ARAB REPUBLIC OF EGYPT MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE AND LAND RECLAMATION EUROPEAN UNION DELEGATION OF THE EUROPEAN COMMISSION IN EGYPT
BUSTAN AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT PROJECT -BADP -
REPLICATION USER MANUAL
November 2004 Project Management Unit BUSTAN AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT PROJECT Project n° SEM/02/220/039 – SEM 03/220/042
TABLE OF CONTENTS
FOREWORD
7
INTRODUCTION
9
1
OVERALL STRATEGY FOR RECLAIMED DESERT LAND
11
1.1
THE COUNTRY CONTEXT
11
1.2
AGRICULTURAL POLICY
11
1.3
JUSTIFICATION FOR RECLAIMED DESERT LAND
11
1.4
CONSTRAINTS FACING DEVELOPMENT IN THE BUSTAN RECLAIMED AREA
12
1.5
OVERALL STRATEGY
12
2
WATER MANAGEMENT
13
2.1 INTRODUCTION 2.1.1 Problems 2.1.1 Objectives
13 13 13
2.2 DRAINAGE 2.2.1 Specific Strategy 2.2.1.1 Specific Problems 2.2.1.2 Specific Objectives 2.2.2 Methodology and Tools 2.2.2.1 Overall Approach 2.2.2.2 Studies 2.2.2.3 Tender Procedures 2.2.2.4 Monitoring and Handing Over of Works 2.2.3 Works 2.2.3.1 Housha Drains 2.2.3.2 Technical Specifications of the Housha Drains 2.2.3.3 Other Structures 2.2.4 Operation and Maintenance 2.2.4.1 Objective 2.2.4.2 Housha Drain Maintenance 2.2.5 Training Program 2.2.6 Informational Materials 2.2.7 Monitoring 2.2.7.1 Objective 2.2.7.2 Implementation 2.2.7.3 Technical Specifications 2.2.7.4 Construction Steps
14 14 14 15 16 16 16 17 18 20 20 20 23 24 24 25 25 26 26 26 26 27 28
2.3 IRRIGATION 2.3.1 Specific Strategy 2.3.1.1 Specific Problems 2.3.1.2 Specific Objectives 2.3.2 Methodology and Tools 2.3.2.1 Overall Approach 2.3.2.2 Meetings and Field Visits 2.3.2.3 Studies
33 33 33 34 35 35 35 36
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2.3.2.4 Tender Procedures 2.3.2.5 Monitoring and Handing Over of Works 2.3.3 Works 2.3.3.1 Collective Pump Stations 2.3.3.2 Mesquas and Buried Irrigation Pipelines 2.3.3.3 On-Farm Irrigation Systems 2.3.3.4 Manholes 2.3.4 Operation and Maintenance 2.3.4.1 Specific Measures 2.3.4.2 General Measures 2.3.5 Training Program 2.3.6 Informational Material 2.3.7 Monitoring 2.3.7.1 Objectives 2.3.7.2 Methods and Tools
36 38 38 39 40 40 48 48 48 48 49 50 50 50 50
2.4
IMPLEMENTATION SCHEDULE
57
2.5
BUDGET / UNIT COSTS
57
2.6
USEFUL CONTACTS
57
3
WATER USERS UNIONS
58
3.1 INTRODUCTION 3.1.1 Overall Problems 3.1.2 Overall Objectives and Results
58 58 59
3.2 WATER USERS UNIONS 3.2.1 Specific Strategy 3.2.1.1 Specific Problems 3.2.1.2 Specific Objectives 3.2.2 Methodology and Tools 3.2.2.1 Specific Methodology 3.2.2.2 Tools 3.2.2.2.1 Meetings 3.2.2.2.2 General Assemblies 3.2.2.2.3 Registration Procedures 3.2.3 WUU Activities 3.2.4 Training Programs 3.2.4.1 Training Curricula for Board Members 3.2.4.2 Training Curricula for Ordinary Members 3.2.4.3 Training Curricula for Irrigation Technical Committees 3.2.4.4 Training Curricula for Technical Committees 3.2.5 Informational Materials 3.2.6 Monitoring 3.2.6.1 Objectives and Principles 3.2.6.1 Methodology and Tools 3.2.6.1.1 WUU Targets and Activities 3.2.6.2.2 Operational Targets to be Monitored 3.2.6.2.3 Monitoring Indicators 3.2.6.2.4 Determining the Indicators 3.2.7 Standard Logbooks
59 60 60 61 62 62 65 66 66 68 68 69 70 76 77 78 80 80 80 81 81 82 83 84 88
3.4
SCHEDULES FOR IMPLEMENTATION
88
3.5
BUDGET / UNIT COSTS
89
3.6
USEFUL CONTACTS
89
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4
AGRICULTURE AND LIVESTOCK
91
4.1 INTRODUCTION 4.1.1 Problems 4.1.2 Objectives
91 91 92
4.2 AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION 4.2.1 Specific Strategy 4.2.1.1 Main Problems 4.3.1.2 Specific Objectives and Recommendations 4.2.2 Methodology and Tools 4.2.2.1 Specific Methodology 4.2.2.2 Tools 4.2.2.2.1 Contact Farmers 4.2.2.2.2 Demonstration Plots 4.2.2.2.3 Field Days 4.2.2.2.4 Specialist’s Visit 4.2.2.2.5 Extension Meetings 4.2.2.2.6 Exposure Visits 4.2.2.2.7 Cropping Patterns 4.2.3 Technical choices 4.2.3.1 Overview 4.2.3.2 Wheat 4.2.3.3 Faba Bean 4.2.3.4 Onion 4.2.3.5 Maize 4.2.3.6 Peanut 4.2.3.7 Pearl Millet 4.2.3.8 Potatoes (fall season) 4.2.3.9 Tomatoes (summer season) 4.2.3.10 Green Beans (summer season) 4.2.3.11 Grape 4.2.3.12 Citrus 4.2.4 Training Program 4.2.5 Informational Material 4.2.6 Monitoring 4.2.6.1 Objectives 4.2.6.2 Methods and Tools
93 93 93 94 94 94 96 96 96 102 103 104 105 107 109 109 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 117 118 120 123 126 128 129 129 129
4.3 LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION 4.3.1 Specific Strategy 4.3.2 Methodology and Tools 4.3.2.1 Specific Methodology 4.3.2.2 Tools 4.3.2.2.1 Extension Units 4.3.2.2.2 Field Days 4.3.2.2.3 Specialist’s Visit 4.3.2.2.4 Extension Monitoring Program 4.3.2.2.5 Extension Advisory Program (using the mobile unit) 4.3.2.2.6 Exposure Visit 4.3.3 Technical Choices 4.3.3.1 Livestock Extension Units 4.3.3.2 Livestock Breeders 4.3.4 Training Program 4.3.5 Informational Material 4.3.6 Monitoring
131 131 132 132 132 132 134 135 135 136 137 137 137 138 139 140 141
4.4 BUDGET / UNIT COSTS 4.4.1 Agricultural Production 4.4.2 Livestock Production
143 143 143
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4.5
USEFUL CONTACTS
144
5.1 NON-GOVERNMENTAL ORGANISATIONS 5.1.1 Specific Strategy 5.1.1.1 Specific Problems 5.1.1.2 Priorities 5.1.1.3 Specific Objectives 5.1.2 Methodology and Tools 5.1.2.1 Background Information 5.1.2.2 Specific Methodology 5.1.2.3 Tools 5.1.3 Standard Logbooks 5.1.4 Training Program 5.1.5 Informational Materials 5.1.6 Monitoring 5.1.7 Scheduling Activities 5.1.8 Budget / Unit Costs
145 145 145 146 147 147 147 148 148 151 151 155 155 156 156
5.2 INCOME-GENERATING ACTIVITIES 5.2.2 Specific Objectives 5.2.3 Methodology and Tools 5.2.4 Health Program 5.2.5 Training Program 5.2.5.1 Basic Training 5.2.5.2 End of Session Questionnaire 5.2.5.3 Advanced Training 5.2.5.4 Other Activities 5.2.6 Informational Materials 5.2.8 Viability Studies 5.2.8.1 Poultry Operations 5.2.8.2 Rabbit Breeding Enterprise 5.2.8.3 Food Processing 5.2.8.4 Bakeries 5.2.8.5 Preserves 5.2.8.6 Meat Processing 5.2.8.7 Pickling 5.2.8 Budget / Unit Costs 5.2.9 Useful Contacts
157 158 159 159 159 160 162 165 175 175 176 177 177 178 180 182 183 184 184 185
ANNEXES
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INDEX OF FIGURES AND PHOTOGRAPHS Figures: Figure 1: Figure 2: Figure 3: Figure 4: Figure 5: Figure 6: Figure 7: Figure 8: Figure 9: Figure 10: Figure 11: Figure 12: Figure 13: Figure 14: Figure 15: Figure 16: Figure 17: Figure 18: Figure 19: Figure 20: Figure 21: Figure 22: Figure 23: Figure 24: Figure 25: Figure 26: Figure 27: Figure 28: Figure 29: Figure 30: Figure 31: Figure 32: Figure 33: Figure 34: Figure 35: Figure 36:
Drainage Problems Tree Drainage Objectives Tree Fill and Cut Sections of a Housha Drain Tail Escape of a Housha Drain Drain Crossing (Plan and Elevation) Longitudinal Section in Drain Weir Pitching Sectional Elevation of an Observation Well Layout of the Macro and Micro Observation Wells Water Table Depth Trend – BADP Case Study Specific Irrigation Problems Tree (a) Specific Irrigation Problems Tree (b) Specific Irrigation Objectives Tree (a) Specific Irrigation Objectives Tree (b) Typical Collective Pump Station Serving 480 Feddans Typical Conversion of a Collecting Pump Station Domain into 24 Small Pumps On-Farm Fixed Sprinkler and Drip Irrigation Models (ADF) Fill and Cut Section of a Housha Mesqua Longitudinal Section for a Housha Mesqua Gate Suction Sump Pitching of Mesqua’s Tail Escape (Plan and Elevation) Manhole Between Two Pump Units Layout of the Evaluated Drip Subunit Drip Irrigation Evaluation Data Sheet Sketch of Drip System Layout and Data Collection Sheet Sprinkler Irrigation Evaluation Sheet n°1 Sprinkler Irrigation Evaluation Sheet n°2 Specific Bustan Problems Tree Specific Bustan Objectives Tree Board Members’ Training Curricula Agricultural Production Problems Tree Agricultural Production Objectives Tree Specific Household Problems Tree Specific Women's Problems Tree (a) Specific Women's Problems Tree (b) Training Package
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13 13 19 20 21 22 25 27 30 31 31 32 33 39 39 40 41 42 42 43 44 45 50 50 51 53 54 59 60 69 90 91 144 156 156 158
Photographs: Photo 1: Photo 2: Photos 3 & 4: Photo 5: Photo 6: Photo 7: Photo 8: Photo 9: Photos 10 & 11: Photos 12 & 13: Photos 14 & 15: Photos 16 & 17: Photos 18 & 19: Photos 20 & 21: Photos 22 & 23: Photo 24: Photo 25: Photos 26 & 27: Photo 28: Photo 29: Photo 30:
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An example of flood irrigation use Housha drain Mesqua and pump stations An example of sprinkler irrigation Manually cleaning the Mesquas WUU elections Field visit Field day Wheat and faba bean Onion seedlings in the nursery and in the field Maize and peanuts Potatoes Tomatoes and green beans Grape and citrus Bustan cows Making silage NGO training Meat processing and juice production Pickling Poultry Manufacturing cheese
6
13 21 39 41 49 67 100 102 110 112 114 117 120 126 131 137 155 164 166 168 172
FOREWORD The Bustan Agricultural Development Project is pleased to present the User Manual, duly prepared to serve the various services of the Ministry of Agriculture, Governmental Authorities, Projects, Donor Agencies, and, in general, all development practitioners. This Manual provides updated guidelines and technical references for the optimal use of resources in the reclaimed desert lands and the improvement of the rural communities’ living conditions, in line with the GoE’s policy, strategic choices, and targets. Most of the technical information made available, and easily accessible through this Manual, has been directly validated in the field. The lessons learned and the methodologies developed throughout the BADP’s life are of the utmost importance in this context. However, technical contributions were also retrieved from other relevant sources. Project Management Unit
Disclaimer Although this Manual was prepared under European Union funding, the European Commission bears no responsibility for, nor is in any way committed to, the methodologies, procedures and recommendations expressed herein.
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List of abbreviations & acronyms ADF A-V AW-P BADP BoT BM CTA DNAO EC EGP EU EUR FA FAD FAS FM FSDP GARPAD GoE IAS IFAD L.E. M&E MoALR MWRI NARS NGO NDP O&M OFIS OW PMU RFD RIS TA TD WBP WUU
Abu Dhabi Fund Audio Visuals Annual Work Plan Bustan Agricultural Development Project Board of Trustees Board Members Chief Technical Advisor Deputy National Authorizing Officer European Commission Egyptian Pound European Union Euro Financing Agreement Financial & Administrative Department Financial & Administrative Specialist Financing Memorandum Food Sector Development Project General Authority for Rehabilitation Projects and Agricultural Development Government of Egypt Irrigation Advisory Service International Fund for Agricultural Development Livre Egyptienne (= Egyptian Pound) Monitoring & Evaluation Ministry of Agriculture and Land Reclamation Ministry of Water Resources and Irrigation Nubariya Agricultural Research Station Non-Governmental Organisation National Project Director Operation and Maintenance On-Farm Irrigation Specialist Observation Well Project Management Unit Rural Family Development Rural Institutions Specialist Technical Assistance Technical Department Water Boards Project Water Users Union
Feddan Housha Mesqua
Area measurement corresponding to 4 200 m 2 Command area of approximately 240 Feddans (basis of tertiary drains) Tertiary irrigation canal, within a Housha
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INTRODUCTION One of the expected tasks of any project is to capitalize on the technical and methodological knowledge collected throughout its life. It is the BADP’s duty, as a pilot project for rural development in the new lands, to contribute to the extension of the rural development memory. Therefore, its strategy for replication represents a key output. The BADP User Manual is meant to provide guidance to development agencies, governmental institutions, and operators, for possible replications in other reclaimed desert lands, under similar physical and social circumstances. The User Manual was adopted by the Bustan Agricultural Development Project (BADP) in November 2004. Overall objective
The overall objective of the User Manual is to provide guidance to other operators for possible replication in other reclaimed desert lands. It is based on the BADP’s actual experience without being limited to it. This Manual gathers and provides access to the lessons learnt during project implementation regarding: (i) general development strategy and specific strategies, (ii) methodologies & tools, (iii) training programs, (iv) communication materials, (v) monitoring methods, (vi) any other relevant information such as useful contacts. This Manual is neither the BADP final report, nor a justification of the BADP’s achievements, but bases itself on the lessons learnt during BADP activities. Consequently, formal reference to BADP per se is kept minimal and the content is based, to some extent, on a critical approach of what was effective or not during the BADP intervention. Method
In 2003, a Technical Committee was set up within the Project Management Unit in order to lead and coordinate the production of this Manual. The Committee consisted of senior project staff and members of the technical assistance team under the overall coordination of the National Project Director1. Participatory orientation meetings were held at the different technical units, so as to retrieve all relevant project records, documents, and experiences related to the main fields of intervention. Contributions to the Manual were delivered by both senior and field staff. As a result of this team’s efforts, a provisional English version of the Manual was issued. The structure of this first draft was then reviewed and improved by the Technical Committee’s members 2 , who also finalized the content, particularly in terms of strategy and methodology. After proper editing, the final English version of the Manual is now available to development agencies and operators, and may be used as a reference for establishing an economically viable and environmentally sustainable farming system for small holders in reclaimed desert lands.
1 2
Mr Farouk El Seidy, Engineer. Mr Samir Fahmy Badawy, Chief of Technical Department; Mr Manuel Ancillotti, Chief Technical Adviser; Dr Samir Ismail, On-farm Irrigation Specialist; Mr Yousry Abed, Chief of Technical Liaison Office.
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Instructions for use
The manual is made up of five main chapters: Chapter 01 - Strategy for Reclaimed Desert Lands Chapter 02 - Water Management Chapter 03 - Water Users Unions Chapter 04 - Agriculture & Livestock Chapter 05 - NGOs and Income-Generating Activities Specimens of bills and standard documents are also annexed, as well as technical drawings, in order to provide the reader with operational references. In conclusion, the document’s structure is quite flexible and allows easy consultation and quick information retrieval from each separate section. Moreover, the document as a whole must be read as a practical reference for the implementation of integrated development operations.
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1
OVERALL STRATEGY FOR RECLAIMED DESERT LAND
1.1 THE COUNTRY CONTEXT The key to the development of the Egyptian economy lies in the consolidation of the agricultural sector. This may be explained by the fact that the agricultural sector accounts for 30% of total employment and 17% of Gross Domestic Product. In spite of Egypt’s large surface area, good land, suitable for crop production, is scarce. Egyptian agriculture takes place on some 6 million Feddans of fertile soil in the Nile Valley and Delta. Some desert lands are being developed for agriculture but other fertile lands are being lost to urbanization. However, warm weather and irrigation water allow several crops per year. Further improvement is possible, but a limited land base places severe limits on the expansion of agricultural output. There is an increased demand for food and the population swell has pushed domestic food needs beyond Egyptian agriculture’s supply capacity, leading to a sharp increase in food imports. In order to further agricultural development, the Government has made the strategic choice to reclaim land by investing in large irrigation schemes. Therefore the Government of Egypt has adopted the policy of allocating reclaimed desert lands, “new lands”, to unemployed young graduates and landless farmers, thereby aiming to reduce the social pressures generated by unemployment, as well as to expand the cultivated areas and agricultural production. This shows the GoE’s continued strong commitment to the agricultural sector. 1.2 AGRICULTURAL POLICY Agriculture has three main responsibilities: (1) the supply of agricultural raw materials for a rapidly growing industry, the demand for which, as a result of industrialization, has augmented; (2) the provision of increased food supplies in order to meet the growing demand on the account of the population growth, the improving standards of living, and the newly developed patterns of food consumption; (3) exportation of fruits and vegetables that have proved successful under new reclaimed land conditions. 1.3 JUSTIFICATION FOR RECLAIMED DESERT LAND The most ambitious developmental efforts being made in Egypt are agriculture’s horizontal and vertical expansions through land reclamation, as well as intensified, and more efficient, use of existing land and water resources, entailing the relocation and resettlement of large rural populations. The Egyptian Government has given high priority to the implementation and development of large-scale land reclamation programs so as to bring them to an optimal productivity level. Within this context, the government gives the beneficiaries opportunities to possess cultivated lands or professional projects (commercial- industrialagricultural) with the aim of forming new societies and achieving more favourable socioeconomic conditions and more efficient utilization of existing resources.
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EL-Bustan, as one of these reclamation projects, has proven to be a significant contribution to the development of the national economy through its alleviation of pressure from the old lands in the Nile Valley, the creation of employment, and a boost to national agricultural production. The choice to reclaim arable land in the desert is thus fully justified. 1.4 CONSTRAINTS FACING DEVELOPMENT IN THE BUSTAN RECLAIMED AREA The beneficiaries in the Bustan reclaimed area have encountered the following constraints: Beneficiaries are frequently not acquainted with the agricultural products for which the new land is suited. Newly reclaimed soil often lacks some of the major elements required for high fertility and high remunerative returns, and several years are required to bring the land up to a more productive level. Productivity of small holdings is below potential since the farmers have limited knowledge and skills on improved farming systems. Due to large family sizes, especially for small farmers, any gains from increased productivity may be offset. Farmers’ limited investment capacity; credit is very hard to obtain. Farmers’ detachment from participatory management of the common water supply. The continued use of flood irrigation, particularly in the West Nubariya- East Road area, by a considerable number of beneficiaries. Lack of marketing and post- harvest technologies available for farmers’ products. Limited contribution of rural women to the household income, related social activities, and environmental safeguarding. 1.5 OVERALL STRATEGY In order to tackle the above-mentioned problems, a combination of the following measures should be applied: Improvement of water management through the dissemination of on-farm modern irrigation systems and irrigation efficiency methods. Development and strengthening of the farmers’ organisations (WUUs and NGOs). Improvement of farming practices, dissemination of appropriate cropping patterns, and development of irrigated farm management models. Promotion of women’s roles and contributions to family income, environmental protection and related social activities. Replication of successful interventions in other areas.
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2
WATER MANAGEMENT
2.1 INTRODUCTION 2.1.1
Problems
Problems usually found on reclaimed desert land include: 1.
The absence of field drainage systems in addition to the incompletion of main drainage networks.
2.
Over-irrigation by applying flood irrigation instead of modern irrigation systems, particularly at the command area of the abandoned collective pump stations. Typical collective pump stations serve approximately 500 Feddans.
3.
The existence of collapses and cracks in the irrigation lines and canals and in the random unlined Mesquas, which in such sandy soil causes water to seep to the impermeable pan layer at a shallow depth of 1.50 to 4.00m, and retain excess water.
Photo 1: an example of flood irrigation use
2.1.1
Objectives
Solutions to the above problems can be classified into four directions: The First:
Drainage improvement via the following steps:
1.
Implementation and completion of the area’s main drainage network using the government fund in coordination with different drainage agencies (Ministry of Irrigation and Water Resources).
2.
Implementation of field Housha drain networks in the area damaged by the high water table, which is drained into the main drains.
3.
Implementation of a network of observation wells in the project area in order to monitor the risk level for the ground water table.
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The Second: Development and improvement of field irrigation efficiency; this implies: 1.
Development of field irrigation by converting the present flood irrigation system to fixed sprinkler or drip irrigation systems in addition to improving the efficiency of the hand move sprinkler irrigation system.
2.
Replacement of the abandoned and ineffective collective pump stations with small individual pump units serving 20 Feddans.
The Third:
Improving the irrigation scheme through:
1.
Renovation and maintenance of buried irrigation pipelines and Mesquas.
2.
Coordination among the concerned irrigation agencies in order to solve the problems of the main and branch canals (Ministry of Irrigation and Water Resources).
3.
Replacement of the random Mesquas by new lined Mesquas.
The Fourth: Extension; this focuses on: 1.
Improvement of farmers’ awareness of the importance of rational irrigation and appropriate crop water requirements according to plant needs.
2.
Training of farmers on modern irrigation system applications.
3.
Creation of water users’ unions in order for all users to practice their responsibilities in organizing, operating, and maintaining the Mesquas.
2.2 DRAINAGE 2.2.1
Specific Strategy
2.2.1.1 Specific Problems 1.
Fluctuations in the water table level during the four seasons of the year, due to the applied water in the soil, or any external source of water supply.
2.
Unofficial use of flood irrigation in sandy soil by some farmers, and consequent excess water application compared to modern irrigation systems such as sprinkler and trickle systems.
3.
Mismanagement of on-farm irrigation water.
4.
Absence of continuous maintenance of Mesquas, irrigation lines, and drains.
5.
Absence of an effective field drainage system.
6.
Absence of a continuous and regular system for monitoring the fluctuations in the water table level. This leads to a remarkably dangerous increase of the water table.
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Figure 1: Drainage Problems Tree
High water table
Incomplete main drainage network
Low farm drainage efficiency
Farmers unwilling to perform maintenance
Inadequacy of drainage network at 3rd and 4th
Farmers reluctant to accept drainage construction
2.2.1.2 Specific Objectives Establish a field level drainage system for areas damaged by high groundwater level, which allows excess water to be drained into the main drainage network. Figure 2: Drainage Objectives Tree
Stable water table at a minimum depth of 1m
Main drainage network completed and maintained by concerned authority
Farm drainage efficiency improved
Farmers participate in maintaining collective drains
Drainage network completed where needed at the 3rd and 4th level Farmers agree on constructing collective drains
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2.2.2
Methodology and Tools
2.2.2.1 Overall Approach 1.
Identify the locations of the damaged areas via: a) Field inspections in line with GIS map images. b) Monitoring of water table levels by constructing a grid system of observation wells.
2.
Coordinate with the General Authority of Land Improvement (GALI) to set an agenda of priorities.
3.
Coordinate with the General Authority on drainage needed to complete the main drain network in the area.
4.
Meet with beneficiaries whose plots lie on the path of the proposed drains in order to familiarise them with the problems and have them ready to accept solutions.
5.
Solicit endorsements in order to obtain acceptance of the implementation and drain clearing paths, in coordination with the General Authority of Land Improvement.
2.2.2.2 Studies Table 1: BADP Case Studies Type of study
Recommendations
1 - A study presented by a consulting company (SOFRECO) 1997.
- Preparation of topographical maps to determine the soil water level and the drainage line in the BUSTAN region. - Establishment of an experimental extension station where a small-scale drainage network of observation wells is set up to test drainage efficiency.
2 - Report presented by the Ground Water Research Institute, July 1999
Monitoring of water table levels and data analysis.
3 - Technical Paper for studying the optimum techniques to construct Housha drains (Public Department of Drainage in Nubariya), February 1998.
- Construction of open sections of Housha drains. - Taking into consideration that these drain constructions should be closely spaced between each Mesqua and the next, to serve 240 Feddans. - Designs should serve the idea of forthcoming installation for the covered drainage system.
4- Report presented by Soil Dept., Faculty of Agriculture, Alexandria University GIS Lab., October 1998.
- Data processing of satellite spot images of the project area in order to prepare maps. - Identification of the high water table problem, including: • The area damaged by high water table levels which represents 26.10% of the total
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west Nubariya region’s area, (approximately 6365 Feddans). • The area damaged by high water table levels which represents 14.40% of Bustan, 1.2% total area, (approximately 5989 Feddans).
2.2.2.3 Tender Procedures Topographic surveying, such as the following, is required for the preparation of design drawings and consequent tender procedures: 1.
Implementation of topographic-geodesic works to survey the natural levelling contours at the proposed Housha drain paths.
2.
Preparation of the designs for the Housha drains, in cooperation with the General Drainage Department.
3.
Preparation of design drawings for industrial construction works such as aqueducts, crossings, tail-escapes and weirs, as well as identification of the items required and estimated quantities.
4.
Preparation of a tender notebook for construction specifications and conditions according to EU regulations.
5.
Preparation of the estimated bill of quantities for the required construction works, making sure that the budget does not exceed the available funding value of the project plan.
6.
Execution of necessary procedures for advertising the construction tenders in the media.
7.
Arrangement for the necessary procedures regarding opening of the tender envelopes, analysis of the offers, selection and conclusion of the best offer.
Table 2: Model for Estimating Bills of Quantities for Works Item of Work
Unit
1- Excavation and filling earth works necessary to implement Housha drains in all types of soils according to the level set by the designs. This item includes plant and tree removal and finishing surfaces and slopes according to specifications, as well as transfers of earth excavation at a distance no more the 2.5km away from the location. All works must comply with technical specifications. m3 2- Provision and implementation of normal concrete works for construction (bedding, sleeving, crossing, and tail-escapes), The concrete consists of 0.8m3 gravel, 0.4m3 sand, 250Kg cement/m3. This item includes earth works and baling. All works must comply with technical specifications.
