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© 2005 ASM International. All Rights Reserved. ASM Handbook, Volume 13B, Corrosion: Materials (#06508G)

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ASM Handbook Volume 13B Corrosion: Materials Prepared under the direction of the ASM International Handbook Committee

Stephen D. Cramer and Bernard S. Covino, Jr., Volume Editors

Charles Moosbrugger, Project Editor Bonnie R. Sanders, Manager of Production Madrid Tramble, Senior Production Coordinator Gayle J. Anton, Editorial Assistant Jill Kinson, Production Editor Pattie Pace, Production Coordinator Kathryn Muldoon, Production Assistant Scott D. Henry, Senior Product Manager

Editorial Assistance Elizabeth Marquard Heather Lampman Marc Schaefer Beverly Musgrove Cindy Karcher Kathy Dragolich

Materials Park, Ohio 44073-0002 www.asminternational.org



Copyright # 2005 by ASM International1 All rights reserved No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the written permission of the copyright owner. First printing, November 2005

This book is a collective effort involving hundreds of technical specialists. It brings together a wealth of information from worldwide sources to help scientists, engineers, and technicians solve current and long-range problems. Great care is taken in the compilation and production of this Volume, but it should be made clear that NO WARRANTIES, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING, WITHOUT LIMITATION, WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE, ARE GIVEN IN CONNECTION WITH THIS PUBLICATION. Although this information is believed to be accurate by ASM, ASM cannot guarantee that favorable results will be obtained from the use of this publication alone. This publication is intended for use by persons having technical skill, at their sole discretion and risk. Since the conditions of product or material use are outside of ASM’s control, ASM assumes no liability or obligation in connection with any use of this information. No claim of any kind, whether as to products or information in this publication, and whether or not based on negligence, shall be greater in amount than the purchase price of this product or publication in respect of which damages are claimed. THE REMEDY HEREBY PROVIDED SHALL BE THE EXCLUSIVE AND SOLE REMEDY OF BUYER, AND IN NO EVENT SHALL EITHER PARTY BE LIABLE FOR SPECIAL, INDIRECT OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES WHETHER OR NOT CAUSED BY OR RESULTING FROM THE NEGLIGENCE OF SUCH PARTY. As with any material, evaluation of the material under end-use conditions prior to specification is essential. Therefore, specific testing under actual conditions is recommended. Nothing contained in this book shall be construed as a grant of any right of manufacture, sale, use, or reproduction, in connection with any method, process, apparatus, product, composition, or system, whether or not covered by letters patent, copyright, or trademark, and nothing contained in this book shall be construed as a defense against any alleged infringement of letters patent, copyright, or trademark, or as a defense against liability for such infringement. Comments, criticisms, and suggestions are invited, and should be forwarded to ASM International. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data ASM International ASM Handbook Includes bibliographical references and indexes Contents: v.1. Properties and selection—irons, steels, and high-performance alloys—v.2. Properties and selection—nonferrous alloys and special-purpose materials—[etc.]—v.21. Composites 1. Metals—Handbooks, manuals, etc. 2. Metal-work—Handbooks, manuals, etc. I. ASM International. Handbook Committee. II. Metals Handbook. TA459.M43 1990 620.10 6 90-115 SAN: 204-7586 ISBN: 0-87170-707-1 ASM International1 Materials Park, OH 44073-0002 www.asminternational.org Printed in the United States of America Multiple copy reprints of individual articles are available from Technical Department, ASM International.



Foreword Enhancing the life of structures and engineered materials, while protecting the environment and public safety, is one of the paramount technological challenges for our nation and the world. Corrosion-related problems span a wide spectrum of materials and systems that impact our daily lives, such as aging aircraft, high-rise structures, railroads, automobiles, ships, pipelines, and many others. According to a study conducted in 1998, the total direct and indirect cost of corrosion to the United States alone exceeds $550 billion per year. While major technological advances have been made during the last three decades, numerous new innovations need to be made in the coming years. ASM International is pleased to publish ASM Handbook, Volume 13B, Corrosion: Materials, the second book in a three-volume revision of the landmark 1987 Metals Handbook, 9th Edition, on corrosion. The information from the 1987 Volume has been revised, updated, and expanded to address the needs of the members of ASM International and the technical community for current and comprehensive information on the physical, chemical, and electrochemical reactions between specific materials and environments. Since the time the 1987 Corrosion volume was published, knowledge of materials and corrosion has grown, which aids the material selection process. Engineered systems have grown in complexity, however, making the effects of subtle changes in material performance more significant. ASM International continues to be indebted to the Editors, Stephen D. Cramer and Bernard S. Covino, Jr., who had the vision and the drive to undertake the huge effort of updating and revising the 1987 Corrosion volume. ASM Handbook, Volume 13A, Corrosion: Fundamentals, Testing, and Protection, published in 2003, is the cornerstone of their effort. The project will be completed with the publication of ASM Handbook, Volume 13C, Corrosion: Environments and Industries, in 2006. The Editors have brought together experts from across the globe making this an international effort. Contributors to the corrosion Volumes represent Australia, Belgium, Canada, Crete, Finland, France, Germany, India, Italy, Japan, Korea, Mexico, Poland, South Africa, Sweden, Switzerland, and the United Kingdom, as well as the United States. The review, revisions, and technical oversight of the Editors have added greatly to this body of knowledge. We thank the authors and reviewers of the 1987 Corrosion volume, which at the time was the largest, most comprehensive volume on a single topic ever published by ASM. This new edition builds upon that groundbreaking project. Thanks also go to the members of the ASM Handbook Committee for their oversight and involvement, and to the ASM editorial and production staff for their tireless efforts. We are especially grateful to the over 120 authors and reviewers listed in the next several pages. Their willingness to invest their time and effort and to share their knowledge and experience by writing, rewriting, and reviewing articles has made this Handbook an outstanding source of information. Bhakta B. Rath President ASM International Stanley C. Theobald Managing Director ASM International

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Policy on Units of Measure units would be presented in dual units, but the sheet thickness specified in that specification might be presented only in inches. Data obtained according to standardized test methods for which the standard recommends a particular system of units are presented in the units of that system. Wherever feasible, equivalent units are also presented. Some statistical data may also be presented in only the original units used in the analysis. Conversions and rounding have been done in accordance with IEEE/ ASTM SI-10, with attention given to the number of significant digits in the original data. For example, an annealing temperature of 1570 F contains three significant digits. In this case, the equivalent temperature would be given as 855 C; the exact conversion to 854.44 C would not be appropriate. For an invariant physical phenomenon that occurs at a precise temperature (such as the melting of pure silver), it would be appropriate to report the temperature as 961.93 C or 1763.5 F. In some instances (especially in tables and data compilations), temperature values in C and F are alternatives rather than conversions. The policy of units of measure in this Handbook contains several exceptions to strict conformance to IEEE/ASTM SI-10; in each instance, the exception has been made in an effort to improve the clarity of the Handbook. The most notable exception is the use of g/cm3 rather than kg/m3 as the unit of measure for density (mass per unit volume). SI practice requires that only one virgule (diagonal) appear in units formed by combination of several basic units. Therefore, all of the units preceding the virgule are in the numerator and all units following the virgule are in the denominator of the expression; no parentheses are required to prevent ambiguity.

