Biomass Resources for Biofuel Production in Northeast India (PDF ...

Biomass Resources for Biofuel Production in Northeast India Rupam Kataki, Kishor Goswami, Neon J. Bordoloi, Rumi Narzari, Ruprekha Saikia, Debashis Sut, and Lina Gogoi

Abstract

India’s overwhelming economic growth rate of 8 % on an average creates a huge demand for energy inputs. The swelling energy consumption has resulted in growing dependence on fossil fuels, which has in turn raised a gamut of concerns like energy security, environmental degradation, and pressure on national exchequer. Energy conservation and clean and C-neutral fuels in this regard offer the greatest opportunities. Biomassbased renewable energy has the proven potential in this direction. Since India has an agricultural-based economy, therefore, biomass– including wood, agricultural residues, animal dung, etc. – is available in enormous quantities. In India, about 40 % of the total energy requirement comes from burning of biomass, and more than 70 % of the population depends on it for energy requirements. The northeast region of India where traditional biomass is a predominant source of energy is no exception to this. However, burning of biomass has been associated with energy inefficiency and environmental hazards including health problems and deforestation. Therefore, a sustainable approach toward this end is adoption of custom-made technological intervention to use the enormous biomass resource and generate power in an environment-friendly and costeffective scheme. Biomass-based energy and power production can provide distributed power for rural applications and could effectively make up for the absence of grid electricity supply in many remote areas. Besides, tail-end grid-connected power projects are also currently highly

R. Kataki (*) • N.J. Bordoloi • R. Narzari • R. Saikia • D. Sut • L. Gogoi Department of Energy, Tezpur University, Tezpur 784028, Assam, India e-mail: [email protected] K. Goswami Department of Humanities and Social Sciences, Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur, Kharagpur 721 302, West Bengal, India # Springer Science+Business Media Singapore 2016 J. Purkayastha (ed.), Bioprospecting of Indigenous Bioresources of North-East India, DOI 10.1007/978-981-10-0620-3_8

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encouraged to support the Renewable Energy Purchase Obligation and its compliance under the Electricity Act, 2003. This chapter reviews the biomass availability, conversion technologies, and its biofuel production potential in the northeastern region of India which is known for its high biological biodiversity with numerous tropical rainforests, revering grasslands, bamboo, orchards and wetland ecosystems. Keywords

Biomass resources • Biofuel • NE states • First- and second-generation biofuels

8.1

Introduction

Biomass has been a source for food, fodder, fuel, timber, medicine and employment in India which has a large agrarian economy. Total primary energy used in India is about 32 % which is still derived from biomass and more than 70 % of the country’s inhabitants depend upon the energy produced from biomass. Indian Ministry of New and Renewable Energy has started some programs to promote technologies which are capable to derive the energy from various sectors of the economy to make sure of maximum benefits. In India, power generation from biomass is a huge industry which attracts every year the funds of over six billion, generates 5000 million units of electricity and placed yearly more than ten million people as employee in the rural areas. Some cogeneration programs have been taken up regarding bagasse-based and biomass power generation to make efficient utilization of biomass. The main objective of this program is to promote and implement the technologies for optimum use of biomass resources for grid power generation. Biomass used for power generation includes bagasse, straw, rice husk, coconut shells, cotton stalk, soya husk, de-oiled cakes, coffee waste, jute wastes, groundnut shells, sawdust, etc. (http:// mnre.gov.in/schemes/grid-connected/biomasspowercogen/). The major assumption that influences the biomass potential is directly related to the availability of land. Size of the population, diet, productivity, and growth of an agricultural sector become the primary rationale

to affect the land availability (https://www.iea. org/publications/freepublications/publication/sec ond_generation_biofuels.pdf). India has 150 million hectares of available land including dumped, degraded crop, mixed crop, and vegetation land. India’s northeastern region comprising eight states is endowed with rich forest resources. As reported in the India State of Forest Report 2013, this region constitutes only 7.98 % of the geographical area of the country and covers nearly one fourth of the area by forest resources. The northeastern states have 172,592 km2 area under forest cover which constitutes 65.83 % of the total geographical area (Forest Survey of India 2013). This region has been identified as one of the 18 biodiversity hot spots of the world because of its richness in biodiversity. The potential to supply biofuel feedstock has still been not explored from this region. There are a number of tropical rainforests present in the northeast region of India. Moreover, there are revering grasslands, bamboo, orchards and numerous wetland ecosystems. Most of the areas in this region have been protected by developing national parks, wildlife sanctuary, and reserve forest. There are large varieties of oilseed-bearing trees and shrub species that grow well in the natural habitats of the northeast region which do not have any particular use. Thus, identification of such indigenous species for biodiesel production has become an interesting area of research in this region. Jatropha curcas has been identified as the most suitable and promising tree species which produces very significant amount of oilseeds per plant (Barua 2011). Apart from Jatropha

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Biomass Resources for Biofuel Production in Northeast India

curcas, some other nonedible oil-bearing plants have been investigated from the northeast region particularly from Assam. These are yellow oleander (Thevetia peruviana) (Deka and Basumatary 2011), koroch (Pongamia glabra) (Sarma et al. 2005), terminalia (Terminalia belerica) and nahar (Mesua ferrea) (Chakraborty et al. 2009). The northeastern region of India mainly depends on the agricultural sector which contains 2.2 % (in hilly states like Arunachal Pradesh) and 35.4 % (in Assam) of cultivated area to total geographical area of India. Rapid growth in urban population along with the development of markets and new industries results in a huge amount of solid waste in the states of the northeast region. Therefore, agricultural residues and municipal solid waste have become other sources for biofuel production in the region. The aim of this chapter is to review biomass resource availability and biofuel potential in the northeast region of the country. Here, an attempt has been made to consider the various types of biomass that are available for biofuel production by using current biomass conversion routes, particularly, first and second generation technologies. The information resulting from this study will support for further, more detailed site-specific and decentralized biomass-based energy generation.

8.2

Biomass Resources in Northeast India

Biomass has been divided into two broad categories, viz., woody and nonwoody. Nonwoody biomass is further divided into two types: agro-crop and agro-industrial processing residues. Animal and poultry wastes and municipal solid wastes are also referred as biomass as they are biodegradable in nature. The main biomass sources are as listed below: • Wood and wood waste: forest wood, wood from energy plantations, sawdust, tree branches, leaves, etc.

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• Agricultural residues: rice husk, bagasse, groundnut shells, coffee husk, straws, coconut shells, coconut husk, arhar stalks, jute sticks, etc. • Wastes: municipal solid waste, municipal sewage sludge, animal waste, paper waste, industrial waste, etc. The northeastern part of India is full of forest residues which are the sources of primary energy of this region (Roy 2013).

8.2.1

Agricultural Resource

Agriculture is the major occupation in the northeastern region, with agricultural land in this region including fallow being 22.20 % against 54.47 % in India (http://indiamicrofinance.com/ agricultural-in-north-east-india.html). Rice is mostly cultivated in this region; the compound growth rate of rice area is 1.68 % and of production is 2.95 %. 33.97 lakh hectares of area is under rice cultivation, which varies from 43.09 % of the gross sown area in Meghalaya to 84.97 % in Manipur. The total production of rice is 48.48 lakh tonnes and the average yield is 1427 kg/ha. Apart from agricultural product from both on-farm and off-farm, a huge amount of crop residues are generated (http://www.ncap. res.in/upload_files/workshop/wsp10/html/chap ter1.htm). The crop residues that are generated are used in various other purposes such as animal feed, bio-manure, a fuel for both domestic and industrial use, soil mulching, and thatching for rural homes. Hence, crop residues are valuable by-products, though a huge amount of it is burnt on-farm to clear the field for sowing of the succeeding crop. The residues of rice straw, coconut shell and husk, rice husk, oilseed cakes, sugarcane bagasse, pods, etc., are typically burnt on-farm. Conversion of crop residue to biofuel resolves the problem of waste management and energy at the same time. In comparison to other renewable energy sources such as solar and wind, biomass is

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Table 8.1 State-wise agro-residue power estimation (2002–2004) State Arunachal Pradesh Assam Manipur Meghalaya Mizoram Nagaland Sikkim Tripura Total

