of September 21,
1981: Altitude vs.
159.
Flight of September 21,
1981:
Temperature 160.
N02
.
220
.................
221
Flight of September 21,
1981:
Altitude vs.
Altitude vs.
Relative
Humidity ...................
222
161.
Flight of September 21,
1981: Altitude vs.
Ozone
223
162.
Flight of September 21,
1981: Altitude vs.
Bscat
224
163.
Flight of September 23,
1981:
NOx Concentration
.
226
164.
Flight of September 23,
1981:
NO Concentration
.
227
165.
Flight of September 23,
1981: NO2 Concentration .
228
166.
Flight of September 23,
1981: Ozone .......
229
167.
Flight of September 23,
1981:
Distribution of Altitude 168.
Flight of September 23,
Distribution of NOx 169.
170.
171.
172.
173.
Percentage
...........
1981:
230
Percentage
.............
231
Flight of September 23, 1981: Percentage Distribution of NO ..............
232
Flight of September 23, Distribution of NO2
1981: Percentage .............
233
Flight of September 23, 1981: Percentage Distribution of Ozone ............
234
Flight of September 23, 1981: Percentage Distribution of NO/NOZ ............
235
Flight of September 23, Point
1981: Altitude vs.
Dew
....................
236
Flight of September 23, 1981: Altitude vs. Visual Range ....................
237
175.
Flight of September 23,
1981: Altitude vs. NOx
.
238
176.
Flight of September 23,
1981:
.
239
177.
Flight of September 23,
1981: Altitude vs.
.
240
174.
xvi
Altitude vs.
NO
N02
.
”
178.
Flight of September 23, 1981: Altitude vs. Temperature .................
241
179.
Flight of September 23, 1981: Altitude vs. Relative Humidity ................... 242
180.
Flight of September 23,
1981:
Altitude vs.
Ozone
243
181.
Flight of September 23,
1981: Altitude vs.
Bscat
244
182.
Flight of September 24,
1981: NOx Concentration .
246
183.
Flight of September 24,
1981: NO Concentration
.
247
184.
Flight of September 24,
1981: NO; Concentration .
248
185.
Flight of September 24,
1981:
Ozone .......
249
186.
Flight of September 24,
1981:
Percentage
Distribution of Altitude
187.
188.
189.
...........
250
1981: Percentage .............
251
Flight of September 24, 1981: Percentage Distribution of NO ..............
252
Flight of September 24, Distribution of NOx
Flight of September 24,
Distribution of NO; 190.
191.
1981:
253
Flight of September 24, 1981: Percentage Distribution of Ozone ............
254
Flight of September 24,
1981:
Distribution of NO/NO; 192.
193.
Percentage
.............
Percentage
............
255
Flight of September 24, 1981: Altitude vs. Dew Point ....................
256
Flight of September 24, Range
1981: Altitude vs. Visual
....................
194.
Flight of September 24,
1981:
195.
Flight of September 24,
196.
Flight of September 24,
Altitude vs.
NOx
257
.
258
1981: Altitude vs. NO .
.
259
1981:
.
260
xvii
Altitude vs.
NO;
s
197.
198.
Flight of September 24, 1981: Altitude vs. Temperature .........,....... Flight of September 24,
1981:
Altitude vs.
261
Relative
Humidity ...................
262
199.
Flight of September 24,
1981:
Altitude vs.
Ozone
263
200.
Flight of September 24,
1981: Altitude vs.
Bscat
264
xviii
A Chapter I INTRODUCTION
Areas
designated
as
Class
I
(pristine)
areas
Prevention of Significant Deterioration of the Clean Air Act,
Amendments, levels
under
(PSD)
regulations
as specified by the 1977 Clean Air Act
are of concern from the standpoint of existing
of pollution
and
existing and proposed)
the
impact
that
sources
redesignated
all national
with areas greater than 6000 acres as PSD Class order
to obtain
particular area, the
background
(both
might have on these areas. The
Clean Air Act Amendments
In
the
some
idea
of
the
I
1977
parks
areas
air quality
(1).
in
a
it is necessary to obtain an estimate of levels
existing
there.