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m3
Quantity
Category
Total
3- Provision and installation of concrete pipes, with different diameters, and bedding according to the designs. This item includes excavation, filling works, as well as joints installation. All works must comply with technical pitching specifications. 4- Provision and construction of 40cm thick tail-escapes for bridging the drains’ suction outlets, and weirs. The mortar consists of 350-Kg cement / m3 sand. Plastering should be done using mortar that contains 400-Kg cement/m3 sand with finishing on the last surfaces. This item includes levelling work and compaction of the earth layers. All works must comply with technical specifications. 5- Provision and installation of aqueducts, using iron pipes, for irrigation lines when crossed with Housha drains. This item includes painting and fixing works and the necessary tools. All works must comply with technical specifications.
m2. m3
Ton
2.2.2.4 Monitoring and Handing Over of Works The execution of the works begins, as described below, once contract procedures are signed with the assigned executing agency: 1.
Location site should be handed over to the executing agency clear of any obstructions that could prevent implementation and accompanied by a written receipt.
2.
The executing agency should present a timetable in order to finish the works according to schedule.
3.
Samples of the materials to be used should be examined and certified before brought to the location site.
4.
The performed works should be monitored in order to guarantee compliance with the required technical specifications.
5.
According to the schedule, the executing agency should hand over the accomplished works immediately after finishing them. The executing agency remains responsible for these works during a guarantee period that ranges from 6 to 12 months.
6.
The project should hand over the executed works to the water users unions or to the agricultural societies so that they may take charge of operations and periodic maintenance.
7.
Farmers should be trained on how to maintain and clean the Housha drains in coordination with the Authority of Land Improvement and the General Drainage Authority.
8.
The implemented Housha drains should be registered in coordination with the land improvement authority in order to be included in its annual cleaning program.
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Table 3: Bill of Quantity n° - Period from beginning of works
Type of work Irrigation & Drainage Works.
Item No
Description of works
Unit
Unit price (LE)
Contrat reference
Contractor
Reductions or Quantity of works previously Quantity of works executed by Total of works Total amount (LE) reserved executed - Last B/q current - B/q executed amounts
TOTAL
Supervisor Engineer
Rural Institutions Specialist Adviser
Auditing Engeneer
The contractor
Chief of technical Department
Date
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Remaning after reductions
Remarks
2.2.3
Works
2.2.3.1 Housha Drains The drainage plan’s objective is the implementation of Housha drains in order to remove excess water from the area damaged by the high water table level to the main drains. 2.2.3.2 Technical Specifications of the Housha Drains 1.
Bottom width = 1 meter.
2.
Side slope = 2 (vertical): 3 (horizontal).
3.
Average depth = 3 meters, depending on the natural elevation of the ground surface.
4.
Bottom slope = 30 cm/km.
5.
Earth roads width = 3 meters on both sides of drains.
6.
Excavation works to construct Housha drains in all types of soil, in addition to the removal of weeds and trees along the banks of the drains, according to the drawings and levelling designs. Finishing touches put to earth roads and slide slopes and transfer of the excavated earth to a distance no more than 2.5km away. These excavation materials are re-used later on to fill in low-level spots.
7.
Normal concrete consisting of 0.8m3 gravel, 0.4m3 sand, 250Kg of cement, to bed the pipes for the following works: pipe bridges, tail-escapes and pipe casings. This item includes cuts, fills, and bailing works.
8.
Reinforced concrete pipe constructions with different diameters, 60cm and 80cm, implemented for the tail-escapes and crossings, as well as bridging paths installed in accordance with the design. This item includes excavation, and filling works, bailing, and installation of reinforced concrete pipe joints. These joints are first covered with burlap and asphalt and then wrapped with reinforced 10mm diameter iron.
9.
Pitching gravel works relevant to tail-escapes, bridging on service pathways, and weirs, carried out with 40cm thick mortar comprising 350Kg cement /m3 sand. The mortar used for final surface finishing should have a proportion of 400Kg cement /m3 sand. This item includes earth works and bailing.
10.
Implementation of iron pipe sleeves necessary for aqueducts to protect the municipal water pipeline network when it crosses the path of the Housha drains. This aims at protecting them from any possible break up or damage.
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Figure 3: Fill and Cut Sections of a Housha Drain Filling section for Housha drain
3,0 0
3: 2
3.00 m
m
3: 2 ground surface
1.00 m
Excavation section for Housha drain 3,0 0
ground surface
m
3,0 0
3: 2
3.00 m
3: 2
1.00 m
Photo 2: Housha drain
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m
scale 1 : 100
Figure 4:Tail Escape of a Housha Drain
Housha drain tail escape
3,0 m 0
6,0 m 0
3:2
main drain
buried pipes
concrete casing 0.25 m thickness Housha drain
elev. pitching 40 cm thickness
4,5 m 0
5,0 m 0
1,0 m 4,5 m 0 0
1,0 m 0
plan
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2.2.3.3 Other Structures Figure 5:Drain Crossing (Plan and Elevation)
Drain crossing
4.5 m 0
4.5 m 1.0 m 0 0
6.0 m 0
4.5 m 0
Housha drain
1.0 m 0
4.5 m 0
Housha drain
plan
earth road
buried pipes
concrete casing 0.25 m-thickness
scale 1 :200
elev.
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Figure 6: Longitudinal Section in Drain Weir Pitching
Longitudinal section in drain weir pitching
C 1
C2 M2+1.O O B2
2: 1
5: 1
3: 2
2: 1
3: 2
M1+1. 00 B 1
H=(B1- B2) 3 m 5(B1-B2) 2 m
elev. 10: 1
C2 M2+1.OO m 3: 2 3: 2
2: 15: 1
pitc hing(40cm thic kness) 5: 1
B2
pit ching(40cm thic kness)
C 1 M1+1.00 m 3: 2 3: 2
B 1
plan
scale 1 :500
2.2.4
Operation and Maintenance
2.2.4.1 Objective The open drains should be well operated and maintained for the following reasons: 1.
To ensure effective performance of the drain function.
2.
To ensure that the water surface level remains within the safe design limit in order to protect the drain’s side slopes and banks from collapsing.
3.
To ensure unhampered water flow from the Housha drains to the main drain.
4.
To keep the water table level at the drain command within the limits so as to avoid deteriorating the quality of agricultural land and production.
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The effects of neglecting the cleaning and maintenance of open drains are: 1.
Propagation of weeds and accumulation of deposits at the bottom of the drains. This leads to a diminished drain section and a reduction in the water flow’s velocity. The governing rules for drain function efficiency are its cross-sectional area and water velocity. The equation formula for this is: Water Discharge (m3/sec.) = Velocity (m/sec.) x Cross-Sectional Area (m2).
2.
If the inlets and outlets of the drain’s industrial works, i.e. pipes, bridges and tail-escapes, are left in poor condition, this leads to backflow and, subsequently, the drain’s sides and bank facing will collapse in.
3.
An increase in the water level inside the drain causes an accumulation of salts at the soil’s surface. In addition, continuous soil evaporation increases the concentration of salts to the point where the plant can no longer tolerate it. Therefore, plant growth and production begin to diminish.
4.
Environmental pollution and epidemics spread.
2.2.4.2 Housha Drain Maintenance Housha drain maintenance includes: 1.
Cleaning, to keep the planned drain cross-section.
2.
Removing weeds of all types (floating, submerged, flowing, semi-submerged), to avoid any obstruction in the drain’s water flow.
Housha drain cleaning can be done using different methods: 1.
Manually: this takes a long time, but is effective for uprooting weeds and plants in places inaccessible to machines.
2.
Mechanically: this is faster than the manual method and covers long distances.
3.
Biologically: a species of fish called EL MABROOK, which devours all types of grasses, can be bred.
2.2.5
Training Program
Objective: The objective of the drainage training program is to raise the farmers’ awareness of the importance of regular maintenance and the cleaning methods involved, as well as their role and responsibilities in maintaining the Housha drains and services provided by the General Authority for Land Improvement. Target population: The course has been designed for farmers or graduates located in the area and benefiting from the constructed drains. Type: The program consists of 1 lecture lasting 4 hours. Expected Output: At the end of the session, the trainees will be aware of the following: 1.
Importance of carrying out regular maintenance of Housha drains.
2.
Operation and maintenance of Housha drains.
3.
Services provided by GALI in this regard.
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2.2.6
Informational Materials
In order to disseminate the technical information on observation wells and the maintenance of Housha drains, here is a list of printed material related to these issues:
Title
Date
Location Code
Place
Observation wells
1999
25
BADP
Maintenance of Housha drain
2001
96
BADP
2.2.7
Monitoring
2.2.7.1 Objective The objective is to install observation wells as a continuous and regular monitoring system for the water table level. This system is the most appropriate method as it measures water depth in the well and these continuous readings allow one to follow the fluctuations in the water table within the project’s agricultural area. Water table monitoring through observation wells can show the water table depth trend as well as the effectiveness of the drainage network. 2.2.7.2 Implementation The plan includes two levels for the observation well network: 1.
Macro level observation well network:
This network covers the entire project area. These wells are distributed at equal distances, 1.5 x 1.5 km. They are necessary for the following: a) To identify the water table level of the entire area and determine changes resulting from using flood irrigation or seepage from irrigation canals. b) To monitor the adjacent areas’ effect on the rise of the water table level at the project location. c) To warn against any risk of groundwater soil saturation. d) To serve as an indicator of the efficiency of developments from the agricultural drainage works. 2.
Micro level observation well network:
This network covers the area damaged by the rise in the water table. In this case, wells are distributed in large numbers, and uniformly spaced at 300 x 300m. They function as follows: a) As accurate monitoring systems of the fluctuations in the water table in the waterlogged areas. b) As immediate indicators of the success and effectiveness of implementing the Housha drains.
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2.2.7.3 Technical Specifications The technical specifications for an observation well are: 1.
A cylindrical hole with a 4-inch diameter.
2.
A solid PVC pipe that has an outer diameter of 2 inches and a thickness of 4mm. The top of the pipe has a screwed lid. This pipe serves as casing for the hole to prevent soil collapse and secures sufficient depth to continuously collect water.
3.
The lower part of the PVC pipe is perforated along an area up to 1m in length to serve as a filter. The perforations are drilled and no more than 2mm in diameter. Perforations are spaced at 5 x 5 cm. They are covered with a plastic 0.5 x 0.5 mm net. This plastic net does not allow fine particles to pass through the filter.
4.
A gravel pack consisting of pebbles of different diameters, from 2 - 6mm, to fill the gaps between the pipe and the cylindrical hole.
5.
A concrete base block, with 40 x 40 x 40 cm dimensions. The concrete used consists of 0.8m3 gravel, 0.4 m3 sand, and 250 Kg cement / m3.
6.
A metal box, 20 x 20 x 10 cm, fixed on the concrete base block to protect the upper part of the pipe. This box has a lid fastened and closed using a screwed bolt and nut.
Figure 7: Sectional Elevation of an Observation Well
Longitudinal Section of Observation Well Metal cover box with a special key Concrete base
Ground surface
Gravel pack
P.V.C. tube covered With plastic net
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2.2.7.4 Construction Steps 1.
Determine the locations for the observation wells using 5 x 5 x 100 cm iron angles fixed by normal concrete as landmarks. Each well is defined by its coordinates (x, y, z axis).
2.
Determine the technical specifications as well as the construction drawings and the notebook of conditions and specifications.
3.
Construct the micro and macro observation well networks using a mechanical auger, or manual excavation if inaccessible for an auger.
4.
Set the observation wells’ depth to be at least 3m below the surface of the water table. However, it must be higher than the hardpan layer. Observation well readings should be run as follows: a) Periodic monthly readings for the macro networks. b) Periodic half-month readings for the micro networks.
5.
Periodically maintain, i.e. clean, weld, etc., the observation wells in order to secure efficiency.
6.
Register readings and plot contour lines using computers (Surfer software program).
7.
Train beneficiaries and graduates on how to take readings and perform maintenance on the observation wells.
8.
Hand over observation wells to the concerned drainage authority after training their technical staff on how to read, maintain, register, and analyse data by computer.
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Figure 8: Layout of the Macro and Micro Observation Wells
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Table 4: Observation Wells Reading Sheet
Observation Wells Readings Sheet Area:
Village:
Round no:
Date:
1
Well no 108
19
Well no 126
2
109
20
127
3
110
21
128
4
111
22
129
5
112
23
130
6
113
24
131
7
114
25
132
8
115
26
133
9
116
27
134
10
117
28
135
11
118
29
136
12
119
30
137
13
120
31
138
14
121
32
139
15
122
33
140
16
123
34
141
17
124
35
142
18
125
s
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Remarks
s
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Reading
Remarks
Table 5: Data Entry Sheet Model
WTM MODEL OF DATA ENTRY SHEET
Well no 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118 119 120 121 122 123 124 125 126 127 128 129 130 131 132 133 134 135 136 137 138 139 140 141 142
X (UTM)
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Y (UTM)
Z (m)
Nov-98
31
Dec-98
Jan-99
Feb-99
Mar-99
Apr-99
Figure 9: Water Table Depth Trend – BADP Case Study
AVERAGE CHANGES IN WATER TABLE DEPTH IN THE WATERLOGGED AREAS IN BUSTAN 1,2 & EAST ROAD ( Monthly Reading Nov-98 ~ Jun-04 ) Nov98Jun99
Jul99Dec99
Jan00Jun00
Jul00Dec00
Jan01Jun01
Jul01Dec01
Jan02Jun02
Jul02Dec02
Jan03Jun03
Jul03Dec03
Jan04Jun04
0,00 0,20 0,40
Depth (m)
0,60 0,80 1,00 1,20 1,40 1,60 1,80 2,00 2,20
y = 0,4366Ln(x) + 0,57 R2 = 0,9466
WATER TABLE DEPTH TREND LINE
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2.3 IRRIGATION 2.3.1
Specific Strategy
2.3.1.1 Specific Problems 1. 2. 3.
Unofficial use of flood irrigation in some areas. Poor performance of modern irrigation systems. Limited farmers' skills in operating and maintaining the modern irrigation systems. 4. Non-operational and/or non-existent WUUs. 5. Unavailable spare parts and use of old damaged irrigation equipment. 6. Out of order and/or abandoned collective pump stations. 7. Irregular and insufficient irrigation water at farm level. 8. Water losses from defective lining and/or buried pipelines. 9. Unfair water distribution caused by lack of irrigation scheduling. 10. Clogged buried irrigation pipelines caused by inadequate number of manholes. Figure 10: Specific Irrigation Problems Tree (a) Low irrigation efficiency
Poor performance of modern irrigation
Limited farmers’ skills
Non-operational WUUs
Use of flood irrigation in some areas
Inadequate maintenance
Use of old and damaged irrigation equipment
Out of order collective pump stations
Figure 11: Specific Irrigation Problems Tree (b) Insufficient irrigation water at the farm level
Water losses from Mesquas / branches
Unfair water distribution
Clogged buried irrigation pipelines
Defective lining and/or pipelines
Lack of irrigation scheduling
Inadequate number of manholes
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2.3.1.2 Specific Objectives The objective is to improve irrigation performance and water availability at the farm level by improving farmers' irrigation skills, establishing operational WUUs, performing the correct maintenance and operation of irrigation systems, replacing damaged old equipment, and repairing defective linings. Figure 12: Specific Irrigation Objectives Tree (a) Irrigation efficiency increased
Performance of modern irrigation systems improved
Farmers’ irrigation skills improved
WUUs are operational
Flood irrigation progressively reduced
Maintenance correctly performed
New irrigation equipment supplied
Collective pump stations replaced by small pumps
Figure 13: Specific Irrigation Objectives Tree (b) Irrigation water availability improved
Leaks from pipes and canals reduced
Water fairly distributed at the 3rd level
Irrigation pipes function properly
Defective lining / pipes replaced or repaired
WUUs are established and apply irrigation scheduling
Adequate number of manholes allow easy pipe maintenance
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2.3.2
Methodology and Tools
2.3.2.1 Overall Approach In order to implement the irrigation improvement plan, the following measures must be taken: 1.
Identify the collapsing sections of the open irrigation Mesquas as well as the pipelines causing water seepage into the soil.
2.
Identify the location of the abandoned collective pump stations where many farmers have stopped using modern irrigation systems and converted to flood systems.
3.
Meet with graduates and beneficiaries in order to find out their problems.
4.
Coordinate with the Development and Cooperation Administration (DCA) to set priorities for implementing the plans and solving all possible problems during the execution.
5.
Coordinate with the irrigation district’s general administration to complement conservation and renovation works for the main canals in the project area.
6.
Survey and evaluate the existing on-farm irrigation systems. Continuous evaluation of irrigation systems, and instantaneous transmission of the findings and recommendations to relevant farmers during field days held on the spot, has proven to be the most direct and effective way of improving on-farm irrigation systems.
2.3.2.2 Meetings and Field Visits Field visits and meetings are considered as useful tools to examine existing problems and exploit appropriate solutions with the concerned farmers. The farmers’ participation from the very beginning is the only guarantee that they will support, maintain, and sustain the agreed upon solutions. One must: 1.
Examine, during field visits, the collapsed lining and depleted pipes at different Mesquas and irrigation lines, as well as abandoned collective pump stations.
2.
Meet with graduates and beneficiaries, in coordination with the DCA and irrigation administration office, in order to determine the farmers’ problems such as: a) The Mesqua inlet gates’ failure to control the flow of irrigation water. b) The difference between the water levels of some Mesquas and pipelines, which constrict the flow of irrigation water. c) The difficulty in cleaning the pipelines because of the long distance between each adjacent manhole. d) The fact that some irrigation lines and Mesquas have no tail escapes, which obstructs line flushing. e) The fact that some Mesqua intakes are so misplaced that the flow of irrigation water becomes more restricted.
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2.3.2.3 Studies Studies at the beginning of any related irrigation project, to evaluate the existing irrigation systems, are very important for several reasons: to determine the efficiency of the system as it is being used, to determine how effectively the system can be operated and whether it can be improved, to obtain information that will assist in designing other systems, and to obtain information which will enable a comparison of various methods, systems, and operating procedures, as a basis for economic decisions. 2.3.2.4 Tender Procedures Tender procedure can be outlined as follows: 1.
Implementation of all topographical survey works in order to sketch the levelling contour lines of different Mesqua paths and irrigation lines.
2.
Execution of the designs necessary for conservation and renovation works in cooperation with the irrigation district department. It is essential to define the type of required works and estimate the required quantities.
3.
Identification of the collective pump pressure stations, which have been abandoned for a long time, and their design drawings. Such design drawings are necessary in order to determine cut and fill profiles, lining processes, intakes, gates, distributive sumps, suction sumps, and shelters.
4.
Preparation of a tender specifications and conditions notebook.
5.
Preparation of an estimated pro forma for the total construction cost, provided that these costs do not exceed the available project fund.
6.
Publishing and advertisement of the tender documents.
7.
Organisation of the bid opening and selection, evaluation of different tender conditions.
Table 6: List of Studies Conducted on the Evaluation of Irrigated Systems
Type of study
Recommendations
Efficiency of irrigation For sprinkler irrigation systems, studies proved that water systems at WUU farmers’ distribution uniformity ranges from 70% to 75% for 6 farmers fields (August 2000) who represent 28% of the sample. This is due to the low operational pressure, the use of different types of sprinklers, and water leaks on the main irrigation lines. For the trickle irrigation system, studies proved that the water uniformity coefficient ranges from 85% to 90% for 7 farmers who represent 32% of the sample. This is due to the low operational pressure as well as losses caused by water leaks on the irrigation network. Improvement of irrigation The final analysis proved that there is a little improvement in the requisites of water users efficiency of irrigation systems in comparison with the previous unions (April,2000) WUU results in August 2000. This goes back to the following reasons: - Few farmers actually repaired their sprinklers, and used
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accessories. - Some farmers do not receive enough irrigation water at their farms. - Some farmers have special problems such as changing the nozzles of their field sprinklers and the water gates of their fields. This leads to increasing leaks on the irrigation network. In addition, they do not have access to original spare parts. Other farmers operate more than 10 sprinklers at the same time. Irrigation systems survey The project activity aiming to improve performances of on-farm and evaluation in Bustan 1, irrigation systems within WUUs through the outputs of irrigation 2 and 3. (June, 2004) surveys and associated field days, training on water management and O&M of irrigation systems, has the effect of saving a total of approximately 13.13 million m³/year in a total pilot area of 8045 Feddans, managed by 47 operational WUUs (due to improved irrigation efficiency).
Table 7: Cost of Irrigation Construction Works No 1
2
3
4
Item works Earth excavation and filling works necessary for Mesqua construction in all types of soil according to the elevation designs. This item includes removal of outworn linings, tree cutting, compaction of lateral slopes, and transfer of excavation remains to a distance no more than 2.5km from the location. All works must comply with the technical specifications. Provision and use of ordinary concrete for construction works (suction sumps, manholes, tail escapes, intakes, slaving, etc.) The concrete consists of 0.8m3 gravel, 0.4m3 sand, and 250Kg cement/m3. This item entails excavation and refilling as well as water suction. All works must comply with the technical specifications. Provision and installation of reinforced concrete pipes with different diameters at levels set by the design drawings. This item implies excavation and refilling works, linking joints, and the removal of old pipes. All works must comply with the technical specifications. Provision and installation of gravel and limestone 40cm thick foundations for the tail escapes and crossing pathways. Its mortar consists of 350Kg cement/m3 sand. It also requires plastering using a mortar consisting of 400 Kg/m3 sand to finish the final surface. This item entails levelling, settling, and compacting the earth under the gravel layer. All works must comply with the technical specifications.
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Unit
m3
m3
m3
m3
Quantity
Category
Total
5
6
Provision and preparation of plain concrete to line the Housha Mesqua with a 10cm thickness. The mortar mixture consists of 0.6m3 gravel, 0.6m3 sand, 300Kg cement/m3. This item includes other works such as concrete treatment, filling the lining spaces with Butomine, water suction, compacting the earth beneath the lining, and giving a final finish to the surfaces. All works m3 must comply with the technical specifications. Provision and installation of iron gates for the Mesqua intakes and tail escapes. This item includes fixing works, operational equipment, painting, and the requisites until the completion of the task and the beginning of operations. Ton All works must comply with the technical specifications.
2.3.2.5 Monitoring and Handing Over of Works The implementation of the works will begin, as follows, once contract procedures are signed with the executing agency: 1.
The location site of the works is handed over, accompanied by a signed receipt, to the executing agency empty of any obstacles that could possibly hinder implementation.
2.
The executing agency presents a timetable in order to finish the different tasks on schedule.
3.
Samples of materials to be used for construction should be examined and certified before being sent to the locations.
4.
A follow-up examination of what has already been implemented is carried out in order to guarantee compliance with the required technical specifications.
5.
The finished works are delivered by the executing agency once they are completed according to the set timetable. The executing agency remains responsible for these works during a guarantee period that ranges from 6 to 12 months.
6.
The project hands over the delivered works to the Water Users Unions or the Agricultural Cooperatives so that they can control operations and periodical maintenance.
7.
Graduates and farmers are trained to operate and maintain the Mesquas that lie within the boundary of their plots, in collaboration with the official district irrigation inspection department.
2.3.3
Works
Intervention in an irrigation scheme involves three types of construction: 1.
Collective pump stations,
2.
Mesquas and buried pipelines.
3.
On-farm irrigation systems
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2.3.3.1 Collective Pump Stations
Photos 3 & 4: Mesqua and pump stations
A typical collective pump station serves an area of approximately 480 Feddans. Due to frequent electrical outages and a lack of cooperation amongst farmers concerning the repair and maintenance of pumps and motors, most of the collective pump stations failed and farmers resorted to flood irrigation, by digging random Mesquas instead of main lines, and using their own individual pumps. This situation was previously studied and a decision was reached to convert the collapsed collective pump stations into small pumps, serving 20 Feddans each, and construct 2 lined Mesquas for each collective pump station. Eventually, one WUU is to be established for each Mesqua, thus serving an area of approximately 240 Feddans. The civil works needed for the collective pump stations’ conversion involves the following: 1.
Excavation and filling works to implement the Housha Mesquas in all types of soil according to the design. This takes into consideration weed removal and cutting down trees in the way of the Mesqua paths. The excavated earth should be removed to a distance no more than 2.5km away, as well as water bailing (if existing). The Mesqua section should have a bottom width of 0.5 meters, a 1 meter depth, side slopes of 2(vertical): 3 (horizontal), and a longitudinal bottom slope of 30 cm/km.
2.
Plain concrete works for the walls and bases of suction and distribution sumps, industrial works, intakes, pipe casings. The plain concrete consists of 0.8m3 gravel, 0.4m3 sand, and 250Kg cement. This item implies excavation and filling necessary for the completion of industrial work.
3.
Plain lining concrete should be 10cm thick for the bottom and sides. Concrete should consist of 0.6m3 gravel, 0.6m3 sand, 300Kg cement. This item entails filling lining spaces with insulating material such as Butamine and special chemical processing for the concrete lining. Expansion and contraction spaces should be allowed for every 3 meters.
4.
Where it is difficult to construct open Mesquas, closed Mesquas can be considered as an alternative by using reinforced concrete pipes, which should be embedded, according to the levels set by the designs. This item implies excavation, filling works and water bailing (if existing).
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5.
Installation of reinforced concrete pipes with different diameters, 30, 60, or 80cm, for Mesqua intakes, and suction lines in accordance with the levels set by the designs. This item entails excavation and filling works and water bailing (if existing).
6.
Construction of the Mesqua intakes at the main irrigation branches including the use of plain concrete for gate shoulders.
7.
Execution of iron works for Housha Mesqua intake gates. This item includes supply of trash racks, fittings, painting, and all constituents.
8.
Installation of 3.00 x 3.50 m shelters for the pumps, with an average height of 2.70m and made out of brick with a reinforced 8cm thick concrete ceiling. The shelter rooms contain 2 cretonne windows whose dimensions are 0.6 x 0.8 m and a 1.00 x 2.00 m cretonne door. Plastering for the outside and inside parts of the shelter. The shelter’s walls and ceiling are then painted with lime.
9.
Irrigation pump is fixed inside the shelter room on a foundation consisting of two layers. The lower one is made out of an ordinary 2.05 x 1.10 x 0.3 m concrete base, and the top one is made out of a reinforced 1.65 x 0.7 x 0.60 m concrete base.
2.3.3.2 Mesquas and Buried Irrigation Pipelines Maintaining and renovating the irrigation water conveyance laterals of the Mesquas or the pipelines entails the following: 1.
Use of plain 10cm thick concrete for lining in order to rebuild the collapsing parts using the same specifications indicated in previous article n° 3.
2.
Use of plain concrete for manhole foundations and walls, industrial works, and covering the pipes. The concrete consists of 0.80m3 gravel, 0.4m3 sand, and 250Kg cement according to the same specifications as in previous article n° 2.
3.
Use of reinforced concrete pipes with 80 or 60cm diameters instead of the outworn pipes. This includes removing the damaged pipes and also cutting and filling works according to the same specifications as in previous article n° 5.
2.3.3.3 On-Farm Irrigation Systems Reinstalling or converting on-farm irrigation systems is subject to the farmers’ preference. Therefore, a number of different types of irrigation system models are presented to the farmers so that they may choose the one they prefer. The models presented here are examples of different designs prepared by the Abu-Dhabi fund program (ADF). It is worth mentioning that the construction cost of such models is considered as a credit loan for the farmers.