Area (kha) 208.4

Crop production (kT/year) 251.1

Biomass generation (kT/year) 400.3

Biomass surplus (kT/year) 74.5

Power potential (MWe) 9.2

3459.9 340.8 174.5 19.1 179.6 58.1 9.5 4449.9

8250.0 435.0 284.2 33.2 276.2 69.1 4.0 9602.8

11,442.9 909.4 511.1 61.2 492.2 149.4 41.1 14,007.6

2346.7 114.4 91.6 8.5 85.2 17.8 21.3 2760

283.7 14.3 11.4 1.1 10.0 2.3 3.0 335

Source: http://mnre.gov.in/mnre-2010/related-links/resource-assessment/biomass-resource-atlas/

cheap, energy efficient, storable, and environment friendly (IARI 2012). There are two major groups in which agricultural residues can be divided, i.e., (i) crop residues and (ii) agroindustrial residues. Plant materials which are left behind in the farm after harvesting of crops such as straws of rice, wheat, millet, sorghum, oilseed crops, maize stalks and cobs, cotton stalks, jute sticks, sugarcane trash, mustard stalks, etc., are known as crop residues. The agro-industrial residues are groundnut shells, rice husk, bagasse, cotton waste, coconut shell, and coir pith (Lal and Reddy 2005). Table 8.1 represents the total agro-residue generated in the individual state along with estimated power potential, and Table 8.2 shows the production data of some of the major agricultural crop residues in the state for year 2002–2004.

8.2.2

Forestry Resource

About 65.17 % of the total geographical area of the northeastern region was under forest cover which is now reduced to 46 %. The eight northeastern states together contributed 16.5 Mha or approximately 26 % to the India’s total forest cover (Chhabra et al. 2002). Arunachal Pradesh has the highest forest cover compared to other northeastern states, with an area of 5467.5 kha which is about 61 %, while Assam has nearly 2676.9 kha comprising 25 % of its total geographical area. About 52 % in Nagaland, 89 % in Mizoram, 27 % in Manipur, 42 % in Meghalaya, 36 % in Sikkim,

and 58 % in Tripura are forest cover. Only one-third of the total geographical area of NER is reserve forest cover. The climatic condition and presence of rain forests are suitable for the growth of several plant species which makes this region a rich source of several lignocellulosic materials (Sasmal et al. 2012). Various valuable trees like Alpinia galanga, Shorea robusta, Azadirachta indica, Michelia champaca, Tectona grandis, Bombax ceiba, Dalbergia sissoo, Gmelina arborea, Salix rostrata, and Dendrocalamus strictus, cane, valuable medicinal and ornamental plants, vegetables, and fruits are found in the northeast region (Das 2015). Table 8.3 shows the area under forest and the above- and belowground biomass generated.

8.2.2.1 Energy Production Potential with Reference to Ipomoea carnea Ipomoea is an aquatic weed occurring in fields, ponds, riversides, and wet places (Deshmukh et al. 2012). It is considered as a nuisance since it creates problems such as covering of large patches of productive land, thereby creating an obstruction in drainage causing flood and thereby destroying crops. To curb its menace, various management and utilization attempts have been made such as livestock feed, building material, paper pulp, source of drugs, fuel, etc. (Abbasi and Ramasamy 1999). The physical removal is also difficult and remains uneconomical. In 2010, the National Wetland Atlas (National Wetland Atlas: Assam 2010) mapped 5097 wetlands in Assam with a total estimated area of 764,372 ha (9.74 % of the geographical area).

TRP (MT) b RA (MT) a TRP (MT) b RA (MT) a TRP (MT) b RA (MT) a TRP (MT) b RA (MT) a TRP (MT) b RA (MT) a TRP (MT) b RA (MT) a TRP (MT) b RA (MT) a TRP (MT) b RA (MT)

a

Husk 43,621 32,716 10,06,200 7,54,650 – – 39,873 29,904 13,226 9919 – – – – 1,30,861 98,145

Straw 3,27,163 1,63,581 75,46,500 37,73,250 – – 2,99,048 1,49,523 99,198 49,599 – – – – 9,81,457 4,90,728

TRP total residue production, RA residue availability a Source ¼ http://cgpl.iisc.ernet.in b (Hiloidhari and Baruah 2011; Purohit et al. 2007)

Tripura

Sikkim

Nagaland

Mizoram

Meghalaya

Manipur

Assam

States Arunachal Pradesh

Rice

Table 8.2 State-wise major agricultural residues

Pod 1759 1407 16,800 13,440 – – 349 279 – – – – – – 577 461

Wheat Stalks 8795 7036 84,000 67,200 – – 1745 1395 – – – – – – 2887 2309

Cobs 14,754 11,802 4200 3360 – – 7816 6252 3453 2762 – – – – 739 591

Maize Stalks 98,358 78,686 28,000 22,400 – – 52,105 41,684 23,020 18,416 – – – – 4929 3943

Bagasse 5349 4279 3,55,080 2,84,064 – – – – 4081 3265 – – – – – –

Sugarcane Top and leaves 810 648 53,800 43,040 – – – – 618 492 – – – – – –

Potato leaves and stalks 26,271 21,016 532,170 425,736 – – 146,682 117,345 1810 1447 – – – – – –

Chilly stalks – – 19,500 15,600 – – – – – – 34,500 27,600 – – – –

Pulse stalks 9287 7429 85,800 68,640 93,68,450 74,94,760 2398 1918 8422 6738 46,098 36,878 17,160 13,728 7385 5908

Oilseed stalks 51,500 41,200 3,10,000 2,48,000 – – 10,179 8143 5976 4780 134,000 1,07,200 17,800 14,240 6351 5081

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Table 8.3 Forest cover in the northeastern states in 2013 (in km2) (Forest Survey of India and Chhabra et al. 2002)

States Arunachal Pradesh Assam Manipur Meghalaya Mizoram Nagaland Sikkim Tripura All NE

Geographical area (GA) 83,743

VDF 20,828

MDF 31,414

OF 15,079

78,438 22,327 22,429 21,081 16,579 7096 10,486 262,179

1444 728 449 138 1298 500 109 25,494

11,345 6094 9689 5900 4736 2161 4641 75,980

14,882 10,168 7150 13,016 7010 697 3116 71,118

Total 67,321

% of forest to GA 80.39

AGB (Mt) 1014.2

BGB (Mt) 260.8

Total biomass (Mt) 1275.0

27,671 16,990 17,288 19,054 13,044 3358 7866 172,592

35.28 76.10 77.08 90.38 76.69 47.32 74.98 65.83

382.5 150.4 134.3 121.3 149.0 48.1 31.2 3141.0

97.3 40.7 36.0 33.8 39.8 12.3 8.8 432.2

479.8 191.1 170.3 155.1 188.9 60.4 40.0 2560.6

VDF very dense forest, MDF moderately dense forest, OF open forest, AGB aboveground biomass, BGB belowground biomass Table 8.4 District-wise availability of I. carnea in Assam District Kokrajhar Dhubri Goalpara Bongaigaon Barpeta Kamrup Nalbari Darrang Marigaon Nagaon Sonitpur Lakhimpur Dhemaji Tinsukia Dibrugarh Sibsagar Jorhat Golaghat Karbi Anglong NC Hills Cachar Karimganj Hailakandi Total

Total wetland area (ha) 24,833 56,538 33,221 22,149 59,038 43,655 20,140 48,983 28,737 35,695 83,427 27,307 33,468 40,626 72,461 12,582 45,979 43,635 5810

Area under Ipomoea (ha) 124 283 166 111 295 218 101 245 144 178 417 137 167 203 362 63 230 218 29

Green Ipomoea (tonne) 19,866 45,230 26,577 17,719 47,230 34,924 16,112 39,186 22,990 28,556 66,742 21,846 26,774 32,501 57,969 10,066 36,783 34,908 4648

Dry Ipomoea (tonne) 7947 18,092 10,631 7088 18,892 13,970 6445 15,675 9196 11,422 26,697 8738 10,710 13,000 23,188 4026 14,713 13,963 1859

Gross energy, TJ 126 287 168 112 300 221 102 248 146 181 424 138 170 206 368 63 233 221 29

Net energy, TJ 37 86 50 33 90 66 30 74 43 54 127 41 51 61 110 19 70 66 8

6619 10,419 6450 2600 764,372

33 52 32 13 3822

5295 8335 5160 2080 611,498

2118 3334 2064 832 244,599

33 52 32 13 3885

10 15 9 3 1165

Source: Hiloidhari et al. 2012

These wetlands are covered with large vegetation throughout the year (Hiloidhari et al. 2012). Among these vegetations, Ipomoea carnea ssp. fistulosa (common name: Amar lota) is the common species (Sharma 2010) and is under

investigation for the purpose of energy generation. Konwer et al. (2007) converted its woody stems to charcoal and then into solid fuel so as to utilize this harmful weed (Table 8.4).