Determining
the
background levels of pollution is not an easy task and can conceivably
monitoring network.
this
job
a
involve
is
When the
further
I
area
consequently, Aerial
extensive
ground—based
is remote
terrain
complicated
prohibitively expensive. PSD Class
fairly
and
may
and rugged,
indeed
become
The Shenandoah National Park is a
that has
remote
and
rugged
terrain,
and,
presents ground—based monitoring problems.
air
quality
monitoring
covering large areas to be monitored.
is
a
way
of
It is also conducive
to a rapid analysis of the gathered data, journeys have to be made to collect the 1
quick
since no
special
recorded data from
2
sites
various
distances. be
used
that
estimate
concentration
and
the
airborne
characterization region.
be
separated
by
considerable
Data gathered utilizing an airborne platform can to
essence,
may·
the
horizontal
vertical
Variation
concentration profile.
data gathering can provide of
the
in
air quality over
a
a
In
"snapshot"
fairly
large
An examination of a series of such "snapshots" taken
on different days can be utilized to determine the ranges of background concentrations
may exist
concentration that terrain. the
determining The
such "pockets",
characterization, local
can
wind patterns
setting up of
native Vegetation and
identify "pockets"
prove
acidity
of
in
stagnation
study
effects on and
rainfall,
possible Verification of rough terrain air
the
coupled with
useful
and possible
experiments to
the
of high
due to peculiarities of
The identification of
overall
areas.
and to
the
quality models
could also be facilitated. In the past an airborne monitoring lab has been used to conduct tu sttu aerial
air quality monitoring in the Great
Smoky Mountains National Park
(2). A similar survey of the
Shenandoah National
Park was undertaken during
months
Most of
of
1981
gathered during
(3).
the flights
plotted on a time basis,
the
large
for these
the
quantities
surveys was
summer
of data
simply
and positional parameters had to be
3
inferred from the voice recordings kept during the flights. Some
selected points of
where
vertical
spirals
altitude basis, the
data were
(usually flown)
gathered at places
were
plotted
on
an
but these points had to be hand-picked from
general mass
of
data,
again using
the voice
recordings
as a reference. The manipulations that could be performed on the data were necessarily limited because a desktop computer was being used.
The mainframe computer system was being used
only to store the data for later use and free the data tapes used by the desktop computer so as to be able to allow for the
collection of
more
data.
the data stored on
knowledge,
However,
in
the
author's
the mainframe computer were
never actually used. The linear time-based plots that were generated by the desktop computer were difficult to use to come to general conclusions
about
the
spatial
parameters that were measured. (e.g.
distributions
of
the
Where "peaks" of data existed
high concentrations of SO2
above the
synthetic
fiber
~ plant at Front Royal on the northern end of the Shenandoah National
Park),
conclusions data
or where vertical
could be
(gathered in
existed) levels
of
drawn,
level
but
spirals were
flown,
the major portions
flight over
areas where no
of
some the
sources
were mainly being used to determine ranges of the the measured parameters.
Moreover,
since
no
two
4
flights took the the path
same route,
of any one
it was difficult to visualize
flight and
locate the place where a
series of measurements were taken, measurements taken in the flight.
Therefore,
and then relate these to
same general vicinity on another
although the desktop computer generated
plots were a quick method for an initial data analysis,
it
was possible that subtle Variations were going undetected. It was also
fairly obvious that much more information
could be gleaned from the large quantities of data than had been hitherto obtained. The mainframe computer is a favored choice
for
this
further
step
in
data
analysis
and
presentation for reasons of speed and ease in handling large amounts exist
of
information. data
for
analysis
efficient
Many and
packaged programs
presentation,
and
memory
requirements are not a constraint. The data gathering system had already reached a fairly high level of efficiency for the resources
that were available.
It was with
a view to
bringing the data analysis and presentation procedures on a par
with
the
undertaken. lay
down
data
gathering
system
Much needed to be done
the
groundwork
needed
that
this
and this
for
a
umre
study
was
study seeks to exhaustive
analytical procedure.