By a resolution of its Board of Trustees, ASM International has adopted the practice of publishing data in both metric and customary U.S. units of measure. In preparing this Handbook, the editors have attempted to present data in metric units based primarily on Syste`me International d’Unite´s (SI), with secondary mention of the corresponding values in customary U.S. units. The decision to use SI as the primary system of units was based on the aforementioned resolution of the Board of Trustees and the widespread use of metric units throughout the world. For the most part, numerical engineering data in the text and in tables are presented in SI-based units with the customary U.S. equivalents in parentheses (text) or adjoining columns (tables). For example, pressure, stress, and strength are shown both in SI units, which are pascals (Pa) with a suitable prefix, and in customary U.S. units, which are pounds per square inch (psi). To save space, large values of psi have been converted to kips per square inch (ksi), where 1 ksi=1000 psi. The metric tonne (kg · 103) has sometimes been shown in megagrams (Mg). Some strictly scientific data are presented in SI units only. To clarify some illustrations, only one set of units is presented on artwork. References in the accompanying text to data in the illustrations are presented in both SI-based and customary U.S. units. On graphs and charts, grids corresponding to SI-based units usually appear along the left and bottom edges. Where appropriate, corresponding customary U.S. units appear along the top and right edges. Data pertaining to a specification published by a specification-writing group may be given in only the units used in that specification or in dual units, depending on the nature of the data. For example, the typical yield strength of steel sheet made to a specification written in customary U.S.

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Preface laws of chemistry and physics, that with sufficient knowledge corrosion is predictable, and therefore, within the constraints of design and operating conditions, corrosion can be minimized to provide economic, environmental, and safety benefits. The first Section, “Corrosion of Ferrous Metals,” examines the corrosion performance of wrought carbon steels, wrought low alloy steels, weathering steels, metallic-coated steels, organic-coated steels, cast irons, cast carbon and low alloy steels, wrought stainless steels, and cast stainless steels. These materials include a wide spectrum of end-use products utilizing steel’s desirable characteristics of lightness, high strength and stiffness, adaptability, ease of prefabrication and mass production, dimensional stability, durability, abrasion resistance, uniform quality, noncombustibility, and ability to be recycled. In today’s worldwide market, cost comes into play in the material selection process only after the user’s functional requirements, particularly durability, are met. Expectations for low maintenance and long life, crucial for a favorable life cycle cost evaluation, require that long-term durability, including corrosion performance, can be substantiated through prior experience and test data. The second Section, “Corrosion of Nonferrous Metals and Specialty Products,” addresses the corrosion performance of metals and alloys made from aluminum, beryllium, cobalt, copper, hafnium, lead, magnesium, nickel, niobium, precious metals, tantalum, tin, titanium, uranium, zinc, zirconium, and specialty products including brazed and soldered joints, thermal spray coatings, electroplated hard chromium, clad metals, powder metallurgy materials, amorphous metals, intermetallics, carbides, and metal matrix composites. Numerous nonferrous alloys have extremely desirable physical and mechanical properties and have much higher resistance to corrosion and oxidation than steels and stainless steels. The most widely used nonferrous materials are those based on aluminum, copper, nickel, and titanium. Powder metallurgy materials, amorphous metals, intermetallics, cemented carbides, and metal matrix composites are defined less by their compositions than by their microstructures, which provide physical, mechanical, and corrosion and oxidation resistance unlike those of the traditionally processed metals and alloys. In most structures designed to resist corrosion, joints represent the greatest challenge. Coatings and claddings protect vulnerable substrate materials by resisting the impact of corrosive or oxidizing media or by acting as sacrificial anodes. The third Section, “Environmental Performance of Nonmetallic Materials,” addresses the performance of refractories, ceramics, concrete, protective coatings, rubber linings, elastomers, and thermosetting resins and resin matrix composites in aggressive environments. A significant number of engineering materials applications are fulfilled by nonmetallic materials. While nonmetallic materials are extensively used in engineering systems, they can degrade is with time, sometimes with catastrophic effect. The goal of this section is to indicate the chemical resistance of a variety of commonly used nonmetallic materials and provide further references for those seeking more in-depth information on their environmental performance. In this regard, testing for chemical and mechanical compatibility is usually warranted before nonmetallic materials are placed into a specific service. The Handbook concludes with the estimate of the “Global Cost of Corrosion” noted at the beginning of this Preface and a “Gallery of Corrosion Damage.” Using earlier cost studies as a basis, the 2004 total cost of corrosion to the global economy, including both direct and indirect costs,

Corrosion, while silent and often subtle, is probably the most significant cause of degradation of society’s structures. Over the past 100 years, efforts have been made to estimate the cost of corrosion to the economies of various countries. These efforts have been updated to 2004 in this Handbook, and extrapolated to the global economy to provide an estimate of the global cost of corrosion (Ref 1). With a 2004 global Gross Domestic Product (GDP) of about $50 trillion United States dollars (USD), the direct cost of corrosion was estimated to be $990 billion (USD) annually, or 2.0 percent of the world GDP (Ref 1). The direct cost is that experienced by owners and operators of manufactured equipment and systems and of other man-made objects (Ref 2). The indirect cost of corrosion, representing costs assumed by the end user and the overall economy (Ref 2), was estimated to be $940 billion (USD) annually (Ref 1). On this basis, the 2004 total cost of corrosion to the global economy was estimated to be about $1.9 trillion (USD) annually, or 3.8 percent of the world GDP. The largest contribution to this cost comes from the United States at 31 percent, with other major contributions being: Japan—6 percent, Russia—6 percent, Germany—5 percent, and the UK, Australia, and Belgium—1 percent. ASM Handbook Volume 13B, Corrosion: Materials, is the second volume in a three-volume update, revision, and expansion of Corrosion published in 1987 as Volume 13 of the ninth edition Metals Handbook. The first volume—ASM Handbook Volume 13A, Corrosion: Fundamentals, Testing, and Protection—was published in 2003. Volume 13C, Corrosion: Environments and Industries, will be published in 2006. The purpose of these three volumes is to present the current state of knowledge of corrosion, efforts to mitigate corrosion’s effects on society’s structures and economies, and some perspective on future trends in corrosion prevention and mitigation. Metals remain the primary materials focus of the Handbook, but nonmetallic materials occupy a more prominent position, reflecting their wide and effective use to solve problems of corrosion and their frequent use with metals in complex engineering systems. Wet (or aqueous) corrosion remains the primary environmental focus, but dry (or gaseous) corrosion is also addressed, reflecting the increased use of elevated or high temperature operations in engineering systems, particularly energy-related systems where corrosion and oxidation are important considerations. As with Volume 13A, Volume 13B recognizes the diverse range of materials, environments, and industries affected by corrosion, the global reach of corrosion practice, and the levels of technical activity and cooperation required to produce cost-effective, safe, and environmentallysound solutions to materials problems in chemically aggressive environments. As we worked on this project, we marveled at the spread of corrosion technology into many engineering technologies and fields of human activity. This occurred because the pioneers of corrosion technology from the early to mid-20th century, and the organizations they helped create, were able to effectively communicate and disseminate their knowledge to an ever widening audience through educational, training, and outreach activities. One quarter of the articles in Volume 13B did not appear in the 1987 Handbook. Authors from eight countries contributed to Volume 13B. The references for each article are augmented by Selected References to provide access to a wealth of additional information on corrosion. Volume 13B is organized into three major sections addressing the materials used in society’s structures and their performance over time. These sections recognize that materials are chemicals and respond to the v