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A minimum of 0.5 % of total wetland area of each district has been estimated to be covered by Ipomoea vegetation, and hence about 3822 ha area in Assam is under Ipomoea which generates about 611,498 tonnes of green Ipomoea feedstock and 244,599 tonnes of dry Ipomoea feedstock. Comparatively, Sonitpur district has the highest potential for Ipomoea biomass feedstock (66,742 tonnes and 26,697 tonnes of green and dry feedstock, respectively), while Hailakandi has the least potential (2080 tonnes and 832 tonnes of green and dry feedstock, respectively).

8.2.3

Algae as Biomass

Microalgal biomass can be used as an alternative substrate for fuel production as it grows faster compared to higher plants and does not need arable land (it can be grown in marginal areas, such as salines and deserts) nor potable water (brackish and saline water can be used, as well as wastewater). The northeast region and Assam in particular are rich in freshwater microalgae. Many oil-yielding species have been screened and isolated such as Botryococcus braunii, Ankistrodesmus sp., Scenedesmus sp., Euglena sp., Haematococcus, etc. More than 21 strains have been identified from Assam and Meghalaya (Goswami et al. 2012). Despite having potential for biofuel production from algae from the northeast region of India, there is still lot to be done in this direction (The Energy and Resources Institute; http://www.teriin.org).

8.2.4

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Municipal Waste and Other Wastes

Wastes generated from households and commercial and industrial sectors as a result of concentration of population and activities in urban areas are known as municipal solid wastes (Asnani 2006). It includes plastics, paper, textiles, glass, metal, wood, and other organic waste. According to Municipal Solid Waste (Management and Handling) Rules, 2000, “Land-filling shall be restricted to non-biodegradable, inert waste and other waste that are not suitable either for recycling or for biological processing.” This is an important fact for a developing nation like India since disposal of MSW in a disorganized manner results into generation of greenhouse gases and also unavailability of land for disposal of MSW due to rapid growing population (Samir Saini et al. 2012). To attain a sustainable economic development, energy security is a must. India is losing prospective organic resource through improper disposal of wastes; hence, there is an urgent need to harness this energy from the organic fraction of MSW. To reduce space required or to allow treatment and processing of wastes before its disposal adoption of environment-friendly waste-to-energy technologies is one such effective alternative (Samir Saini et al. 2012). Table 8.5 gives the physical and chemical composition of eight cities of Northeast India. The sources of data for this database are NSWAI (National Solid Waste Association of

Table 8.5 Quantity of MSW generated from different northeastern states along with physical and chemical characteristics Sl. No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

City/ town Agartala Aizawl Gangtok Guwahati Imphal Itanagar Kohima Shillong

Total MSW (T/day) 77 57 13 166 43 12 13 45

Source: Saini et al. 2012

Physical characteristics (in % composition) Biodegradable/ Inert, ash, compostable Recyclables debris 58.57 14 27.75 54.24 21 24.79 46.52 16 37 53.69 23 23.03 60 19 21.49 52.02 21 27.42 57.48 23 19.85 62.54 17 20.19

Calorific value (Kcal/kg) 2427 3766 1234 1519 3766 3414 2844 2736

C/N ratio 30.02 27.45 25.61 17.71 22.34 17.68 30.87 28.86

Moisture % 60 43 44 61 40 50 65 63

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Table 8.6 State-wise MSW generation and energy generation from 2011(p) to 2020(p) (NEERI 1996; NSWAI; Census website 2011) State/union territory Arunachal Pradesh Assam Manipur Meghalaya Mizoram Nagaland Sikkim Tripura

Total MSW (T/day) (2011) p 13.56



Energy potential 2011 (p) (MW) 0.27



341.73 61.03 54.25 64.37 14.52 14.71 137.90

358.51 63.87 56.78 67.39 15.38 15.38 144.31

378.49 67.23 59.76 70.91 16.18 16.17 151.90

6.80 1.21 1.08 1.28 0.29 0.29 2.74

7.13 1.27 1.13 1.34 0.31 0.31 2.87

7.91 1.41 1.25 1.48 0.34 0.34 3.17

Source: Saini et al. 2012

India), NEERI 1996 database, CPCB Report (1999) (Characteristics of MSW by Metro Cities), and combined NEERI and CPCB Report (2004–2005) (Characteristics of MSW by Metro Cities). From the table it can be inferred that Guwahati is the largest producer of MSW, i.e., 166 T/day among the other northeastern states. Table 8.6 gives the state-wise MSW generation and energy generation from 2011(p) to 2020 (p) (NEERI 1996; NSWAI; Census website 2011).

8.3 8.3.1

Technologies for Biofuel Production Conventional Biofuel Technologies

The production of first-generation biofuels is based on familiar technologies that are still emerging to enhance the energy efficiency and ease the GHG emissions and costs.

8.3.1.1 Bioethanol The feedstocks for bioethanol production include sweet sorghum, sugarcane, sugar beets, corn (maize), potatoes, wheat, and cassava. The process for production of bioethanol from sugar crops such as sugarcane, sugar beet, and sweet sorghum involves fermentation of sucrose followed by distillation to fuel-grade ethanol. The efficiency can be improved by using bagasse

to provide the heat and power for the process and ethanol and biodiesel for crop production and transport (IEA 2007). On the other hand, if the feedstock is starchy crops (e.g., corn), hydrolysis is needed to convert starch into sugar, followed by fermentation and distillation. Efficiency can be improved and subsequently cost can be reduced by using enzymatic hydrolysis and valorizing coproducts (e.g., animal feed). The economic and environmental benefits of bioethanol production process are dependent on the technology process, feedstock, and prices of coproduct.

8.3.1.2 Biodiesel Biodiesel can be produced by transesterification of vegetable oils (extracted mechanically/chemically from Jatropha curcas, Mesua ferrea, Pongamia glabra, soybean oil, palm oil, etc.), animal fats, and waste oil with the addition of alcohol (generally methanol) and catalysts, resulting in glycerin as a by-product. The feedstocks for biodiesel production can be classified as first and second generations based on the feedstock used for production. First-generation biofuels are manufactured from feedstock such as soybean oil and palm oil. However, the use of these feedstocks has been controversial as they can be used as human food. Thus, the use of them for biodiesel production will increase their price and create food crisis. Second-generation feedstocks are nonedible vegetable oils which do not have any importance as food and thus

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resolve the problems associated with firstgeneration feedstocks. In India, biodiesel from Jatropha and Pongamia gains significance as a feedstock for biodiesel production as they are nonedible oil and are considered as the better option to substitute petroleum diesel, thereby reducing the dependence on import of crude. Though some vegetable oils can be used directly as a fuel, but there are some risks of damaging the engine.

8.3.2

Some Advanced Technologies for Biofuel Production

For sustainable production of biofuel, the focus is shifted to nonedible feedstocks such as agriculture and forest residues, urban wastes (both organic and woody fraction), short-rotation forestry (e.g., Albizia lucida, eucalyptus, poplar, robinia, willow), and genetically modified crops and perennial grasses (e.g., Jatropha, switch grass, Miscanthus) grown on marginal, nonarable land (IEA 2008). Most of these feedstocks are lignocellulosic biomass which can be converted into liquid biofuels by two main conversion processes, i.e., biochemical and thermochemical (IEA 2013). These processes exploit the sugar, starchy, and oil components of the feedstock and also all the lignocellulosic materials, thus expanding the biomass resources available.