This
study
sought
to
develop
computer
mapping
procedures to illustrate the horizontal/Vertical variability
5
of pollutant concentrations as an overlay on an isometric plot of the mountainous terrain and perform some elementary analysis
of
the
altitudinal
interrelationships of the measured parameters. taken
over
the
Shenandoah
and
variations
National
and
Park
The flights surrounding
areas in the summer of 1981 were chosen to provide the data base for the study because the author was familiar with the terrain
and
the
procedures
that
were
followed in
data
gathering by reason of being an operator of the instruments. Briefly, 1.
then,
the objectives were:
To develop a three—dimensional mapping procedure to spatially display and help to
relate the
levels of
measured parameters. 2.
To
determine
ranges
the
of
background
levels
and
distributions of measured parameters. 3.
To
determine
average
of
levels
the
measured
parameters on an altitudinal basis. 4.
To correlate certain measured parameters with related measured parameters
(e.g.
relative humidity with the
coefficient of light scattering). 5.
To
identify
deviate
where
the
measured
parameters
from background levels.
The hypothesis the data,
areas
is that the
coupled with
spatial
an analysis
representation of
of the
ranges of
the
6
data,
will
help
in determining the
background
levels
of
pollutants and will establish areas of deviant concentration
levels.
Chapter
II
LITERATURE REVIEW
There
is
a
scarcity
representation research.
of
available
as
ie
information
applies
it
to
air
on
data
pollution
One of the following three categories is usually
resorted to
for graphical
representation of
air pollution
data: 1.
—-
Conventional
Two-dimensional
frequency distributions,
plots,
histograms,
and the like. 4
2.
Data
specific
-·
Systems
of
data
representation
developed specifically for a particular set of data. These are original computer programs and may present the
data
either
in
three-dimensional
usually
of
a
inapplicable
to
a
form.
two—dimensional Programs
proprietary data
of
nature
sets other
or
this
and
that
are
sort
may
the
a
be
one
for
which they were written. 3.
Packaged programs
where
the
data
--
has
Systems
to
be
of
data
gathered
representation
in
a
suitable for display by a packaged program usually proprietary).
nmnner (which is
Representation can be two-
three-dimensional.
7
or
8
is
There
considerable
overlap between
other two categories,
the
first
and
the
since the other categories frequently
produce output of a conventional form. Data representation of the conventional form is usually resorted
to
manually. or
boda
small
on
sets
of
data
that
can be handled
Large data sets need to be processed by either one of
represented
the
a
in
categories
other
conventional
they
before
way.
This
can
be
may
processing
utilize the computer simply to perform the mechanical of plotting the data,
task
or to perform calculations on the data
before plotting them. Examples numerous books form to
of
the
conventional
and articles.
Rutherford
show the flight path
quality monitoring.
can be
form
(4)
found
in
utilizes this
of the aircraft used in air
It is not usually necessary to have a
very precise display of the flight path taken during an air quality
survey
since
is
this
informational purposes only.
normally used Moreover,
for
general
the additional cost
that would be incurred in equipping the aircraft with the instrumentation needed
path
is
however, to be
both
for
prohibitive
a precise
and
not
to their general nature,
supported by plots
transects flown.
of the
record of
really
the
needed.
flight
Due,
displays of this type have data for the
spirals or
9
Data
used
frequently models. not
graphical
specific to
display
representations
data
generated
are
to
be
manipulated
to
further
graphical representation. Pepper and Baker (5) have
(6)
graphical
examples
of
representations graphs
three-dimensional presentation,
two of
do
and
and Meyers gt
three-dimensional
data.
Although
provide
a
good
for the entire mapped area.
possible in an airborne air quality survey.
either
enable
·
the visual
it must be kept in mind that models are able
to generate data
a model
computer
by
These data are continuous in the space domain and do
normally need
ual.
most
is to provide
This is not
The objective of
an estimate of what may exist based
purely on hypothesis or
actual data that may be
scanty.
on hypothesis
applied to
The objectives
of an air
quality survey are mainly to provide actual data from which general
inferences
can
three-dimensional graphs due
to the
model,
basic
be
drawn.