was estimated to be about $1.9 trillion (USD) annually, or 3.8 percent of the world GDP. The “Gallery of Corrosion Damage” contains color photographs of corrosion damage to complement the many black and white examples that accompany individual articles in the three volume series. The Gallery was assembled from photographs taken by experts in their practice of corrosion control and prevention in industrial environments. The photographs illustrate forms of corrosion and how they appear on inspection in specific environments, with a brief analysis of the corrosion problem and discussion of how the problem was corrected. Supporting material at the back of the handbook includes a variety of useful information. A “Periodic Table of the Elements” provides fundamental information on the elements and gives their organization by group using three conventions: Chemical Abstract Service (CAS), International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC)-1970, and IUPAC-1988. A concise description of “Crystal Structure” is given. “Density of Metals and Alloys” gives values for a wide range of metals and alloys. “Reference Electrodes” provides data on the commonly used reference electrodes and “Overpotential” distinguishes overpotential and overvoltage. The “Electrochemical Series” from the CRC Handbook is reproduced giving standard reduction potentials for a lengthy array of elements. A “Galvanic Series of Metals and Alloys in Seawater” shows materials by their potential with respect to the saturated calomel electrode (SCE) reference electrode. The “Compatibility Guide” serves as a reference to metal couples in various environments. A “Corrosion Rate Conversion” includes conversions in both nomograph and tabular form. The “Metric Conversion Guide” gives conversion factors for common units and includes SI prefixes. “Abbreviations and Symbols” provides a key to common acronyms, abbreviations, and symbols used in the Handbook. Many individuals contributed to Volume 13B. In particular we wish to recognize the efforts of the following individuals who provided leadership in organizing subsections of the Handbook (listed in alphabetical order): Chairperson

Rajan Bhaskaran Arthur Cohen Bernard Covino, Jr. Stephen Cramer Paul Crook Peter Elliott John F. Grubb Gil Kaufman Barbara Shaw David C. Silverman Richard Sutherlin Gregory Zhang

These knowledgeable and dedicated individuals generously devoted considerable time to the preparation of the Handbook. They were joined in this effort by more than 70 authors who contributed their expertise and creativity in a collaboration to write and revise the articles in the Handbook, and by the many reviewers of these articles. These volunteers built on the contributions of earlier Handbook authors and reviewers who provided the solid foundation on which the present Handbook rests. For articles revised from the 1987 edition, the contribution of the previous author is acknowledged at the end of the article. This location in no way diminishes their contribution or our gratitude. Those authors responsible for the current revision are named after the title. The variation in the amount of revision is broad. The many completely new articles presented no challenge for attribution, but assigning fair credit for revised articles was more problematic. The choice of presenting authors’ names without comment or with the qualifier “Revised by” is solely the responsibility of the ASM staff. We thank ASM International and the ASM staff for the skilled support and valued expertise in the production of this Handbook. In particular, we thank Charles Moosbrugger, Gayle Anton, and Scott Henry for their encouragement, tactful diplomacy, and many helpful discussions. We are most grateful to the Albany Research Center, U.S. Department of Energy, for the support and flexibility in our assignments that enabled us to participate in this project. In particular, we thank Jeffrey A. Hawk and Cynthia A. Powell for their gracious and generous encouragement throughout the project. Stephen D. Cramer Bernard S. Covino, Jr., U.S. Department of Energy Albany Research Center

Subsection title

Global Cost of Corrosion Corrosion of Copper and Copper Alloys Corrosion of Specialty Products Corrosion of Carbon and Alloy Steels, Corrosion of Low Melting Metals and Alloys Corrosion of Cobalt and Cobalt-Base Alloys, Corrosion of Nickel-Base Alloys Gallery of Corrosion Damage Corrosion of Stainless Steels Corrosion of Aluminum and Aluminum Alloys Corrosion of Magnesium and Magnesium-Base Alloys Environmental Performance of Non-Metallic Materials Corrosion of Reactive and Refractory Metals and Alloys Corrosion of Zinc and Zinc Alloys

REFERENCES 1. R. Bhaskaran, N. Palaniswamy, N.S. Rengaswamy, and M. Jayachandran, “Global Cost of Corrosion—A Historical Review,” in Corrosion: Materials, ASM Handbook 13B, ASM International, Materials Park OH, 2005 2. Gerhardus H. Koch, Michiel P.H. Brongers, Neil G. Thompson, Y. Paul Virmani, and Joe H. Payer, Corrosion Cost and Preventive Strategies in the United States, FHWA-RD-01-156, Federal Highway Administration, U.S. Department of Transportation, Washington D.C., March 2002

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Officers and Trustees of ASM International (2004–2005) Bhakta B. Rath President and Trustee U.S. Naval Research Laboratory Reza Abbaschian Vice President and Trustee University of Florida Robert C. Tucker, Jr. Immediate Past President and Trustee The Tucker Group LLC Paul L. Huber Treasurer Seco/Warwick Corporation

Stanley C. Theobald Secretary and Managing Director ASM International

Trustees Rodney R. Boyer Boeing Commercial Airplane Group Dianne Chong The Boeing Company Roger J. Fabian Bodycote Thermal Processing

William E. Frazier Naval Air Systems Command Richard L. Kennedy Allvac Frederick J. Lisy Orbital Research Incorporated Frederick Edward Schmidt Engineering Systems Incorporated Richard D. Sisson, Jr. Worcester Polytechnic Institute Lawrence C. Wagner Texas Instruments