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Figure 14: Typical Collective Pump Station Serving 480 Feddans Typical collective pump station serving 480 feddans 20 fd plot
5 fd piece
Submain serving 40 fd
24 0
fd
Buried mainline
Collective pump station serving 480 fd Branch secondary canal
Figure 15: Typical Conversion of a Collecting Pump Station Domain into 24 Small Pumps Conversion of collective pump station domain into 24 small pumps and 2 mesquas 20 fd plot
5 fd piece
Mesqua (tertiary canal)
Cluster of 4 small pumps each pump services 20 fd
24 0
fd
–t
yp ica WU lW /1 U/ UU 2 p Me do um sq ma ps ua in / 4 / 24 8f 0 arm fd ers Mesqua Gate Branch secondary canal 1 fd ~ 1 acre
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Figure 16: On-Farm Fixed Sprinkler and Drip Irrigation Models (ADF)
m 56,25
m 56,25
Fixed irrigation system model for 5 Feddan plot
9 3
m
9 3
m
9 3
m
9 3
m
9 3
m
9 3
m
m 56,25
m 56,25
fixed sprinkler system
m 56,25
m 56,25
drip irrigation system for fruit trees
fixed sprinkler and drip systems
irrigation Mesqua pumping unit fixed sprinkler for 1.25 Fed drip system for 1.25 Fed
main line pvc
125mm sub main 63mm sub main 50mm riser pipe 25mm control unit
Photo 5: An example of sprinkler irrigation
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P.E line ball valve ball valve
16mm 63mm
50mm ball valve 32mm
Figure 17: Fill and Cut Section of a Housha Mesqua
Filling section for Housha Mesqua 3.50 m
1.00 m
ground surface 2: 1
w.l+0.50 m
1.00 m w.l+0.50 m
3: 2
lining 10 cm
water level (w.l)
3: 2
ground surface 2: 1
h=1.00 m
0.50 m
thickness
Excavation section for Housha Mesqua
3.50 m
1.00 m 2: 1
1.00 m
w.l+0.50 m
w.l+0.50 m 3: 2
water level (w.l)
ground surface 2: 1
3: 2
h=1.00 m
lining 10 cm thickness
0.50 m sc ale 1 : 50
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Figure 18: Longitudinal Section for a Housha Mesqua Longitudinal section for Housha Mesqua
water levels 40 cm /k.m
Mesqua bottom level
40 cm /k.m
distance k.m ground levels water level + 50 m
bank levels water levels levels & bottom width
3:2 side slopes
sloping 40 cm/k.m
water depth=0.50m
bottom width =0.50m
Gate
scale 1 : 7500
Figure 19: Gate
angl e
D 0.80 m
1, 2
m
scale 1 : 25
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Figure 20: Suction Sump
Suction Sump
from ma in
to pu mp ho use
burie d pip es
1,2 m 5
A
4m
A
from ma in
to pu mp ho use
burie d pip es
0, m 3
1,2 m 5
0, m 3
to pu mp ho use
h
from ma in
burie d pip es
0.40 m
0.30 h
o.30 h
sec. A-A
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sc ale 1 : 50
Figure 21: Pitching of Mesqua’s Tail Escape (Plan and Elevation)
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Figure 22: Manhole Between Two Pump Units
Manhole between two pumping units
0.50 m
3.00 m
0.80 m
1.30 m 1.00 m 1.60 m
old manhole
buried pipes
new manhole
old manhole
186 m 372 m
plan BADP User Manual
47
scale 1:250
2.3.3.4 Manholes Cleaning irrigation lines and Mesquas represents one of the most difficult problems for farmers simply because of the long distances between each adjacent inspection manhole on the pipelines. More inspection manholes were created in order to reduce this interval from 372 meters to 186 meters. The manhole’s inspection room, whose dimensions are 1 x 1 meter, facilitates cleaning and enhancing the irrigation water flow inside the pipes. The inspection room is made out of ordinary concrete consisting of 0.80m3 gravel, 0.40m3 sand, and 250Kg cement/m3. It has the following specifications: 1.
A concrete foundation with a height of 0.40 meters.
2.
The inspection room’s height varies from one location to another depending on the ground and pipeline levels. However, this height ranges from 2.50 to 6.00 meters.
3.
The thickness of the inspection room’s upper wall is 0.3m and it reaches 0.30H at the bottom, H representing the height of the inspection room.
4.
The inspection room’s floor is below the bottom of the pipeline with a depth of 0.15 to 0.25 meters in order to accumulate deposits and make cleaning easier.
2.3.4
Operation and Maintenance
Two types of measures are necessary for properly operating and maintaining Mesquas and irrigation lines. 2.3.4.1 Specific Measures 1.
Remove weeds which grow on the Mesqua’s bottom and side banks because they impede water flow and affect irrigation efficiency. The periodic extraction of such weeds needs to be done manually.
2.
Remove the deposits accumulated at the Mesqua’s bottom. This is very important as they reduce the Mesqua’s irrigation water level and passively affect irrigation efficiency. Different manual and mechanical equipment is suggested, depending on the quantity of accumulated deposits.
3.
Repair the collapsed parts of the lined works in order to save irrigation water by preventing any subsurface water leaking into the soil.
4.
Remove all the deposits accumulated at the bottom of the suction sump in order to maintain a high rate of suction for the pumps and keep them functioning efficiently.
2.3.4.2 General Measures 1.
Stop planting trees above the buried pipelines as the tree roots penetrate the soil and break the pipes, causing water leaks.
2.
Keep the manholes clean and tidy and continuously remove the accumulated deposits in order to ensure rapid water flow inside pipes.
3.
Carry out periodic maintenance of gates, such as intakes and tail escapes. This facilitates pipe flushing and cleaning.
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4.
Replace the damaged pipes in irrigation lines so as to avoid water leaks.
5.
Avoid using the road above the water pipes as a route for heavy equipment in order to avoid breaking pipelines.
6.
Do not throw any residues or stubble inside the pipelines in order to avoid obstructing the water flow.
Photo 6: Manually cleaning the Mesquas
2.3.5
Training Program
Objective: The objective is to train graduates and farmers on how to operate and maintain the Mesquas which lie within the boundary of their plots, in collaboration with the official district irrigation inspection department. Target population: The course has been designed for farmers or graduates located in the area. Type: The program consists of a 1-day training course. The course is made up of 2 lectures, each lasting 2 hours. 1.
First Lecture: Role and responsibilities of irrigation engineers towards the WUUs to gain rational use of water: (i) supply and distribution of water, (ii) irrigation engineer’s duty to observe the water level in the main canals and solve any encountered problems, (iii) cooperation between the irrigation engineer and the WUUs for the prevention of any misuse in order to assure the equal distribution of water.
2.
Second Lecture: Role and responsibilities of the Ministry of Irrigation and of the Rural Organisations in the O&M of tertiary canals: (i) responsibility of the Ministry of Water Resources and Irrigation in the O&M of the main canals, (ii) responsibilities of the farmers (graduates and small farmers) in the O&M of the tertiary canals (Mesquas), (iii) role of the WUUs in the O&M of the Mesquas in order to reduce water losses and guarantee enough water for each farmer on the Mesqua, and (iv) types of regular maintenance needed for tertiary canals (pipelines – lined canal).
Expected Output: At the end of the session, the trainees will be aware of the following: 1.
The amount of water distributed to the area, the irrigation engineer’s role in solving any encountered problems, and how to cooperate with the irrigation engineer as a WUU.
2.
The importance of carrying out regular maintenance of Housha drains.
3.
The operation and maintenance of Housha drains.
4.
The services provided by GALI in this regard.
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2.3.6
Informational Material
It is very important to disseminate informational material, such as types of modern irrigation systems, advantages, operation, and maintenance, as well as factors responsible for low performance and information on how to improve efficiency, etc. as this data is necessary in order to raise the farmers' awareness of modern irrigation systems. Title
Date
Location Code
Place
Modern Irrigation System : O&M
2003
230
BADP
Improving the efficiency of sprinkler irrigation system
2002
172
BADP
2.3.7
Monitoring
The monitoring process includes: maintenance of the Mesquas and buried pipelines and evaluations of the sprinkler and drip irrigation systems. 2.3.7.1 Objectives The general purpose of evaluating irrigation systems is: 1.
To determine the efficiency of the system as it is being used.
2.
To determine how effectively the system can be operated and whether it can be improved.
3.
To obtain information which will assist in designing other systems.
4.
To obtain information which will enable the comparison between various methods, systems, and operating procedures as a basis for economic decisions.
Continuous evaluation of the irrigation systems, and instantaneous transmission of the findings and recommendations to relevant farmers through field days, has proven to be the most direct and effective way of improving on-farm irrigation systems 2.3.7.2 Methods and Tools Monitoring of Mesqua Maintenance The efficiency of the maintenance and renovation works carried out on the Mesquas and pipelines can be evaluated through the following physical investigations: 1.
Observation of water seepage into the soil through the lined open Mesquas or through irrigation water leaks from buried pipelines.
2.
Examination of the Mesqua section’s and pipelines’ capacity for maximum irrigation water discharge.
3.
Measurement of the Mesqua’s water flow rate, which reflects the fair distribution of water from both the last group of pumps and the first group of pumps.
4.
Verification that the irrigation water’s entry from the main line to the Mesqua through the intake canals is unhindered.
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Drip Irrigation Field Evaluation The field evaluation procedure for a drip irrigation system is outlined as follows: 1.
Select a subunit representative of average operating conditions in all subunits as shown in Fig.28.
2.
Locate 4 laterals along an operating submain: one near the inlet end, one near the far end, and two evenly spaced ones in the middle section.
3.
Measure, under normal operating conditions, the pressures at the inlet and at the far end of each lateral. This will produce 8 pressure readings.
4.
On each lateral, select 2 adjacent emitters at 4 different plant locations – at the inlet, 1/3rd of the way down, 2/3rds of the way down, and at the end point of the lateral.
5.
Measure the discharge from the selected emitters described above. Collect the flow for 2 minutes in order to obtain a volume between 100 and 250 ml for each emitter. This will produce 32 discharges measured at 16 locations.
6.
Enter the information collected into the attached data sheet.
7.
Compute the average discharge for each pair of emitters. This will produce 16 average discharges.
8.
Use the average of the lowest 4 discharges from all the readings as the minimum rate of discharge.
9.
The average of all the readings is the average rate of discharge per emitter.
10.
Calculate field emission uniformity by using the following equation:
Eu =
Average of lowest 4 emitter disch arg es Average rate of disch arg e per emitter
The evaluated system is classified according to EU values obtained through observance of the Meriam and Keller (1978) criterion “Farm irrigation system evaluation”, a management guide, 3rd ed., Utah State University, Logan, 285 p. Table 8: System Classifications According to Emission Uniformity Values (EU)
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Emission Uniformity, EU (%)
Classification
≥ 90
Excellent
80 - 89
Good
70 – 79
Fair ( Acceptable)
50 - 69
Poor
≤ 49
Unacceptable
51
Figure 23: Layout of the Evaluated Drip Subunit
Lateral drip lines
Manifold Zone valve Submain
Layout of the evaluated subunit
Figure 24: Drip Irrigation Evaluation Data Sheet
Drip Irrigation Field Evaluation Data Sheet General Characteristics of the System Village: Date: WUU: Plot #: Farmer's Name: Observer: Area under drip, feddans Cost of drip system: Installation date: Pump pressure: Spacing Age Crop Plant shaded area diameter, m = Filter Type and performance Sand filter / number: Circumference, m = Pressure inlet Pressure outlet Screen Filter / number: Size, inch Pressure inlet Pressure outlet Fertilizer unit Type Make: Type: Emitters: Nominal pressure and discharge Spacing Amount per plant Material: Laterals: Diameter: spacing Length: Diameter: Submain ( Manifold) : Laterals are on: one side No. of laterals per manifold = Irrigation interval: Operational Conditions: Duration: Check the following factors :Clogging of emitters Yes Leakage Yes Mixed and /or broken emitters
Inadequate filtration
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Yes Yes
Material: Length: double sides Area per control valve, fed. = day hours No No No No
52
Figure 25: Sketch of Drip System Layout and Data Collection Sheet 2
1
Emitter
3
4
Aِِِِِِ B Submain
Control valve
Lateral System Layout ( sketch with comments)
Data Collection Location of emitters on the lateral A Inlet end B Time Average A 1/3 down B Time Average A 2/3 down B Time Average A Far end B Time Average Pressure Inlet end m Far end Min Discharge Average Discharge
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Location of lateral on submains Inlet end (1) 1/3 down (2) 2/3 down (3) Far end (4) Volume Volume Volume Volume collected Discharge collected Discharge collected Discharge collected Discharge ml l/h ml l/h ml l/h ml l/h
EU =
53
Sprinkler Irrigation Field Evaluation Performance monitoring of sprinkler irrigation systems requires the measurement of system variables and the calculation of performance indicators. For the assessment of the system’s performance, the following information needs to be collected: crop information (rooting depth, allowable plant extraction factor), soil type (in particular the soil’s basic infiltration rate and the soil’s water content at field capacity and wilting point), characteristics of the lateral and of the sprinkler (i.e. pressure variation in the laterals and submains, nozzle pressure, discharge rates), application time and depth, wind direction and velocity, etc. The system’s performance can be measured in situ by placing catch cans in a grid bounded by 4 sprinklers. The volume of water measured in the catch cans allows the calculation of the performance indicators. The indicators used for the assessment of the system’s performance are: the uniformity coefficient (CU), the distribution uniformity (DU), and the potential application efficiency of low quarter (PELQ), as defined by Merriam and Keller, 1978. Coefficient of Uniformity (CU): Calculated as a percentage (%) and also known as the Christianson Uniformity Coefficient, CU is defined as ⎛ ⎜ CU = 100 ⎜ 1 − ⎜ ⎜ ⎝
⎞ − Z av ⎟ i =1 ⎟ n × Z av ⎟ ⎟ ⎠ n
∑Z
i
where Zi is the individual depth of catch observations from the uniformity tests, Zav is the mean of observed depths, and n is the number of observations. Distribution Uniformity (DU): Calculated as a percentage (%), DU is defined by the ratio
DU =
Z lq Z av
×100
where Zlq is the average low-quarter infiltrated depth and Zav is the average infiltrated depth in the entire field. Potential Efficiency of Low Quarter (PELQ): Measured as a percentage (%), it is used for design and corresponds to the system’s performance under good management when the correct depth and timing are being used.
PELQ is given by: PELQ =
Z lq dg
×100
where Zlq is the average low-quarter infiltrated depth and dg is the average depth applied to the field (mm), and can be calculated as follows
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dg =
1000 × q × t i S m × Sl
where q is the sprinkler discharge (m3/h), ti is the irrigation run time (hours), Sm is the distance between lateral lines (m), and Sl is the distance between two sprinklers on a lateral line (m). Figure 26: Sprinkler Irrigation Evaluation Sheet n°1 SPRINKLER IRRIGATION EVALUATION SHEET Village: Mesqua / Line : Plot: Date: Farmer's Name: Observer: Type of irrigation system : Fixed Crop: Age: days, Irrigation interval: days Sprinkler spacing : m , Irrigation duration : hrs Riser height : m. Pump Pressure: bar No. of sprinkler operating at the same time per pump: Leakage: Yes / No Tilted Sprinklers:Yes / No Vibrating sprinklers: Yes / No Sprinklers condition: Bad / Medium / Good No. of sprinklers in the inlet 1 2 field Sprinkler make/model Sprinkler throw, m.
radius
3
of
Time per rotation, Sec. Nozzle diam. , mm. Pressure , bar Discharge
Vol., Liter Time, Sec.
Wind: speed, Km/ hr initial , during , °c. , R.H= %. Temp.= Container rim diameter mm . Test Duration : Container grid spacing ( by m.) Volume of water caught in catch cans, ml
final hrs
Sp1
Sp2
Sp3
Sp4
Notes: BADP User Manual
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4
end
Figure 27: Sprinkler Irrigation Evaluation Sheet n°2
SPRINKLER IRRIGATION EVALUATION SHEET Village: Mesqua / Line : Plot: Date: Farmer's Name: Observer: Type of irrigation system : Hand-move Crop: Age: days, Irrigation interval: days Sprinkler spacing : m , Irrigation duration : hrs Riser height : m. Pump Pressure: bar No. of sprinkler operating at the same time per pump: Leakage: Yes / No Tilted Sprinklers: Yes / No Vibrating sprinklers: Yes / No Sprinklers condition: Bad / Medium / Good No. of sprinklers in inlet 1 2 3 4 end the field Sprinkler make/model Sprinkler radius of throw, m.
Time per rotation, Sec.
Nozzle diam. , mm. Pressure , bar Discharge
Vol., Liter Time, Sec.
Wind: speed, Km/ hr initial , during , Temp.= °c. , R.H= %. Container rim diameter mm . Test Duration : Container grid spacing ( by m.) Volume of water caught in catch cans, ml
final hrs
Sprinkler 2
Sprinkler 3
Lateral line
Notes:
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2.4 IMPLEMENTATION SCHEDULE
The length of time needed to implement irrigation and drainage works is given per unit distance and depends on the type of soil and topography found, as well as obstructions standing in the way of the construction line. Type of work
Duration
Mesqua construction
2-3 months / 1 km
Housha drain construction
2-3 months / 1 km
2.5 BUDGET / UNIT COSTS
The general unit cost for the implemented irrigation and drainage works is given as a guideline. Type of work
Overall unit cost
Mesqua construction
150 000 L.E. / 1 km
Housha drain construction
67 000 L.E. / 1 km
Mesqua renovation
16 000 L.E. / 1 km
2.6 USEFUL CONTACTS
Collaborating Authorities
Address
West Nubariya Rehabilitation Directorate
Desert Road Km 80– Nubariya City
General Management of El-Nasr Drainage
Desert Road Km 80 – Nubariya City
General Administrations Cooperation
for
Development
and Bustan 1,2 East Road and Bustan 3
El-Nasr Irrigation Inspection
Station 2 – El-Nasr Canal.
General Management of El-Nasr Irrigation
El-Nasryia – El-Ameryia
Land Improvement Authority
Km 80 Desert Road – Nubariya City
Faculty of Agriculture – Soil Dept. – Alexandria Shatby- Alexandria University Agric Research Centre in Nubariya
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Desert Road Km 46
57
3
WATER USERS UNIONS
3.1 INTRODUCTION
Based on Law no. 213 /1994 (Amendment to the Irrigation and Drainage Law no. 12/1984), and in an effort to decentralize resources and reduce the central governmental agencies’ load, Ministerial Decree no. 14900 /1995 was issued. This decree specifies the conditions for irrigation licenses and costs in the new lands and delegates the responsibility for the operation and maintenance of the tertiary level irrigation facilities (Mesquas) to the Water Users Unions. In other words the Mesquas are considered as the farmers’ private property and the water users are accountable for their operation and maintenance. In addition, the recent changes in agricultural policy, such as the progressive liberalization of basic food items, key inputs, and land rents, aim to promote better land use and investments over time. 3.1.1
Overall Problems
A 1994 mission reported that small farms in the new lands, particularly in the Bustan area, were relatively unproductive. The following problems were identified as the main reasons for small-scale agriculture being only marginally economic3: Poor drainage. Inefficient irrigation water management. Low quality soils. Low cropping intensity. Farmers’ limited skills and poor market knowledge. High water table level in low-lying zones. Steady decline of the cultivated areas, especially in Bustan I and West Nubariya – East Road. The mission concluded that action was urgently needed in order to: stop a deteriorating situation, realise the area’s potential, ensure returns on investments already made, and prevent migration from the area. Further investigations conducted during the BADP’s inception phase confirmed the previous findings and revealed that the high water table and waterlogging phenomena were due to excessive water inflows combined with an insufficient drainage network. In particular it was found that a large number of farmers had reverted to “illegal” flood irrigation methods in areas where the on-farm irrigation systems were fed from neglected collective “booster pumps”. Furthermore, factors such as seepage from poorly maintained irrigation canals (Mesquas), farmers’ limited skills and knowledge of irrigation principles and modern irrigation technologies, and unfair water distribution, all contributed to reduce the efficiency of the (limited) water resources, rendering the small farms’ economical performances unsatisfactory, and ultimately jeopardising the sustainability of the agricultural production system.
3
HR Wallingford, 1995
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3.1.2
Overall Objectives and Results
The organisation of self-reliant and independent WUUs is the GoE’s strategic choice to cope with the problems related to the operation and maintenance of the irrigation facilities and water use efficiency, by devolving responsibilities to farmer’s groups and developing water users’ sense of ownership. These concepts are novel in the new lands, although large cooperatives already exist. However, effort, methodological knowledge, and skilled assistance are needed to sustain the groups until they become fully operational, viable, and independent. WUUs are private grass-root organisations, formed by groups of individuals with common interests, and run by a board elected by those individuals. These concepts are quite new; however, the BADP project has experienced the entire process of establishing and sustaining these organisations until they reach operational capacity. The task is difficult because the population of settlers is culturally heterogeneous and there is no tradition of group action. Therefore, important changes in the mentality and behaviour of the members are first required. Individualism and the dependency syndrome must be abandoned in favour of active behaviour (searching for self-sufficiency) and joint action. A participatory bottoms-up approach is critical for success. From a methodological standpoint, essential tools include participatory rural appraisals, awareness campaigns, training, and capacity building. 3.2 WATER USERS UNIONS
A Water Users’ Union is an organisation of farmers, served by a common water source, whose responsibility is to allocate, distribute, and manage water in the most efficient manner for the benefit of all users. In addition, the WUU sustainably operates and maintains the system and should generate sufficient resources to enable these activities to be undertaken for a considerable period of time. Irrigation development and modernisation require the farmers’ involvement in order to ensure irrigation and water management, and optimal system operation and maintenance at the farm level. In 1994, irrigation and drainage law No. 12 was amended by law No. 213. The latter, under item 71, states that a ministerial decree will specify the conditions for irrigation and the establishment of water users unions in the new lands. Chapter III of Ministerial Decree No. 14900 /1995, entitled Water Users’ Unions in the New Lands, regulates the legal/technical framework for the implementation and operation of these organisations (articles 22 to 42). In particular, article 25 states that “the union shall guarantee organising the participation of beneficiaries in managing and maintaining water pump stations and the joint water stream to achieve equitable water distribution among the union members, according to the needs of agricultural production”. According to the WUU’s general statutory and legal mandate, the scope of their work encompasses the following tasks and activities: Planning, design, and implementation of the field operations required to enhance the system and irrigation programmes within the respective common sources or canals. Maintenance and operation of the necessary machines, pumps, and engines, for the supply of water in the respective canals, and provision of funds required for this purpose.
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Preparation and implementation of an irrigation rotation plan for all holdings linked to the common canal or water source, and monitoring of its proper application. Development of crop rotations with appropriate water requirements as regards availability from the source. Provision of technical recommendations regarding optimum operation of pressure irrigation networks in order to obtain the required total flow/ Feddan /crop rates from the available water from the source – canal, without wasting any resources, and achieving a balance between irrigation and drainage. Definition of the internal rules and regulations for WUU management and enhancement of its capacity to resolve conflicts and problems. Preparation of plans and programmes to dredge irrigation and drainage networks within the WUU’s command area. Establishment of strong relationships with all service providers (projects, banks, village councils, GoE agencies, NGOs, etc.), based on mutual respect and coordination. Record-keeping of the WUU’s incomes and expenditures. Establishment of extension and/or training programmes required for achievement of the WUU’s objectives, with an emphasis on the role of self-help activities. At a later developmental stage, the WUUs may also take on greater responsibilities in a number of other activities of a contractual or commercial nature, which would serve their objectives and interests and develop their financial resources (there is no provision against these practices in any legislation and/or regulations concerning irrigation and drainage). 3.2.1
Specific Strategy
3.2.1.1 Specific Problems
A problem analysis, conducted for the Bustan area, provides evidence of the prominent role the water users unions are likely to play in the optimum management of limited resources (water and land) and in the sustained use of irrigation facilities at the tertiary level and below.
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Figure 28: Specific Bustan Problems Tree
Low land productivity and deterioration of physical environment
Low irrigation efficiency
Poor performance of modern irrigation systems
Widespread use of flood irrigation
Shortage of irrigation water at the farm level
Water losses from lined canals
Unfair water distribution
High water table in low-lying areas
Clogged irrigation pipes
Inadequacy of drainage network at various levels
Low drainage efficiency at the tertiary level
When further analysing the causes of these problems, the following contributing factors were discovered: Inadequate farmers’ skills on modern irrigation management and water use. Inadequate repairs and/or poor maintenance of on-farm irrigation systems. Poor maintenance of the collective pumping stations. Defective linings or pipes. No water scheduling along the Mesquas / pipes. Unwillingness of individual farmers to perform irrigation or drainage facilities maintenance at the tertiary level. Inadequacy of the drainage networks in some areas. These problems were specifically assessed in the Bustan area; however, most of them are relevant in other reclaimed desert lands. 3.2.1.2 Specific Objectives
An objective tree was obtained by transforming the above-mentioned problems into specific objectives.
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Figure 29: Specific Bustan Objectives Tree
Sustained optimum productivity of reclaimed desert lands
Improved irrigation efficiency
Improved performance of modern irrigation systems
Flood irrigation progressively abandoned
Irrigation water available in due amounts and time
Leaks from pipes and canals are minimised
Water is fairly distributed along the Mesquas / pipes
Water table is permanently decreased
Buried irrigation lines function properly
Drainage network completed and properly maintained
This analysis allows the identification of the WUUs’ two main specific objectives: Improve irrigation efficiency and optimise water consumption. Make irrigation water available to every farm in due amount and time. By meeting these two objectives, a substantial contribution to the stabilisation of the water table is also expected. The organisation of farmers into WUUs facilitates the accomplishment of tasks individual farmers would be reluctant or unable to perform. Such is the case for the maintenance of collective irrigation / drainage facilities (tertiary level), the application of a proper water schedule, the resolution of internal conflicts amongst the water users, as well as the completion / improvement of the collective irrigation or drainage networks. Extension messages, technical recommendations, and awareness campaigns can also be channelled through such organisations in a very efficient and effective way, and this would contribute to facilitating the dissemination of modern irrigation techniques and eradicating improper practices such as flood irrigation. 3.2.2
Methodology and Tools
3.2.2.1 Specific Methodology
The methodological approach is based upon the following three stages: 1.
Promote people’s awareness in order for them to be able to organise WUUs according to the law’s irrigation agenda.
2.
Train farmers to manage and organise their WUUs and put into effect the contributions and duties of all individuals involved.
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3.
Capacity building.
The first stage aims at increasing and guiding farmers’ awareness of the benefits of a representative union streamlining their efforts and energies in order to have an equitable distribution of irrigation water during cropping times. The second stage aims at getting farmers to know how their problems can be specifically solved through the creation of water users unions. Orientation programs are helpful to fulfil this purpose. The third stage aims at empowering effective, influential, and sustainable water users unions. Intensive preparatory work is required to first determine the problems or constraints (social, technical, financial) interfering with irrigation and farming performances, and then secondly to make the farmers aware of the advantages and benefits they could enjoy as a result of establishing a WUU. Establishment: These are the required legal procedures for establishing a water users union in the newly reclaimed areas: 1.