Therefore,
developed by Meyers gt gl.
assumptions made
in
Similar
--
representative,
problems
exist
with
of
and not --
prevailing
the
(6),
any air dispersion
will only at best be indicative,
probability
the
in all
conditions.
two—dimensional
concentration isopleths developed by Pepper and Baker
Data
specific
the computer
graphical representations
(5).
that utilize
(or mini—computer) mainly as a device to store
10
airborne
air
quality‘
data,
operations on the data, of the data, Rutherford
perforux
of
levels
altitude.
have been used by Stephens gt al.
(4)
and Karacostas
measured The
simplest and easily
plots
fact
provide
is
of
that
The
data
the
plane)
against types
time of
information that
gathered more
lack of spatial
and
plots
against are
consuming to generate
straightforward interpretation. from
Stephens gt
same basic output —— plots of
these
considerably
(2,3,7,8),
and Marvitz (9).
parameters
least time
the
recognized.
(plots
arithmetical
and perform the mechanical plotting
and Rutherford have the
al.
minor
the
in vertical easily
the can be
altitude-based
spirals)
subject
can
to
The time based plots suffer
information
(on
the
horizontal
and thus are considerably more difficult to read and
interpret,
since
spatial input has
to be sought
plot of the flight path and/or voice recordings. mentioned
before
(in
the
Introduction,
from the As has been
q.v.),
subtle
differences in the measured levels in different areas can go unnoticed, day
to
and the variability of the flight path from one
the next
make
it
difficult
to
locate
and
relate
portions of the flight that were over the same general area. Also,
the
capability
of
flight-gathered
information were not fully utilized.
data
to
provide
·
Karacostas
ll
and Marvitz
(9)
mainly performed
plume tracking and consequently subjected more
detailed
analysis
to
develop
airborne
their data to a
plots
of
vertical
diffusion with respect to time. Various packaged programs exist and
display
of
Most
data.
of
for the
these
manipulation
perform
·
an
interpolation/extrapolation on the data (which may be widely spaced)
to
generate
representations. graphs
of
smooth
They also Due
data.
the
surfaces
in
three-dimensional
provide two—dimensional contour to
fact
the
that
they
were
developed with the objective that they could be used in a wide variety not
of applications,
specifically
oriented
these packaged programs
towards
monitoring results.
The data,
preprocessed before
they
depicting
air
are
quality
therefore, have usually to be
can be used by
these
packaged
programs.
The
report
Graphics
and
Spatial
Graduate School Control more
than a
research.
of
of Design)
decade,
(of
to the
(since
still
Laboratory
the
Analysis
Administration
dealing with
air
(lO,ll)
the
Harvard
Computer
University's
National Air Pollution
defunct) most
computer mapping as
for
is
perhaps,
after
exhaustive work done
applied to
air pollution
Several case studies of areas that had "sufficient
quality,
emission,
and
related
socio-economic
and
12
meteorological
-—
data
spatially
(10) were performed.
region"
general—purpose programs, developed in
1963
and improved
at the
1967
and
1968).
1968),
The
and were called SYMAP
and
(developed
at
the Laboratory
in
and GRID
(developed
at
the
in
"is a
surface which
interpolation procedure
values of points intermediate
Laboratory
generalized procedure
intuitively reasonable
a weighted
Institute
SYMVU
specified values at specified data points" uses
(initially
Laboratory for Computer Graphics
SYMAP program an
producing
the
Programs used in the study were
at Northwestern Technological
Analysis),
Spatial
over
distributed.
to
for
takes
(ll). The program to
compute
the
data points and generate
printer plots. The SYMVU program uses a procedure similar to that used by SYMAP, advantage
of
and generates plotter output.
providing
specified area
different
oblique
views
The GRID program is also
(11).
