Bridging CALL & HCI: Input from Participatory Design

CALICO Journal, 27(3)

Bridging CALL & HCI: Input from Participatory Design

Bridging CALL & HCI: Input from Participatory Design Mónica S. Cárdenas-Claros Paul A. Gruba The University of Melbourne

ABSTRACT Participatory design (PD), or the collaboration between software engineers and end users throughout the design process, may help improve CALL design practices. In this case study, four ESL learners, a software designer, and a language teacher created and evaluated a series of paper prototypes concerning help options in computer-based second language listening environments in four 1-hour sessions. Qualitative data was analyzed to produce themes that included location, sequence, type, and click-through. The paper concludes by discussing how PD was incorporated in the project, the results of this integration, and suggestions for future implementations in CALL.

KEYWORDS Help Options, Computer-based Listening, Participatory Design (PD), Human-computer Interaction

INTRODUCTION Although past CALL research has sought to compare the effectiveness of computer-based language instruction to traditional ways of language teaching (Chapelle, 2003; Levy & Stockwell, 2006), one increasing trend in the field is to consider how CALL practitioners can benefit from work in associated disciplines such as human-computer interaction and software engineering. Touching on emerging practices, Colpaert (2004) argued that students occupy roles in CALL that include being a software user, language learner, communicator, and contributor to the design process. Highlighting the need to further incorporate the learners’ contributions, Farmer and Gruba (2006) proposed that participatory design (PD) �� be used in the CALL software design process. To date, however, this proposal has not been empirically investigated; accordingly, the aim of the current study is to examine how PD works in actual practice. To illustrate, we describe a case study of the use of PD within the development of help options in computer-based listening environments.

SITUATING PARTICIPATORY DESIGN Software engineers typically use a range of techniques that include, for example, requirements gathering, task specification, and project management (Farmer, 2008). When a PD approach is taken, software engineers involve end users as full participants in the design and/ or evaluation of software, hardware, and computer-based activities (Muller, 1992). The approach views design as a process of collaboration with users that is incremental and iterative and focuses on quality improvements (Blomberg & Henderson, 1990).

CALICO Journal, 27(3), p-p 576-591.

© 2010 CALICO Journal

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Mónica S. Cárdenas-Claros and Paul A. Gruba

For end-user involvement to be successful, PD practices need to be structured and facilitated in ways that lead to future designs and, most importantly, that translate easily into development (Bødker & Iversen, 2002). As opposed to methods of development that are unidirectional (i.e., designers analyze the requirements from the users, deliver a system to the users, and collect data from the users), participatory approaches emphasize mutuality and reciprocity. In ideal settings, discussions about a product belong to neither designers nor users. Instead, interactions occur in ways that constitute a ‘hybrid space’ or a ‘third space’ that allows for new constructions and understandings (Muller, 2003). Methods to elicit data in collaborative interactions commonly make use of everyday stationery (e.g., labels, colored pencils, paper, and sticky notes) and may include the use of photographs, collages, and low-tech prototypes (e.g., building blocks, foam, and hook-andloop attachments) that allow users to reshape existing configurations (Bødker, Grønbæck & Kyng, 1993; Pedell, 2008). Other methods may make use of computer-generated scenarios that can gradually add functionality to an artifact. In summary, PD methods seek to elicit a deeper understanding of the roles, processes, and decisions made by a range of stakeholders in the use of a particular application that is situated within actual practice (Muller, 2003). Once solely work focused, PD practices are increasingly being used in educational studies (see Druin, 2002; Könings, 2007; Pardo, 2009), and researchers emphasize end-user involvement in design processes as a way to improve learners’ engagement and satisfaction with educational software products. Studies using PD practices in the construction of second language learning environments are rare. In one study concerning the development of an online foreign language course, Zaphiris and Zacharia (2001) found that user satisfaction and commitment was increased as a result of using PD approaches. Nonetheless, there is little reason to doubt that PD techniques that emphasize quality, collaboration, and iterative processes can be transferred to the construction of CALL learning environments. Already sensitive to second languages and second cultures, CALL designers who embrace a stronger collaborative orientation with learners may gain a greater understanding of software use throughout second language learning processes. A cyclical, iterative and appropriate design approach may better ensure positive learner experiences, and perceptions are better incorporated in emerging new technologies that are purpose built for effective second language learning.