Members of the ASM Handbook Committee (2004–2005) Jeffrey A. Hawk (Chair 2005–; Member 1997–) U.S. Department of Energy Larry D. Hanke (1994–) (Vice Chair 2005–; Member 1994–) Materials Evaluation and Engineering Inc. David E. Alman (2002–) U.S. Department of Energy Tim Cheek (2004–) International Truck & Engine Corporation Lichun Leigh Chen (2002–) Engineered Materials Solutions Craig V. Darragh (1989–) The Timken Company

Henry E. Fairman (1993–) Cincinnati Metallurgical Consultants Michael A. Hollis (2003–) Delphi Corporation Dennis D. Huffman (1982–) The Timken Company (retired) Kent L. Johnson (1999–) Engineering Systems Inc. Ann Kelly (2004–) Los Alamos National Laboratory Donald R. Lesuer (1999–) Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory Huimin Liu (1999–) Ford Motor Company

Alan T. Male (2003–) University of Kentucky William L. Mankins (1989–) Metallurgical Services Inc. Toby Padfield (2004–) ZF Sachs Automotive of America Srikanth Raghunathan (1999–) Nanomat Inc. Karl P. Staudhammer (1997–) Los Alamos National Laboratory Kenneth B. Tator (1991–) KTA-Tator Inc. George F. Vander Voort (1997–) Buehler Ltd.

Previous Chairs of the ASM Handbook Committee R.J. Austin (1992–1994) (Member 1984–1985) L.B. Case (1931–1933) (Member 1927–1933) T.D. Cooper (1984–1986) (Member 1981–1986) C.V. Darragh (1999–2002) (Member 1989–) E.O. Dixon (1952–1954) (Member 1947–1955) R.L. Dowdell (1938–1939) (Member 1935–1939) Henry E. Fairman (2002–2004) (Member 1993–) M.M. Gauthier (1997–1998) (Member 1990–2000) J.P. Gill (1937) (Member 1934–1937) J.D. Graham (1966–1968) (Member 1961–1970)

J.F. Harper (1923–1926) (Member 1923–1926) C.H. Herty, Jr. (1934–1936) (Member 1930–1936) D.D. Huffman (1986–1990) (Member 1982–) J.B. Johnson (1948–1951) (Member 1944–1951) L.J. Korb (1983) (Member 1978–1983) R.W.E. Leiter (1962–1963) (Member 1955–1958, 1960–1964) G.V. Luerssen (1943–1947) (Member 1942–1947) G.N. Maniar (1979–1980) (Member 1974–1980) W.L. Mankins (1994–1997) (Member 1989–)

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J.L. McCall (1982) (Member 1977–1982) W.J. Merten (1927–1930) (Member 1923–1933) D.L. Olson (1990–1992) (Member 1982–1988, 1989–1992) N.E. Promisel (1955–1961) (Member 1954–1963) G.J. Shubat (1973–1975) (Member 1966–1975) W.A. Stadtler (1969–1972) (Member 1962–1972) R. Ward (1976–1978) (Member 1972–1978) M.G.H. Wells (1981) (Member 1976–1981) D.J. Wright (1964–1965) (Member 1959–1967)



Authors and Contributors Safaa J. Alhassan International Lead Zinc Research Organization, Inc. Jim Alexander Consultant Robert Baboian RB Corrosion Service Brian Baker Special Metals Corporation James P. Bennett U.S. Department of Energy, Albany Research Center R. Bhaskaran Central Electrochemical Research Institute Malcolm Blair Steel Founders’ Society of America Arthur Cohen Arthur Cohen & Associates Terry W. Cowley DuPont Paul Crook Haynes International, Inc. Jim Crum Special Metals Corporation P.K. Datta Advanced Materials Research Institute, Northumbria University

James D. Fritz TMR Stainless Ronald A. Graham ATI Wah Chang, Allegheny Technologies John F. Grubb ATI-Allegheny Ludlum Robert J. Hanrahan, Jr. Los Alamos National Laboratory Warren J. Haws Brush Wellman, Inc. L.H. Hihara The University of Hawaii at Manoa D.R. Holmes ATI Wah Chang, Allegheny Technologies Nathan S. Jacobson NASA Glenn Research Center M. Jayachandran H.H. The Rajah’s College Allen R. Jones Atotech G. Kaufman Kaufman Associates, Ltd. Pradip Khaladkar DuPont Dwaine Klarstrom Haynes International, Inc.

Terry DeBold Carpenter Technology Corporation

Toshiaki Kodama Nakabohtec Corrosion Protection Co., Ltd.

Larry DeLashmit Polycorp, Ltd.

Kyei-Sing Kwong U.S. Department of Energy, Albany Research Center

Christopher Dellacorte NASA Glenn Research Center Manish Dighe Hi TecMetal Group H.L. Du Advanced Materials Research Institute, Northumbria University

Jay W. Larson American Iron and Steel Institute Kang N. Lee Cleveland State University Jennifer A. Lillard Los Alamos National Laboratory

Peter Elliott Corrosion & Materials Consultancy, Inc.

Ashley Lucente University of Virginia

F.B. Fletcher Mittal Steel USA

Steve Matthews Haynes International

Lee Flower Haynes International, Inc.

Tapio Ma¨ntyla¨ Tampere University of Technology

Dennis S. Fox NASA Glenn Research Center

Sabrina Meck Haynes International, Inc. viii

Bert Moniz DuPont Raymond W. Monroe Steel Founders’ Society of America Thomas G. Oakwood Consultant Elizabeth J. Opila NASA Glenn Research Center George Oprea University of British Columbia N. Palaniswamy Central Electrochemical Research Institute William C. Panarese Portland Cement Association Raul Rebak Lawrence Livermore Laboratory N.S. Rengaswamy Central Electrochemical Research Institute Michel Rigaud CIREP, Ećole Polytecnique Montreal Mark Rowe Haynes International, Inc. Ronald W. Schutz RMI Titanium Company John R. Scully University of Virginia C. Ramadeva Shasty International Steel Group, Inc. Barbara A. Shaw Pennsylvania State University David C. Silverman Argentum Solutions, Inc. James L. Smialek NASA Glenn Research Center Gaylord D. Smith Special Metals Corporation Thomas C. Spence Flowserve Corporation Krishna Srivastava Haynes International, Inc. Bill Stahl DuPont Performance Elastomers Richard C. Sutherlin ATI Wah Chang, Allegheny Technologies Hiroyuki Tanabe Dai Nippon Toryo Company



Kenneth B. Tator KTA-Tator, Inc. Tommy Taylor DuPont Performance Elastomers Mikko Uusitalo Metso Powdermet Oy

Stephen M. Winder U.K. Software Services Ryan C. Wolfe Pennsylvania State University Jim Wu Deloro Stellite, Inc.