It has the of
any
similar to
SYMAP and produces printer plots, but uses data collected on the basis of geographic grid cells (ll). is capable plots.
of producing two-,
Although
the
advanced
and
the
quality,
the
output
general
trends
points.
interpolation
maps
and
three-
that
are
should be represents
The combined system
and four-dimensional
techniques
generated
used true
only values
are
as
are of
fairly a
high
indicating
only
at
data
This caution has to be applied to all map output
13
generated by interpolation procedures, the
map
in reflecting
the
directly related to the
actual
and the accuracy of
trends
in the
fineness of the
spatial
data
is
grid over
which the data were collected. Bengtson (12)
(13)
and Jermoluk
have utilized packaged
programs to display data generated by computer models. Both authors
utilized
Program)
package
Products,
GPCP
the (14)
developed
to display
Inc.,
(General by
Contouring
Purpose
Computer
California
two-dimensional
yet the results are radically different.
isopleth maps,
The maps given by
Bengtson seem composed mainly of regular geometrical shapes (rectangles,
circles,
triangles)
while
those
by
given
Jermoluk have more irregular shapes that look like contours. Since the interpolation procedure for producing these maps is the
same
in both cases,
it
can be concluded
that any
differences of a general nature are due to differences in the modeling procedures.
packaged programs that the
data,
However,
that are not
by the time
subjected to two
stages
using the model to
tailored to the model,
it is
to
generate data
generate
interpolation
do
not
its
in map
of interpolation
second when the packaged program
points
the main drawback of using
output.
usually use
to be
form, -—
is
has been
the first when
plotted,
and the
interpolates between data
The the
two same
stages formula
of for
14
performing the
interpolation,
interpreting the
it
is possible
and care must be
results in a
that
correct manner.
data
the
after
the
taken
In
first
in
some cases
stage
of
interpolation (the modeling stage) will bear little relation to the data after the second stage (the mapping stage). This may
result in
erroneous
interpreted properly, faith
anything
5:1
conclusions if
the
maps are
not
because "many people place unwarranted
produced
by
a
computer"
(11).
The
alternative is to use a packaged display program that will not perform any further interpolations on the data supplied to
the
it,
and will
just plot
the
"actual"
data points
(where
data points may have been interpolated by a
"actual"
model). This will usually lead to a less impressive display but a more faithful one. Jermoluk (13) has also utilized the SURFACE II Graphics System
(15)
developed by
the Kansas
present data in three·dimensional diagrams.
The
topographic utilized for and other SURFACE
SURFACE II
maps,
but,
Survey
suitable
for producing
conditions,
displaying spatially distributed air
system
is
The
that
to
form as perspective block
system was developed
under
forms of data.
II
Geological
can be quality
general drawbacks of using the of
two
stage
interpolation
mentioned earlier. Near a source of air pollution, where the concentration gradient
is quite
steep,
the
plots produced
15
are
fairly good.
However,
displaying background
lead
bad
to
computer runs. one
least
system is not suitable for
levels of measured air
since these do not have will
the
quality data
steep concentration gradients and
displays
and
prohibitively
expensive
is because the system searches for at
This
elevated
point,
which
may
be
not
found
in
‘
background level data.
The aspect
of vertical
concentration profiles
of air
pollutants has been addressed by several researchers. has
(16)
compiled the results
of eleven studies
profiles performed near urban areas, basic
types
of
vertical
ozone
meteorological conditions. a well mixed air mass, with height.
due
to
Near
scavenging
meteorological
the then
surface,
of ozone
and has developed six
profiles
These profiles
based
on
indicate that for
the concentrations are nearly uniform surface
the
and
the levels
reaction
conditions
lead
decrease
processes.
to
More
somewhat
stable
low concentrations
increasing to a height of 0.5 to 1.0 km,
decreasing
to
Ludwig
a
constant
concentration lay in the 50 to
level.
100 ppb
The
near
and
average
(parts per billion
v/v)
range. However,
all the studies reported were performed
near
urban
and
levels will
centers,
be
it
is
expected
lower in pristine areas.
that
the
general
The profiles may
also not duplicate those derived for urban areas,
specially
16
stable
during
significant centers,
conditions,
amount
of photochemical
and
Netherlands.
concentrations monitors), 0.7 km,
(17)
Guicherit
measurements (vertical The
usually
there
is
activity near
urban
performed
several
airborne
spirals) of ozone over several areas It
were
was
low
found
that
(determined
by
ground
level
ground
level
increasing with height to a height of from 0.5 to
and then decreasing to a constant level.