COMPUTER-BASED LISTENING Situated in CALL, studies of computer-based listening seek to specifically examine how listeners may interact with aural, video, and multimedia productions that are designed to take advantage of the capabilities of digital technologies. Traditionally, research in the area was comparative and included studies that investigated learners’ attitudes toward multimedia (Brett, 1997; Weinberg, 2002), performance (Brett, 1997; Ramirez & Alonso, 2007), and students’ motivation over time (Brett, 2000). Such studies, in general, tended to show that multimedia listening was superior to traditional means and that novel effects which may have initially influenced gains in performance and motivation tended to decrease over time. Increasingly, computer-based listening specialists are focusing on factors that promote comprehension. One foundation for their efforts rests in the interactionist hypothesis in which input is viewed as a key factor for second language acquisition, but notably only if that input is noticed or apperceived by the learner (Long, 1996). In traditional listening studies, learners were exposed to modifications of input (thus, with the hope of increasing ‘noticing’) through translations, pictures, and scripts of the aural text prior to or after a listening episode. In mul

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timedia contexts, such modifications of input were operationalized as help options with the hope that learners could receive ‘just-in-time’ assistance as comprehension breakdowns took place (Grgurović & Hegelheimer, 2007; Cárdenas-Claros & Gruba, 2009). The presence of help options in computer-based listening environments may potentially provide learners with access to enhanced input that allows for immediate repairs of comprehension breakdowns that, thus, can promote second language acquisition (Grgurović & Hegelheimer, 2007; Ramirez & Alonso, 2007). According to Rost (2007), when help options are included in multimedia environments, the opportunities for processing input are augmented. Potentially, students can benefit because they can replay, stop, and pause segments; read along from transcripts, subtitles, and captioned materials; access cultural notes; and receive feedback. Despite the perceived benefits of using help options, however, research suggests that second language learners tend to neglect them. Previous studies on help options acknowledge that poor design practices may be a cause for the paucity of help option use (CárdenasClaros, 2005; Grgurović & Hegelheimer, 2007; Liou, 1997; Hegelheimer & Tower, 2004; Pujolà, 2002). Such a lack in the use of potentialities appears to plague CALL design in general. Increased internet facilities have led to the proliferation of materials based in a wide range of differing practices not grounded in a unified theory of design (Farmer & Gruba, 2006). The aim of this study is to identify the design features of help options that may promote their use in computer-based listening environments.

THE STUDY The Participants Four ESL learners, a second language teacher, and a software designer from a Spanish-speaking background participated in the study. All participants, including the researchers, were or had been language learners themselves. This shared experience of language learning, we hoped, minimized the possible effects of power relationships. The four learners were enrolled in English classes at the time of data collection and selected for their language ability. Here, Lisa and Mao represent beginning and high-beginning learners; Carol and Fabio represent intermediate and high-intermediate learners (see Table 1; names are pseudonyms). Table 1 Participants’ Demographic Information and Roles in PD Participant

Nationality

Profession

Role in PD

Lisa

Colombian

Student of business (6 semesters)

Beginning L2 learner

Mao

Colombian

Psychologist

High-beginning L2 learner

Carol

Chilean

Computer programmer

Intermediate L2 learner

Fabio

Chilean

Electrical engineer and computer programmer

High-intermediate L2 learner

Celia

Argentinean

Doctoral student in linguistics

Language teacher

Elkin

Colombian

HCI designer and lecturer

Software designer

Celia, the language teacher, was completing a doctorate in linguistics at a large research Australian university. She has taught both Spanish and English in Argentina, the United

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States, and Australia. The software designer, Elkin, lectures in information systems at a large Australian university and has been involved in a number of design projects that include the creation of learning environments.