Item No. 71 of the 1984 law No. 12 announced the future conditions and situations for licensing irrigation in the new lands. This article was amended by law No. 213 in 1994 and the relevant ministerial decree stipulates the regulations for establishing water user unions in the new lands for a joint private water source (spring, well, Mesqua, or pipeline). The WUU can be established if the number of beneficiaries exceeds five.
2.
The union’s general assembly or council consists of all the landholders whose plots are irrigated from the joint private Mesqua or other water source, whether this landholder is a beneficiary or tenant.
3.
The first general assembly is convened at the request of the concerned irrigation engineer, or upon request by two thirds of the landholders whose plots represent no less than 30% of the union’s total area. The invitation card is given to the landholders or their legal representatives. They sign in recognition of their reception of the card at least three days prior to the meeting. Time and place are specified on the invitation card. The landholder also has the right to delegate someone to attend in his place, in writing. No more than one representative may replace a union member. The agenda of the general assembly’s first meeting includes the following: a) Acknowledgment of the union’s basic regulations. b) Selection of the five members for the general assembly board by direct voting.
Organisation of the first general assembly meeting and registration of the WUU: 1.
Any general assembly meeting will be valid only if at least half of the union’s members attend, or if the attending members represent 50% of the union’s total area. If the quorum is not attained, the meeting will be postponed. However, the next meeting will be valid regardless of the attending number of members or the percentage of their landholdings.
2.
The first meeting of the general assembly is chaired by the oldest member.
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3.
The general assembly’s decisions are acknowledged on the basis of absolute majority.
4.
The chairman of the general assembly prepares the meeting minutes, which include the meeting’s location, names and number of attendees, names and number of absent members and their plots. Each decision is scored according to the number of members’ votes. A copy of the minutes is sent to the concerned irrigation management agency no later than one week from the date of the meeting (list of the union members and their holdings attached).
5.
The basic union regulations are signed by all the beneficiaries.
6.
The general meeting in its first convention, and then every two years, shall directly elect five members to form a board of directors, which will select among its members: the chairman, the legal representative, the treasurer, and the secretary who is responsible for the union’s administrative affairs.
7.
The chairman of the union has to collect the signatures of members who were absent during the first meeting, which established the union’s internal regulations. The latter, signed by all members of the union as well the minutes of the first general assembly, are required in order to fulfil the registration procedures.
8.
The concerned irrigation management agency makes an entry record for all the unions whose areas are within the boundaries of its authority. Each union has one page devoted to it in this record. The agency must complete the union’s data after receiving the minutes of its first general assembly and annexes.
9.
Once the irrigation agency receives the minutes of the general assembly meeting and its annexes, it issues an entry certificate and number for the new union.
Accounts and Bookkeeping: Accounts and Bookkeeping is an entry record of different issues examined by the union. Regular and proper entries help make the record an easy reference to follow up dealings. This implies: 1.
Recording session minutes.
2.
Recording union members’ landholdings.
3.
Recording revenues and expenditures.
4.
Recording union memberships.
5.
A record of the store’s supplies and receipts.
6.
Recording bank transactions.
Accounts and Bookkeeping’s objectives are: 1.
The possibility of monitoring different financial and managerial operations.
2.
Knowledge of the union’s assets and liabilities.
3.
The possibility of defining instructions and measures deemed necessary by the union.
4.
The possibility of measuring the success of the union’s management in performing its functions.
5.
The possibility of collecting exact data, which can be re-used for the union’s forthcoming policies.
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These are the procedures for depositing or withdrawing union funds: 1.
The union’s fiscal year begins on January 1st and ends on December 31st of every year. The first physical year starts upon the completion of the registration procedures and ends by the 31st December of the following year.
2.
Capital is deposited in a normal bank account or a savings account under the name defined by the general assembly. The chairman of the union, or his acting representative, notifies the concerned general irrigation authority in case there is a change of banking agency, within one week.
3.
In order to withdraw any sum from the union’s account, the cheque must be endorsed by the treasurer and the union’s chairman. This is to guarantee that union money is only used to meet union objectives and nothing else.
4.
The union keeps records of its accounts to show revenues and expenditures.
5.
The union chairman writes down the minutes of sessions held by the general assembly in a special record. He should mention the time and place of each session as well as the number of absent and attending landholders, their names and plots. Each decision taken in the session should be evaluated according to its voting number.
6.
The treasurer should perform the following tasks: a) Collect the union’s resources, such as annual fees, donations, revenues from equipment leasing, etc. and present receipts for the amounts collected. b) Deposit funds at the bank, as defined by the general assembly. c) Sign cash receipts and checks with the union council’s chairman. d) Handle bookkeeping, vouchers, and documents related to collections and disbursements. e) Prepare the estimated budget and the special account for subscriptions with the chairman of the board. f) Keep a record to register the union’s revenues and expenses. This book is subject to supervision by the union’s general assembly and the concerned irrigation engineer.
3.2.2.2 Tools
The BADP worked out its own methodology for establishing WUUs. The achievements obtained throughout the project’s life (47 operational WUUs) provide evidence of the effectiveness and validity of the procedures and tools used. More specifically, the process leading to the establishment of the WUUs was defined according to a bottoms-up approach in order to ensure farmers’ active participation and full involvement from the beginning. The idea was to bring farmers together into a WUU along the “Mesqua” (= the tertiary irrigation canal, which could also be a buried pipe water fed through gravity). A recent Mesqua design is being successfully applied in the Bustan area. According to this scheme, each standard Mesqua accommodates 48 farmers, i.e. three groups of four pumps, each pump supplying four 5-Feddan holdings. Based on this organisation, the following tools were developed and applied.
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3.2.2.2.1
Meetings
1.
Orientation meeting: Participation of approximately 50 farmers from an existing tertiary canal, or areas under improvement (replacement of the original scheme based on the collective booster pumps with the Mesqua scheme, as described above). This meeting aims to inform the potential beneficiaries of the recent GoE irrigation management orientations and a WUUs’ role and objectives.
2.
Preparatory meeting: Participation of approximately 16 farmers representing a group. Each group has 4 irrigation units at the Mesqua. This meeting aims to identify the current problems with the idea of establishing water users unions. Each unit of four farmers chooses one of them as a leader.
3.
Exposure visit: The chosen leaders from each Mesqua visit a successful Water Users Union in order to discuss the organisation’s management, as well as problems and benefits. The results of this trip are elaborated with a discussion of the questions raised by the farmers.
4.
Feedback meeting: The leading farmers who visited the WUU meet with their groups in order to share their experience and highlight the results of their visit, particularly regarding the organisational aspects of the union.
5.
General meeting: This meeting brings together all the farmers who jointly use a Mesqua. They are approximately 50 participants. They appoint a board of directors through democratic elections.
3.2.2.2.2
General Assemblies
The general assembly of the WUU consists of all landholders who benefit from a joint water source, whether it is a Mesqua or buried pipe. Ordinary sessions are convened once a year after the end of the fiscal year. The session aims to examine the budget and redraw the final account as well as to present reports prepared by the managing board on the annual activities. Renewal of board members through elections occurs every two years. Other topics needing to be discussed shall be included in the meeting agenda prepared by the board. Extraordinary sessions are allowed in order to reconsider the union’s internal regulations / disciplinary orders, a managing board member’s resignation or dismissal, or any other urgent issue. General assemblies are summoned in the following manner: 1.
Upon written invitation presented by the chairman of the union.
2.
Upon request by two thirds of the members, on the condition that the percentage of their land holdings represents 30% of the Mesqua’s or the union’s total command area.
3.
Upon request by the competent irrigation engineer. In this particular case, prior approval by the area’s general director of irrigation is required.
Whatever the circumstances, an invitation card is personally delivered to each member or to his legal representative at least three days before the meeting. The invitation includes the meeting’s agenda and time and place. Invitation receipts, duly signed by each member, must be kept in the record book to prove the validity of the invitation procedures. BADP User Manual
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An announcement card for the meeting, with the list of participants, is also prepared at union headquarters. A copy of the agenda is enclosed with the invitation. The irrigation department is informed of the meeting and proposed agenda at least three days in advance. The irrigation engineer is invited to attend the meeting as an observer. Validity of the general assembly meeting: As mentioned previously, the meeting is valid when half of the union members owning at least 50% of the total command area attend. If this quorum is not reached, the meeting is cancelled and postponed to the following week. The second meeting will take place whatever the attendance and the ownership rate may be. Direct voting is the method for decision-making and resolutions shall be issued by the absolute majority of attendees. However, a member can be excluded from the vote if the decision concerns his personal interests in one way or another. Management of the general assembly board: The general assembly board is presided by the chairman of the union. In the event of his absence, the secretary presides on behalf of the chairman. If the secretary is also absent, the oldest member takes over. If the irrigation engineer summons the general meeting, he will preside the meeting. The chairman writes the minutes of each session, which include the time and place of the session, attendance, decisions voted, and resolutions issued with the related number of votes. A copy of the session’s minutes is dispatched to the competent department of irrigation within one week from the date of the meeting. The union management board is democratically elected at the first general assembly meeting. Five individuals are elected by direct vote to form the union management board. This is a two-year position; however, board members can be re-elected more than once. The board member cannot be a salaried employee of the union and member simultaneously. If there is a vacancy in the management board, the member with the next highest number of votes will assume the seat until the following meeting where the assembly will elect the replacement board member. The WUU’s general assembly board shall dissolve the union in the event of its termination in accordance with the established rules.
Photo 7: WUU elections
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3.2.2.2.3
Registration Procedures
The elected union management board presents an application to the concerned irrigation department with the following documents in annexe: 1.
The union’s basic internal regulations signed by all members.
2.
A list of all the farmers who share the Mesqua / line and the size of their land holdings.
3.
The minutes of the first general assembly where the union chairman, the treasurer, and the secretary were elected. This also includes the union’s name.
Based on this documentation, a legal certificate is issued by the irrigation department.
3.2.3
WUU Activities
Once they have been officially established, the WUUs have specific tasks to perform. It is important for water users to build up their own skills and capabilities in order to fulfil the WUU tasks and meet their goal(s). WUU tasks: 1.
Active participation in planning, designing, and implementing the lined Mesquas or buried pipelines in order to develop the irrigation system.
2.
Organisation, operation, and maintenance of the developed Mesquas, pumping units, and irrigation networks in order to achieve a balance between irrigation supply and drainage, in addition to providing the necessary funding.
3.
Avoidance of any water deficit for the Mesqua serving 48 farmers. Therefore, a water distribution and irrigation timing schedule is to be applied for each unit serving four farmers. This is necessary due to the different irrigation technologies (sprinkler and drip systems) used on the same line, and because effective coordination is needed among the different units in order to control the Mesqua’s water consumption.
4.
Definition of crop rotations which take into consideration water source capacity, while ensuring the percentage participation of 3-4 winter crops and 3-4 summer crops within each holding.
5.
Implementation of plans and programs for cleaning the irrigation Mesqua and Housha drains within the WUU’s area. The role of each farmer must be defined in order to have efficient group participation and timely operations.
6.
Definition of the Mesqua management board’s roles and responsibilities as well as definition of rules and regulations for conflict settlement regarding water distribution disputes amongst members.
7.
Maintenance of full and open communication with the concerned agencies in order to receive effective support from these agencies.
8.
Preservation of updated records of all the financial inputs and outputs of the union’s activities. All data must be made available to the members with continued consultancy on how to subsidize and rationalize expenditures.
9.
Creation of an account in a bank or saving trust where the revenues and capital are deposited.
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10. Selection of the best available form of credit in order to develop the union’s objectives. 11. Assistance to the general department of irrigation, as well to the different agencies and projects working in the area, for the implementation of the necessary extension training programs aiming to update production techniques and increase farmers’ incomes. When the union becomes self-reliant, it can perform different activities that serve the objectives of its members and improve their financial resources. Benefits / expectations when joining the union: 1.
Meeting the crop’s water requirements, regardless of one’s plot location along the Mesqua or line.
2.
Increasing farm production through skilled use of modern irrigation methods and improved farming practices proposed by the supporting agencies / projects and channelled through the WUUs.
3.
Sharing of the burden of maintaining the irrigation / drainage facilities and/or improving the networks.
4.
Coping with problems such as soil salinity, waterlogging, and fading crops, which result from flood irrigation or water seepage from Mesquas randomly/illegally set by farmers.
5.
Saving time, effort, and costs by adopting modern irrigation methods, such as sprinkler and drip irrigation systems instead of the irrational flooding system.
3.2.4
Training Programs
Objectives: The legal basis for establishing WUUs in the new lands (Ministerial decree no. 14900 /1995) is recent. Apart from a few experiences conducted by the New Land Agricultural Services Project (IFAD), there were no WUU references in the Bustan area, and the BADP actually played a pilot role in working out a sound methodology for organising sustainable organisations. Major improvement in water management can be achieved through institutional reforms at the tertiary canal level. In the beginning, the newly established WUUs in Bustan faced many difficulties, such as: structural improvement problems, the definition of timely and adequate water supply, the fairness of the water’s allocation and distribution throughout the Mesqua, the WUU’s financial plan, availability of sufficient funds for O&M and major repairs, quality of WUU management, functionality of the system, etc. Lessons learned from Bustan indicate that time, effort, and skilled assistance, are needed to sustain WUUs in the early stages until they have developed a coherent identity and become self-reliant. In this process of establishing and building capacity, training plays a key role. This training package aims to establish and operate strong and efficient WUUs and to ensure effective participation of farmers to guarantee the sustainability of the benefits obtained during the project’s life, and to avoid the possibility of the encountered problems and difficulties reoccurring. Training is instrumental in providing the newly elected board members with the necessary information and skills to manage the organisation. Ordinary members also need BADP User Manual
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training in order to upgrade their technical skills, notably in the areas of modern irrigation methods, water management, and O&M. Finally, vocational training on crop production, animal husbandry, and marketing, is provided to groups of members called “Technical Committees”, with the aim of promoting the exchange of information amongst all water users and developing multipurpose organisations. In other words, members of the technical committees are trained to play the role of informal extension agents, providing advice to other members in their specific field of competence. Target groups: Training target groups are defined within each WUU as follows: Target
No. Trainees
Board of directors
5 members
Ordinary members
All members
Irrigation Technical Committees
Up to 14 members /WUU
Technical committees
Type of training WUU management and administration Modern irrigation and water management O&M of pumping units and on-farm systems
Up to 12 members / TC
Specialised crop production, animal husbandry, and marketing
3.2.4.1 Training Curricula for Board Members
Program objectives: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.
Create a strong awareness on the part of the WUU board members of their role as executing body of farmers’ decisions and their responsibility to serve common interests. Develop the WUU board members’ consciousness of their ability to carry out the planning, design, and operational activities regarding the management of their water source and the affairs concerning their union. Establish clear and classified documentation on all WUU activities, including financial aspects. Develop the board members’ communication skills, ability to work together, and prepare them to be good leaders. Upgrade their ability to seek unconventional financing sources including the development of income-generating activities to support and strengthen the WUU’s financial capacity. Emphasize the rationalization of water use and provide necessary skills on methods of optimum Mesqua operation and maintenance and advanced on-farm irrigation systems.
Participant’s profile: The course is designed for all board members, whether they are graduates or small farmers. Program outline: The program consists of seven training modules totalling 21 days: 5 modules for basic training and 2 advanced level modules. Each module consists of 3 training days.
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Figure 30: Board Members’ Training Curricula WUU BM Training Curricula Basic
Advanced
WUU Management
Bookkeeping
Group Dynamics
Decision-Making
Feasibility Study
Financial Promotion of the WUU
Leadership
Module 1 (basic): WUU Management:
Course background: Water Users Unions are considered the main facilitators to achieve the following objectives: Allocate, distribute and manage irrigation water. Operate and maintain the system for sustained use. Guarantee sufficient resources (in cash / or kind) to enable these activities to be carried out and consequently improve the social and economical conditions of the rural families. Therefore, developing and improving the WUU Board Members’ capacity to manage the union correctly and successfully is the right method for creating a sustainable WUU. Course objectives: Familiarize the board members (BM) with all the skills they need to be administratively, organisationally and financially effective. Fill the knowledge gap among WUU BM regarding their roles and responsibilities for the construction, operation, and maintenance of fields and running small enterprises. Improve the BM’s capacity to create and maintain good relations between the WUU and the irrigation Authority. Enhance the BM’s technical expertise on irrigation management. Help the BM recognize the importance of securing farmers’ participation in decision-making. Contents: 1. Topic: Role and responsibilities of WUU board members Expected Output: The trainees will understand the BM’s role and responsibilities in the construction and O&M of their irrigation Mesquas.
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They will also learn how to develop a financially feasible plan of action for O&M and how to secure members’ fees and other financial resources. 2. Topic: Regular operation and maintenance of irrigation Mesquas Expected Output: The trainees will be able to organise proper cleaning and maintenance of their Mesquas and apply a proper irrigation rotation. 3. Topic: Irrigation law regarding WUUs in the new lands Expected Output: The trainees will understand the main items of the Irrigation Law, particularly the articles concerning WUUs in the new lands. They will understand their responsibilities as BMs and be able to comply with the law in their daily activities. Module 2 (basic): Bookkeeping
Course background: Improving the efficiency of the BMs’ financial and administration management is the corner stone in building a strong WUU. This course helps the BMs keep adequate records concerning financial, administrative, and technical matters. These books are important for performance monitoring, decisionmaking, policy-making, or merely as historical records. Course objectives: Upon completing the course, the participants should understand the advantages of a bookkeeping system, understand the procedures for establishing a WUU, and know how to generate sufficient income and organise the financial resources to achieve financial self-sufficiency. Trainees will know the steps needed to organise, administrate and finance the WUU’s accounts, understand how to keep accounts and upgrade the accounting system, learn how to keep books, and how to calculate budgets and return of expenses. Course contents: 1. Topic: Financial and administrative bookkeeping Expected Output: Trainees will understand WUU administrative and financial recording systems and cost recovery. They will be able to maintain proper records including a minutes’ book, cash and receipt book, and a vouchers’ file. They will also know all the procedures needed to obtain a loan/grant. 2. Topic: Technical Bookkeeping Expected Output: The trainees will understand different types of technical records, keeping technical accounts, registering the WUU’s O&M affairs, and methods of calculating the users’ share in O&M costs. 3. Topic: Group work: practical training on bookkeeping Expected Output: Trainees will practice bookkeeping specifically on reporting expenses, irrigation problems, and calculation of operation, maintenance and management costs. Module 3 (basic): Group Dynamics
Course background: It is essential for WUU board members to learn new ways of working together in order to bring about change.
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Course objective: Raise awareness of the individual’s importance in group dynamics, increase members’ participation in WUU-related problems and improvements, provide training opportunities for board members who want to make a change in the WUU’s performance. Course contents: 1. Topic: Group work Expected Output: The trainees will know the types, roles, and goals of groups and benefits to be gained by interaction between members. 2. Topic: Methods of mobilizing groups Expected Output: The trainees will understand the different ways of keeping a group more dynamic and the factors influencing group success. 3. Topic: Cooperative work Expected Output: The trainees will understand the advantages of joint actions to cope with the problems associated with individual work. They can also follow the same approach in the procurement of agricultural inputs or commercialisation of products. Module 4 (basic): Decision-Making
Course background: The Success of the WUU is directly linked to the performance of the board members. Like any other organisation, the role of the leaders in making the organisation functional or dysfunctional is decisive. This course is initiated to enhance board members’ involvement in the WUU’s management, particularly in the decision-making process. Course objectives: Upon completing the course, the participants should know the decision-making process and be able to organise effective meetings in which they give the opportunity to every member to express his/her opinions in order to reach a decision. In addition, the trainees will understand the different types of communication tools. Course contents: 1. Topic: Ways to improve the capacities of decision makers Expected Output: The trainees will be able to: organise effective meetings, act as facilitators for discussions, give an opportunity to every member to participate and express his/her opinion, and help groups take decisions about a given subject. 2. Topic: Information and communication’s role in the decision-making process Expected Output: The trainees will be able to prepare a successful meeting in which they use the different types of tools such as mass, formal, and informal communication. They will be able to disseminate extension messages to other farmers. 3. Topic: WUU relationships with other local related agencies
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Expected Output: The trainees will be able to effectively contribute in the establishment of good relationships with relevant local agencies in order to ensure the effectiveness and quality of all services. Module 5 (basic): Leadership
Course background: Board members with strong managerial skills achieve sound management and provide good irrigation services to WUU members. When board members lack leadership skills, WUUs face managerial, financial, and operational problems. Course objectives: Upon completing the course, the participants should understand concepts and types of leadership and effectively deal with WUU groups in order to achieve common objectives. They will also learn about farmers’ behaviours and attitudes. Course contents: 1. Topic: Leadership concept and assumptions Expected Output: Trainees will be provided with a comprehensive understanding of leadership concepts, requirements, and types. They will also recognize the basics of behaviour manipulation. 2. Topic : The WUU board member’s leadership role Expected Output: The trainees will understand: the types of leadership roles, factors affecting the leader’s role, the leader’s needed support to reduce farmers’ risks and establish a climate of mutual trust. They will also understand the leader’s role in improving a work atmosphere, which helps improve group performances, and techniques to stimulate effective teamwork. 3. Topic: Group work: practical training on discussions led by a board member in a problem solving situation Expected Output: The trainees will be able to practice this learning situation and participate by playing their unique roles. Module 6 (advanced): Feasibility Study for Small Agro-Enterprises
Course background: WUUs, to large extent, operate and maintain their Mesquas satisfactorily. But it is unlikely that newly established WUUs could become selfsustained in a short period of time. The capacity and sustainability of WUUs may be strengthened through joint activities, beyond irrigation management, based on local enterprise opportunities. Exploring the ways through which WUU members can support the economical situation of their organisation is considered essential in order for them to develop into self-sustained entities. Course objectives: The trainees will obtain the necessary information and will have the capacity to design, prepare, implement, and supervise, appropriate small enterprises. Course contents: 1. Topic: Mobilizing WUU financial capacity through the creation of small agro- enterprises BADP User Manual
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Expected Output: Trainees will have the necessary knowledge to select, establish, and administrate small agro-enterprises able to serve the members’ needs and support the WUU’s financial resources. 2. Topic: Feasibility study for small agro-enterprises Expected Output: Trainees will learn how simple micro agro-enterprise feasibility studies can be prepared and applied. 3. Topic: Group work: case study on preparing a feasibility study for a specific agro-enterprise Expected Output: The trainees will be able to prepare a feasibility study for a specific subject including: data collection, technical and financial analysis, and an evaluation of its merit. Trainees are divided into groups (4-5 members each). Each group selects a small agro-enterprise to work on. Feasibility studies are then reviewed, discussed, and evaluated. Module 7 (advanced): Financial promotion of the WUUs
Course background: Water users unions usually lack funds to begin and run their own development activities, and also lack adequate organisational, administrative skills to apply for a loan / grant. The current possibilities for financing agroenterprises in the Bustan area give farmers few chances. WUU financial resources are mainly generated from the annual or seasonal fee recovery; however, they do not suffice to set up sound income generating activities. In addition, the farmers’ legal status in the new reclaimed lands does not enable them to collectively borrow funds for small agro-enterprises. Course objectives: Trainees will be able to effectively contribute to increasing the WUU’s financial capacity and mobilize and manage resources. Emphasis will be put on seeking access to credit providers and carrying out the institutional procedures needed to apply for loans and/or grants. Course contents: 1. Topic: WUUs and credit possibilities Expected Output: Trainees will know about the different kinds of credit, advantages of group credit, and how to calculate the interest rates and cost recovery. 2. Topic: Case study – Social Fund for Development (SFD): ‘Small Enterprise Development Organisation (SFDO)’ Expected Output: Trainees will be provided with relevant information about possible fields of cooperation with the SFDO project, lending conditions, required collaterals, interest rates, and repayment schemes. 3. Topic: Case study - the Multi-Sector Support Program (MSSP) / Principle Bank for Development and Agricultural Credit (PBDAC) Expected Output: Trainees will receive the necessary information about possible fields of credit, credit conditions, services provided in line with loans, application procedures and repayment schemes.