8.3.2.1 Biochemical Process In this process cellulose and hemicellulose are converted into sugars by enzymatic or acidic hydrolysis, followed by fermentation and distillation to ethanol. Conversion of cellulose into sugar requires a pretreatment process (biological, physical, or chemical) to remove the lignin. Lignin can be used as a source of chemicals as well as fuel for heat and power generation. The pretreatment and enzymes required for hydrolysis make the overall process relatively costly. Research efforts are going on to reduce enzyme costs, recycle enzymes, increase the efficiency of pretreatment (e.g., steam explosion technique), improve lignin

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separation, and obtain simultaneously saccharification and fermentation.

8.3.2.2 Thermochemical Process The thermochemical conversion (i.e., biomass to liquid) involves biomass pretreatment followed by gasification at around 850 C in controlled air/O2 atmosphere to produce syngas, cleaning of the syngas, and then catalytic Fischer-Tropsch (FT) conversion to produce various fuels. The low-temperature FT produces diesel and jet fuel, while high-temperature FT produces gasoline and chemicals. The syngas can be used to produce hydrogen (shift reaction), methanol, ethanol, and DME. The gasification can be stopped at the pyrolysis stage (450–600 C) to produce bio-oil (syncrude) for refinement. 8.3.2.3 Hydrogenation of Vegetable Oils The catalytic hydrogenation of vegetable oils (HVO) and animal fats followed by cracking produces high-quality biodiesel. The process involves a significant amount of hydrogen, but it is familiar and close to market approval, with numerous demonstration plants in operation (http://viainfotech.biz/Biomass/theme/document/ Magazines/AkshayUrja/June2013.pdf). 8.3.2.4 Algae-Based Biofuels Algae, due to its high yield and large CO2 absorption by photosynthesis, have gained importance as a potential feedstock for biofuel production (IEA 2013). It needs lower water than the terrestrial crops (up to 90 %), can be grown in saline or wastewater, and requires no arable land. Algae contain about 33–50 % of lipids and triglycerides useful for biodiesel production, and the remaining being sugar and proteins can be used for bioethanol production. They are considered mainly for biodiesel and jet fuel production as there exist fewer alternatives to replace these fuels. However, the commercial production of algal biofuels, often considered as thirdgeneration biofuels, will take some more years to develop although numerous pilot and demonstration projects exist all over the world at present.

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Biofuels

Fischer-Tropsch synthesis

Gasification

Syngas

Fuels

Pyrolysis

Starch/sugar crops

Bio-oil

Thermo-chemical Conversion

Catalytic upgrading

Liquefaction

Chemicals

Aquatic plants Combustion Crops

Oil seed plants Anaerobic digestion

Volatile fatty acids

Woods

Biological conversion Biomass

Catalytic hydrogen -ation

Alcohol

Fermentation

Grass

Bio-ethanol, amino acid Enzyme

Agricultural waste

Unused resources

Hydrolysis

Forest waste

Municipal wastes, Industrial waste

Chemical conversion

Sugars

Fermentation

Solvent extraction Biofuels, chemicals Supercritical conversion

Fig. 8.1 Different bio-fuel production technologies and their products

8.3.3

Other Processes and Fuels

Apart from abovementioned technological processes, there are some other processes which can also be used for biofuel production. For example, fast pyrolysis process can convert biomass into bio-oil which can be refined into diesel. In this process, gasification is done at a low temperature (400–600 C) in the absence of O2 and quick cooling at 100 C to obtain bio-oil (IEA 2013). Bio-oil is comparatively acidic and corrosive in nature and, hence, requires costly storage and handling. Bio-char, which is a by-product of the pyrolysis process, can be used as a solid fuel and fertilizer. In the hydrothermal process, biomass is

treated with pressurized water at a temperature of 300–400 C, to produce bio-oil which has a lower water and oxygen content than bio-oil produced in fast pyrolysis process. Dimethyl ether (DME) can be produced from biogas by converting it into methanol followed by distillation and dehydration while using zeolite as a catalyst. DME is a high-cetane fuel and can be used in diesel engines or as a substitute of propane in liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) and also for cooking and heating (IEA 2013). Bio-hydrogen can be produced by steam reforming of bioethanol and methanol. It can also be produced from biomass gasification followed by syngas water shift reaction and

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separation (i.e., pressure swing absorption, cryogenic or membrane separation). The process produces CO2 as a by-product (AkshayUrja 2013).

8.3.3.1 Biorefineries Biorefineries are a combination of facilities to transform various biomasses into a range of biofuels and by-products which will help in a more efficient use of basic resources and investment compared to the current biofuel production. For example, pulp and paper production plants can be termed as a biorefinery as it also produces electricity from black liquor residues. However, the integration of algae-based biofuels and biorefinery process will take some time, and R&D works are going on in various countries with an increasing worldwide investment (UNEP 2010). International standards can help in improving the quality and sustainability of biofuel production process. Figure 8.1 shows the different technologies for biofuel production and their outputs.

8.4

Biofuel Policy in India

The Indian government in 2003 formulated the National Biodiesel Mission to meet 20 % of her biodiesel requirements by 2011–2012 (Zarrilli 2006). Subsequently, the Union Cabinet approved the National Policy on Biofuel prepared by the Ministry of New and Renewable Energy on 11 September 2008. The Ministry of New and Renewable Energy was given the responsibility for overall coordination (Ministry of New and Renewable Energy 2008). Several other ministries are also involved in policymaking, regulation, promotion, and development of the biofuel sector in India as mentioned in Table 8.7. The table shows that the Ministry of Agriculture is entirely involved in the research and development activities for the biofuels and the Ministry of Rural Development

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for the expansion of Jatropha plantation. However, the Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas is going to play an important role in sustainability of the industry as it largely deals with the marketing, pricing, and procurement policies of biofuel. The following are the salient features of the National Policy on Biofuel 2008 (MNRE 2008): • An indicative target of 20 % blending of biofuel by 2017, i.e., ethanol and biodiesel. • Biodiesel production will be taken up from nonedible oilseeds in waste/degraded/marginal lands. • The focus would be on indigenous production of biodiesel feedstocks. Import of free fatty acid (FFA)-based materials such as palm oil would not be permitted. • Biodiesel plantations on community/government/forest wasteland would be encouraged, while plantation in fertile irrigated lands would not be encouraged. • Minimum support price (MSP) with a provision of periodic revision for biodiesel oilseed price would be announced to provide fair price to the growers. The details about the MSP mechanism, mentioned in the National Biofuel Policy, would be worked out carefully and subsequently be considered by the Biofuel Steering Committee. • Minimum purchase price (MPP) for purchase of ethanol by the oil marketing companies (OMCs) would be based on the actual cost of production and import price of bioethanol. In the case of biodiesel, the MPP should be linked to the prevailing retail diesel price. • The National Biofuel Policy envisages that biofuels, namely, biodiesel and ethanol, may be brought under the ambit of “declared goods” by the government to ensure unrestricted movement of biofuel within and outside the states. • It is also stated in the Policy that no taxes and duties should be levied on biodiesel.