Procedure and Data Collection For user involvement to be satisfactory in the approach, PD tasks need to be structured and facilitated (Muller, 2003). After an initial 1-hour individual session for each participant, the remaining three sessions were structured as working parties. In each session, interaction was lively, collaborative, and productive. The goal for session one was twofold: to familiarize the participants with the working definition of help options adopted for the study and to gather information about participants’ experience with language learning, computer use, language teaching, and design. To introduce the concept of help options, participants, regardless of their role, interacted with a set of listening tasks in the 2008 online version of the Longman English Interactive program. In session two, the researchers sought to familiarize the participants with design features in help options. Participants assessed three researcher-generated paper prototypes using two main criteria: whether they prompted or prevented the use of L2 help options. The paper prototypes designed for the study were based on commercially available software and insights from previous studies on help options. The third session sought to promote collaboration among participants. In this session participants discussed what they did during session two. Then, they used office tools (sticky notes, paper, markers, etc) to create jointly two paper prototypes: one for beginners and the other for intermediate learners (see Figure 1). The fourth and last session promoted iteration as participants discussed and assessed the prototypes they produced during the third session. During this session, the participants reflected on their role in the construction of the prototypes and their level of satisfaction with the final product.

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Figure 1 Paper Prototypes Creation

RESULTS The sessions resulted in the production of 9 hours of video-recorded interactions that were later transcribed and translated into English by the researchers. Cyclical data analysis techniques were assisted by the use of qualitative analysis software to help identify a range of emerging themes. The results for the study are presented below in four themes: location, sequence, type, and click-through. Each theme emerged from the data and relates directly to the design outcomes of the study. Following a brief definition, we set out each of the themes with integrated data and ongoing discussion.

Location Location is the tentative position where help option buttons are placed in the interface. Location is not accurate in terms of exact positioning. Instead, it provides the designer with rough guidelines of users’ preferences for the display of help options.

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To provide a clearer picture of the preferences for location of help options, Figure 2 represents the computer interface divided into three equal vertical frames and three horizontal frames. Figure 2 Frames in the Prototypes Frame 1

Frame 2

Frame 3

Frame 4

Frame 5

Frame 6

Frame 7

Frame 8

Frame 9

Participants in the study favored the location of help options presented in Prototype 1 (P1). In this prototype transcripts, glossary, cultural notes, listening tips, and translation were presented as buttons aligned along frames 2 and 3. Participants agreed that this type of alignment provides a concrete and visible account of the help option offered by the software. Fabio, for instance, suggests that with this type of alignment he has a better idea of what he can or cannot do with the software. Personally, I find this [P1] better because the help options are already displayed. The more hidden, the more difficult because suddenly you lose sight of what you can or cannot do. This type of alignment also addresses visual learners and therefore can be interpreted as a tempting invitation to access help options, as Celia explains, P1 is already offering a menu with possibilities so that you feel tempted. For example, I would be so tempted with the transcript because I am the kind of student who thinks that you learn more in a visual way, when you see something written. Lisa and Elkin, however, believe that in addition to feeling tempted to access the help options, this type of location may contribute to increasing the frequency of help options use because the user is constantly looking at them. E: So, you are saying that the fact of having the options up there [P1] means that that you are going to use them more often? L: Yes, because you have them at your sight. In summary, participants in this study consider that having help options aligned on frames 2 and 3 influence their use. This preference is also supported by the participants’ acknowledgment that they have in their mind a predetermined layout of what is appropriate in design. Anything that goes beyond that structure is conceived as messy and lacking intuitiveness. Carol, Mao, Fabio, and Lisa consider that the design in Prototype 3 goes against the structure for website presentation they are familiar with, as Carol summarizes it, For me, this one [Prototype 3] is very disorganized, messy.… This thing [the screen]… The pop-up appearing here [on frame 1] distracts me. I do not know how to explain that. It is easier for me to see a website organized in this way [P1] where the focus is in here [frame 4] and has these ones [the questions] from the top to the bottom and from here to there [left to right] they have the help options.

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This is also explained in terms of cultural inclinations, as noted by Celia when pinpointing how very popular websites use this type of layout, looking at CNN and things like that in the Internet, it seems that the screen is always located there [Frame 4] and to the right [frame 5] there is something else … I think it is a Western inclination. The above preferences are in line with the principle that unconventional design is difficult to transfer to programs because users are not familiar with it (Lynch & Horton, 2009).