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Te-Lin Yau Te-Lin Yau Consultancy X. Gregory Zhang Teck Cominco Metals Ltd.



Reviewers Robert L. Bratton Nuclear Materials Disposition and Engineering Juan Bustillos Dow Chemical Gary Carinci TMR Stainless Tim Cheek International Truck & Engine Corporation L. Chen Engineered Materials Solutions Desmond C. Cook Old Dominion University Larry Craigie American Composites Manufacturers Association Craig Darragh The Timken Company Subodh Das Kenneth deSouza Dofasco, Inc. John B. Dion BAE Systems David Dombrowski Los Alamos National Laboratory Richard W. Drisko John DuPont Lehigh University Henry E. Fairman Cincinnati Metallurgical Consultants Robert Filipek AGH University of Science and Technology John J. Goetz Thielsch Engineering Jeffrey A. Hawk U.S. Department of Energy Albany Research Center

M. Swyn Hocking Imperial College London Merv Howells Honeywell Dennis Huffman The Timken Company Russell H. Jones U.S. Department of Energy Pacific Northwest National Laboratory Don Kelley Dow Chemical

Raul Rebak U.S. Department of Energy Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory Michael Renner Bayer Technology Services GmbH Elwin L. Rooy Elwin L. Rooy and Associates B.J. Sanders BJS and Associates Mark Schilling

Don Kim

William L. Silence

Dale Kingseed David Kolman U.S. Department of Energy Los Alamos National Laboratory Roger A. LaBoube University of Missouri-Rolla Lionel Lemay National Ready-Mixed Concrete Association William LeVan Cast Iron Soil Pipe Institute Scott Lillard U.S. Department of Energy Los Alamos National Laboratory Graham McCartney University of Nottingham Karthik H. Obla National Ready-Mixed Concrete Association Toby V. Padfield ZF Sachs Automotive of America Steven J. Pawel U.S. Department of Energy Oak Ridge National Laboratory G. Louis Powell Y-12 National Security Complex

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Donald Snyder Atotech R&D Worldwide David L. Sponseller OMNI Metals Laboratory, Inc. Karl P. Staudhammer U.S. Department of Energy Los Alamos National Laboratory Oscar Tavares Lafarge North America Inc. Michael E. Tavary Dow Chemical John Tundermann Elma van der Lingen MINTEK David J. Willis BlueScope Steel Roger Wildt RW Consulting Group Gregory Zhang Teck Cominco



Contents Differences between Prepaint and Postpaint ......................... Part Design Consideration in Coated Steel Sheet ................. Selection Guideline ............................................................... Advantages of Prepainted Steels ........................................... Corrosion of Cast Irons Thomas C. Spence ............................................................................. Basic Metallurgy of Cast Irons ............................................. Influence of Alloying ............................................................. Influence of Microstructure ................................................... Commercially Available Cast Irons ...................................... Forms of Corrosion ............................................................... Resistance to Corrosive Environments ................................. Coatings ................................................................................. Selection of Cast Irons .......................................................... Corrosion of Cast Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels Raymond W. Monroe ......................................................................... Atmospheric Corrosion ......................................................... Other Environments ..............................................................

Corrosion of Ferrous Metals ................................................................ 1 Introduction to Corrosion of Ferrous Metals Jay W. Larson ...................................................................................... Industry Overview ................................................................... Steel Products and Characteristics .......................................... Role of Corrosion ....................................................................

3 3 3 3

Corrosion of Carbon and Alloy Steels Corrosion of Wrought Carbon Steels Toshiaki Kodama ................................................................................. 5 Atmospheric Corrosion ........................................................... 5 Aqueous Corrosion .................................................................. 7 Soil Corrosion .......................................................................... 8 Corrosion in Concrete ............................................................. 9 Boiler Service ........................................................................ 10 Corrosion of Wrought Low-Alloy Steels Thomas G. Oakwood ......................................................................... 11 Corrosive Environments Encountered in the Use of Alloy Steels ....................................................................... 11 Atmospheric Corrosion Resistance of Low-Alloy Steels .................................................................................. 11 Corrosion of Low-Alloy Steels in Specific End-Use Environments ..................................................................... 13 Corrosion of Weathering Steels F.B. Fletcher ...................................................................................... 28 Copper-Bearing Steels ........................................................... 28 High-Strength Low-Alloy Steels ........................................... 28 Atmospheric Corrosion Testing ............................................ 28 Estimating Atmospheric Corrosion Behavior of Weathering Steels .............................................................. 29 Mechanism of Corrosion Resistance of Weathering Steels .................................................................................. 29 Corrosion Behavior under Different Exposure Conditions .......................................................................... 30 Case Histories and Design Considerations ........................... 30 Corrosion of Metallic Coated Steels C. Ramadeva Shastry ........................................................................ 35 Zinc-Base Coatings ............................................................... 35 Aluminum-Base Coatings ..................................................... 37 Zinc-Aluminum Alloy Coatings ............................................ 38 Aluminum-Zinc Alloy Coatings ............................................ 38 Corrosion of Organic Coated Steels Hiroyuki Tanabe ................................................................................ 40 How Paint Films Deter Corrosion ......................................... 40 Corrosion Protection of Steel Structures by Organic Coatings ............................................................... 40 Design of Steel Structures for Coating ................................. 40 Paint Systems for Bridges ..................................................... 41 Prepaint Processing ............................................................... 41

Corrosion of Stainless Steels Corrosion of Wrought Stainless Steels John F. Grubb, Terry DeBold, James D. Fritz ................................. Identification Systems for Stainless Steels ............................ Families of Stainless Steels ................................................... Mechanism of Corrosion Resistance ..................................... Effects of Composition .......................................................... Effects of Processing, Design, Fabrication, and External Treatments ......................................................................... Forms of Corrosion of Stainless Steels ................................. Corrosion in Specific Environments ..................................... Corrosion in Various Applications ........................................ Corrosion Testing .................................................................. Corrosion of Cast Stainless Steels Malcolm Blair .................................................................................... Composition and Microstructure ........................................... Corrosion Behavior of H-Type Alloys .................................. Corrosion Behavior of C-Type Alloys ..................................