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3.2.4.2 Training Curricula for Ordinary Members
Course background: Thanks to the newly established WUUs in the Bustan area, farmers play their role as major stakeholders in the operation and maintenance of the tertiary irrigation canals, “Mesquas”. But the concept of irrigation water management is larger than this. Farmers still need information on how to increase profitability per water unit, which is expected from optimum water management. This course encompasses both technical issues of distributing water and cleaning Mesquas, and management tasks, such as water allocation planning, optimum use of water, mobilisation of resources, management of modern irrigation systems and troubleshooting. This training program consists of two modules, Module 1 concerning basic irrigation principles, and Module 2 concerning irrigation equipment and water applications. Course objectives: Trainees will be able to: understand the concept of water management, take over the responsibility for optimum use of modern irrigation methods and fair distribution of water among WUU members (according to the actual discharges at the head of the main canal), and optimize and rationalize the use of water in their fields. Participants’ profile: The course has been designed for all WUU members, whether they are small farmers or graduates. Program outline: The program consists of two training Modules of 3 days each. Module 1: Principles of Irrigation
1. Topic: Soil – Water – Plant Relationship Soil – Water – Plant Relationship concepts, different types of soils and the classification of Bustan soils, and the importance of water requirements for main crops in the Bustan area. Expected Output: The trainees will be able to recognize their soils (sandy – clay – silt) and the water requirements for the main crops they grow. 2. Topic: Water quality and drought effect on plant growth The effect of water quality on the soil and crops, how plants use water, how the plants interact with soil and atmosphere to obtain water, and how to avoid the effects of drought on plant growth. Expected Output: The trainees will become familiar with the concepts and parameters required to assess water quality under various conditions, and be able to recognize drought effects on plant growth. 3. Topic: Operation, maintenance, and evaluation of modern irrigation systems Adjusting modern irrigation systems according to plant needs, factors affecting the efficiency of on-farm systems and how to recognize them in the field, irrigation system maintenance (pipeline, fittings, sprinklers/drippers, fertigation devices, and electric pumps), and importance of irrigation rotation. Expected Output: The trainees will be able to recognize the main factors affecting irrigation rotation and carry out regular irrigation system O&M (replacement of fittings, adjustment of sprinklers or drippers, and cleaning BADP User Manual
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of filters). They will also be able to handle all problems encountered during the irrigation period, and apply irrigation rotation for better water management. Module 2: Modern Irrigation Management
1. Topic: Improvement of modern irrigation systems (Drip – Sprinkler) Types of pressurized irrigation systems, main components of sprinkler and drip irrigation systems, distribution uniformity of irrigation water, and improving the present situation to upgrade irrigation efficiency. Expected Output: The trainees will be able to recognize the main components of sprinkler and drip irrigation systems, understand how to gain uniform water distribution and know how to improve irrigation efficiency. 2. Topic: Calculation of water requirements and fertigation and chemigation The amount and timing of irrigation in relation to several factors (crop, soil, climate, etc.), methods of estimating crop water requirements, chemigation and fertigation methods (types of equipment and operation), suitable and balanced forms of fertilizers needed for the area’s main crops, and how to avoid clogging problems. Expected Output: The trainees will be able to estimate the crop water requirements and know chemigation and fertigation devices. They will recognize the suitable fertilizers in balanced forms needed for crops in addition to appropriate methods for avoiding clogging problems. 3. Topic: Irrigation water scheduling Suitable time for irrigation, efficient use of irrigation water, methods of irrigation scheduling, applying the water requirement schedule and its importance. Expected Output: The trainees will be able to determine when to irrigate and how much water to apply for each different crop. 3.2.4.3 Training Curricula for Irrigation Technical Committees
Introduction: Responsible farmers with irrigation experience are in charge of operations and regular maintenance of the irrigation equipment, dealing with minor repairs, and primary maintenance operations in order to maximize the system’s efficiency. This leads to an optimisation of water efficiency and equal water distribution among farmers sharing the same source. This training course introduces basic irrigation system O&M information for the farmers. Program objectives: The training program deals with the principles and practices of maintaining and operating irrigation equipment. After this course participants will also be able to give informed advice to other WUU members. Output indicators: The program should broaden the knowledge and guide the planning activities of the technical committees responsible for the irrigation system’s operation and maintenance. Courses deal with the following main topics: regular irrigation system maintenance procedures (pump – motor – electrical board - on-farm systems) and the capability to overcome malfunction situations and troubleshooting. BADP User Manual
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Program outline: The program consists of 2 four-day training courses: Module 3: Technical aspects of O&M for irrigation pumping units and on-farm irrigation systems. Module 4: Mechanical and electrical principles for O&M of pumping stations. Trainees: Module 3 trainees are selected from WUUs on the basis of one farmer per pumping unit, i.e. 12 farmers/ WUU. Module 4 trainees are selected on the basis of two farmers per WUU. Expected outputs: Trainees will have a better understanding of pumping unit components and functions (pump – motor – electric board) and of the security precautions required to avoid major problems and hazards. They will be able to perform regular maintenance operations according to schedule (changing the packing - water proof seal, checking the alignment between the motor and the pump, priming procedures before starting pump operation, and how to handle the electrical board safely). They will operate the pumps at the right pressure and be able to identify the most common problems thus increasing their troubleshooting capacity. The trainees will learn how to carry out the basic maintenance of the drip and sprinkler irrigation systems, install spare parts properly, and evaluate the performances of their equipment. 3.2.4.4 Training Curricula for Technical Committees
Background: WUU members are divided into four technical committees according to the farmers’ preferences, experience, and interests. The four committees’ composition is determined during a general meeting of the WUU. Members of each committee must be provided with vocational training in order to be able play the role of informal extension agents in their specific field of expertise. Such an internal repartition of technical expertise within each WUU aims at enhancing training efficiency and reducing training costs/inputs, as well as promoting the exchange of information among water users. As a result of enhanced communication and cooperation between the members, internal coherency will be strengthened and the WUUs are expected to develop into self-reliant, multipurpose, organisations. Training curricula: TC members are provided with the following training modules: 1. Fruit trees committee: 2 three-day modules on growing fruit trees (basic and advanced) 2. Vegetable committee: 2 three-day modules on growing vegetables (basic and advanced) 3. Marketing committee: 2 three-day modules on marketing (basic and advanced) 4. Livestock committee: 4 modules on animal husbandry provided by a specialised training centre, as follows: a) Module 1: Animal Nutrition – 3 days. Objective: upgrade the trainees’ knowledge and skills on proper animal nutrition by providing technical information on the nutritive value of agricultural by-products, ways to increase nutritional value, and principles of animal feeding. b) Module 2: Dairy Animal Husbandry – 5 days. Objective: improve the trainees’ management capacity by providing technical information on different breeds, milking machines, animal selection, reproduction, and reproductive diseases.
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c) Module 3: Animal Reproduction and Vet Care – 5 days. Objective: improve the trainees’ management capacity by providing technical information on the most common diseases and health problems, vaccinations, hoof care and treatment, effects of artificial insemination on animal production, and relationships between feeding and reproduction. d) Module 4: Hoof Care and Artificial Insemination – 5 days. Objective: upgrade the trainees’ knowledge / skills on hoof care and artificial insemination by providing technical information on proper hoof management and the principles of artificial insemination. Curricula: Improving the production practices for fruit trees
Basic course: Lecture Topic: Lecture Topic: Lecture Topic: Advanced course: Lecture Topic: Lecture Topic: Lecture Topic:
Orchard establishment Post plantation operations Weed, disease, and insect control for fruit trees Mango growing in the Bustan area Apple growing in the Bustan area Grape growing in the Bustan area
Curricula: Improving the production practices for vegetable crops
Basic course: Lecture Topic: Getting started in vegetable farming Lecture Topic: Post-cultivation operations o Irrigation management for main vegetable crops o Harvesting and maturity indicators Lecture Topic: Vegetable crop pest control Advanced course: Lecture Topic: Protected agriculture Lecture Topic: Integrated pest management (IPM) for field vegetable crops Practical training: Exposure visit Curricula: Improving the marketing of fruit and vegetable crops
Basic course: Lecture Topic: Principles of marketing, commercial channels and organisations Lecture Topic: Sales methods and market prices Lecture Topic: Fruit and vegetable handling Advanced course: Lecture Topic: Agriculture cooperative marketing Practical training: Exposure visit to a post-harvest treatment unit Practical training: Exposure visit to one of the leading export companies Curricula: Improving animal husbandry practices
Module 1 - Animal Nutrition: Lecture Topic: Basics of animal nutrition Lecture Topic: Nutritional diseases
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Lecture Topic: Formulation of rations Module 2 – Dairy Animal Husbandry: Lecture Topic: Clean milk production and farm management Lecture Topic: Dairy animal health and vet care Lecture Topic: Artificial insemination Lecture Topic: Farm visit Lecture Topic: Farm economics Module 3 – Animal Reproduction and Vet Care: Lecture Topic: Animal reproduction Lecture Topic: Practical training on different types of rearing Lecture Topic: Practical training on insemination Lecture Topic: Vet care Lecture Topic: Reproductive diseases Module 4 – Hoof Care and Artificial Insemination: a) Hoof Care: Lecture Topic: Importance of taking care of animal hooves Lecture Topic: Methods applied for hoof cuts Lecture Topic: Practical training on hoof cutting Lecture Topic: First aid practices for animal hooves Lecture Topic: Animal housing in relation to hoof care b) Artificial Insemination: Lecture Topic: Artificial insemination and its importance Lecture Topic: Collecting and testing semen Lecture Topic: Female reproductive system Lecture Topic: Care of mothers during and after birthing Lecture Topic: Improving reproduction performance(s) 3.2.5
Informational Materials
Title
Date
Location Code
Place
Water Users Unions at the New Lands (pamphlet)
Dec. 1999
23
BADP
Poster on WUUs
Dec. 1999
26
BADP
The General Assembly of WUU (pamphlet)
Dec. 1999
27
BADP
3.2.6
Monitoring
3.2.6.1 Objectives and Principles
The objectives of a WUU monitoring system are: To enable the supervisors to monitor the WUUs according to operational criteria (see table further on) in order to improve their performances progressively through corrective actions. To determine and assess the effects achieved through participatory irrigation management. To develop specific standards and targets for such organisations in the new lands.
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The features of such a monitoring system are based on feasible and easy to apply objectively verifiable indicators, consistent with the experience gained by the project with the WUUs. Indicators are calculated from easy to measure and inexpensive parameters through internal data recording at the WUU level and, to some extent, through external monitoring. 3.2.6.1 Methodology and Tools
3.2.6.1.1
WUU Targets and Activities
Performance indicators must be specified for the activities and related targets the project sets for the water users unions. Since the BADP has sustained the idea of establishing multi-purpose WUUs, four areas of activity have to be considered: hydraulics, agriculture, sociology, and finances. Within these domains, here is a list of operational activities: A - Hydraulics: Irrigation and water management to optimize water consumption and increase irrigation efficiency: 1.
Water is fairly distributed (in quantity and time) amongst the WUU members along the tertiary canal.
2.
Water is fairly distributed amongst each group of four farmers sharing a pumping unit.
3.
Tertiary canals are kept in good operational condition.
4.
On-farm irrigation equipment (sprinkler, drip systems, and pumping unit) is kept in good operational condition.
5.
The irrigation rate complies with the crop water requirements.
B - Agriculture: Agricultural development to maximize the benefit / cost ratio of products from irrigated agriculture and raise the WUU members’ incomes: 1.
Water use is optimised and recommended farming practices and agricultural inputs are applied in due time / amounts.
2.
Agricultural inputs are available to WUU members in due amount, time, and at the lowest price.
3.
A marketing-oriented strategy is applied to production and commercialisation.
C - Sociology: Sociological principles are applied to abandon individualism, enhance cohesion and mutual cooperation among WUU members, and comply with the decisions of the general assembly: 1.
Board members and technical committees play their statutory role.
2.
Members are interested in good WUU management.
3.
Responsibility for decisions is shared (regular board meetings and/or general assemblies).
4.
Internal problems and/or conflicts are solved.
5.
Internal regulations are enforced.
6.
Gender-related aspects are considered in the development of WUUs.
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D - Finance: Activities to increase the WUU’s financial capacity and to make the WUUs self-reliant and sustainable: 1.
Members’ financial contributions are collected according to the internal regulations.
2.
Bargaining power is increased through collective commercial contracts.
3.
Collective enterprises are set up.
3.2.6.2.2
Operational Targets to be Monitored
Based on the above list, here are ten operational goals relevant for the initial monitoring of WUU performances. Their relevancy for monitoring purposes is confirmed by the assumptions listed in column 3.
Ref. #
Activities / goals
Hypothesised linkages / relationships
A.1
Water fairly distributed (quantity, time) amongst the WUU members along the tertiary canal.
Members’ technical ability and willingness to undertake collective management of irrigation water.
A.3
Tertiary canals / pipes are kept in good operational condition.
Sense of ownership of the irrigation equipment and spirit of cooperation amongst members.
B.1
Water use optimisation, application of recommended farming practices and agricultural inputs.
Indicates an extensive application of appropriate farming practices, water management, and technical packages proposed by the project, hence the effectiveness of training and extension.
B.3
Application of a marketing-oriented strategy.
Seasonal planning for production, procurement of inputs, and collective commercialisation is a WUUs’ strategic choice towards increased revenues.
C.1
Board members and technical committees play their statutory role.
Elected members have the ability and are eager to work for the organisation.
C.2
Members fully involved in WUU’s management.
Interest in the WUU; members are aware about potential benefits and advantages of such organisations.
C.3
Sharing of responsibility for decisions according to members’ category.
Clear understanding of members’ roles, and members’ involvement in the decision making process.
C.6
Encouragement of female farmers’ participation in the development of WUUs.
Members’ awareness of the importance of sharing benefits with all categories of stakeholders.
D.1
Members’ financial contributions / subscriptions are collected in compliance
High degree of trust accorded to both the elected board of directors and the WUU
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D.3
with the internal regulations.
itself.
WUU’s financial position is progressively consolidated over time.
Proper financial management and WUU capacity in setting up / managing collective enterprises or activities.
3.2.6.2.3
Monitoring Indicators
Monitoring the WUU’s operational capacity is based upon 15 internal process indicators, which relate performance to various operational targets. Through cross-WUU comparisons, standards and operational targets may also be developed in the future, and quantified if applicable. The overall economical and financial results from the water users’ participatory irrigated agriculture can be evaluated by comparing this system with control areas (Mesquas not operated by WUUs). For this purpose we refer to two external indicators, which take into account the main system output, i.e. production, and its relation to the inputs (land and water) and prices. The proposed indicators and their characteristics are summarized as follows: Assessment criteria
Expected achievements
Process indicators (internal)
Performance indicators (external)
WUUs’ technical performances
Water fairly distributed along the tertiary canal.
1. Amount of water delivered by the pumping units along the Mesqua.
I. Productivity (ton) and net returns (LE) per unit command area (Feddans).
2. Seasonal rate of cropped area per pumping unit and per Mesqua. Tertiary canals / pipes kept in good operational conditions.
3. How often the Mesqua is cleaned during the year. 4. Physical status of the Mesqua.
Water use optimised and recommended farming practices / technical packages applied.
5. WUUs’ average yields obtained from a set of key crops.
A marketing-oriented strategy is applied.
6. Setting WUUs’ seasonal cropping plans.
WUUs Board members and organisational technical committees management play their role.
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8. Execution rate of planned tasks over time.
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II. Productivity (ton) and net returns (LE) per unit volume of water
Members fully involved in WUUs’ management.
9. Users’ participation rate in General Elections.
Sharing responsibility of decisions, according to members’ category.
10. Number of board meetings and attendance rate.
(m³) supplied.
11. Number of gen. assemblies (GA) and attendance rate. Encourage participation of female farmers in the development of WUUs. WUU’s financial position is progressively consolidated over time.
12. Attendance rate of female members at the general meetings. 13. Annual fees collected vs. theoretical ones. 14. Balance sheets show positive financial position. 15. WUU’s capital (fixed assets + bank + cash) progressively increased over time.
Some expected achievements or targets cannot be measured directly, so indirect or proxy indicators must be used. 3.2.6.2.4
Determining the Indicators
Internal Process Indicators: 1.
Water fairly distributed along the tertiary canal: a) Amount of water delivered by each pumping unit along the Mesquas: One can assume that under optimum operating conditions the quantities of water pumped from the different units along the tertiary canals, in particular at the head and tail, are equivalent or slightly different, unless significant variations are justified by the cropping patterns. This indicator can be measured through the variation coefficient of the seasonal quantities of water delivered from the pumping units (VCQ), along the Mesqua: VCQ = s x 100 / Q Q = average quantity of water delivered by the pumping units s = standard deviation of Q along the Mesqua b) Seasonal rate of cropped area per pumping unit and Mesqua canal / pipe: One can assume that under optimum water management the entire command area is under cultivation. This parameter can also help explain differences in water delivery along the Mesqua, if any. RCA (unit) = cropped area per pumping unit (Fed) / pumping unit command area (Fed)
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The seasonal rate of cropped area will also be calculated for the Mesqua, in order to have an overall indicator for the WUU. RCA = Σ (cropped area per unit) / Mesqua command area 2.
Tertiary canals / pipes kept in good operational condition:
Farmers bear the responsibility for keeping the collective tertiary level irrigation facilities fully operational. This task includes both regular maintenance and extraordinary rehabilitation works. It is assumed that farmers organised in a WUU can undertake this activity better than individual non-organised farmers, especially when external enterprises are involved to carry out extraordinary works. Usually, cleaning canals and/or pipes shall be carried out on a routine basis, twice a year. Two indicators are proposed to assess the WUU’s capacity and ability to carry out this basic collective task: Number of interventions to clean the tertiary canal / pipe per year Physical / operational status of the Mesqua Data from the WUU record book and a visual appraisal of the physical status of the Mesqua at the beginning of each main season (winter and summer) will be used for evaluation. 3.
Water use optimised and recommended farming practices/ technical packages applied:
Farmers’ ability, good irrigation management, appropriate agricultural inputs (quantity, quality, time of application), and farming practices, all contribute to raising crop yields. Primary data from the project’s demonstration plots indicates that an increase in yield, ranging from 30 to 150% depending on the crops, can be expected by applying the recommended technical packages. Assuming that agricultural inputs, including water, are available, crop yields can be considered as indirect indicators of the adoption rate of technical packages disseminated by the project and the effectiveness of training activities in upgrading water users’ technical skills. One can calculate the average yield (ton/Fed) obtained from a number of key-crops, along each WUU-operated Mesqua. Significant crop response to improved farming practices, in addition to relatively high dissemination in the Bustan area, has been taken into account to determine the crops which best fit the monitoring activity. Accordingly, seven key-crops are presented for evaluation purposes: Subsistence field crops Wheat Faba Bean Maize Groundnut
Vegetables
Fruit crops
Fodder crops
Potato
Citrus
Clover
Tomato
Grape
Average yield (ton / Fed) = Σ gross production / field area / n. of fields along the Mesqua
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4.
A marketing-oriented strategy is applied:
WUUs which have attained a high organisational level and technical capacity, as well as internal cohesion, are expected to plan their production as a function of market opportunities, establish collective contracts with wholesalers or exporters, and acquire the needed agricultural inputs collectively. This leads to the identification of suitable outlets for products, an increase in farm-gate prices, a decrease in the cost of agricultural inputs, and, ultimately, an increase in the water users’ net revenues. Such a capacity is assessed by means of two indicators: Setting WUUs’ seasonal cropping plans Rate of production sold and inputs procured collectively Both indicators will be monitored through WUU documents. In particular the last item is quantified as a percentage of the WUU’s production sold and inputs consumed per campaign. 5.
Board members and technical committees play their role:
WUU boards are expected to prepare the monthly operation plans and report on the results and problems encountered / solved. The comparison between planned statutory tasks vs. executed tasks can be monitored through the WUU’s record book. Complementary qualitative information on the role played by both board members and technical committees, and the degree of trust given to them, will be gathered by interviewing 6 to 10 % of farmers from each WUU (random sampling). 6.
Members fully involved in the WUUs’ management:
The water users’ attendance rate at the general elections can be considered as a proxy indicator of the attention paid by members to the WUUs’ management, and, ultimately, users’ interest in the water union. The participation rate will be calculated as: number of voters x 100 / number of members entitled to vote. This percentage refers to the first valid meeting for elections. 7.
Responsibility for decisions is shared, according to a member’s category:
The board of directors shall meet at least once a month, while the GA shall be convened at least once a year. The number of meetings and the average attendance rate over time will be calculated for both. The minutes of the meetings will serve as source of data. The average attendance rate for both board meetings and general meetings will be compared to the theoretical one, based upon actual WUU membership. Average attendance rate = Σ n meetings (number participants / invited members) x 100 / n meetings 8.
Participation of female farmers in the development of WUUs is encouraged:
All categories of farmers, particularly female farmers, shall be fully involved in the decision-making process, so their participation at the general meetings should be encouraged. The average attendance of female members at the WUUs’ general meetings shall be compared to the theoretical one, which corresponds to WUUs’ female membership.
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Average attendance rate = Σ n meetings (female attendance / WUU female members) x 100 / n meetings 9.
WUU’s financial position is progressively improved over time:
By law the WUU’s financial contributions shall include the following: Annual fees paid by members in proportion to land possession, in the value determined by the general assembly (internal regulations). Subscriptions collected from each member to pay the costs of irrigation, O&M of the collective pumps, or exceptional repairs / maintenance of the tertiary canals / pipes. Interests of deposits in the bank. Any donation or grant (internal or external). As the payment of fees is an obligation for users, the annual amounts actually collected should be compared to the expected amount: Financial contribution rate = Σ (annual fees actually paid) * 100 / (annual fee / Feddan) * total WUU area Financial capacity is one of the main factors of a WUU’s long-term viability. Only self-reliant organisations will continue to operate effectively and deliver services to their members. Transparency and accountability to their members are also important factors of sustainability. Handling bookkeeping of collective revenues and expenses is on the board of directors’ mandate and balance sheets must be regularly submitted to the general assembly for approval. The financial position, as well as the board’s transparency and capacity to handle bookkeeping, will be monitored through the WUUs’ balance sheets. Evaluation of the WUUs’ capital over time is a more complete indicator, which also takes into account the investments undertaken by the unions (fixed assets + bank + cash). Performance Indicators: External performance indicators aim at assessing the outputs from the water users’ participatory irrigation management system. These indicators suit cross-system comparisons (WUU-operated Mesquas vs. control areas), as well as cross-WUU comparison. Hence, the relative comparison of values allows the evaluation of how well one system or WUU is performing in relation to others. In particular, the cross-system comparison will allow the quantification of benefits achievable through WUU irrigation / farm management, while cross-WUU comparison will allow the preparation of a water users’ performance classification, in relation to two major inputs (water and land)1. Thus, two performance indicators should be adopted: Output per unit command = Productivity or Net return / Command area (EGP / Feddan) Output per unit irrigation supply = Productivity or Net return / unit volume of water supplied (EGP/m³)
1
Both inputs are constraining resources: water is the main limiting factor under arid conditions; land in Bustan area has been allocated and distributed to small farmers and graduates on the basis 2.5 to 5 Feddans standard holdings.
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These indicators are commonly adopted for monitoring and evaluation purposes in irrigated agricultural systems. They measure the productivity (or output) per unit of irrigated land and the productivity per unit of irrigation water supplied (i.e. the two major inputs) and can be determined crop by crop or globally for a given growing season. 3.2.7
Standard Logbooks
The BADP has provided each WUU with a set of standard books for keeping records on data and activities, as specified in the following table: No.
Items / description
1
Expense and revenue book
2
Book for management board minutes
3
Book for general assembly minutes
4
Book for members’ subscriptions
5
Book for technical committees’ affairs
6
Book for bank account
7
Book for WUU activities
8
Book for store records
3.4 SCHEDULES FOR IMPLEMENTATION
Based upon the BADP pilot experience the entire process of establishing and building the operational capacity of a WUU takes up to two years, as detailed in the timeframe as follows: Activities
1st semester
2nd semester
3rd semester
4th semester
Eval. and information 1st G.A. and elections Registration Training BM Training members Capacity building
This time schedule refers to a cluster of 4 to 6 WUUs being established simultaneously, so as to optimise the resources / inputs provided by the project. BADP User Manual
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3.5 BUDGET / UNIT COSTS
Based upon the BADP’s experience, the budget needed to establish and sustain a standard 48 member WUU until it reaches full capacity amounts to approximately 75 500 L.E., broken down as follows: Activities
Cost EGP
From assessment up to registration
4 500
Seed money (grant)
2 000
Remarks Meetings, visits, elections, I.R.
Train Board Members
13 500
Train ordinary members
14 500 Irrigation and water management
Train members of Technical committees
32 400
Provision of standard logbooks
7 modules totalling 21 days
Fruit, Vegetables, Livestock, and Marketing
100
Capacity building
8 500
TOTAL
At least 8 animation meetings for BM and members
75 500
3.6 USEFUL CONTACTS
No.
Authorities, Institutions, Projects
Location / Address
1
Nubariya Department of Agriculture
Nubariya City
2
Development Support communication Centre C/o Int. Centre for (DSCC) Development – Mariut
Training
and
Alex. – Cairo Desert Road Km 33 3
Development and cooperative Training Project in C/o Int. Centre for the New Lands (DCTP) Development – Mariut
Training
and
Alex. – Cairo Desert Road Km 33 4
West Nubariya Rural Development Project Beside Int. Centre for Training and (WNRDP) Development – Mariut Alex. – Cairo Desert Road Km 33
5
General Management of El-Nasr Drainage
Nubariya City
6
Irrigation Advisory Service (IAS)
Water Advisory Dept. – Damanhour
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7
Water Boards Project (WBP)
c/o Ministry of Water Resources and Irrigation Corniche El Nil – Imbaba (Cairo)
8
Alexandria Association for Home Economics c/o Faculty of Agriculture – El-Shatby (AAHE) (Alexandria)
9
Principal Bank for Development and Agric. Nubariya City (main branch) Credit (PBDAC)
10
NGOs’ Service Centre
11
Regional Federation of NGOs in El Beheira 26, El-Maqrizi St. Shubra - Damanhour Governorate
12
Social Fund for Development Project (SFDP)
13
Social Affairs Governorate
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Directorate
38, El-Gaish St. - Damanhour
El-Beheira Abdel salam El-Shazly St. - Damanhour
90
4
AGRICULTURE AND LIVESTOCK
4.1 INTRODUCTION
Transferring technology to small farmers is a vehicle for national economic development where agriculture is a pivotal element of its implementation. Extension efforts lead to an increase in farmers’ incomes and contribution to the national economy. Low-income farmers represent a large proportion of rural households in the new reclaimed lands and require immediate attention. The current formal extension service is ostensibly expected to offer a broad range of extension programs to the entire farming population. In reality, this extension service has inadequate resources and cannot effectively reach all groups or provide them with useful programs. Providing better agricultural extension requires the development, improvement, and expansion of agricultural performance services. A successful extension service is based on two elements: human resource development and technology transfer. These two elements are basic building blocks for agricultural development and there can be little improvement in one area without improvement in the other. 4.1.1
Problems
Typical problems usually detected on new reclaimed lands: 1.
Lack of necessary skills and reliable information amongst farmers and graduates on appropriate agronomic practices, crop water requirements, and irrigation management fundamentals.
2.
Particularly low crop yields. Land even goes out of production in parts where the water table is very high.
3.
Lack of proper extension support because the extension service’s level of intensity and coverage is restrained by a lack of resources and skilled extension agents.
4.
Absence of field level trials for new technologies.
5.
Lack of informational materials and feedback between the farmers and the research agencies.
6.
No formal training provided for new farmers prior to their settlement and no continued support by well-trained and effective extension service.
7.
Farmers’ limited financial resources.
8.
Unfavourable procurement conditions for agricultural inputs and marketing of agricultural products which affects the small holdings’ economic performance.
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Figure 31: Agricultural Production Problems Tree Low farm income
Ineffective extension services
Top-down approach for extension programs
4.1.2
Poor dissemination of extension services
Farmers not involved in extension activities
No coordination between research and extension services
Improper integrated farm management
Low skills in agricultural and livestock production
Appropriate cropping patterns not applied
Objectives
Solutions to the above-mentioned problems can be divided into four main objectives: 1.
Promote the extension service a) Regularly carry out farmers’ needs assessments. b) Facilitate the link between farmers and agricultural research.
2.
Enhance the extension service’s effectiveness by using different extension aids a) Produce / update training support materials. b) Produce extension publications based on practical experience.
3.
Enhance the extension role of the WUU technical committees and of the contact farmers a) Strengthen the network of contact farmers focusing on their role as informal extension agents. b) Upgrade farmers’ technical skills.
4.
Disseminate recommended agricultural practices and appropriate cropping patterns a) Establish and run small demonstration plots. b) Assess the feasibility of irrigated cropping patterns with contact farmers. c) Establish, run, and monitor, selected irrigated cropping patterns.
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Figure 32: Agricultural Production Objectives Tree Farmers’ income increased
Extension service kept effective
Farmers’ needs assessed regularly
Extension recommendations disseminated effectively
Extension role of farmers promoted
Links between research services and farmers facilitated
Recommended practices and crop. patt. disseminated to small holders
Farmers’ skills upgraded
Recommended cropping patterns disseminated
4.2 AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION 4.2.1
Specific Strategy
4.2.1.1 Main Problems
The most important problems of the area’s agricultural production are summarized as follows: 1. Use of traditional agricultural methods unsuitable for the new lands such as: extensive application of fertilizers, pesticides, and irrigation water. 2. High production costs due to the irrational use of agricultural inputs and/or the application of traditional farming practices. The main reason the advanced farming practices are not adopted is that most of the farmers come from the old lands (Nile Valley) where the soil is characterized by a heavy texture and depends on flood irrigation. Traditional farmers lack adequate experience and training to deal with light sandy soil. More specifically, the problems are: 1.
Low productivity of the main crops such as wheat, beans, maize, potatoes and tomatoes.
2.
Farmers’ lack of information and skills about agricultural practices suitable for the new lands, such as: cultivation methods (soil preparation, seeding rate, spacing, etc.), fertigation, irrigation scheduling, and harvest and post-harvest operations.
3.
Use of uncertified seeds/ seedlings.
4.
Limited use of integrated plant protection techniques.
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5.