Sequence Sequence indicates the order in which help options are presented. In this work, for example, a horizontal sequence suggests hierarchical organization, where help options appearing on the left are seen as more relevant for listening than those on the right. Participants’ preference for the sequence of help options is not straightforward and relates to each participant’s concept of what a listening exercise entails. For instance, Mao considers that challenge is necessary to develop listening skills and using the translation button makes a text easier to understand. Therefore, to avoid accessing it he would locate the translation button towards the right side. I think the best way to learn is to try to deduce the meaning of words but if I translate it I go a step behind. I would use it as a last option in case I am totally lost. When I tell to myself I really can not understand this stuff.… I also think that translation must go at the end because trying to think just in English is the priority above all. Celia agreed that translation should not be offered as a first help option. However she would not place it as a last option either because she acknowledges the role the mother tongue plays in language learning. Because she is learning Polish at the moment, she feels having the translation option helps her understand what is going on. If you are a capable beginner you would want to use the translation first. I mean, when I am studying Polish, the first thing I want to know is what is happening. Fabio suggests ordering the help options based on how much they can assist understanding. With this frame of ideas, translations, he notes, should also be located at the end. I would place them in order of help ability. For instance, translation should be at the end because it is like … if I cannot do this [the listening exercise] with the first help option, then I try with the second and so on and so forth. This view of the role of translation in language learning is held also by Mao, Lisa, Carol, and Elkin and seems to be shaped by the way English is taught in Argentina, Chile, and Colombia

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where the goal is communicating in the second language without using the first language at all. Celia explains, In Latin America, instead we have the strong belief that if it is English, we focus on English only. I taught everything in English for elementary students—’hello, bye, etc’—and when they spoke in Spanish I sort of ignored them. Along with translation, Lisa believes cultural notes are not important and for that reason she would place them at the end. L: At the end translation and cultural notes as I do not consider them that important. E: Why don’t you find them important? L: I do not know. I am not interested in using those help options, I do not find them relevant. Mao suggests that although cultural notes are very important to complement the information from the video, they should not occupy a prime place in the sequence. In his view other help options are more relevant for completing the exercise. For him transcripts should be presented as a first option. Carol and Fabio have similar opinions. They acknowledge that learners tend to understand texts presented in written form much easier than oral texts “When you listen and read at the same time is much easier to understand, like when you use closed captions.” Celia explains that transcripts can also be used as a learning tool to develop spelling and pronunciation skills. Therefore, she proposes presenting transcripts, if not as a first option, close to it. The transcript is a transcription of the text without anything additional…because that is a good thing seeing the word while you listen to it, especially in English where the phonetics and the spelling are different so, you first listen then read. That is what I would do to learn how to spell and how to pronounce. Participants have mixed preferences regarding the placement of listening tips in the sequence. Lisa and Elkin argue that since it is a website intended to develop listening skills and listening tips help learners develop strategies to better understand aural materials, they should be presented in the first place. Lisa argues, “The listening tips should go first, right? Because … they prepare us, guide us, to develop the exercises.” Although Celia agrees that listening tips are important, she suggests not placing them as a first option because learners tend to use them only once or twice until they get familiar with some listening strategies. All the participants agree that since the glossary depends on the transcripts, these help options cannot be separated. As summarized by Carol: “I would never separate transcript and glossary because from the transcript you can always access the glossary.” However, Fabio insists that the glossary should be offered as a separate button to avoid dependency and to guarantee that second language learners use them without having to access the transcripts. yes, one suggests the other, but I would use a different button…for this [glossary] ..is like.. if a person wants to use it he doesn’t have to use the transcript. They are independent.

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During the evaluation of prototypes, no clear consensus regarding sequence was reached. Nonetheless, when the prototypes for levels 1 and 2 were created, participants placed transcript as the first option followed by glossary, cultural notes, listening tips, and translation as illustrated in Figure 3. For intermediate and high-intermediate learners, the preferred sequence was: transcript, glossary, cultural note, listening tips, and dictionary. Figure 3 Paper Prototype Created by the Participants

Type Type is the number and kind of help options L2 learners consider relevant for comprehension in computer-based listening environments as determined by the proficiency level. There are eight help options: transcripts, translations, glossary, dictionary, listening tips, cultural notes, feedback, and audio/video control buttons. Deciding on the type of help options based on their level of proficiency proved to be difficult because the participants held two views about beginning-level students. The first view portrays beginners as most likely to require assistance and therefore requiring more help options (Mao, Elkin, and Lisa). The second view cautions that too many help options can cause