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Table 8.7 Ministries involved in the biofuel sector development in India Ministry Ministry of New and Renewable Energy

Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas Ministry of Agriculture

Ministry of Rural Development Ministry of Science and Technology

Responsibilities assigned Overall policymaking role for development of biofuels. Also supports research and technology development for production of biofuels Responsible for marketing of biofuels as well as development and implementation of pricing and procurement policy Responsible for research and development for production of biofuel feedstock crops (like sugarcane, sweet sorghum, etc., for ethanol and Jatropha and other nonedible oilseeds for biodiesel) Responsible for promotion of Jatropha plantations on wastelands Supports research in biofuel crops, especially in the area of biotechnology

Source: Singh 2009

8.5

Energy Potential from Wasteland Afforestation: A Case Study of the State of Assam

Though the region has a large potential of natural resources, in the field of economic and social development, the region lags behind the rest of the country. For example, Assam has a per capita income of 28 % which is lower than the national average. Assam’s contribution to India’s 15.62 GW grid-connected renewable power (consisting 70 % winds, 16.5 % small hydro, 13 % biomass, and 0.5 % others) is only about 0.17 %. Although about 239 MW small hydropower potential is identified in Assam, the installed capacity is only 27 MW. The total biomass power potential is 954 MWe including agro-biomass-based power potential of 214 MWe (Hiloidhari and Baruah 2011). Assam, with very fair degree of wasteland, provides a unique case for institutional interventions, wherein forestry/agroforestry/ intensification could form the basis of poverty alleviation and an additional resource base for supply of food, fuel, fodder, timber, etc. The northeast has vast tracts of wastelands which have been lying barren for ages. The major portion of this land is physically suitable

for growing trees, which is also economically viable but requires massive investment. In the following table, an attempt is being made to estimate the fuelwood production potential, particularly in the available wastelands of different districts of Assam. In the estimate: 1. Wasteland data are collected from the Department of Land Resources, Ministry of Rural Development, Government of India, available at http://dolr.nic.in/wasteland2010/assam.pdf. 2. Only the wasteland categories, viz., (i) land with dense scrub, (ii) land with open scrub, (iii) abandoned jhum cultivation areas, (iv) underutilized/degraded forest, and (v) degraded pasture land present in each of the districts of Assam, are considered for present estimation. 3. It is assumed that Albizia or Acacia trees will be planted in the wastelands. Both these tree species are used as fuelwood in rural areas. 4. The number of Albizia or Acacia that could be planted per ha of land is 2500. However, 90 % of survival rate is assumed, and thus the number of trees per ha of land is 2250. 5. One-third (i.e., 0.33) of planted trees will be available for selective cutting after 3 years of plantation (i.e., from the fourth year onward), and one-third of the trees can be cut thereafter every year.

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Table 8.8 District-wise fuelwood supply potential from wastelands in Assam District Sibsagar Golaghat Morigaon Dhemaji Darrang Jorhat Karimganj Lakhimpur Hailakandi Dibrugarh Cachar Barpeta Bongaigaon Sonitpur Nalbari Nagaon Kokrajhar Dhubri Tinsukia Goalpara Kamrup NC Hills Karbi Anglong Total

Wasteland area, ha 257.00 271.00 602.00 837.00 1127.00 1212.00 1267.00 1320.00 2083.00 3028.00 3328.00 4228.00 4625.00 5041.00 5206.00 6583.00 6662.00 7032.00 7520.00 7959.00 23,058.00 144,619.00 258,504.00 496,369.00

Fuelwood potential, thousand tonnes 5.78 6.10 13.55 18.83 25.36 27.27 28.51 29.70 46.87 68.13 74.88 95.13 104.06 113.42 117.14 148.12 149.90 158.22 169.20 179.08 518.81 3253.93 5816.34 11,168.30

Gross energy, TJ 60 62 138 193 259 279 292 304 480 698 767 975 1066 1162 1200 1518 1536 1622 1734 1835 5318 33,359 59,629 114,486

Net energy, TJ 17 19 43 57 77 83 87 91 144 209 230 292 320 348 360 455 461 486 520 550 159 1000 1788 7796

Source: Kataki 2012

6. The average growing stock of each tree is 15 kg/year, and on conservative basis, it is assumed that only 3 kg will be available as fuelwood. The gross energy and net energy production potential of dry fuelwood to generate producer gas considering gasification as the conversion technology could be estimated by taking the calorific value (CV) of fuelwood as 10,252 MJ/ tonne as reported by Hiloidhari et al. 2012. The gross energy yield from fuelwood in each district is estimated using the following equation (Eq. 8.1) (Table 8.8): Gross Energy ðTJ Þ CV of IpomosaTonnes of Ipomosa available in thedistrict ¼ 1000000

ð8:1Þ And the net energy is estimated by Eq. 8.2:

Net Energy ðTJ Þ ¼ Gross Energy ðTJ Þ 0:03 ð8:2Þ

8.6

Jatropha-Based Biofuel Production Systems in Northeast India

8.6.1

Trends in Biodiesel Production in India

The National Policy on Biofuel 2008 is a major milestone in the development of the biodiesel industry in India. However, India’s production of biodiesel is very negligible. According to the Energy Information Administration (2010), the country produced 23.21 million liters of biodiesel in 2009. The Indian government started a demonstration project during 2003–2007 under the National Biodiesel Mission to cultivate 0.4

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million hectares of land and to produce annually about 3.75 tonnes of oilseeds per hectare (Singh 2009). The initial phase of the project was associated with the identification of suitable Jatropha cultivars, developing nurseries and providing subsidized planting materials to farmers in various agroclimatic regions. The expected biodiesel yield from the project was 1.2 tonnes per hectare with a total production of 0.48 million tonnes per annum. As a part of the demonstration project, the government was supposed to build a transesterification plant with a biodiesel production capacity of 0.08 million tonnes per year (Gonsalves 2006). The demonstration phase is being followed by a selfsustaining expansion of Jatropha cultivation on 11.2–13.4 million hectares (Singh 2009). This will enable India to meet the 20 % blending requirement by 2017. During 2007–2008, the high-speed diesel (HSD) consumption in the country was 47.67 million tonnes, out of which 50.43 % (24.04 million tonnes) was in the transport sector (Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation 2008). According to the Planning Commission of India, the expected annual compound growth rate of demand for biodiesel during 2011–2012 to 2016–2017 will be 5.4 %, and about 16.72 million tonnes of biodiesel will be required in 2016–2017 for 20 % blending (Planning Commission of India 2003). Achieving such a target is not an easy task as the yield is only about 1–2 tonnes per hectare (German Technical Cooperation 2005). Moreover, though the total wasteland available in India is 63.85 million hectares (German Technical Cooperation 2005), the actual amount of land available for Jatropha plantation is estimated at 13.4 million hectares only, which could potentially yield 15 million tonnes of Jatropha oil per year (Gonsalves 2006). However, achieving such a target will reduce India’s dependency on oil imports, cut down oil import bill, and generate a few environmental benefits.

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8.6.2

The Biodiesel Industry in Northeast India

Biodiesel industry in Northeast (NE) India is confined to Jatropha. Although Karanja [Pongamia pinnata (L.) Pierre] may be another potential source of biodiesel in the region, commercial cultivation of the plant is yet to start. Jatropha (Jatropha curcas L.) belongs to Euphorbiaceae family. It is a fast-growing shrub, native to South America, and has a history of its propagation by the Portuguese in Africa and Asia (Kureel et al. 2007). Although the plant may be 3–5 m in height, under controlled commercial plantation, the plant height is usually maintained within 2 m. The life span of Jatropha is 30–50 years (Brittaine and Lutadalio 2010; Sunil et al. 2013). The gestation period of the crop is 6 years. There are several propagation methods for Jatropha which includes direct seeding, transplanting, planting (cutting), or tissue culture. Planting by cuttings is common as it decreases the time of production as compared to other methods. Propagation through seed leads to genetic variability in terms of growth, biomass, seed yield, and oil content. In India, Jatropha flowers during March–April and September–December, and fruiting usually takes place between September and December. Though both manual and mechanical harvesting of Jatropha seed is possible, manual harvesting is common in India. Normally, plant spacing of 2.7 2.7 m is considered more desirable for commercial cultivation (Kureel et al. 2007). However, spacing depends on the harvest method. Manual harvesting, common in smaller plantations, is considered as the best method for sustainable production and generation jobs in many developing countries. Jatropha is commonly used as hedging materials to protect crops from grazing animals, as it is not eaten by animals. It is also grown as a means to control soil erosion. It is possible to use Jatropha hedges against bushfire and/or soil