41 41 42 42 43 43 43 44 44 45 46 48 49 51 51 53

54 54 55 57 58 58 62 63 70 75 78 78 79 81

Corrosion of Nonferrous Metals and Specialty Products ................ 89 Introduction to Corrosion of Nonferrous Metals and Specialty Products Paul Crook ......................................................................................... 93 Copper ................................................................................... 93 Nickel .................................................................................... 93 Titanium ................................................................................ 93 Aluminum .............................................................................. 94 Specialty Products ................................................................. 94 xi



Corrosion of Aluminum and Aluminum Alloys Corrosion of Aluminum and Aluminum Alloys G. Kaufman ........................................................................................ 95 Pitting Corrosion ................................................................... 95 Solution Potentials ................................................................. 96 Effects of Composition and Microstructure on Corrosion ........................................................................... 97 Corrosion Ratings of Alloys and Tempers .......................... 101 Galvanic Corrosion and Protection ..................................... 101 Deposition Corrosion ........................................................... 104 Intergranular Corrosion ....................................................... 104 Stress-Corrosion Cracking ................................................... 105 Effect of Stress-Intensity Factor .......................................... 106 Exfoliation Corrosion .......................................................... 110 Corrosion Fatigue ................................................................ 111 Erosion-Corrosion ............................................................... 112 Atmospheric Corrosion ....................................................... 112 Filiform Corrosion ............................................................... 114 Corrosion in Waters ............................................................. 114 Corrosion in Soils ................................................................ 117 Resistance of Anodized Aluminum .................................... 118 Effects of Nonmetallic Building Materials ......................... 119 Contact with Foods, Pharmaceuticals, and Chemicals ........................................................................ 120 Care of Aluminum ............................................................... 121 Corrosion of Copper and Copper Alloys Corrosion of Copper and Copper Alloys Arthur Cohen ................................................................................... Effects of Alloy Composition ............................................. Types of Attack ................................................................... Corrosion of Copper Alloys in Specific Environments ................................................................... Stress Corrosion Cracking of Copper Alloys in Specific Environments ................................................................... Protective Coatings .............................................................. Corrosion Testing ................................................................ Corrosion of Cobalt and Cobalt-Base Alloys Corrosion of Cobalt and Cobalt-Base Alloys ..................................... Alloys Resistant to Aqueous Corrosion Paul Crook, Jim Wu ........................................................ High-Carbon Co-Cr-W Alloys ............................ Low-Carbon Co-Cr-Mo Alloys ........................... High-Carbon Co-Cr-Mo Alloys .......................... Low-Carbon Co-Mo-Cr-Si Alloys ...................... Age-Hardenable Co-Ni-Cr-Mo Alloys ................ Product Forms ..................................................... Aqueous Corrosion Properties Paul Crook ....................................................................... Hydrochloric Acid ............................................... Sulfuric Acid ....................................................... Phosphoric Acid .................................................. Hydrofluoric Acid ................................................ Nitric Acid ........................................................... Organic Acids ...................................................... Salts ..................................................................... Seawater .............................................................. Alkalis .................................................................. Environmental Cracking Paul Crook .......................................................................

Applications and Fabrication Steve Matthews, Jim Wu .................................................. 170 Hardfacing with the High-Carbon Co-Cr-W Alloys .............................................................. 171 Welding of Wrought Cobalt Alloys .................... 172 Alloys Resistant to High-Temperature Corrosion Dwaine Klarstrom ........................................................... 172 High-Temperature Corrosion Properties Dwaine Klarstrom, Krishna Srivastava .......................... 172 Oxidation ............................................................. 172 Sulfidation ............................................................ 173 Carburization ....................................................... 173 Corrosion by Halogens ........................................ 174 Corrosion by Molten Salts ................................... 175 Applications and Fabrication for High-Temperature Service Lee Flower, Steve Matthews ........................................... 175 Forming and Annealing ....................................... 175 Welding Characteristics ...................................... 175 Corrosion of Low Melting Metals and Alloys Corrosion of Tin and Tin Alloys ......................................................... Pure Tin ............................................................................... Soft Solders ......................................................................... Pewter .................................................................................. Bearing Alloys ..................................................................... Other Tin Alloys .................................................................. Tin and Tin-Alloy Coatings ................................................ Tinplate ................................................................................ Corrosion Testing of Coatings ............................................ Corrosion of Lead and Lead Alloys Safaa J. Alhassan ............................................................................ The Nature of Lead Corrosion ............................................ Corrosion in Water .............................................................. Atmospheric Corrosion ....................................................... Corrosion in Underground Ducts ........................................ Corrosion in Soil ................................................................. Resistance to Chemicals ...................................................... Tin-Lead Solder Alloys .......................................................

125 125 127 131 151 154 154

Corrosion of Magnesium and Magnesium-Base Alloys Corrosion of Magnesium and Magnesium-Base Alloys Barbara A. Shaw, Ryan C. Wolfe .................................................... Environmental Factors ........................................................ Corrosion in Real and Simulated Environments ................. Localized Corrosion Mechanisms ....................................... Galvanic Corrosion .............................................................. Protection of Assemblies ..................................................... Protective Coating Systems ................................................. Inhibitors .............................................................................. Industry-Proven Protection Systems ................................... Novel Magnesium Alloys with Improved Corrosion Resistance ........................................................................ Corrosion of Bulk Vapor-Deposited Alloys ....................... Metal-Matrix Composites ....................................................

164 164 164 165 166 166 166 166 166 167 167 167 168 168 168 168 169 169

Corrosion of Nickel and Nickel-Base Alloys Corrosion of Nickel and Nickel-Base Alloys Paul Crook ....................................................................................... Introduction to Alloys Resistant to Aqueous Corrosion Paul Crook, Dwaine Klarstrom, Jim Crum .................... Commercially Pure Nickel .................................. Nickel-Copper Alloys ..........................................

169 xii

177 177 179 181 181 182 182 186 188 195 195 195 196 197 199 200 203

205 206 207 211 214 216 220 222 222 224 225 226

228 228 228 229



Nickel-Molybdenum Alloys ................................ Nickel-Chromium Alloys .................................... Ni-Cr-Mo Alloys ................................................. Ni-Cr-Fe Alloys ................................................... Ni-Fe-Cr Alloys ................................................... Product Forms ..................................................... Aqueous Corrosion Properties Paul Crook, Sabrina Meck, Jim Crum, Raul Rebak ....... Hydrochloric Acid ............................................... Sulfuric Acid ....................................................... Phosphoric Acid .................................................. Hydrofluoric Acid ................................................ Hydrobromic Acid ............................................... Nitric Acid ........................................................... Organic Acids ...................................................... Salts ..................................................................... Seawater .............................................................. Alkalis .................................................................. Environmental Cracking Raul Rebak ...................................................................... Commercially Pure Nickel .................................. Nickel-Copper Alloys .......................................... Nickel-Molybdenum Alloys ................................ Ni-Cr-Mo Alloys ................................................. Ni-Cr, Ni-Cr-Fe, and Ni-Fe-Cr Alloys ................ Applications and Fabrication Brian Baker, Paul Crook, Lee Flower, Mark Rowe ....... Petrochemical and Refining ................................ Chemical Processing ........................................... Power Industry ..................................................... Fabrication ........................................................... Alloys Resistant to High-Temperature Corrosion Dwaine Klarstrom ........................................................... High-Temperature Corrosion Properties Dwaine Klarstrom, Krishna Srivastava .......................... Oxidation ............................................................. Carburization ....................................................... Metal Dusting ...................................................... Sulfidation ............................................................ Corrosion by Halogens ........................................ Corrosion by Molten Salts ................................... Applications Brian Baker, Jim Crum, Lee Flower ............................... Petrochemical and Refining ................................ Heating and Heat Treating .................................. Aircraft Gas Turbines .......................................... Power Industry .....................................................