Extensive use of chemicals which results in soil pollution.
6.
Lack of pruning and trimming skills for fruit trees.
7.
Unavailability of green fodder during the summer.
8.
Appropriate cropping patterns/rotations not applied.
9.
Limited farmers’ experience/knowledge of marketing.
10.
Collective marketing facilities not available.
11.
No coordination between research and extension services.
4.3.1.2 Specific Objectives and Recommendations
1.
Priority given to WUU members when implementing the extension programs in order to avoid scattering efforts.
2.
The extension program solves/meets real needs and problems faced by the farmers. Therefore, beneficiaries and other concerned local authorities must be involved in all program phases (identification, planning, execution, and impact assessment).
3.
Enhancement of the extension service’s role so that it can disseminate various farming practices appropriate for the new lands (planting, irrigation, plant nutrition, plant protection, mechanization, etc.) through training courses, field/harvest days, extension meetings, and visits.
4.
Efficient use of communication in order to allow the extension’s recommendations to reach a large number of farmers.
5.
Selection, organisation, and training of a group of contact farmers and WUU technical committees so that they can help the agricultural extension staff disseminate the extension’s recommendations and use their farms as focal demonstration locations.
6.
Provision (upon request) of technical advice for the farmers.
7.
Introduction of improved agronomic practices and economically viable cropping patterns.
4.2.2
Methodology and Tools
4.2.2.1 Specific Methodology
The activities of an agricultural extension service depend on a clear strategy based on a participatory approach and aim to meet farmers’ needs according to their priorities. The two elements should jointly set and design programs to solve the farmers’ problems. 1. Collection of basic information: a)
Baseline survey: This is a necessary step at the beginning of the project in order to be able to assess the real situation and define the farmers’ needs and problems. The survey focuses on the project area’s socio-economic issues, such as: family issues, social problems, family and farm incomes; and technical agricultural aspects, such as: main agricultural crops, average productivity,
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livestock activities and performance, and dominant agricultural practices in the area; as well as the technical problems that hinder agricultural production. b)
Secondary resources: Additional formal data and statistics from relevant local authorities (agricultural development administrations, agriculture directory, irrigation and drainage authorities) are required. The data may address the following aspects: different categories of beneficiaries’ holdings, dominant irrigation systems and rotations, principal types of crops and corresponding areas, average crop productivity, common cropping rotations, crop diversity among villages, and marketing facilities.
2. Informational and awareness-raising meetings: A series of meetings aiming to inform the farmers of the project’s general and specific objectives and the expected results of these objectives should be organised. Such meetings help assemble farmers’ opinions on the types of activities, extension methods, and techniques to be presented, as well as their expectations of the project. As the project area includes Bustan and West Nubariya /East Road, these meetings must take place in villages located in each sub-area in order to assess their specific needs and problems. This enables the agricultural extension service to participate in problem solving through the proper approach and rationale. 3. Extension work: a)
Defining and prioritizing farmers’ problems/needs: Before beginning the extension work, the extension team, together with the local leaders, must define the needs/problems requiring immediate action. They may prioritize them according to the following criteria: Problems affecting a large number of farmers. Problems directly affecting family income. Problems with a direct effect on the rationalisation of irrigation water use or problems creating drainage issues. Knowledge that contributes to decreasing agricultural production costs. Problems related to the agricultural technical practices directly applied by the farmer on his land.
b)
Choosing solutions and putting them into action: The extension team suggests solutions to the problems and takes appropriate action through one or more extension method(s) : Implementation of demonstration plots and cropping patterns. Scheduling of field / harvest days for demonstrating either the recommended farming practices or the obtained yield. Organisation of regular visits to model farms, pioneer agricultural companies, or research stations. Organisation of periodic extension meetings in the villages. Organisation of visits from specialists in order to solve certain specific technical problems, which a large number of farmers suffer from and upon their request. Preparation of training programs to promote farmer’s skills and knowledge.
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4.2.2.2 Tools
4.2.2.2.1
Contact Farmers
Theses are typically farmers, selected according to certain criteria, who play a vital role in the success or failure of the extension work. Objective: Their farms are to be used as focal locations through which recommended extension packages could be introduced. In addition, contact farmers act as informal extension agents and help disseminate the extension’s recommendations to the neighbouring areas. Criteria for selection: Selecting a key producer is a major starting point for a successful extension demonstration. Here are some recommendations on how to select appropriate farmers: The farmer (graduate, small farmer) should live in his village full-time. Priority should be given to WUU members. The farmer should have sufficient experience of the farming practices. Contact farmers who volunteer are more likely to be enthusiastic and successful. The farmer should be ready to adopt new recommendations. The farmer must be respected in his community. He should have a good reputation and maintain a respectful social relationship with his neighbours. Otherwise the demonstration may not be believable. Whenever possible, farmers who are considered as being rural leaders should be selected. Contact farmers should represent the farmers the service is trying to reach. Selected contact farmers should be in need of help. The most successful demonstrations are conducted on farms where dramatic improvements can be witnessed. The farmer should not be reluctant to receive visitors and should enjoy the communication involved in briefing his colleagues on the recommendations and the results. 4.2.2.2.2
Demonstration Plots
Farmers often change their methods after observing demonstrations conducted by other farmers under ordinary farm conditions. On-farm demonstrations are one of the most effective extension education tools and use practice and observation (seeing is believing). Through demonstration plots, one can introduce a full range of processes for small- scale agricultural production. Objective: Demonstrations typically fall into two categories: result or method. 1.
Method demonstration: This illustrates the implementation of appropriate technologies, such as: use of different seed varieties, fertilizers, methods of planting and cultivation, application of possible ecological practices that minimize the need for synthetic inputs and maximize the use of available resources, and any other practices that fit the local set of conditions.
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2.
Result demonstration: This illustrates the results/conclusions of certain activities, such as: higher yield, decrease in pest infection, better fruit quality, etc.
Demonstrations are most effective when they deal with real problems and present solutions which are feasible, practical, and easy to apply. Criteria for selection: When establishing the demonstration plot, it is necessary to set certain criteria and standards. Here are some recommendations on how to select appropriate demonstration schemes: The demonstration topic must meet the farmers’ specific needs. It should be relevant and feasible so that some type of answer or result may be obtained. A contact farmer, meeting certain criteria, should be located. The demonstration should take place in an area accessible to the farmers who need the information it will provide. A typical soil type, with a known structure and nutrient content, should be selected. The soil must be free of any technical problems related to irrigation, drainage, weeds, diseases, etc. Implementation: With reference to the standards indicated above, and in coordination with the researcher responsible for the activity, the following procedures are followed: 1.
Definition of the demonstration scheme’s plan for the season:
Before the beginning of the agricultural season, the team defines the demonstration topic, i.e. the crops to be planted for the demonstration and the relevant methods to be used. Crops and corresponding practices are selected according to the information collected during the diagnostic activities (technical problems previously detected through formal / informal surveys, meetings or field observations by the extension agents). The information is used to design the on-farm demonstration, which may involve amending or developing certain farming practices, introducing new cash crops suitable for the area, etc. Once the outline is decided, the extension team defines the number of plots that will be cultivated for each crop. 2.
Establishment of an agreement with a technical consultant
A specialized technical consultant is hired to supervise the demonstration. The established agreement usually contains the following key points: a) Implementation time period. b) Responsibilities assigned in order to fulfil the objectives and reach the expected results at the end of the program. c) Expected number of visits / field days. d) Remuneration for each visit including means of transportation. e) Submission of a mid-term technical evaluation report and a final report after yield determination. 3.
Contact farmer selection:
A preliminary selection is made from a group of farmers who appear qualified to carry out the planned activities and have experience cultivating the proposed crops. The extension team will make the final choice in collaboration with the supervising
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consultant. They will then inspect the nominated locations and meet the holder, which leads to the final selection of the demonstration area. 4.
Control area selection:
In addition to the selected demonstration area, a traditional field with similar conditions is chosen as a control plot. The extension team observes the control plot and regularly records all technical and economic data. The collected information allows the researcher to compare the different farming practices used, yield obtained, and production costs for both plots. The consultant then analyses the data and interprets the results in his final report. 5.
Soil analysis for the selected demonstration fields:
Normally, a simple soil analysis (NPK, salinity, PH) is carried out by the project team using a special field kit, but, on occasion, more advanced soil analyses or nematode analyses are required for particular areas. For those cases, specialized labs are more qualified to carry out this task. When the technical report arrives, including recommendations, modifications are made in the proposed plant nutrition program. 6.
Establishment of an agreement with the contact farmer:
A written agreement is signed between the project extension service and the selected contact farmer in the presence of the technical consultant and the village engineer. The agreement develops the objectives of the demonstration and the obligations of both parties. Under this agreement, the farmer is requested to follow the given technical recommendations and add the required agricultural inputs. The extension team provides the technical assistance and presents, when required, agricultural inputs in kind. 7.
Measurement and adjustment of the irrigation networks’ efficiency:
The extension team, in collaboration with the irrigation engineer, detects the physical condition and efficiency of the current on-farm irrigation system (sprinkler or drip). If efficiency is found to be less than 70% for the sprinkler system, or less than 85% for the drip system, the cause of this inefficiency must be determined and a solution to repair / improve it must be found. The project may assist the farmer by providing some inputs. A system rectification efficiency test is then carried out before the fieldwork begins. 8.
Preparation of the demonstration inputs: a) Determination of the required quantity and quality of production inputs for the extension field. The project’s contribution to the demonstration is contingent on the recommended technical package (sometimes the package includes unfamiliar inputs or operations such as using phosphoric acid, trace elements, potassium, mechanical planting, etc.). b) Purchase of required inputs according to procurement procedures. c) Application of inputs according to the planned program and under direct supervision of the extension agent in charge.
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9.
Signs
The demonstration area should have a prominent sign in place at the time the demonstration is initiated. In addition, signs may be used to identify different treatments used within the plot. This is helpful for farmers and others who may informally stop by to view the area on their own time, as well as for any tour group visits the extension agent may organise. Appropriately sized extension signs should be put up in visible places. The signs should highlight the following: project name, executing agency, funding agency, agricultural season, crop type and variety, cultivation date, cultivated area, and the extension’s message. Demonstration area management: The following are the main activities to be carried out during the operational phase: 1.
Land Preparation: a) Soil is ploughed twice perpendicularly. b) Remaining weeds and residues from previous crop are removed. c) Manure is uniformly spread over the soil’s surface. d) Fertilizers are applied e) Components are incorporated into the surface, f) Seed bed is prepared, preferably mechanically.
2.
Cultivation: a) Crop cultivation date: This date is usually determined according to several issues such as: completion of land preparation, availability of irrigation water, and, sometimes, availability of the agricultural machinery required for certain operations. b) Preparation of seeds: When preparing seeds for cultivation, there are some considerations to be taken into account: Choosing a cultivar: If a new cultivar is to be used, the project may provide it. For common cultivars, the farmer will purchase it from certified sources. Treatment of seeds/seedlings: Some seeds and seedlings need presowing treatments such as: being cut into pieces (summer potatoes), inoculation with Rhizobium (legume seeds), fungicide treatment, pruning and trimming (fruit seedlings), etc. c) Sowing: The project extension agent organises a cultivation field day with the following participants: the contact farmer, neighbouring farmers, the research consultant, the project’s extension engineer, and the village engineer. The day is used to demonstrate the principal cultivation operations and precautions, such as: proper spacing, depth, irrigation, weed control, etc. d) Statement: At the end of the field day, an official statement is prepared confirming the plot’s cultivation. The statement includes the following information: farmer’s name, planting date, cultivated crop/variety, and cultivated area. The statement should be signed by all concerned parties.
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3.
Technical monitoring:
The technical consultant pays periodic visits to the demonstration area. His schedule is pre-determined and coordinated according to the crop’s growing phases. Before the visit, the project extension agent informs the contact farmer of the date for the visit and the contact farmer invites his neighbours to attend. The consultant, accompanied by the project extension agent, visits the field and carries out the field inspection. The consultant then presents his findings, highlights any negative practices to be avoided, and gives advice for the future. The contact farmer keeps a written record of the visit where the consultant jots down his remarks. In addition, the consultant records the minutes of his visit, with his remarks and recommendations, on a special report form. Based on the consultant’s recommendations, the concerned extension team will also pay regular visits to the demonstration area in order to monitor the crop’s development as well as the different agricultural practices. 4.
Regular field visits by extension staff
During their visits, the extension staff determines the presence of any disease or insect infection in order to handle it immediately in its early stages. They supervise the application of inputs according to the schedule and provide technical assistance when required (whether inputs are provided by the project or provided by the contact farmer). At the end of each visit, the engineer writes a report including notes on what has been done during the visit and the relevant recommendations.
Photo 8: Field visit
5.
Yield estimation
The monitoring visits continue until the crop reaches maturity. Shortly before the crop is harvested, an estimation of the yield is made during a field day. Samples are randomly taken from several spots in the demonstration area to determine the approximate yield. Samples are also taken from the control field. Minutes are recorded and signed by the contact farmer, the consultant, the village engineer, and the project extension agent. This initial determination is later compared with the actual yield after the crop is harvested. 6.
Farm records of extension units:
These aim to establish a registration system to record and monitor the different farming operations, types and amounts of applied inputs, irrigation, fertilisation and plant protection programs, yield obtained, and marketing information.
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7.
Preparation of the consultant’s technical report
The consultant writes the final report based on the collected data concerning different practices, problems encountered, and yield obtained. The report includes the following: a) An introduction (maximum 1 page) on the crop’s value, associated technical problems, and suggested strategies to address them. b) List of abbreviations. c) Applied methodology. d) Description and analysis of the technical results. e) Description and analysis of the economic results. f)
Comparison between the technical and economic results obtained from the demonstration fields and those obtained from the control fields with an interpretation of the variation.
g) Difficulties / problems encountered during implementation. h) Suggestions and recommendations (maximum 1 page). i)
Conclusions.
j)
Information sources (name, date of publication)
k) Annexes: all calculations and detailed information necessary for understanding the results l) 8.
List of participating contact farmers, location of the control fields and their corresponding cultivated areas.
Publicity
Publicity is an important influence on the success or failure of any demonstration. Publicity should begin during the planning phase and continue until all demonstrations are concluded. a) Preliminary notice: Let farmers and other local leaders know by means of extension meetings, field / office visits, or through the village engineer, that a demonstration is going to be conducted. b) Photographs: Take plenty of pictures, at all stages of the demonstration. Colour prints can be used for extension materials and reports, while colour slides are most useful in workshops or other extension meetings. c) Large meeting: Another effective way to publicize the demonstration’s results is to organise a large meeting during which information about applied treatments, encountered problems and ways to address them, and obtained yield, is made available to other farmers, local extension agents, and specialists. Distinguished farmers should be honoured at the end of the meeting. d) Printed materials: Extension pamphlets, leaflets, etc. are good mass media methods through which the project can disseminate the recommended technical information (suitable cultivar, field operations, irrigation and fertilization programs, integrated pest management, etc.) and show results and profitability to a large number of farmers.
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4.2.2.2.3
Field Days
Photo 9: Field day
The success of any demonstration scheme can only be measured by achieving optimum productivity and such productivity is just one indicator. However, the perfect outcome is achieved when the new agricultural practices are disseminated to a large number of farmers. A field day is one method of presenting these new ideas. The following are the main recommendation for a good field day: Timing: Field days are usually organised at strategic times during the crop’s development. The first field day usually takes place at cultivation, the second during the growth phase, and the third at harvest time: 1.
Cultivation: The first field day is used to demonstrate the recommended agricultural practices and draw the farmers’ attention to common mistakes and how to avoid them.
2.
Growth: The second field day is chosen to illustrate an important stage of the crop’s growth cycle. The contact farmer takes the opportunity to explain what he has done since planting the crop. The consultant comments on the farmers’ narration with special reference to the technical recommendations relevant to such agricultural methods. The consultant also takes the opportunity to give advice on the techniques required for the next stage.
3.
Harvest: A final field day is held during yield estimation. The farmer explains what he did during the season and how the crop’s performance has been affected by applying the new recommendations. The participant farmers go through the farm and everyone gives an approximate estimation of the yield based on their experience. The consultant, in cooperation with the project extension agent, explains the yield determination method. Then, the attendees collaborate in carrying out the yield evaluation on the spot. The consultant compares the yield estimation with the expected standard of the cultivar and, if there is a variation, the consultant will explain why.
Location: The extension fields are sporadically distributed in such a way that each crop is represented once per area. Thus, in one same season, each crop will be cultivated on three plots (one per area). Implementation: Field days are organised in a similar fashion as the monitoring visits. Implementation of the field days is carried out in the following sequence:
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1.
The project extension agent coordinates in advance with the consultant in order to define: the purpose of the field day, who is invited, the location of the demonstration, and the time of the demonstration.
2.
Notice is given to farmers and concerned local agencies. Farmers should be informed of the field day through announcements in different frequently visited places such as the cooperative, grocery, café, etc. Other relevant local agencies, such as the General Agricultural Administration and extension centres, are also notified so that they may send their representatives.
3.
The field day is conducted. The project extension agent and the consultant meet the farmers’ group on the demonstration land. The extension agent gives a briefing on the purpose of the field day and the contact farmer in charge explains what he has done during the previous period. He elaborates on the incorrect techniques he previously used and the positive impact of applying the recommendations in the current season. At this juncture, the consultant interferes to stress the technical recommendations, analyse the errors committed, and answer any questions. At the end of the day, the extension agent gives his conclusions.
4.
The field day’s main events are recorded. The extension engineer in charge writes a report to highlight the main points raised during the day, the farmers’ feedback, and the recommendations for improvement. The details of the field day are also documented through photographs and videos.
4.2.2.2.4
Specialist’s Visit
The specialist’s visit is an important extension means to respond to the farmers’ technical problems. Objective: Within the framework of the continuous communication between the project and the farmers (WUU members), the farmers present their technical problems to the project extension agent. The project extension unit classifies these problems, sets priorities according to the number of farmers affected by each issue, and investigates the situation. If the project extension team is not able to solve the problem, a specialist is contacted to visit the area and find a solution. The field where the problem is most visible is selected in order to have a good demonstration location. Implementation: The implementation of the specialist’s visit is carried out in the following sequence: 1.
Farmers and relevant local agencies are informed of the event.
2.
Farmers gather in the field where the visit will take place. The specialist inspects the problem on the spot, starts a dialogue with the concerned farmers, and reviews the different circumstances that lead to the issue. He then presents a feasible, practical, and easy to apply solution.
3.
The details of the visit are recorded. The visit’s activities are documented through photographs and videos in addition to a report written by the concerned extension agent in which he highlights the encountered problem, symptoms, diagnosis, and key solution.
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4.2.2.2.5
Extension Meetings
Objective: Extension meetings are one of the appropriate group contact methods for presenting general information, carrying out experience-sharing discussions, setting group goals, and making on-the-spot syntheses of different viewpoints. There are two types of extension meetings: periodic village meetings and extension advisory programs. Implementation: 1.
Periodic village meetings:
Village meetings are a good extension tool through which officers in charge of different administrative departments are able to keep in touch with farmers. The specific villages where the extension meetings take place are selected on the basis of the location of the agricultural problem (irrigation or drainage problem, etc.) requiring administrative decision. Following the submission of a verbal or written application asking for the project’s assistance, by the village farmers or the village engineer, the following arrangements are made: a) Communication with the officials in charge to explain the encountered problem as well as the farmers’ point of view. b) Preparation of an agenda describing the proposed topics and time allocation for each one. c) Notice given to the farmers and the Agricultural Administration regarding the date, time, and location of the meeting, as well as the names of the invited official representatives. This is done with the support of the Director of the Agricultural Administration. The meeting, under the management of the extension agent, in collaboration with the Director of the Agricultural Administration, is carried out in the following sequence: a) The project extension agent begins the meeting with an opening speech during which he presents the subject and objectives of the session and introduces the participating officials to the audience. The farmers explain the details of their problem and their viewpoints. b) The Director of the Administration acts as a moderator throughout the farmers’ discussions with the officials who give explanations, suggest solutions and recommendations, and may take immediate decisions (if possible). c) By the end of the meeting the project extension agent presents his conclusions. He will then submit a report. 2.
Extension advisory program (using the mobile unit)
An extension advisory program is an extension campaign structured according to a timetable, aiming to inform and increase awareness of different agricultural production topics in different villages, and focusing on extension advice for specific problems. In addition, the program deals with other issues of concern to farmers, such as the environment. It uses audiovisual aids to support communication of the
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extension’s recommendations regarding technical agricultural production problems. The role of the mobile unit is similar to that of a listening/watching club. The extensions advisory program is organised as follows: a) Farmers and village engineers should be informed of the mobile extension unit’s upcoming visit through announcements in different frequently visited places such as the cooperative, grocery, café, etc. b) When the mobile unit arrives, the project extension agent and the village engineer supervise the following tasks: The meeting begins with the projection of a video on the selected agricultural topic. The project extension agent comments on the film and highlights the main points (approx.15 minutes). A panel discussion on the film is carried out with the audience. The project extension agent and the village engineer answer the farmers’ enquiries and emphasize the importance of following the extension’s recommendations. The extension agent gives his conclusions at the end of the session. 4.2.2.2.6
Exposure Visits
Objective: The exposure visit’s objective is to exchange information and share experience among farmers. There are two types of exposure visits: farmer-to-farmer visits and farmer to research station visits. Implementation: 1.
Farmer to farmer visits
Farmer to farmer visits aim to transfer experience and know-how from distinguished farmers to their colleagues within their village, in different villages, or even at specialized agricultural companies. The visits are organised and implemented in the following manner: a) The project extension team agrees upon the visit’s subject and activities to meet the farmers’ real needs. b) The visit’s location is preferably selected within the project area. It is either at an extension farm owned by one of the contact farmers, or at one of the large distinguished farms, which apply the extension’s recommendations. c) Draft dates for the visits have already been previously identified in the Action Plan. The exact timing should coincide with the required objective’s schedule, whether the activity addresses agricultural production or another related topic. d) The owner of the proposed location agrees to the visit. e) The target farmers are invited to the extension field by the contact farmer. Other contact farmers who may be concerned by this subject are also invited. f) The project extension agent in charge joins the target farmers at the location. The visit brings together approximately 20 to 25 farmers.
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g) On site, the farm owner or his representative welcomes the visitors and accompanies them to the different places scheduled to be seen. He presents all the details, such as the different agricultural practices employed as well as the season’s future agricultural operations. h) A free exchange of opinion and transfer of experience is encouraged among the attendees. i) The visit is recorded either photographically or on video. j) The extension engineer prepares a report about the main events of the visit and attaches the list of participants. 2.
Farmer to research station visits
Theses visits aim to familiarize farmers with the activities of agricultural research stations. These stations focus on the hybridization of new cultivars and strains, and develop modern agricultural practices suitable for the new reclaimed areas, such as experimental irrigation, fertilization, pesticides, and agricultural mechanization. The visits are organised and implemented in the following manner: a) The target farmers, i.e. WUU members (members of technical committees who are interested in specific areas of horticulture or vegetable cultivation, etc.), are selected. b) The date of the visit is arranged with the research station. The visit time should coincide with a specific agricultural operation, such as the maturity stage of a cultivated crop or a particular livestock operation, in order to allow farmers to see real on-going activities. c) The planned visit is announced at the WUU office and in other places frequently visited by the farmers. d) The selection of the participating WUUs is based on the union’s dominant agricultural activities as well as the farmers’ interest in the proposed topic. e) The union’s board of directors nominates one farmer from each cluster of 4 irrigation pump units (16 farmers). Participating farmers should inform their colleagues when they return of the visit’s activities and lessons learned. f) On the day of the visit, the responsible extension agent accompanies the group (20 to 25 farmers) to the location. g) The station's researcher welcomes the farmers. The researcher joins the farmers on a tour and shows them the ongoing agricultural or animal production experiments. He also briefs them on the current experiments’ objectives, expected results, and benefits the farmers can expect after the results of these experiments are confirmed. h) Discussions are conducted in order to receive farmers’ comments and answer their questions. i) The minutes of the visit are recorded photographically and on video. The project’s extension agent prepares a report on the visit’s events, and attaches the list of participants.
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4.2.2.2.7
Cropping Patterns
A special technique is used to implement the extension fields. It entails using an integrated package of appropriate and inexpensive technologies developed for either the main crops or new cash crops in the area. Farmers should be oriented towards using twoyear cropping rotations in order to increase their farm income and keep the soil fertile and free from any infection. Each consultant prepares a technical report for the extension field under his supervision, which focuses on the results of the applied technical packages in comparison with control fields using traditional practices. The cropping pattern at the extension field, as well as the reasons for its high productivity and its low cost in comparison with ordinary farms, is presented. 1.
Choosing the cropping patterns
The cropping pattern is chosen on the basis of the data and findings collected from the extension fields during the previous period, and a large amount of empirical technical and economic data made available by cropping intensification and agricultural economics specialists. The cropping patterns are prepared in several stages: a) Selection of a group of cropping patterns, taking into consideration the following points: Compatibility with the area’s condition and farmers’ interests. The proposed patterns need to be as close as possible to the current agricultural rotations. Maximisation of land unit productivity. Enough flexibility so that the patterns can match farmers’ desires and specializations. For example, some farmers are interested in growing fruit; others are interested in growing vegetables, etc. b) Selection of several possible demonstration locations. Each pattern covers 20 Feddans and encompasses 4 farms served by one pump unit. Sometimes, the unit combines 8 beneficiaries, as in Bustan 3. Each area has two representative locations to apply the farming pattern, one for graduates and one for small farmers. c) Organisation of a panel meeting with all contact farmers in order to explain and discuss the idea and benefits of the cropping pattern. d) This panel meeting is followed by another meeting with the contact farmers on each site to further develop the idea. e) Review of the proposed cropping patterns, based on the conclusions made at these meetings and according to the above-mentioned criteria, by a committee which includes the cropping rotation consultant, the chief of the project’s technical department, and the project’s extension agents. Several small workshops are held with groups of farmers to discuss the patterns and hear their comments. f) Organisation of a large workshop including specialists on crop intensification, agricultural economics, and irrigation, to review the presented patterns. The following steps are followed during the workshop:
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Individual introduction of the proposed patterns (using a projector or any other suitable means), and reaction from the farmers. Comments are made by each specialist on the technical advantages of each model (crop intensification specialist), the economic feasibility of each pattern (agricultural economist), and each model’s water requirements (irrigation specialist). Farmers are divided into sub-groups. Each sub-group is assisted by a project extension agent in selecting their preferred patterns. Each sub-group presents its options before the attendees. The workshop ends with the selection of the most applicable patterns from a technical and economic viewpoint, also acceptable to the farmers. 2.