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improvement (Henning 2004). People use latex of Jatropha plant for gum care (Oduola et al. 2007), whereas Jatropha oil is used for lighting and cooking purposes (Brittaine and Lutadalio 2010). Jatropha is well recognized for its potential as a petroleum fuel substitute. It was used during the Second World War as a diesel substitute in Madagascar, Benin, and Cape Verde. However, its glycerin by-product is valuable for the manufacture of nitroglycerin (Brittaine and Lutadalio 2010). Jatropha is also used for soapmaking purpose. Soap is made up by adding a solution of sodium hydroxide (caustic soda) to Jatropha oil. This technology has turned soapmaking into a viable small-scale rural enterprise in many developing countries (Brittaine and Lutadalio 2010). In England, the oil of Jatropha is used in wool spinning. In China, it is used for manufacturing of non- or semidrying alkaloids (Kureel et al. 2007). In comparison to the states like Chhattisgarh, Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Rajasthan, Karnataka, Uttarakhand, Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra, and Orissa, the northeastern states possess a few advantages in the production of biodiesel from Jatropha due to environmental suitability, availability of degraded land, etc. In addition

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to the higher physical growth of Jatropha in NE India, the region possesses a considerable amount of degraded/wasteland which can be utilized for such plantation. According to an estimate of the Wastelands Atlas of India (2011), the total wasteland in NE India is 467,021.16 km2 in 2008–2009, which is about 9.5 % of the total wasteland of India (44,315.06 km2). The availability of wasteland in a few selected states in India is given in Table 8.9. It is seen from Table 8.9 that the NE states possess a considerable amount of wasteland. Nearly 17.5 % of the total geographical area of NE India is under wasteland category. However, the nature of the wasteland varies across regions. The Wastelands Atlas of India (2011) categorized wasteland in India into a few categories like gullied and/or ravenous land, degraded pasture/grazing land, mining/industrial wasteland, wasteland with and/or without scrub, waterlogged and marshy land, sand inland/ coastal area, shifting cultivation area, barren rocky/stony waste/sheet rock area, etc. Among these categories, Jatropha can easily be cultivated in wastelands with and/or without scrub, land under shifting cultivation, and

Table 8.9 Distribution of wasteland in India for a few selected states (in km2) in 2008–2009 Selected states Andhra Pradesh Arunachal Pradesh Assam Gujarat Karnataka Maharashtra Manipur Meghalaya Mizoram Nagaland Orissa Rajasthan Sikkim Tripura Tamil Nadu Uttarakhand NE India India

Total geographical area 275,068 83,743 78,438 196,024 191,791 307,690 22,327 22,429 21,081 16,579 155,707 342,239 7096 10,486 130,058 53,483 255,083 3,166,412

Source: Wastelands Atlas of India 2011

Total wasteland 37,296.62 14,895.24 8453.86 20,108.06 13,030.62 37,830.82 5648.53 3865.76 4958.64 5266.72 16,425.76 84,929.10 3273.15 964.64 8721.79 12,859.53 44,315.06 467,021.16

Percentage to total geographical area 13.56 17.79 10.78 10.26 6.79 12.30 25.30 18.40 23.52 31.77 10.55 24.82 46.13 9.20 6.71 24.04 17.37 14.75

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underutilized/degraded notified forest land without causing adverse effects on forest cover and regular cultivated area. Table 8.10 shows the state-wise availability of wasteland in NE India (excluding Sikkim) that can easily be used for Jatropha plantation. It is found that 20,325.16 km2 of the total wasteland of NE India is under dense and open scrub. Shifting cultivation, a pernicious form of cultivation which results in soil erosion and degradation of forest, is practiced in NE India (Goswami et al. 2012) and constituted 17.08 % (7568.70 km2) of the total wasteland of the region in 2008–2009. Moreover, the region possesses 5734.56 km2 of underutilized/degraded notified forest area (Wastelands Atlas of India 2011). These areas under the three categories can easily be used for Jatropha plantation and may work as a green cover to reduce soil erosion and landslides in the region. Out of the total wasteland with dense and open scrub in NE India, Manipur has the highest proportion (i.e., 23.02 %) followed by Assam (20.27 %), Meghalaya (16.05 %), Nagaland (14.24 %), Mizoram (13.47 %), and Arunachal Pradesh (10.77 %). Similarly, with respect to the wasteland under shifting cultivation (both abandoned and current jhum), the proportion is found to be the highest in Nagaland (31.15 %), followed by Arunachal Pradesh (26.95 %) and Mizoram (21.96 %). Again, Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, and Mizoram together comprise 91.56 % of the total underutilized/ degraded forest land of NE India, which may be a potential source of land for Jatropha plantation to provide green cover and to reduce soil erosion. Despite having a considerable amount of wasteland, the expansion of Jatropha plantation in the region is lagging behind in comparison to many other states of India. According to the report of GEXSI (2008), a total of 407,635 ha of land was under Jatropha plantation in India in 2008 of which Chhattisgarh was accounted for the highest proportion (20.61 %) followed by Rajasthan (8.1 %). If we consider the total area under Jatropha plantation promoted through D1 Williamson Magor Biofuel Limited

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(D1WMBFLtd), in all the northeastern states together, the figure comes about 85,420 ha and constitutes 20.96 % of India’s total Jatropha plantation area (Table 8.11). Table 8.11 presents the state-wise distribution of the area under Jatropha plantation in NE India. It is found that the total area brought under Jatropha plantation through the initiatives of D1WMBFLtd is estimated at 39,400 and 46,020 ha in 2007 and 2008, respectively. From a hectare of 3-year-old Jatropha plantation, about 500 kg of Jatropha seed is produced (Punia 2010). Therefore, it was expected that, by 2010, a total of 19.7 million tonnes of Jatropha seed was supposed to be produced. It was also expected that 6.01 million liters of biodiesel was supposed to be produced by 2010, if 3.28 kg of Jatropha seeds produce 1 l of biodiesel (Planning Commission of India 2003). On the other hand, 3.94 million liters of biodiesel was supposed to be produced, if 5 kg Jatropha seeds produce 1 l of biodiesel (Henning 2004). However, in reality, the production was much below than the expected level. The biofuel development plan may be more successful with proper coordination and partnership between public and private sectors (Engineering and Consulting Firms Association et al. 2007). Though private companies D1WMBFLtd, Sun Plant Agro Limited, etc., are involved in the process in NE India, because of poor market price of Jatropha seeds, inadequate infrastructure, and lack of support to the farmers specifically during the gestation period, the industry is not flourishing in the region. Suitable public-private participation policies may benefit the industry and the region in the coming years as the farmers need training and assured market.

8.6.3

Employment Opportunities in Jatropha Plantation in Northeast India

In addition to the production of biodiesel, cultivation of Jatropha possesses an opportunity for

258.86 (6.60) 270.31 (6.89) 272.52 (6.95) 612.71 (15.62) 1514.95 (38.61) 33.20 (0.85) 3923.59 (100) 4814.68

4119.79 (20.27) 4679.02 (23.02) 3262.56 (16.05) 2738.07 (13.47) 2893.69 (14.24) 443.82 (2.18) 20,325.16 (100) 180,012.91

136.33 (3.74) 201.32 (5.52) 268.11 (7.36) 1049.37 (28.79) 842.47 (23.11) 68.99 (1.89) 3645.11 (100) 4210.46

Abandoned shifting cultivation 1078.52 (29.59) 929.51 (25.58) 495.45 (13.63) 68.88 (1.90) 558.12 (15.36) 0.12 (0.00) 384.50 (10.58) 3634.35 (100) 83,699.71

Underutilized/ degraded forest (scrub dominated) 1197.77 (32.96) 2063.03 (98.23) 2.44 (0.12) 0.40 (0.02) 0.37 (0.02) 13.39 (0.64) 16.67 (0.79) 2100.21 (100) 15,680.26

Underutilized/ degraded forest (agriculture) 3.91 (0.19) 8453.86 (19.08) 5648.53 (12.75) 4127.43 (9.31) 4958.64 (11.19) 5266.72 (11.88) 964.64 (2.18) 44,315.06 (100) 467,021.16

Total wasteland 14,895.24 (33.61)

10.78 25.30 18.40 23.52 31.77 9.20 17.37 14.75

% of total wasteland to total geographical area 17.79

Note:1. Figures in parentheses represent percentage of column total (NER); 2. Sikkim is excluded in the calculation. Source: Wastelands Atlas of India 2011

State Arunachal Pradesh Assam Manipur Meghalaya Mizoram Nagaland Tripura NER India