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information overload (Fabio, Carol, and Celia). Fabio summarizes this view: “At the beginning the idea is not to let the student lose the focus so, it is better not to invade him/her with too many things at the same time.” Mao, Elkin, and Carol agree that listening tips are important mostly for beginners because they need to develop strategies that allow them to repair problems in understanding. However, since the prototype is for a website for listening, they find this option useful even for advanced levels. Celia, Elkin, Mao, Lisa, and Fabio consider that translation is beneficial only for beginners because it is the solid ground learners initially rely on to further their L2 learning. However, once learners know a bit of language, they see it as a failure to keep using the translation. To overcome this, Celia suggests, Translation should be left out and the dictionary should be displayed instead. I don’t know if translation is that useful in the advanced level. I think it would just use real state in the web with no purpose because, you see, they are simply texts and texts which in my view would not be that useful because anyway you can translate using a dictionary. The decision, then, is to offer translation only for elementary levels. Mao, Carol, Fabio, and Celia view the glossary as a perfect tool both for beginning and advanced learners. While beginners use it to familiarize themselves with the meaning of words, high-intermediate learners see it as a springboard for dictionary use and for broadening their knowledge of the target language. if you are listening, in what moment will you really need the dictionary? It is because you see or have seen the word, right? Because if you listen to it and you do not know how to write it then how will you use the dictionary? (Elkin) The participants were reluctant to include a dictionary in elementary and advanced levels. On this view, a dictionary should be made available only to high-intermediate learners, and this should be used once students have completed the comprehension exercises, have done some pronunciation practice, and want to reinforce or expand their knowledge of the target language. The consensus was to offer translation, transcripts, cultural notes, listening tips, and glossary for beginners; and transcript, cultural notes, listening tips, cultural notes and dictionary for high-intermediate to advanced levels. Feedback and audio control buttons were not even discussed because participants believe that these are the basic features a computerbased listening environment should have.

Click-Through Click-through refers to the number of steps a user needs to undertake to access a particular help option. Clicking on a transcript button and clicking again on a glossed word to look up its meaning, for example, is counted as a two-stepprocess or two-clicks-away from the user. Participants believe that the fewer clicks a user makes, the most likely he/she is to access a particular help option. This view is best summarized by Carol.

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In my opinion as a student the fact that they [help options] are always displayed means that they are permanently available and the idea with a website is clicking as little as possible. Having help options one click away is also seen as an advantage because once learners detect a problem, they can easily access a particular help option. Additionally, having help options one click away also leads to confidence and feeling in control, as Fabio explains, when you are looking for something to use for teaching or learning, you already have a format of what you need or want so that when you see something you say: that is for me and you just use it. So, the fact of having everything at the reach of your hand leads to be even more self-confidence. Elkin and Mao acknowledge that having help options two clicks away may contribute to further neglect because it requires users to be aware of their existence. However, they note that this multiple step process could be used to force L2 learners to assess the real need for help option use. Elkin reflects on this by highlighting the advantage of presenting the help options in a drop down menu as in Prototype 2. while in here [Prototype 2] you use it when you need it. I use it because I need something and you can click here [Prototype 2] and look for help. Celia opposes this view and believes that if help options are intentionally hidden, learners are led to use them after completing the listening exercise. If you do not know what is in here [help option label in Prototype 2] maybe you do not even give a look at this [the help options menu]. It is like I am going to do the listening first and then if I have a question I check the help options. Moreover, learners tend to react differently to having help options embedded in a labeled help option button. Mao notes, I would try not to use it [help option button] because at the beginning I would think that my learning is much better if I do not use help options from the very beginning. That is, if I try to do my best and at the highest effort and if I get an efficient result I would certainly not use the help options. Carol would avoid accessing this help option button because she normally does not use the help provided in other software. She is in a way transferring preconceived ideas of help to the new learning environment. The fact that in this prototype [Prototype 2] says help option I tend not use it, but, speaking about software of other kind. Carol, Lisa, and Fabio prefer using assistance identified with the function they accomplish. Carol summarizes this view, I prefer this [P1] translation and knowing that they are help options, I am going to use them in a natural way without the need for them to be called help options.