Steps to implement the cropping pattern a) Establish an agreement with the consultants who will supervise the cultivated crops. b) Meet with the selected group of contact farmers, in the presence of the consultants, in order to review the pattern requirements and programs which will last for the two subsequent years. c) Establish an agreement between the project and the contact farmers regarding the pattern. The agreement includes the following: The project’s commitment to offering recommendations, technical supervision, and some inputs in kind (when necessary). The farmer’s commitment to strictly applying the technical package and adding the required inputs (whether the inputs are provided by the project or himself). The farmer’s commitment to respecting the crop rotation as agreed upon with the project. However, if changes are necessary, they must be discussed with the project and agreed upon by the two parties. The following documents: a copy of the selected crop rotation and cropping pattern, which will be in use for two years, as well as the technical recommendations for each pattern. d) Carry out a soil and nematode analysis. e) Technical monitoring of the cropping pattern by the consultant who offers regular advice and solves field problems during the crop’s different growing stages. The project extension staff will pay regular field visits to monitor the execution of the technical recommendations. f) Promote the applied extension message to other farmers by means of field days and excursions. g) Regularly collect data on all agricultural practices at three levels: (i) extension farms within the cropping pattern; (ii) traditional farms within the same WUU; (iii) farms outside the WUU. h) At the end of the season, and based on the actual data derived from applying the cropping pattern, carry out a cost benefit analysis in order to determine economic viability.
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i) Organise a workshop in order for the WUU members and the officers in charge to present the technical and economic results of the pattern. j) Disseminate the results to a large number of farmers through different extension means. 4.2.3
Technical choices
4.2.3.1 Overview
At the beginning of the implementation of an extension field, whether within the framework of a cropping pattern or outside of it, the consultant sets general recommendations that suit the climate conditions, the nature of the soil, and the area’s irrigation system. Possible amendments to the technical recommendations can be made when special conditions arise which may affect the crop. Data on agricultural operations and technical practices is collected year-round. This allows real technical conclusions to be made, which reflect the nature of the area and the success of the research centre’s agricultural recommendations. In the BADP study case, the following key priorities were put on: 4.2.3.2 Wheat
Cultivar: Gemiza (9) and Giza (168) are the most suitable cultivars for Bustan’s sandy soil conditions. They are high yielding and disease and drought resistant. Ploughing: Carried out in 2 crossed ways. Optimum planting period: Ranges from November 10 – 25. Planting method: Drilling. Seeding rate: 70Kg / Fed Weed control: A suitable herbicide is applied 20 days after crop cultivation to control broad/narrow leaf weeds. Fertilization: Fertilizer injection techniques (fertigation) are used through modern onfarm irrigation systems (sprinkler / drip). This is the recommended package: Phosphorus: In the form of Phosphoric Acid (85%), at the rate of 24.0L/Fed, split in 10 equal doses after planting (1 dose/10 days) . Nitrogen: A total of 350Kg of Ammonium Nitrate (33.5%) injected in the irrigation water, distributed in 10 equal doses (35Kg per dose/10 days). Potassium: A total of 100Kg of Potassium Sulphate (48%) injected in the irrigation water, distributed in 10 doses after planting. Application of micronutrients. Irrigation: Irrigation water is defined as the amount of applied water and time of watering. It is calculated according to the crop’s requirement, the soil’s structure, and the area’s climate. Harvesting: Harvesting should be carried out early in morning in order to avoid the grains being shattered. Mechanical harvesting is recommended.
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Obtained yield: Applying the recommended technical package increased the average yield to 2.62 tons (30% more than the area’s average production).
Photos 10 & 11: Wheat and faba bean
4.2.3.3 Faba Bean
Cultivar: Nubariya (1) and Giza 716 are the most suitable cultivars for Bustan’s sandy soil conditions. Ploughing: Carried out in 2 crossed ways. Optimum planting period: Ranges from October 25 until the first half of November. Planting method: Sowing is made in rows, 60cm between rows and 20cm between hills. One seed / hill, planting on one side of the row. Seeding rate: 50 Kg/Fed Inoculation: Seeds must be inoculated with Rhizobium just before sowing. Irrigation must follow the inoculation process. Weed control: Hand weeding is carried out twice, 20 and 50 days after sowing. Disease control: “Cosid – 101”, at a rate of 250gm/200 L/Fed, at the beginning of the flowering stage. Aphids control: “Malathion”, at a rate of 250cm³ /200L water/Fed Orobanche control: “Rawend-up” twice at a rate of 75 cm3/200L water/Fed Fertilization: Fertilizers are added through surface application. This is the recommended package: Phosphorus: In the form of Ca- Super Phosphate (15.5% P2 O5), at a rate of 37.5Kg P2 O5/Fed It is mixed with the soil surface during the land’s preparation. Nitrogen: In the form of Ammonium Sulphate (20.5.5% N), at a rate of 30Kg N/Fed It is divided into 3 doses (50Kg each). The first dose: 10 days after planting (DAP), the second and third doses: 25 and 35 after DAP respectively. Potassium: In the form of Potassium Sulphate (48% K2 O) at a rate of 24Kg K2 O/Fed Added in two equal doses (25Kg/Fed/dose). 1st dose: 25 DAP, 2nd dose: 35 DAP.
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Micronutrients (Fe, Zn, Mn, EDTA) sprays are applied 35 and 50 DAP (mixed with 500gm Ammonium Nitrate and 0.5liter Phosphoric Acid 85%). Irrigation: Irrigation water is defined as the amount of applied water and time of watering. It is calculated during the growing season according to the faba bean’s water requirements, the soil’s structure, and the area’s climate. Harvesting: Harvesting should be carried out early in the morning in order to avoid the grains being shattered. The crop is harvested when the colour of the leaves and pods becomes a light brown. Obtained yield: Applying the recommended technical package increased the average yield to 1.82 tons (50% more than the area’s average production). 4.2.3.4 Onion
Cultivar: Giza (20) is suitable for Bustan’s sandy soil conditions, but any other adopted cultivar in the Bustan area can also be used. Nursery land preparation: It is advisable to select soil rich in organic matter and free of weeds or previous crop residues. Optimum sowing period: During October – November. Seeding rate: 3-5Kg seeds/Fed, for land drilling on rows or basins. Nursery period: 60 – 75 days. Permanent land preparation: Soil should be free of weeds and previous crop residues; it is to be ploughed twice with a disk harrow. Planting method: Transplants are cultivated 7 – 10cm apart on both sides of rows which are usually spaced 50cm apart. Weed control: Hand weeding is recommended, but in case of high weed density the herbicide “Goal” can be used at a rate of 1ml/L water, 20 days after sowing in the nursery, and 10-12 days after transplanting. Disease control: There are only two serious diseases which can infect onions during the vegetative growth period: Downy Mildew and Purple Blotch. Both diseases are controlled by “Ridomil M.Z. 72” at a rate of 50gm/20L water. Insect control: Three types of insects can attack onions during the vegetative growth period: Small Onion Fly, Onion Thrips and Big Onion Fly. These insects can be controlled by “Selecron” at a rate of 20-25cm/20L water. Fertilization: This is the recommended package: During land preparation: o In the nursery: 10m3 organic manure/Fed, or sufficient quantity of the previous organic matter residues + 200Kg Ca- Super Phosphate (15.5% P2 O5 )/Fed o On the permanent land: 20m3 organic manure/Fed + 300Kg Ca- Super Phosphate (15.5% P2 O5 )/Fed + 100Kg Potassium Sulphate (48% K2 O)/Fed
After transplanting: 300Kg of Ammonium Nitrate are applied over a period three months. The 1st application takes place 25-30 days after the transplanting date.
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Micronutrients: Mixing a sufficient quantity of Micronutrients (Fe, Zn, Mn and Mg) in powder or granule form with the previous N fertilizer is preferable. Irrigation: In the nursery: Daily irrigation during the sowing to seedling development stage. The irrigation intervals gradually increase to every 3-4 days. On permanent land: Irrigation should be carried out daily from the cultivation to the erected transplants stage, and then the irrigation intervals should gradually increase to every 3-5 days until the fasting treatment. Fasting treatment: Stop the irrigation when 50% of the plants’ top bows down. Harvesting: It is advisable to harvest the bulbs 7-10 days after the fasting treatment. Curing: Burying the bulbs next to each other, with the foliage up, for two weeks or until the foliage becomes completely dry. Marketing and storage: It is preferable to market the bulbs after cutting off the dry foliage, or to store them without cutting the foliage. Obtained yield: Applying the recommended technical package increased the average yield to 31.5 tons (100% more than the area’s average production).
Photos 12 & 13: Onion seedlings in the nursery and in the field
4.2.3.5 Maize
Cultivar: For white maize: S.C. 10 hybrid and for yellow maize: S.C. 3062 are suitable cultivars for Bustan’s sandy soil conditions. Optimum planting period: Ranges from May 1st – June 15th. Planting method: Sowing is carried out in rows, with 70cm between rows and 25cm between hills (2 seeds / hill). Seeding rate: 12-15Kg/Fed Row and hill spacing: 70cm between rows and 25cm between hills, with a 3-5cm planting depth. Weed control: “Gesabreem” herbicide is applied (0.75Kg/200L water/Fed) after crop cultivation and before irrigation. Fertilization: Fertilizer injection techniques (fertigation) are used through modern onfarm irrigation systems (sprinkler/drip). This is the recommended package: BADP User Manual
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Starter application (during land preparation): o Phosphorus: 30Kg P2 O5 (Mono or Triple Superphosphate) o Nitrogen: 20Kg N of Ammonium Sulphate.
Post-planting application: o Nitrogen: 4 doses (20Kg each) of Ammonium Sulphate (20.5 % N) are added, 1 dose/5 days. Then 8 doses (30Kg each) of Ammonium Nitrate (33.5 % N) are applied, 1 dose/5 days. o Potassium: 10Kg of Potassium Sulphate (48% K2 O) are applied with the first 10 doses of nitrogen. o Micronutrients: Two applications of compound micronutrients containing high levels of Fe, Zn and Mn, are applied.
Irrigation: Irrigation water is defined as the amount of applied water and time of watering. It is calculated according to the crop’s requirements, the soil’s structure, and the area’s climate. The total irrigation time required for drip irrigation is approximately 960 minutes (16 hours), distributed over 105 – 110 growing days after planting. Harvesting: The maize crop is harvested when ripening indications appear, i.e. leaves and ear covers become yellow. Irrigation is stopped 10 days before harvesting. Yield should be well dried before marketing. Obtained yield: Applying the recommended technical package increased the average yield to 4.18 tons (40% more than the area’s average production). 4.2.3.6 Peanut
Cultivar: Giza (4), Giza (5), and Giza (6) are suitable cultivars for Bustan’s sandy soil conditions. Land preparation: The soil is ploughed twice; winter crop residues are collected from the field; organic manure (composite), at a rate of 20m3/Fed, and 200Kg of Superphosphate P2 O5 are added. Then the land is levelled and ridged with 60cm spacing between each row. Optimum planting period: For the non-erect variety (Giza 4), the best period is from April to mid-May; for the erect varieties (Giza 5 and 6), the planting period extends to the first week of June. Late sowing leads to low productivity. Preparing the seeds: Seeds should be sterilized with fungicides (3gm/Kg seeds) and, 48 hours later, should be inoculated with Rhizobium (2 bags/Fed). Seeding rate: Peanut seeds which are inoculated with Rhizobium are sown at a rate of 40Kg/Fed (70,000 plants/Fed), with 10cm spacing between hills, for the erect varieties, and at a rate of 30Kg/Fed for the non-erected varieties. Fertilization: This is the recommended package: During land preparation: 20m3 farmyard manure in addition to 50Kg/Fed Gypsum(Calcium Sulphate). Phosphorus: In the form of Mono Superphosphate (15.5% P2 O5), at a rate of 200Kg/Fed (30 units P2 O5), also during land preparation. Nitrogen: As Ammonium Nitrate (33.5% N) at a rate of 150Kg/Fed (45 units/Fed), distributed in three equal doses 50 days after sowing, in the event of
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ineffective inoculation, and at a rate of 30 units/Fed if the inoculation is effective. Potassium: As Potassium Sulphate (48% K2 O) at a rate of 50Kg/Fed (24 units K2 O), 20 days after sowing. Micronutrients (foliar application): Chelated mineral fertilizers (iron, manganese, and zinc) are sprayed at a 1.0 : 1.0 : 1.5 ratio in two doses; the first 30 days after sowing and the second 20 days after the first dose, at a rate of 50 gm/100L water. Irrigation: When using a sprinkler irrigation system, the irrigation water is applied at a rate of 25-30m3/Fed for each irrigation period. The irrigation intervals are every 3-4 days during the first 50-60 days after sowing, then the intervals are increased to every 5-6 days until 10 days before harvesting. Farmers should be careful when irrigating not to exceed the crop’s water requirements, otherwise the pods will rot. Harvesting: The crop is harvested 120 days after sowing for Giza (5) and 110 days for Giza (6). Obtained yield: Applying the recommended technical package increased the average yield to 1.26 tons (60% more than the area’s average production).
Photos 14 & 15: Maize and peanuts
4.2.3.7 Pearl Millet
Cultivar: Shandaweel (1) is a suitable cultivar for Bustan’s sandy soil conditions. Land preparation: Pearl Millet requires a well prepared seedbed. The soil should be ploughed twice with a disc plough and cleared of weeds and previous crop residues. Optimum planting period: April – May 15th. Seeding rate: Millet seeds are sown at a rate of 15Kg/Fed.They are hand drilled in rows 20cm apart and 18Kg/Fed. Or can be planted in furrows 60cm apart with 30cm between hills. Seed depth should not exceed 2-3 cm. Fertilization: This is the recommended package: Land preparation: 15-20m3 farmyard manure mixed with 250Kg CaSuperphosphate are applied. Or manure (5m3/Fed) mixed with 1.5-2.0 tons of leguminous crop residues. If crop residues are used, 25Kg of Ammonium Sulphate should be added to the organic manure and P fertilizer.
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Nitrogen: As Ammonium Nitrate (33.5% N), distributed in three equal doses (75Kg each) : 1), the 1st dose 10-12 days after planting, the 2nd dose after the first cut, and the 3rd dose after the second cut. Potassium: As Potassium Sulphate (48% K2 O), to be added 25-30 days after planting at a rate of 50Kg /Fed . Micronutrients (foliar application): Add 35gm of these components ( iron, manganese and zinc-EDTA) and 200gm of MgSO4/200-300L water. 1st application 25-30 days after planting and the other applications 10-15 days after each cut. Irrigation: Using the sprinkler irrigation system. Approximately, 3000 m3/Fed of irrigation water applied throughout the millet growing season. The irrigation intervals are 5 days, irrigation set time ranges from 1 to 3.5 hours (following the changes in the crop’s requirements during the growing season). Harvesting: 3-4 cuts can be taken from millet. Plants are cut when their height reaches 80cm. 15-20cm of the plants should be left above the soil surface Obtained yield: Applying the recommended technical package increased the average yield to 76 tons (500% more than the area’s average production). 4.2.3.8 Potatoes (fall season)
Cultivar: The “Sponta” variety is a suitable cultivar for Bustan’s sandy soil conditions. Imported seeds are used in the summer season, while during the fall season the growers use seeds from the summer potato production. Soil preparation: Organic manure is spread at a rate of 20m3/Fed 300 Kg of Calcium Superphosphate P2 O5 and 50 Kg of K- Sulphate are added. Soil irrigation to field capacity. Soil ploughed after two days. Seed preparation: Gradually raise the temperature of the seeds stored in the cooling chamber to 20C°. Treat the seeds with Rhizolex 10% at a rate of 2Kg/ton of seeds. Don’t cut seeds in the fall planting season. Optimum planting period: During the first half of October. Seeding rate: 1,700Kg/Fed Adjust the planter to 90cm between rows and a seed depth of 12cm. Raise the beds before the sprouts grow past the bed level in order to make the final seed depth 18cm. Distance between seeds is determined according to seed size. Herbicides: After raising the beds and before the sprouts resurface, spray with 250gm of Sincore + 1 litre of Stomp using 200L water/Fed Be sure to use the herbicide nozzle in the sprayer.
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Immediately after applying the herbicides, irrigate for 10 minutes if using sprinkler irrigation. If using drip irrigation, spray 1200m3 of water (using the sprayer tank). Fertilization: Fertilizers are injected through the irrigation system (fertigation) using a Ventury device. This is the recommended fertilization program: # Weeks after planting 5-6 7-8 9-10 11-12 13-14
Ammonium Sulphate 25 25
Amount of applied fertilizer / week Ammonium Urea Nitrate 10 40 15 50 15 10
(Kg) K- Sulphate 5 15 15 10
Calcium nitrate is added four times (once a week) at a rate of 10Kg/Fed, starting 65 days after planting. Micronutrients: Two applications are made, 60 and 75 days after planting. Irrigation: From planting until complete emergence: if the soil humidity is suitable (60% of the field capacity), do not irrigate; if the humidity is not suitable, irrigate 5-10m3 only. After emergence: Plants are irrigated three times a week according to an irrigation schedule. The amount of added water per irrigation/Fed ranges from 40-70m3, in accordance with the changes in the crop’s requirements during the growing season. Pest control: Focus on regular field inspection for pests to reduce the use of chemical pesticides. Spray of fungicides : o Preventive control (before appearance of any symptoms): Galbin 250gm/100 L & Acrobt 250gm/100 L o For curing: Preficure N 200cm/100 L water, Ridomil 250gm/100L, and Score 250gm/100L water
Harvesting: Yield is harvested 105 days after planting. Obtained yield: Applying the recommended technical package increased the average yield to 16.3 tons (30% more than the area’s average production).
Photos 16 & 17: Potatoes BADP User Manual
116
4.2.3.9 Tomatoes (summer season)
Cultivar: Hybrid (Master 100) is a suitable cultivar for Bustan’s sandy soil conditions. Soil preparation: Irrigate the field to field capacity. Two days later, plough the soil as deep as 60cm. With a ditcher, ditch the field for 180cm. Apply the following fertilizers in the ditch: o 10m3 cow manure + 5m3 chicken manure o 300Kg Calcium Super Phosphate o 50Kg Sulpher Raise beds over the ditches. Install drip irrigation system laterals. Irrigate with 100m3 of water. Make holes at 30cm intervals. Optimum planting period: During the first half of February. Planting: Plant the seedlings at a rate of 7000 seedlings per Feddan. Irrigate with 20m3 of water directly after transplanting. Fertilization: Fertilizers are injected through the irrigation system (fertigation) using a Ventury device. This is the recommended fertilization program:
Period (in days) after transplanting 2-14 15-30 31-37 38-55 56-75
Type and daily amount of applied fertilizer (Kg) Ammonium Ammonium Potassium Sulphate Nitrate Sulphate 5 7 7 8
2 3 4 6
2 4 4
At the fruit setting stage, add Ca Nitrate 4 times (once a week), 10Kg/application. In the first two weeks, inject, using fertigation, 200ml of Phosphoric Acid/Fed/day. Micronutrients: Four applications (sprays) are made, starting in the fifth week with two-week intervals, using 150gm Chelated iron, 100gm Zn and 100gm Mn. Irrigation: Period (in days) after transplanting Pre- planting
BADP User Manual
Irrigation time
Water amount m3 / fed / day
hr
mi
100
7
0
117
Period (in days) after transplanting
Irrigation time
Water amount m3 / fed / day
hr
mi
After transplanting
20
1
25
2- 5
0
0
0
6- 10
8
34
0
11- 29
15
1
2
30- 40
25
1
46
41- start ripening
32
2
16
Start picking
28
2
0
Pest control: Pest control should focus on preventive treatments, mainly by using Micronite Sulpher and Copper compounds. Dust 4Kg of Micronite Sulpher twice with a 5day interval. A third time, apply 4Kg of Micronite Sulpher + 1 Kg Kocide 101, and then repeat the application. For caterpillar infestation: Cypermethrin at a rate of 250ml/Fed. “Match” at a rate of 250ml/Fed. Harvesting: Yield is harvested 90 – 100 days after transplanting. Obtained yield: Applying the recommended technical package increased the average yield to 31.5 tons (70% more than the area’s average production). 4.2.3.10 Green Beans (summer season)
Cultivar: Bronco and Nebraska are suitable cultivars for Bustan’s sandy soil conditions. Soil preparation: Spreading of organic manure at a rate of 20m3/Fed. Add 300Kg of Calcium Super Phosphate. Irrigation of the soil to field capacity. Soil ploughed, after two days. Optimum planting period: During the first half of February. Seeding rate: Nebraska variety: 50Kg per Feddan or Bronco variety: 25Kg per Feddan Planting: Make 90cm wide ridges. Plant two rows per bed. Irrigate with 20m3 of water directly after transplanting. Dry bean production: The highest yield and best quality of dry beans is obtained during the summer season (seeds planted in the first week of February). Special varieties are used for this purpose, which may not be the same as those used for green bean production.
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Herbicides: After planting and before irrigation, spray with Stomp at a rate of 1L/200L of water/Fed, and then immediately irrigate with sprinklers (or sprayers if a drip system is being used). Fertilization: Fertilizers are injected through the irrigation system (fertigation). This is the recommended fertilization program: Type and amount of applied fertilizer Weeks after planting
Ammonium Sulphate
Ammonium Nitrate
Urea
5-6
2
2
7-9
5
3
10
2
Potassium Sulphate
Drip system (Kg/day/Fed) 3-4
5 1 4
11
2
Sprinkler system 3 times a week (Kg /Fed) 3-4
5.8
2.5
5
2.5
5-6
14
9
2.5
4
16
5
5
7-9 10-11
4
Ca Nitrate is added at a rate of 10Kg/Fed once a week, starting in the sixth week. Micronutrients: Three applications (sprays) are made, starting in the first week until full bloom, with two-week intervals, using 150gm of Chelated iron, 100gm Zn and 100gm Mn. Irrigation: a)
Sprinkler system: Values are calculated according to sprinkler discharge (1.5m3/hr), a 15 x15m area, and 70% irrigation efficiency. Irrigation time
Water amount m3 / Fed / day
hr
mi
150
6
30
To complete emergence
0
0
0
Complete emergence + 25 days
28
1
12
26- 40
42
1
48
41- 60
100
3
15
61- 75
120
3
0
76- 90
100
4
20
91- 110
70
3
20
Days after planting After planting
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b)
Drip system: Emitter discharge is 2L/hr and emitters are distributed at 30cm intervals. Daily water amount 3 m / Fed / day
hr
mi
100
3
34
Planting to emergence
0
0
0
Complete emergence – 25 d.
10
0
21
26- 40
15
0
32
41- 60
28
1
0
61- 75
25
0
53
76- 90
20
0
42
91- 110
10
0
21
Days after planting After planting
Irrigation time
Pest control: Dusting the plants according to the following (5-day intervals): o
First application: Micronite Sulpher at a rate of 4Kg/Fed.
o
Second application: Micronite Sulpher at a rate of 4Kg/Fed.
o
Third application: 4Kg of Micronite Sulpher + 1Kg of Kocid 101/Fed.
Then, repeat the same treatments. Caterpillar: Match and Lannet. Harvesting: Yield is harvested 60 days after sowing. Obtained yield: Applying the recommended technical package increased the average yield to 5.3 tons (100% more than the area’s average production).
Photos 18 & 19: Tomatoes and green beans
4.2.3.11 Grape
Main recommended practices and relevant impacts: Improve winter trimming and pruning practices: more fruiting wood, good vine structure, efficient use of narrow spacing, and good availability of light and air. BADP User Manual
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Better canopy management: Reduction of disease pressure and consequently, decrease in cost of fungicides, increase % of sugar content through optimum distribution of green canopy to harvest light for more photosynthesis, reduction of berry- moth pressure which avoids using pesticides. Apply appropriate irrigation, fertilization, and plant protection programs: Maximize water, energy, and fertilizer efficiency, avoid applying disruptive pesticides in the vineyard by adopting IPM system. Improve fruit quality: The dominating factor in this practice is chemical and mechanical thinning. Chemical thinning of the berries is necessary to reduce the compaction problem (use of growth regulators, addition of nutritional elements related to quality such as calcium, magnesium, and micronutrients). Mechanical cluster thinning is important as well. Irrigation schedule: Growth Stage A B
C
D
E
F G H
BADP User Manual
Date
Water requirements m3 / Fed Hour / Fed 500 45 0 0 3.5 0.31 3.6 0.32 3.8 0.34 4.0 0.36 15 1.34 16 1.43 17 1.52 19 1.70 34 3.04 35 3.12 35 3.12 35 3.12 35 3.12 35 3.12 30 2.70 28 2.50 26 2.32 27 2.41 26 2.32 24 2.14 24 2.14 25 2.20 24 2.20 23 2.0 20 1.80 20 1.80 2.9 0.26 2.0 0.18 2.0 0.18 1.8 0.16 1.8 0.16 1.75 0.15 1.75 0.15 1.5 0.13
Jan. Feb. 2/3- 8/3 9/3-15/3 22/3-26/3 23/3-29/3 30/3-5/4 6/4-12/4 13/4-19/4 20/4-26/4 27/4-3/5 4/5-10/5 11/5-17/5 18/5-24/5 25/5-31/5 1/6-7/6 8/6-14/6 15/6-21/6 22/6-28/6 29/6-5/7 6/7-12/7 13/7-19/7 20/7-26/7 27/7-2/8 3/8-9/8 10/8-16/8 17/8-23/8 24/8-30/8 31/8-6/9 7/9-13/9 14/9-20/9 21/9-27/9 28/9-4/10 5/10-11/10 12/10-18/10 19/10-25/10
121
26/10-1/11 2/11-8/11 9/11-15/11 16/11-22/11 23/11-29/11 December
I
1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 0 4751
Total
0.09 0.09 0.09 0.09 0.09 0 425
Spacing: 1.5 X 3.0cm Dripper discharge: 2 drippers/m (4L each) Dripper Spacing: 50cm Irrigation system efficiency: 90%
N.B.
Fertilization: a) Ser.
Through the irrigation system: Unit
Compound fertilizer / week
1 2 3
Kg L Kg
4 5
Kg ml
Am. Nitrate Phosphoric-Acid Potassium Sulphate Am. Sulphate Sulphoric -Acid
6 7 8 9
Kg Kg cm Kg
Urea Superphosphate Manure Sulpher
b) Ser.
A
B
Vine growth stage C D E F-G
Rem.