Current shifting cultivation 961.04 (24.49)

Land with dense/ open scrub 2188.21 (10.77)

Table 8.10 State-wise availability of wasteland suitable for Jatropha plantation in NE India during 2008–2009 (km2)

78,438 22,327 22,429 21,081 16,579 10,486 255,083 31,66,414

Total geographical area 83,743

8 Biomass Resources for Biofuel Production in Northeast India 143

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Table 8.11 Area under Jatropha plantation in a few selected states in NE India initiated by D1WMBFLtd (in hectares)

States Assam Tripura Arunachal Pradesh Nagaland Manipur Meghalaya Total

Year-wise new plantation area 2007 2008 11,800 22,100 13,000 13,000 2000 3920 9600 4000 2000 2000 1000 1000 39,400 46,020

Total 33,900 26,000 5920 13,600 4000 2000 85,420

Expected production of seeds in 2010 (a500 kg per hectare) 5,900,000 6,500,000 1,000,000 4,800,000 1,000,000 500,000 19,700,000

Source: D1 Williamson Magor Bio Fuel Limited 500 kg per hectare is based on the estimate of Punia 2010

a

Table 8.12 Employment generated in Jatropha plantations in a few selected states in NE India

States Assam Tripura Arunachal Pradesh Nagaland Manipur Meghalaya Total

One-time employment generated in Jatropha plantation in 2007a 3,693,400 4,069,000 626,000

One-time employment generated in Jatropha plantation in 2008a 6,917,300 4,069,000 1,226,960

One-time employment generated in Jatropha plantation during 2007 and 2008a 10,610,700 8,138,000 1,852,960

Expected annual employment generation on regular basisb 1,389,900 1,066,000 242,720

3,004,800 626,000 313,000 12,332,200

1,252,000 626,000 313,000 14,404,260

4,256,800 1,252,000 626,000 26,736,460

557,600 164,000 82,000 3,502,220

a

Values of columns 2, 3, and 4 are based on the estimates of the Planning Commission of India that during plantation of Jatropha, 313 man-days per hectare of one-time employment are generated b Values of column 5 are based on the estimates of the Planning Commission of India that during operation and maintenance of Jatropha plantation, 41 man-days per hectare of employment are generated on regular basis

rural employment generation (Jongschaap et al. 2007). This is more so after the introduction of plantation activities under Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA). Large-scale Jatropha plantations result in more biodiesel production at a relatively lower cost along with the creation of rural employment opportunities. According to the Planning Commission, 1 ha of Jatropha plantation generates 313 man-days’ employment (Planning Commission of India 2003). Therefore, it was expected that 26.74 million man-days’ employment has already been generated through Jatropha plantation in NE India (Tables 8.12). Moreover, the estimates of the Planning Commission of India also indicate generation of 41 man-day’s additional employment per year per hectare throughout the life of

such plantations. Thus, it can further be expected that, at the present level of Jatropha cultivation (i.e., up to 2008), about 3.50 million man-days’ employment was generated annually (Table 8.12). This will ultimately help in reducing chronic unemployment problem that prevails in the rural areas of NE India.

8.6.4

Sustainability of the JatrophaBased Biofuel Industry and Policy Initiatives

The sustainability of the Jatropha-based biofuel industry in NE India basically involves three important issues, i.e., (i) sustained production and supply of feedstocks, which deals with the issues related to adoption and expansion of

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Jatropha, (ii) feedstock price and minimum support price, and (iii) public-private partnership related to Jatropha.

8.6.4.1 Sustained Production and Supply of Feedstocks Sustained production and supply of feedstocks basically depends upon adoption and expansion of Jatropha. Analyzing the adoption and diffusion behavior, Rogers (2003) mentioned that innovation diffusion process can lead to either adoption or rejection. Such decision can also be altered at a later point of time. However, Jabbar et al. (1998) mentioned that adoption is not a one-off static decision and involves a dynamic process in which information gathering, learning, and experience play pivotal roles particularly in the early stages of adoption. The knowledge and perception acquired at a particular point in time influence the decision to adopt, reject, or defer at that point in time. The extent of adoption at farm level in a given period is dichotomous, and, in the aggregate, the measure becomes continuous (Feder et al. 1985). Off-farm income may affect adoption by providing an alternative source of cash flow to buffer the risk associated with introduction of a new crop. Effective extension services, adequate provision of inputs, timely credit availability, transportation, and functional marketing channels are important determinants to foster the adoption process (Feder et al. 1985). In the context of adoption, Pattanayak et al. (2003) identified five categories of factors such as preference, resource endowment, market incentives, biophysical factors, and risk and uncertainty that explain technology adoption within an economic framework. In many empirical analyses of adoption behavior, there is a missing link between empirical analysis and underlying theory. In the absence of a theoretical framework, the empirical analysis has little scope to promote a general predictive understanding of the farm household decision-making process (Mercer and Pattanayak 2003). Farmers who take wait-and-watch attitude are less likely to be interested in growing a new crop (Qualls et al. 2011). Older producers are also less

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likely to be interested because of the limited time frame to receive the benefits of the crop. Highincome farmers may feel to take the risk by growing a new crop because of availability of resources. Similarly, Breen et al. (2009) found that farmers’ educational level, farm size, and farming system significantly influence the willingness to adopt energy crops. Size of farm is a more reliable estimator of the expected future earnings from energy crop production than the current level of farm income. Thus, in the production and expansion process, farmers’ individual characteristics, infrastructure, and resource endowment issues play vital role. For sustainability of the industry in NE India, adequate attention should be given with respect to these issues. Availability of land and labor for Jatropha plantation are common constraints in NE India (Goswami and Choudhury 2015). Though policies are designed to stop conversion of normal cultivable land for Jatropha, these policies are often not fully implemented at the ground level. In the context of NE India, Goswami and Choudhury (2015) found that about 19 % of Jatropha growers used their regular agricultural land for Jatropha plantations. Moreover, about 73 % of the amount of land brought under Jatropha plantation can be used for other agricultural activities, but limited markets make this difficult. Since there are alternative uses of land, this makes the adoption and expansion decisions fragile. Similarly, availability of nonfarm employment opportunity works against the sustained production of Jatropha (Choudhury and Goswami 2013). Therefore, like many other agricultural decisions, Jatropha production is driven by the local demand and supply of labor and land.

8.6.4.2 Feedstock Price and Minimum Support Price Fixing of incentive price for Jatropha involves a comprehensive cost and benefit analysis of the stages of biodiesel production, namely, agricultural and industrial. Here, the role of the government is important in fixing the feedstock price which needs to take care of the returns from other

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alternative crops and existing agricultural activities. Jatropha plantations are economically viable, though not highly profitable (Goswami and Choudhury 2015; Goswami et al. 2011; Shinoj et al. 2010). With lower level of seed yield and higher labor and seedling costs, the problem aggravates further. In the context of minimum support price policy, Deshpande and Naika (2002) mentioned that, during the 1960s and 1970s in India, cost of production approach is used to measure minimum support and procurement prices. The Agricultural Prices Commission follows nine important factors while fixing the minimum support prices, levy prices, and procurement prices. These are (i) cost of production, (ii) risk under cultivation, (iii) changes in the input prices, (iv) trends in the market prices, (v) demand and supply of the commodities, (vi) cost of living index and general price index, (vii) fluctuations of prices in the international market, (viii) price parity between crops (input and output) across 27 sectors, and (ix) trends in the market prices. However, the Commission for Agricultural Costs and Prices of India (2012) formulates minimum support price by considering factors such as (i) cost of production, (ii) changes in input prices, (iii) input-output price parity, (iv) trends in market prices, (v) demand and supply, (vi) intercrop price parity, (vii) effect on industrial cost structure, (viii) effect on cost of living, (ix) effect on general price level, (x) international price situation, (xi) parity between prices paid and prices received by the farmers, and (xii) effect on issue prices and implications for subsidy. Thus, there are different opinions about fixation of minimum support price, and determination of incentive price for Jatropha feedstocks needs a thorough study considering local dynamics. Sustained production of Jatropha largely depends upon feedstock price. If the existing poor market price of Jatropha seeds prevails, farmers will not be motivated enough to adopt and continue with Jatropha and the industry will not sustain. As the biodiesel price in India is low and about half of that of fossil diesel (INR 26.5 per liter of biodiesel against INR 52.08 of fossil diesel in Mumbai), the government should think

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about increasing the market price of Jatropha. This will minimize the gap between the actual and expected income from Jatropha (Goswami and Hazarika 2016). In addition, to support the growers, access to credit and efficient use of such credit is important for the industry. During the gestation period, to continue with Jatropha, such financial support will be crucial for the economically poor small growers. Moreover, proper use of such credit is also crucial. Analyzing the adoption and continuation of Jatropha in NE India, Goswami and Choudhury (2015) reported misuse of credit by 58 % of the Jatropha growers who received institutional credit.