Rutherford (4)
reports similar trends (decreasing to a
constant level)
over an altitude of about 1.5 km,
those
reports
ppb.
a
and much is not expected in pristine areas.
Dop
in
since
altitudes
high
concentrations
of
but below
about
240
The flights were spirals and transects flown over field
burns,
and,
among other possible factors,
the
introduction
of smoke into the chemiluminescent ozone monitor could have led to incorrect readings. bscat and dew point.
Other data were reported on NOx,
Above the
smoke level these generally
tended to decrease. Stephens gt al. ozone
trends
(2,7,8)
similar
to
those
generally
lower
performed
in national park
scattering
and
and Lubkert (18) have reported
concentrations
SO2
levels
mentioned since
areas.
have
above
their
but
studies
The coefficient of
been
reported by
at were light
these
researchers to be generally decreasing with altitude.
P
17
Gloria gt al.
(19)
found
the
increasing
and
then
decreasing trends
in the ozone data in studies performed in
various
California.
parts
of
decrease with height.
downwind of
Bscat
Wolff gt gl.
urban "plumes"
was (20)
and found
also
found
conducted
to
studies
ozone concentrations
remaining fairly constant with height,
though
possibly be due to the urban "plumes".
Only in one case
flight over New Brunswick) then decreasing trend.
these could (a
do they report an increasing and
Similar
trends
(though not
the
same
concentrations) would be expected from the data gathered in the survey of the Shenandoah National Park in the 1981, which is the object of the present study.
summer of
Chapter III SYSTEM DESCRIPTIONS
This chapter will give a short description of the Park and the
data
and
gathering
previously,
analysis
system
that
existed
and then describe the data analysis
system that
was developed.
SHENANDOAH NATIONAL PA;; The Shanandoah National Park extends from Front Royal in the north to Waynesboro
in
the south
in northern Virginia,
is part of the Blue Ridge Mountains. Piedmont on
the east
which flows the
west.
from the
south fork of
To the west
of the
parallel to the Park, Washington National
The Park separates the
Shenandoah Valley
(through
the Shenandoah River)
Shenandoah Valley,
and
to
the
running
is Massanutten Mountain and the George
Park.
The
approximately 30° from north, long.
and
axis
of
the
Park
is
tilted
and the Park is about 70 miles
Most of the area surrounding the Park is at an average
elevation of
1000 feet above
portions of the feet above msl.
mean sea level
Park itself rise to heights Figure l
(msl),
of over 4000
shows the area of the Park.
18
while
19
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55
PROGRAMThe OUTPUT FBQM SNP
program mainly
additionally, identify
flight of
performs and
means
parameters.
provides
July 30,
miscellaneous
highest
Figure 11
card-image
points
output,
computations in
the
and, to
measured
shows the option 10 printout for the
1981.
This
is typical
output produced by program SNP. files were read in (i.e.
of the
printed
The printout shows that 224
the entire flight),
that no cut—off
levels were used for calculations of the means for which the cut—off option is valid,
gives the means and the number of
values used to
these,
calculate
and the highest values
of
the parameters.
All the three means calculated for each parameter have the same numerical value because no cut-off levels were used and none
of the
exception is $02.
measured values A look at
calculate the means
were over
100.
The
sole
the number of values used to
shows that
there were 12 observations
that were over a level of 100 ppb. These 12 observations had the effect of shifting the mean upward by as much as 3.12 ppb in spite of the fact that there were This
indicates that
most
of the
value and the 7.36 ppb mean
1042 observations.
observations have a
low
(for the 100 ppb cut-off level)
could possibly also be biased upwards. An examination of the S02
averages
by
altitude
levels
indicates
that
high
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Flight gf September 21, 1281 Figures
to
141
September 21, The
constant, the
display
data
the
levels
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measured
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flight
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parameters
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1981.
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162
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about 2500
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Flight gf September 24,
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Figures 182 to 200 display the data for this flight. S02
The
analyzer was
again
not
functioning
the
for
The NOx levels were fairly constant at an average of
flight.
2 ppb,
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little
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altitudes greater
measured are average
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level of
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at
diagrams
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194
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200)
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correlation with
(-0.8) relative
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246
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