Corrosion of Reactive and Refractory Metals and Alloys Corrosion of Titanium and Titanium Alloys Ronald W. Schutz ............................................................................. Mechanism of Corrosion Resistance ................................... Forms of Corrosion and Related Test Methods .................. Corrosion in Specific Media ................................................ Expanding the Corrosion Resistance of Titanium .............. Appendix 1: General Corrosion Data for Unalloyed Titanium .......................................................................... Appendix 2: General Corrosion Data for Titanium Alloys ..............................................................................

Corrosion of Zirconium and Zirconium Alloys Te-Lin Yau, Richard C. Sutherlin .................................................... General Characteristics ........................................................ Variables Affecting Corrosion ............................................ Pitting .................................................................................. Crevice Corrosion ................................................................ Intergranular Corrosion ....................................................... Stress-Corrosion Cracking ................................................... Delayed Hydride Cracking .................................................. Effects of Surface Condition ............................................... Galvanic Corrosion .............................................................. Microbiologically Induced Corrosion ................................. Erosion-Corrosion ............................................................... Fretting Corrosion ............................................................... Effects of Tin Content in Zirconium ................................... Corrosive Environments ...................................................... Effects of Fabrication on Corrosion .................................... Protection Measures ............................................................ Industrial Applications of Zirconium and Its Alloys .............................................................................. Safety ................................................................................... Conclusions ......................................................................... Corrosion of Niobium and Niobium Alloys Richard C. Sutherlin, Ronald A. Graham ....................................... Niobium Alloys ................................................................... Mechanisms of Corrosion Resistance ................................. Applications ......................................................................... Corrosion of Tantalum and Tantalum Alloys ..................................... Mechanism of Corrosion Resistance ................................... Corrosion in Specific Media ................................................ Hydrogen Embrittlement, Galvanic Effects, and Cathodic Protection of Tantalum .................................................... Corrosion Resistance of Tantalum-Base Alloys ................. Corrosion of Hafnium and Hafnium Alloys D.R. Holmes ..................................................................................... Production ............................................................................ Physical and Mechanical Properties of Hafnium ................ Aqueous Corrosion Testing of Hafnium and Hafnium Alloys .............................................................................. Corrosion Resistance of Hafnium ....................................... Applications ......................................................................... Corrosion of Beryllium and Aluminum-Beryllium Composites Warren J. Haws ............................................................................... Health and Safety ................................................................ Effects of Impurities and Composite Composition ............. Corrosion of Beryllium in Air ............................................. Aqueous Corrosion of Beryllium ........................................ Stress-Corrosion Cracking ................................................... High-Temperature Corrosion .............................................. In-Process, Handling, and Storage Corrosion Problems and Procedures ................................................................. Corrosion-Protection Surface Treatments and Coatings ........................................................................... Corrosion of Uranium and Uranium Alloys Jennifer A. Lillard, Robert J. Hanrahan, Jr. .................................. Aqueous Corrosion .............................................................. Atmospheric Corrosion ....................................................... Environmentally Assisted Cracking .................................... Protective Coatings and Surface Modification .................... Storage of Uranium ............................................................. Environmental, Safety, and Health Considerations ............

229 230 230 231 231 231 231 231 233 234 234 235 236 236 236 237 238 238 238 238 239 239 240 241 241 241 241 241 243 244 244 244 246 246 247 248 248 248 249 250 250

252 252 253 260 284 286 290 xiii

300 301 302 306 307 307 307 308 309 309 309 310 310 310 311 318 319 320 322 322 325 325 325 333 337 337 337 348 348 354 354 354 355 356 358 360 360 360 360 362 363 363 363 365 370 370 375 379 380 381 382



Corrosion of Precious Metals and Alloys Corrosion of Precious Metals and Alloys Gaylord D. Smith ............................................................................. Silver .................................................................................... Gold ..................................................................................... Platinum ............................................................................... Palladium ............................................................................. Rhodium .............................................................................. Iridium ................................................................................. Ruthenium ........................................................................... Osmium ............................................................................... Anodic Behavior of the Noble Metals ................................ Corrosion of Zinc and Zinc Alloys Corrosion of Zinc and Zinc Alloys X. Gregory Zhang ............................................................................ Applications of Zinc ............................................................ Corrosion Performance ........................................................ Corrosion in Waters, Solutions, Soils and Other Environments ................................................................... Corrosion Forms ..................................................................

Properties of Clad Metals .................................................... Designing with Clad Metals ................................................ Designing Clad Metals for Corrosion Control .................... Corrosion-Resistant Powder Metallurgy Alloys Barbara Shaw .................................................................................. Evaluating the Corrosion Resistance of P/M Alloys .......... P/M Stainless Steels ............................................................ Influence of Processing Parameters on the Corrosion Resistance of P/M Stainless Steels .................................. P/M Superalloys .................................................................. Corrosion of Amorphous Metals John R. Scully, Ashley Lucente ....................................................... Synthesis of Metallic Glasses .............................................. Devitrification and Structural Relaxation ........................... Mechanisms of Corrosion Resistance ................................. Corrosion Behavior of Fully Amorphous and Partially Devitrified Metallic Glasses: A Historial Review .......... General Corrosion Behavior of All Classes of Amorphous Alloys ........................................................... Localized Corrosion Behavior of All Classes of Amorphous Alloys ........................................................... Environmental Cracking Behavior ...................................... Conclusion ........................................................................... Corrosion of Intermetallics P.K. Datta, H.L. Du, J.S. Burnell-Gray .......................................... High-Temperature Corrosion of Intermetallics ................... Aqueous Corrosion .............................................................. Corrosion of Cemented Carbides ........................................................ Effect of Composition on Properties ................................... Applications of Cemented Carbides .................................... Selection of Cemented Carbides for Corrosion Applications ..................................................................... Corrosion in Aqueous Media .............................................. Oxidation Resistance of Cemented Carbides ...................... Saw Tips and Corrosion ...................................................... Coating of Cemented Carbides ........................................... Special Surface Treatments ................................................. Corrosion of Metal-Matrix Composites L.H. Hihara ..................................................................................... Background .......................................................................... Parameters Affecting MMC Corrosion ............................... Corrosion of MMC Systems ................................................ Corrosion Protection of MMCs ........................................... Other Concerns ....................................................................