8.6.4.3 Public-Private Partnership (PPP) in Jatropha Bioenergy development plan can only be sustained through proper coordination and partnership between public-private organizations (Engineering and Consulting Firms Association et al. 2007). The major concern of the biofuel development project is making the production of biodiesel economically feasible so that the locally available Jatropha can be used for producing energy involving local community. PPP model in Jatropha is essential to ensure a quantum leap in production of clean fuel, which helps to save fast-depleting natural fuel resources and ensure clean environment (Kore 2007). Such model will help not only to reduce the import of crude oil but also to generate additional firm revenue with rural employment. Pitching for an inclusive business model for sustainable biofuel investment, Verkuij (2011) gave more emphasis on the PPP model and mentioned that PPP is needed to set up the inclusive business model. In the same line, promoting PPP in farmer-based biofuel production in South India, GTZ8 (Deutsche Gesellschaftfu¨rInternationaleZusammenarbeit) expected gains in the areas of environment protection, energy use and climate change, and enhancement of rural incomes, employment, and quality of life through Jatropha and Pongamia. Thus, several studies support the PPP in biofuel industry. However, in reality, such partnership is difficult to find and almost nonexistent in NE India. As the

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biodiesel industry cannot survive through private or government initiatives separately, there should be a proper investigation about the ground reality and the requirements to promote PPP in biodiesel industry in NE India. One of the major concerns for the successful public-private partnership in NE India is confidence building and recognition of their respective roles. Private promoters often expect government interventions with respect to subsidized credit, market and related infrastructure, and attractive price for biofuels. These issues are yet to be addressed in the region. These in turn demotivated different private players and many of them already abandoned the industry. Therefore, for sustainability of the industry, along with the expansion of the plantation areas, the post plantation issues need to be addressed properly. Expansion of the biodiesel sector demands a proactive role on the part of the government. Researchers found that a combination of mandates and tax support policy of the government tends to increase production and consumption of biofuel (Agra CEAS Consulting 2006; Balat 2007). As climatic condition of the northeastern states is suitable for Jatropha plantation, with proper implementation strategy at institutional as well as at field level, the region may become a major production center of Jatropha biodiesel with a considerable generation of rural employment. The recent amendment of Schedule I Paragraph 1 (iv) of MGNREGA is creating an avenue for expansion of Jatropha and other plantation crops. According to the amendment, plantation activities in lands owned by the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes’ households or below poverty line families or the beneficiaries of land reforms or the beneficiaries under the Indira Awaas Yojana (IAY) of the Government of India are brought under the permissible work category of MGNREGA (Ministry of Rural Development 2009). MGNREGA aims at enhancing the livelihood security of the households in the rural areas of the country by providing a maximum of 100 days’ employment guarantee in every financial year to every registered household. The basic aim of the

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scheme is to create durable assets and livelihood resource bases for the rural poor. It is found that, although employment opportunity is provided to the households who seek employment under MGNREGA, the target of 100 days’ employment is yet to be realized in most of the states. Except Manipur, Tripura, and Nagaland, the average employment provided to the states of NE India is lower than the national average. This implies that the implementation of MGNREGA in the region is not adequate to generate substantial employment. As mentioned earlier, the region may become a major production center of biodiesel from Jatropha with a considerable generation of rural employment. Proper implementation of MGNREGA for Jatropha plantation activities may boost the industry. There is a good scope for the governments in the region to generate additional employment in plantation through MGNREGA. The use of MGNREGA as a tool will serve multiple purposes as follows: (i) Firstly, it will give the farmers a direct support to bear the labor cost for land preparation, establishing nurseries, pruning, and harvesting, which are seriously accounted for, especially during the initial years of establishment of Jatropha plantation (Jongschaap et al. 2007). (ii) Secondly, the possibility of conversion of agricultural land for Jatropha plantation and subsequent threat to food security in the long run (Ludena et al. 2007) may be nullified through MGNREGA, implemented through Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs). PRIs will serve as a watchdog to ascertain that no agricultural land is converted for Jatropha plantation. (iii) Thirdly, since the production cost of biodiesel is not competitive with diesel (Peters and Thielmann 2008), government support through MGNREGA will be helpful in reducing the cost of production of biodiesel. This will act as a booster for the biodiesel industry. iv. Fourthly, since the implementation of MGNREGA particularly in the NE states is poor and could not achieve its target,

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creating a provision for Jatropha plantation will give a new avenue for MGNREGA to create employment opportunities in such plantations.

8.7

Sustainability

Biomass resources can be converted into liquid and gaseous fuels, electricity, and process heat, thereby increasing the energy sources of the country and reducing country’s dependence on conventional source of energy. Due to the limitation of fossil fuel and impending climate change, importance of biofuel is increasing day by day in both developed and developing countries. However, production of biofuel depends on feedstock availability, impact on the prevailing socioeconomic scenario, and the environment. As a result of increasing human population and their demands, second generation biofuels are gaining more attention than the first generation biofuels. Second-generation biofuels are sustainable in nature as compared to the first generation, and at the same time, it increases income opportunities, mostly in the agricultural sector. For sustainable use of biofuel and environmental stability, the following general issues are to be concerned: (1) reduction of GHG emission, (2) biodiversity, (3) identification of areas of high conservation value, and (4) impacts on air, water, and soil (Fischer and Schrattenholzer 2001; Franke et al. 2013). Biofuel is a clean source of energy and it prevents the emission of greenhouse gases to the atmosphere. Other environmental benefits that are associated with the biofuel include waste utilization and erosion control. Plantation of feedstock covers the land area which prevents the erosion through wind and water. It is reported that for every MWh of power generated using biomass, approximately 1.6 tonnes of CO2 are avoided (OECD/IEA 2010). Second generation biofuels emit less amount of GHG as compared to the first generation biofuels. Biofuels produced from the agricultural sector like crop residues are estimated to

result in emissions of 11gCO2e/MJ fuel, whereas emissions from conversion of cereals to ethanol are estimated at 37–64 gCO2e/MJ fuel (ECOFYS 2012). Reduction of CO2 emissions can be done through the management of biomass resource in a sustainable way. Perennial tree or grass species grown as feedstock for the production of biofuel also provides a cover to the surface increasing the water retention capacity of the soil. Biofuel production could also improve rural livelihoods by providing new income opportunities to their families. Some of the most important implementations of biofuel projects are job creation and regional growth in developing countries. Depending on the feedstock choice, the potential for the job creation varies. Cultivation of specific energy crops can create jobs, whereas the use of residues will have limited potential to create jobs since existing farm labor could be used.

8.8

Conclusion

The utilization of currently available biomass resources in Northeast India for production of various types of biofuels can be a viable alternative of fossil fuels. The immense opportunity still untapped in this region needs immediate attention of researchers, administrators, and policymakers. The availability of different types of forest residues, agricultural crop residues, and municipal solid waste products makes them potential biofuel feedstocks, particularly for the production of the second generation biofuels. The promotion of Jatropha cultivation in wastelands/marginal, abandoned land along the riverside are enhanced to produce biodiesel feedstocks, support scarcity reduction of liquid fuel, and provide opportunity for the rural development. Therefore, there is a need to develop site-specific technological packages aiming at utilization of the available biomass resources in a sustainable manner for decentralized energy generation to serve the rural population of the northeastern region of India.

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