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Celia believes that the word ‘help’ carries a negative connotation, admitting defeat or an inability to do something, and this influences her preference for help options that are presented directly: “I prefer P1 without the help option label that does not create in you the ‘I-need-some-help’ complex, I cannot do it”. Moreover, she considers that the extra time learners dedicate to access help options where more than one step is required may interfere with learning outcomes. in here [Prototype 2], you have to click on the help option button for them to be displayed, and sometimes you just do not do it … well and it closes, and you open it again and you end up getting angry and learning nothing. For click-through, instead of grouping help options in a single button as presented in Prototype 2, participants preferred help options to be identified with a name that fully describes the function they convey.

Summary of Findings The findings of this study suggest that promoting help option use in computer-based listening environments through design requires addressing four aspects: location, type, sequence, and click-through. Placing help options like translation, glossary, transcripts, dictionary, cultural notes, and listening tips along frames 2 and 3 (see Figure 3 above) overcomes likely issues with location. Providing help options visible at all times and a click away from the user addresses potential problems with ease of use. Ordering and selecting help options based on perceived assistance according to language level addresses possible problems with overload of information. The participants suggested that transcripts, glossary, listening tips, cultural notes, and translation be used at the basic levels. Transcript, glossary, listening tips, cultural notes, and dictionary are suggested for advanced levels.

RECOMMENDATIONS FOR PD IMPLEMENTATION IN CALL ENVIRONMENTS We identified five main issues that need to be addressed when implementing PD in CALL environments.

Make Sure All Roles in PD are Discussed In this study, for instance, an examination of the interventions of the software designer during the prototype evaluation sessions shows that most of his opinions were rooted in his experience as a second language learner. Conversely, the role of Carol as a second language learner was colored by her experience as a computer programmer. The strategy we used to encourage hybridity and to minimize the effects of power relationships caused by language somehow played to our disadvantage. Although it is impossible for a person to detach from other experiences, PD for CALL environments should look for strategies that ensure the participants’ roles are adequately fulfilled.

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Clearly Define Each of the Design Elements Prior to Discussion Since participants in this study had interacted with help options 0n two occasions (when using Longman English Interactive and when evaluating the paper prototypes), the main researcher assumed the concept of help options was clear for all the participants. However, when creating the paper prototypes, concepts such as cultural notes, listening tips and glossary seemed foreign to most of them. Providing participants with written definitions for them to check as design advances may help overcome this problem.

Explore Concepts Without Using Artifacts Similar to What Participants Are Expected to Design The participants in this study had limited experience with computer-based listening and were not familiar with the help option concept. To address these issues, they interacted with a listening task from the Longman English Interactive program and assessed three paper prototypes. These processes, although highly effective for promoting discussion, were seen by the same users as an intrusive way to influence design outcomes. The resemblance between the prototypes they assessed and the ones created underpin this assumption.

Plan for Extra Iterations to Achieve Results Commensurable to Design Offered by Human-Computer Interaction Professionals Although we considered four 1-hour sessions enough to investigate the design principles, we are aware that the allocation of more time for the project may have resulted in a final product that would be somewhat different. Three additional 1-hour sessions exclusively dedicated to iteration would fit this purpose.

Translate Design into Development and Have Users Evaluate Real Systems Although paper prototypes are low cost and effective tools, we noticed the immediate need to translate design to a system offering interactivity and providing participants with a better representation of help options in computer-based listening environments. Using techniques available in agile software approaches, such as rapid prototyping, requires programming skills and offers a clearer version of the system to be created.

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS We thankfully acknowledge the generous assistance of the Department of Information Systems, University of Melbourne, for the use of their staff and facilities, especially to Dr. Sandrine Balbo for her insightful comments during the preparation of this manuscript.

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AUTHORS’ BIODATA Mónica Stella Cárdenas-Claros is a Ph.D. candidate at the University of Melbourne. Her research interests include help options in CALL, cognitive styles, and computer-based listening. Paul A. Gruba is a Senior Lecturer in the School of Languages and Linguistics at the University of Melbourne. His research interests include computer-based listening, media literacy, and academic skills development.

AUTHORS’ ADDRESS Mónica S. Cárdenas-Claros School of Languages and Linguistics University of Melbourne 3010 VIC Australia Email: [email protected] Paul A. Gruba School of Languages and Linguistics University of Melbourne 3010 VIC Australia Email: [email protected]

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