385 385 388 390 392 395 396 398 399 400

402 402 403 409 411

Corrosion of Specialty Products Corrosion of Brazed and Soldered Joints Manish Dighe .................................................................................. 418 Fundamentals of Corrosion of Joints .................................. 418 Corrosion of Soldered Joints ............................................... 418 Corrosion of Brazed Joints .................................................. 418 Role of Proper Brazing Procedures in Minimizing Corrosion ......................................................................... 420 Corrosion Resistance of Particular Brazing Alloy Systems 420 Thermal Spray Coatings for Corrosion Protection in Atmospheric and Aqueous Environments Seiji Kuroda, Andrew Sturgeon ....................................................... 422 Coating Types ...................................................................... 422 Aluminum Coatings and Zinc Coatings .............................. 422 Thermal Spray Application Methods for TSA and TSZ Coatings ........................................................................... 423 Field Exposure Tests of TSA and TSZ Coatings ................ 425 Application History of TSA and TSZ Coatings for Corrosion Prevention ....................................................... 426 Dense Barrier Coatings by High-Velocity Spraying Processes .......................................................................... 427 The Future Use of Thermal Spray Coatings ....................... 429 Corrosion of Thermal Spray Coatings at High Temperatures Tapio Ma¨ntyla¨, Mikko Uusitalo ...................................................... 430 Oxidation ............................................................................. 430 Hot Corrosion ...................................................................... 431 Corrosion-Resistant Coatings in Boilers ............................. 431 Waste Incinerators ............................................................... 432 Erosion-Corrosion in Boilers ............................................... 433 Corrosion of Electroplated Hard Chromium Allen R. Jones .................................................................................. 434 Corrosion of Chromium Electrodeposits ............................ 434 Optimizing Corrosion Resistance ........................................ 434 Duplex Coatings .................................................................. 440 Corrosion-Resistance Data .................................................. 440 Applications ......................................................................... 440 Corrosion of Clad Metals Robert Baboian ................................................................................ 442 The Cladding Process .......................................................... 442

443 443 443 447 447 454 457 468 476 476 477 478 478 480 482 485 486 490 490 504 513 514 515 516 516 522 523 523 524 526 526 526 531 538 539

Environmental Performance of Nonmetallic Materials ................ 543 Introduction to Environmental Performance of Nonmetallic Materials David C. Silverman ......................................................................... Thermosetting Resins and Resin-Matrix Composites ......... Elastomers ........................................................................... Rubber Linings .................................................................... Protective Coatings .............................................................. Ceramics and Refractories .................................................. Concrete ............................................................................... Performance of Refractories in Severe Environments James P. Bennett, Kyei-Sing Kwong, George Oprea, Michel Rigaud, Stephen M. Winder ............................................ Background and Theory ...................................................... Testing ................................................................................. xiv

545 545 545 545 546 546 546

547 547 551



Corrosion of Steelmaking Refractories ............................... Refractories for Glass-Melting Applications ...................... Refractories for Aluminum Smelting and Refining Applications ..................................................................... Chemical-Resistant Masonry for Corrosive Liquid Environments ................................................................... Performance of Ceramics in Severe Environments Nathan S. Jacobson, Dennis S. Fox, James L. Smialek, Elizabeth J. Opila, Christopher Dellacorte, Kang N. Lee .......... High-Temperature Oxidation and Corrosion of Silica-Forming Ceramics ................................................. Oxidation of Precursor-Derived Ceramics, Composites, and Non-Silica-Forming Ceramics .................................. Corrosion of Oxide Ceramics .............................................. Environmental Barrier Coatings .......................................... Effects of Oxidation and Corrosion on Mechanical Properties ......................................................................... High-Temperature Wear of Advanced Ceramics ................ Environmental Performance of Concrete William C. Panarese ........................................................................ Types and Causes of Concrete Degradation ....................... Addressing Durability with the Prescriptive Approach ...... Addressing Durability with the Performance Approach ......................................................................... Sustainability ....................................................................... Degradation of Protective Coatings Kenneth B. Tator ............................................................................. Molecular Composition of a Polymer ................................. Environmental Effects Resulting in Coating Deterioration .................................................................... Environmental Performance of Thermosetting Plastics and Resin Matrix Composites Terry W. Cowley .............................................................................. Fabrication of FRP Equipment ............................................ Resins and Their Resistance to Various Environments ...... Curing Thermosetting Resin Types .................................... Environmental Performance of Rubber Linings Larry DeLashmit ............................................................................. Commonly Used Polymers .................................................. Industrial Applications ........................................................ Environmental Performance of Elastomers Jim Alexander, Pradip Khaladkar, Bert Moniz, Bill Stahl, Tommy Taylor .............................................................................. Factors Governing the Performance of Elastomers ............ Factors Affecting Chemical Resistance .............................. Performance Evaluation ...................................................... Failure Analysis ................................................................... Elastomer Failure Modes ....................................................

551 554

Elastomer Material Identification ........................................ 617 Quantifying Performance .................................................... 617

557

Global Cost of Corrosion .................................................................. 619

560

589 589

Global Cost of Corrosion—A Historical Review R. Bhaskaran, N. Palaniswamy, N.S. Rengaswamy, M. Jayachandran ......................................................................... United States of America .................................................... United Kingdom .................................................................. Australia .............................................................................. Japan .................................................................................... Canada ................................................................................. Germany .............................................................................. Poland .................................................................................. South Africa ......................................................................... Czechoslovakia .................................................................... Belgium ............................................................................... Netherlands .......................................................................... Sweden ................................................................................ Finland ................................................................................. Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) ...................... Kuwait ................................................................................. India ..................................................................................... Basque Region ..................................................................... Global Direct Cost of Corrosion ......................................... Global Indirect Cost of Corrosion ....................................... Global Cost of Corrosion ....................................................

591

Gallery of Corrosion Damage .......................................................... 629

565 565 571 572 572 574 575 579 579 583 584 586

621 621 622 623 623 623 624 624 624 624 624 624 624 624 624 624 625 625 625 625 626

Gallery of Corrosion Damage Peter Elliott ..................................................................................... 631

600 600 600 602

Reference Information ...................................................................... 647 Periodic Table of Elements ................................................................. Crystal Structure .................................................................................. Density of Metals and Alloys .............................................................. Reference Electrodes ........................................................................... Overpotential ....................................................................................... Electrochemical Series ........................................................................ Galvanic Series of Metals and Alloys in Seawater ............................. Compatibility Guide ............................................................................ Corrosion Rate Conversion ................................................................. Metric Conversion Guide .................................................................... Abbreviations and Symbols ................................................................. Index ....................................................................................................

605 605 607

608 608 610 612 615 615

xv

649 651 658 662 663 665 672 673 675 676 679 682

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