0 0 50
2.0 2.7 3.3
2.0 2.7 30
15 2.7 50
0 0.8 1.0
9.0 1.4 3.3
0 0 2.0
0 0
0 90
0 90
18 90
15 90
0 90
0 100 10 50
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
0 90 Per 10m3 3.5 0 0 0
H
Foliar nutrition: Unit
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Kg L L Kg gm gm gm
Compound fertilizer / week L.B Urea Calcium KTS Mag. Sulphate Chelated - Fe Chelated - Zn Chelated - Mn
A
Vine growth stage C D E
B 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0.2 0.1 0 0 0
0.5 0.2 0.2 0.1 50 25 25
0 0 0.2 0 0 0 0
Rem. F-G
0 0.2 0.2 0 0 0 0
0 0 0.2 0 0 0 0
H 0.5 0 0 0.1 50 25 25
Pest control:
Applic. date 12/2
BADP User Manual
Pests and events
Materials
Winter wash
Oil
Meuly bug
Dursban
122
Product / Fed 12.00L
Spray vol./ Fed 600L
1.00L
600L
Applic. date
Pests and events
Materials
Product / Fed 10.00L
Spray vol./ Fed 200L
12/1
Budbreak
Dormex
31/1
Weed control
Stomb
1.00L
200L
Downy mildew
Copper oxychloride
300G
100L
Powdery mildew
Sulpher
250G
100L
Nematode
Nemacur
2Kg
Downy mildew
Copper oxychloride
937.5G
375L
Powdery mildew
Sulpher
1.250G
375L
Downy mildew
Copper oxychloride
937.5G
375L
Nutrition
Ferrablex Fe
181.5G
375L
Nutrition
Nervanid Zn
93.75G
375L
Nutrition
Nervanid Mn
93.75G
375L
2/4
Downy mildew
Ridomil plus
750G
500L
11/4
Botrytis rot
Rovrol
833G
500L
Nutrition
Ferrablex Fe
187.5G
500L
Nutrition
Nervanid Zn
93.75G
500L
Nutrition
Nervanid Mn
93.75G
500L
Berry moth
Match
166cm
500L
Thinning
Gipperelic acid
4.96G
750L
Botrytis rot
Switch
300G
750L
12/5
Botrytis rot
Sumisclex
416G
500L
1/6
Berry moth
Lannate
500G
500L
2/6
Coloration
Ethyrel
240cm
187L
2/6
Powdery mildew
Topsn- M70
66.6G
500L
8/6
Botrytis rot
Rovrol
833G
500L
26/2 1/3 2/3 10/3 19/3
4/5
14/4
Harvesting: Yield is harvested during June. Obtained yield: Applying the recommended technical package increased the average yield to 10.0 tons (25% more than the area’s average production). 4.2.3.12 Citrus
Recommended technical package: Apply the horticulture practices at a suitable time. Provide citrus trees with nutritional requirements: NPK and Mg as well as micro-elements (Zn, Fe, and Mn). Balance all the elements of the nutrition program. Execute appropriate irrigation program. BADP User Manual
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Apply integrated pest control. Use necessary hand thinning for mandarin fruit to regulate trees’ productivity. Irrigation: a)
Drip irrigation system:
Tree age
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
4 years
24
30
34
46
54
54
54
48
48
40
26
18
8 years
36
45
56
64
80
80
90
75
75
60
40
30
b)
Fixed sprinkler system:
When using a fixed sprinkler irrigation system, 90m3/Fed of water are applied for 8 years-old trees, every 6 days during March-April. During the May-August period, this increases to 160m3/Fed. It goes back down to 60-90m3/Fed during the SepDecember period. Generally, the irrigation period depends on the climatic conditions and type of soil. During December, the trees’ water requirements are limited so one can minimize the irrigation water amount and increase the intervals between irrigation periods. Fertilisation: Nitrogen: Ammonium Nitrate is applied when using a dip irrigation system according to the following schedule: Tree age
Ammonium Nitrate Kg / fed.
Fertilization period Mid Feb. – end of Jun
July – 1st week of Oct
4 years
2.5
3 times / week
2 times / week
8 years
5.0
3 times / week
2 times / week
When using a sprinkler irrigation system, Ammonium Sulphate is applied in three equal doses: in March, May and August. Each dose is 1.5Kg/tree. The fertilizer is added on the wetted area at the end of the tree canopy. Potassium: When using a drip irrigation system, Potassium Sulphate is applied twice a week. The application rate is: 5.0Kg/Fed for 8 year-old trees, and 2.5Kg/Fed for 4 year-old trees. When using a sprinkler irrigation system, it is added in two equal doses, 0.5Kg/tree, in March and August at the end of the tree shade. Phosphorus: Super Phosphate is applied in winter time. When using a drip irrigation system, Phosphoric Acid, which is also a source of Phosphorus, is added at a rate of 1.5Kg/Fed/week during April, May and August to clean the laterals and emitters. Magnesium: Magnesium Sulphate is applied at a rate of 5.0Kg/Fed/week from March till mid- April and in August.
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Micronutrients (foliar application): In March and August, the trees are sprayed with Micronutrients in order to enhance vegetative growth and fruiting. Fe, Zn and Mn are used as Chelated compounds at a rate of 250gm of each compound plus 3Kg urea/600L of water. Organic manure, Phosphorus and Agricultural Sulpher: A surface application is spread on the wetted area (at a 50-75 cm from the tree’s trunk) consisting of a mixture made up of 100Kg of organic manure + 1.5Kg of Super Phosphate + 0.75 of Agricultural Sulpher / tree in October or November. Weed control: The best weed control method is a combination of soil erosion (tillage or hand tools) and herbicides (Garamaxson, Pasta or Round Up). It is advisable to use mowing or herbicides rather than tillage by cultivating machine during the March – June period. Integrated pest control: The following standard procedures and methods are recommended for citrus protection against pests: Control of scale insects by spraying the trees with KZ oil at a rate of 9 Litres per 600 Litres of water in July or August. Control of mites by spraying the trees with Micronic Sulpher at a rate of 1.5Kg, Verimec 180cm per 600 Litres of water, or Ortus 300cm per 600 Litres of water. Control of Aphids in the infected area only by spraying the trees with Malathion at 900cm per 600 Litres of water, or Primor at 450cm per 600 Litres of water. Control of fruit crop at a rate of 900 cm per 600 Litres of water. Hand thinning of mandarin fruit: A heavy mandarin tree crop year is always associated with a reduction in fruit size and, consequently, a reduction in the growers’ net return. Moreover, the trees may suffer from nutritional problems, die back, or even die. Carrying out hand thinning during a heavy crop year aims to regulate fruiting of the mandarin trees by removing 50 % of the fruit outside the tree canopy, i.e. thinning out one fruit out of every two fruit at the outer surface of the tree canopy. This operation is carried out during the last week of June – first week of July. Pruning: Pruning is necessary in order to maintain healthy productive trees, avoid overcrowding, and prevent excessively tall trees. Crowded conditions result in a loss of production and a reduction in fruit quality. Generally, loss of production occurs because of poor light accessibility. Pruning is performed after the fruit is harvested (December – February) by removing dead branches and water sprouts. Crowded branches should be removed at the tree’s heart. The branches at the top of the tree should be cut back, to obtain a 3-3.5m height. In general, trees of a suitable height reduce the harvesting cost and allow the implementation of a more efficient and effective spraying program. In addition, it helps improve yield and fruit quality (size and colour). Harvesting: Citrus yield is harvested during December – February. Obtained yield: Applying the recommended technical package increased the average Navel Orange yield of to 15.5 tons and the Mandarin yield to 13.5 tons (20 % more than the area’s average production).
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Photos 20 & 21: Grape and citrus
4.2.4
Training Program
Objective: The objective of the agricultural production training program is to provide farmers with adequate information and skills in order to enable them to understand the technical recommendations, and more importantly, allow them to adopt the new methods. Target population: The agricultural production training program is provided for two groups: WUU technical committees for training regarding vegetables, fruit, and marketing. The extension contact farmers for training regarding agricultural production. Type: Short 3-5 day courses List of activities: Title
Summary of the content
Subjects for water users unions/ agricultural production technical committees The training program consists of 2 courses: basic and advanced. Every course is made up of 3 lectures, each lasting 4 hours. Improved fruit production practices: a) Basic course:
b)
Advanced course:
• • •
Orchard establishment. Post-plantation operations. Weed, disease, and insect control.
• • •
Mango production in the Bustan area. Apple production in the Bustan area. Grape production in the Bustan area.
• • •
Getting started in vegetable farming. Post-cultivation operations. Irrigation and fertilization management for main vegetable crops.
Improved vegetable production practices: a)
BADP User Manual
Basic course:
126
Title b)
Summary of the content • • • •
Advanced course:
•
Harvesting and maturity indicators. Protection of vegetable crops. Protected agriculture. Integrated pest management (IPM) for vegetable crops. Practical training / exposure visit.
Promotion of agricultural marketing: a)
Basic course:
b)
Advanced course:
•
• • •
Principles of marketing: o Marketing channels and organisations. o Sales methods and market prices. o Handling fruits and vegetables. Agriculture Cooperative marketing. Practical training (post-harvest ops). Visit to an exporting company.
Subjects for extension contact farmers in the field of plant production Extension and communication:
• • •
Extension skills. Communications skills. Leadership.
Growing vegetables in Bustan:
• •
Pre-cultivation treatments. Post-cultivation treatments.
Growing fruit trees in Bustan:
• • •
Establishment of orchards. Post-cultivation treatments. Disease, pest and weed control for fruit trees
Growing field crops in Bustan:
• • •
Fodder production. Grain crop production. Legume production.
Cropping patterns Module (1):
•
Feasibility study - case study on the selected cropping patterns (Practical). Bookkeeping. Role of the contact farmer in disseminating the extension’s recommendations related to the cropping pattern.
• •
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Title
Summary of the content •
Cropping patterns Module (2):
• •
4.2.5
Crop rotation and intensification of vegetable and field crops. Orchard Management. Integrated pest management (IPM).
Informational Material
Technical data publications are issued on extension fields with specific crops that last for at least two subsequent seasons. The objective of these publications is to disseminate the recommendations to a large number of the project area’s farmers. The project stresses the issues of irrigation and fertilization of the main crops as many farmers lack basic knowledge on these two programs. However, an integrated pamphlet is sometimes issued when necessary. The extension’s principal publications on agricultural production are: Title
Type
Date
Location Code Place
Irrigation and fertilization programs for Faba bean
Fact sheet Dec - 2000
58
BADP
Irrigation and fertilization programs for Peanuts
Fact sheet Dec - 2000
59
BADP
Irrigation and fertilization programs for Maize
Fact sheet Dec - 2000
60
BADP
Irrigation and fertilization programs for Pearl millet
Fact sheet Dec - 2000
61
BADP
Irrigation and fertilization programs for Wheat
Fact sheet Dec - 2000
62
BADP
Irrigation and fertilization programs for Potatoes
Fact sheet Dec - 2001
94
BADP
Irrigation and fertilization programs for Tomatoes
Fact sheet Dec - 2001
95
BADP
Apple pruning
Pamphlet
Dec - 2002
171
BADP
Trimming and pruning of grapes
Pamphlet
Dec - 2002
174
BADP
Apple
Poster
Jun- 2004
249
BADP
Apricot
Poster
Jun- 2004
250
BADP
Citrus
Poster
Jun- 2004
252
BADP
Faba bean
Poster
Jun- 2004
255
BADP
Garlic
Pamphlet
Jun- 2004
258
BADP
Grapes
Poster
Jun- 2004
259
BADP
Improvement of grape production and quality
Pamphlet
Jun- 2004
260
BADP
Green bean
Poster
Jun- 2004
261
BADP
Maize
Poster
Jun- 2004
262
BADP
Mango
Poster
Jun- 2004
263
BADP
Millet
Poster
Jun- 2004
264
BADP
Peach
Poster
Jun- 2004
267
BADP
Peanut
Poster
Jun- 2004
268
BADP
Potato
Poster
Jun- 2004
269
BADP
BADP User Manual
128
Title
Type
Date
Location Code Place
Tomato
Poster
Jun- 2004
272
BADP
Wheat
Poster
Jun- 2004
273
BADP
Onion
Pamphlet
Sept- 2004 289
BADP
In addition, a collection of technical pamphlets on irrigation efficiency, irrigation systems, and fertilizer injectors were produced (they are listed in the Water Management chapter). All agricultural operations are photographed and videotaped at different stages. 4.2.6
Monitoring
4.2.6.1 Objectives
The objective of this activity is to see to what extent the contact farmers and water users implement the agricultural recommendations made by the project. In addition, the demonstration exercises play an important role in disseminating the recommendations presented by the supervising consultant to a large number of farmers in the same Mesqua. Moreover, the contact farmer is a link between the project’s extension service and other farmers, and he compiles regular data on both extension fields and control fields (farm practices, yield estimations, etc.). The contact farmers’ acquired experience enables them to provide assistance in solving technical issues. They also notify the project’s WUUs and irrigation staff of the emerging problems in their Mesquas in order to find proper solutions. 4.2.6.2 Methods and Tools
Monitoring field visits: These visits are organised and implemented as follows: 1.
Verification of the names of both the extension fields’ contact farmers and the control fields’ owners.
2.
Decision as to the timing of the different agricultural extension’ activities in the field, according to the supervisor’s recommendations.
3.
Preparation of a monthly schedule of the consultant’s visits to the contact farmers.
4.
Monitoring of the agricultural operations by the supervising extension engineer as scheduled. The following is recorded in his report: a) Date of visit and name of contact farmer visited by the engineer. b) Names of the contact farmer’s attending neighbours. c) Type of agricultural operation carried out during the visit. d) Remarks and recommendations of the engineer. e) Farmer’s commitment to previous recommendations. f) The suggested agricultural operations to be implemented before the next visit.
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g) The visiting engineer’s signature. Yield determination: Agricultural production monitoring is done on two levels: 1.
Monitoring the productivity of an extension field whether it lies within the boundaries of the cropping pattern or outside of them.
2.
Monitoring the control field planted with the same crops (without applying extension recommendations).
At least eight samples are taken from a square meter area so as to make an initial yield estimation. The actual crop yield determination is carried out at harvesting time (harvest day) when the engineer in charge collaborates with the farmer in order to calculate the actual yield. Adoption rate survey: Providing the project’s immediate beneficiaries with training, extension and advisory services, and informative meetings with distribution of relevant extension aid materials, are the main project outputs in this respect. The true benefits appear when the target beneficiaries begin adopting the practices or the technical recommendations imparted in various ways by the project. This must be regularly and objectively verified through surveys in order to provide evidence of the project’s effectiveness in this area of intervention. The survey methodology is based on the following: 1.
The adoption rate of the project’s recommendations for agricultural practices is assessed at three levels: immediate beneficiaries, indirect beneficiaries from the same village, and ordinary farmers from non-BADP villages (control).
2.
A typical “adopter” is the farmer who applies the project’s extension recommendations for two subsequent years and intends to go on applying them.
3.
Adoption is calculated as follows: one point for hearing about the recommendation, one point for being knowledgeable on the same recommendation, one point for application, and one point for continuity of application. The respondent’s degree of adoption in a particular field is the numerical value for the aggregate evaluation scores. The general adoption rate is the additive value that the respondent acquires when aggregating his/her scores from different fields.
4.
The survey distinguishes between three categories of adoption: a) Complete adoption: Farmer who applies the entire extension package to each of his fields. b) Partial adoption: The farmer applies one or two recommendations from the package. c) Discontinuous adoption: Farmer’s inability to fully adopt and apply the extension package.
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4.3 LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION 4.3.1
Specific Strategy
General problems: 1.
Local livestock are not highly pedigreed and cannot produce enough milk or meat.
2.
Local livestock suffer from bad nutrition.
3.
Poor livestock management practices are used.
4.
There is a lack of preventive and curative measures.
Specific problems: 1.
There is an insufficient supply of green fodder particularly during the summer.
2.
By- products from common crops are not used to feed the animals.
3.
There is a lack of supply of balanced feed concentrates.
4.
Artificial insemination facilities are not available.
5.
Some farmers intermittently use their cattle for draft purposes.
6.
There is a lack of knowledge and proper skills regarding nutrition and animal husbandry.
Photos 22 & 23: Bustan cows
Specific objectives: Because of the farmers’ lack of knowledge of animal nutrition and care techniques, the Bustan project performs different activities, such as: 1.
Converting low quality field crop residues into highly nutritional fodder through special treatment processes, such as treating wheat straw with urea in order to increase its protein content.
2.
Converting the green translucent maize residues into silage instead of polluting the environment by burning them or leaving them to be a shelter for rats and pests.
3.
Making use of forage crops such as clover (Trillium Alexandranium) by converting them into silage. This can be used if there is a shortage of green fodder in the summer.
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4.
4.3.2
Familiarising animal breeders with the best nutrition and animal husbandry techniques, providing information on how to prepare animal fodder mixtures and how to protect animals from disease, via practical animal extension sites. Methodology and Tools
4.3.2.1 Specific Methodology
Collection of basic information: Prior to any field activity, the project’s extension staff collects all available data on the livestock in the area through various means, such as field surveys, meetings, or other secondary sources. Information includes: types of animals, number of heads/type, unit productivity, management methods, feeding sources and methods, veterinary services, main problems, etc. Informational and awareness-raising meetings: A series of extension meetings are organised to raise the farmers’ awareness of the main problems hindering the improvement of livestock production. During the meetings, the project’s extension agent informs the farmers of the project’s general and specific objectives and the expected results of achieving these objectives. He specifically refers to agricultural extension activities in the livestock production field. These meetings take place in almost all of the project’s key villages. Extension work: 1.
Definition and prioritisation of the farmers’ problems/needs: Before beginning a specific extension program, the project’s livestock specialist and the local leaders jointly define the relevant needs / problems requiring immediate action.
2.
Setting solutions and putting them in action: The project’s extension specialist suggests solutions for the problems and takes appropriate actions using one or more of the following extension methods: a) Implementation of an extension advisory program (using the mobile unit). b) Establishment of demonstration units in the contact farmers’ holdings. c) Organisation of field days on these sites throughout the operation’s cycle. d) Organisation of a specialist’s visit in order to solve certain technical problems. e) Design and implementation of training programs to increase the farmers’ skills and knowledge.
4.3.2.2 Tools
4.3.2.2.1
Extension Units
On-farm demonstrations use practice and observation and serve as one of the most effective extension education tools. Objective: The establishment of extension units on the contact farmers’ holdings, on topics such as cattle feeding (silage units, straw piles treated with urea) or animal husbandry, is a key tool for the dissemination of appropriate livestock management
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practices, a teaching method utilising practice and observation, and a good source of technical and economic data. The area’s animal production and protection technical needs are analyzed by the project officer and extension locations for demonstrating modern practices are chosen. Specifications for the extension units’ location: These locations should be within WUU boundaries and their selection should take into consideration the possibility of displaying different animal production activities on the same site. They may be used to present different types of silage processes, i.e. sugar beet silage, clover silage, maize silage, and millet silage. They may also deal with urea treated straw or male sheep fattening. By doing so, a variety of activities can be displayed in order to benefit a large number of target farmers. Criteria for selecting the extension unit’s contact farmer: 1.
The contact farmer should be a permanent resident of the village and special priority should be given to WUU members.
2.
He should represent the average farmer from a social and economic standpoint. He should also have no technical problems.
3.
He should own cows, buffalo, or sheep. In addition, experience in the field of animal production is essential.
4.
He should have a good reputation and leadership skills.
5.
His field’s location should be visible and recognizable to a larger number of farmers.
6.
He should be ready to adopt new recommendations and allow his colleagues to visit his farm periodically.
7.
He should also be ready to communicate the innovations and recommendations he has benefited from and share his personal experience with others.
Technical monitoring of the extension units: 1.
When the project’s extension animal production agent is capable enough, he monitors the units by himself; otherwise a qualified livestock consultant is nominated.
2.
The contact farmers are informed of the date and time of the monitoring visits.
3.
On the day of the visit, the project’s extension agent accompanies the consultant to the unit’s location. In the presence of the contact farmer and his colleagues, the consultant gives advice and technical recommendations for each case. He elaborates on livestock management, feeding, and protection methods.
Livestock consultant’s technical report: At the end of the consultant’s visit, he records his observations, recommendations, instructions, and treatments prescribed for the animals, in a technical report. In addition, he adds a preventive program in order to avoid problems reoccurring. Extension agent’s report: The project’s extension agent submits a report including the list of attendees, locations visited, the problems discussed and their prospects.
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Regular field visits by extension staff: After the consultant visits the different locations, the project’s extension agent follows up his instructions for each case. He records all the cases in a special notebook in order to monitor their progress. Signs: An extension sign of suitable dimensions is installed in a visible place at the extension unit. The sign should highlight the following: project name, executing agency, funding agency, and the extension’s message. 4.3.2.2.2
Field Days
High production should not be the sole indicator of achievement; disseminating the information on these profitable innovations to a large number of farmers is the real criteria of success. The more farmers adopt the animal breeding and care methods, the more successful this activity will have been. Field day preparation: Field days in the extension fields are organised throughout the operation cycles. 1.
Two field days should be held for the establishment of a silage/urea-treated straw extension unit. The first day presents how the silage/urea-treated straw is made: hole/pile setting, preparation of materials, hole/pile filling, etc. The specialized consultant draws the farmers’ attention to the main points to be considered in order to ensure the creation of a high quality product. The second field day should occur 45 days later for the silage, or 21 days later for the ureatreated straw. On that day, the silo/pile is opened, the product’s quality is checked, and the consultant advises the farmers on how to adjust the outtake rate.
2.
The two field days are carried out in one selected extension field from each area. Neighbours and owners of other units in the same area are invited to participate in the event. The distribution of field days across the project’s area is made according to a schedule in order to allow a large number of farmers to attend the events and learn the techniques.
3.
Field days should be advertised in different places frequently visited by the farmers, such as the village engineer’s office, the agricultural cooperative, the WUU, the café, etc.
4.
Local administrative agencies should also be notified of dates, times and locations, in order to secure their participation and have them assist the project in disseminating the innovations among large number of farmers.
Field day implementation: 1.
Presentation by the unit holder: The farmer, whose extension unit has been selected for demonstration, explains the different steps of silage / urea- treated straw preparation, and stresses the benefits he enjoys from using his farm residues.
2.
The consultant commentary: After the farmer explains his experience, the consultant gives his comments, with especial emphasis on his technical recommendations and the common mistakes observed throughout the process. He informs the participants on: daily requirements and maximum quotient for each animal from such fodder, feeding systems (gradual replacement with traditional fodder), and precautions. Moreover, the consultant highlights the
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positive impact incurred when feeding animals such fodder from both an economic and nutritional point of view. 3.
Event record: The extension agent records the main events of the two field days with photographs or videos.
4.
Written report: The extension agent prepares a technical report including all relevant information and the list of attendees.
4.3.2.2.3
Specialist’s Visit
This program of visits is a response to a collective request for assistance from the farmers and the WUU members in order to solve the technical problems affecting their livestock, especially regarding veterinary services and animal protection. The visit is conducted upon the farmers’ request. The extension agent in charge arranges a visit for the veterinary specialist. The farmers are told to gather at a chosen meeting place with their sick animals or the consultant visits their farm. He examines the animals, provides the necessary treatments, and follows up the cases if necessary. He also shows the farmers first aid techniques, which they can use until a veterinarian can visit them. 4.3.2.2.4
Extension Monitoring Program
The extension monitoring program’s objective is to increase the number of farmers adopting the technical recommendations given during the extension activities in the field. The contact farmers play a pivotal role in this area and, therefore, the project’s extension service achieves two objectives through this program: 1.
It monitors the network of contact farmers to ensure the sustainability of the project’s extension programs.
2.
It enlarges the base of beneficiaries through the dissemination of recommendations by these contact farmers.
The program is carried out through regular visits to the livestock breeders who have cooperated with the project in establishing and operating silage / urea-treated straw units. The extension agent in charge provides them with the latest recommendations, upgrades their technical skills, and promotes their roles as communicators circulating the techniques they have acquired among their colleagues. Their farms are used as pilot sites for new training and extension activities. The extension monitoring program focuses on the following activities: 1.
Converting the surplus forage crops, such as clover and millet, into silage to make up for the fodder shortage, especially during the summer. This enables the farmers to sustain good nutrition for their animals year-round. Thus, animal production will increase and won’t fluctuate. The farmers’ income will also increase.
2.
Making use of crop residues via: treating the straw with urea to raise its nutritive value, converting maize stalks or any other crop residue such as beans, vegetables, and fruits, into silage.
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3.
Monitoring of animal husbandry, nutrition, and breeding conditions and provision of technical recommendations on issues such as caring for dairy animals, fattening calves and sheep.
Extension unit records: These documents aim to establish a registration system to record and monitor the production and reproduction of the existing livestock. The contact farmers’ use of the recording system also facilitates supplying them with technical advice and instructions necessary for achieving high productivity. The following records are essential for livestock management: 1.
Individual breeding records for female cows and buffalo in order to monitor their milk production, insemination, copulation, pregnancy tests, and other technical measures.
2.
Growth monitoring record for calves and adult cows and buffalo.
3.
Growth monitoring record for sheep.
Records should be simple to use and fill in. Recorded data can then be used in the extension campaigns and publications to encourage other farmers to adopt animal production recommendations. Economic evaluation and study: 1.
The technical evaluation: The available records at the selected extension locations serve as technical indicators of the effects of applying recommendations in the field of animal nutrition and hygiene. They are a reference whereby the progress achieved by the extension units can be compared to the control units’ inefficiency. The evaluation should highlight the benefits of using healthy practices and/or recommended feeding systems. For example, the following composite index seems helpful when evaluating the impact of feeding animals with untraditional fodders: a) Achieved milk productivity. b) Growth of fattened calves. c) Growth of sheep.
2.
Feasibility study: It is necessary to measure the economic efficiency of the implemented extension program with the calculation of an input–output relation. This serves as a reference document to compare the adopters of animal extension recommendations with non-adopters.
4.3.2.2.5
Extension Advisory Program (using the mobile unit)
Objective: The program is an extension campaign, structured according to a timetable, with the aim of informing farmers in different villages and raising their awareness of different livestock management and protection topics. It focuses on extension advice for specific problems and uses the project’s audiovisual aids to communicate the extension’s recommendations regarding technical livestock problems. The role of the mobile unit is similar to the listening / watching clubs. Implementation: Implementation is organised and carried out in the same manner as for the agricultural production extension advisory program.
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4.3.2.2.6
Exposure Visit
Objective: The exposure visit aims to exchange and transfer know-how and experience between farmers. There are two types of exposure visits: farmer to farmer visits and farmer to research stations visits Implementation: Implementation is organised and carried out in the same manner as for the agricultural production exposure visits. 4.3.3
Technical Choices
Data on technical livestock practices during various breeding and feeding cycles is collected. This allows real conclusions to be made, which reflect the success of the project’s technical assistance based on research recommendations. In the BADP study case, the following key priorities were put on: 4.3.3.1 Livestock Extension Units
Making silage: Silage made from green by-products: maize, clover, millet, beet fodder (moisture content no less than 65 %). When making silage from beet fodder, 35% straw should be added in order to reduce the moisture content to 65%. Moulas is the most common additive used to make silage. It encourages the fermentation process (recommended ratio is 30 – 50Kg per ton of silage). Oxygen elimination is necessary in order to store high-quality silage for indefinite periods of time. Consequently, well compression and complete sealing of edges is essential for proper preservation. Silage processing requires approximately 45 days. The silage unit should only be opened from one side and the suitable feeding amount for the animals then removed (maximum feeding amount is 25Kg/dairy animal/day). The remaining silage, if kept covered (air free), will maintain its quality. Well-preserved silage has a pH of 4.5, low nitrogen losses, retains the nutritional value of the original crop, and is high in lactic acid. Animals should only be fed silage after milking otherwise the milk will have an unpleasant smell. Feeding silage reduces feeding costs by approximately 40 % and increases milk production by approximately 28.75 %.
Photo 24: Making silage
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Urea-treated straw: This product is made from dried by-products: wheat straw, barley straw, rice straw, faba bean straw. Urea is the only material used in the treatment. The urea-treated wheat pile must remain covered (air free) for approximately 21 days for processing to be complete. Feeding urea-treated wheat is not allowed until 3 days after the pile is opened in order to allow the ammonia gas to escape. The maximum feeding amount for urea-treated wheat is 5-6 Kg/dairy animal/day. Feeding urea-treated wheat reduces feeding costs by approximately 50% and increases milk production by approximately 25%. Sheep fattening: From a marketing standpoint, it is preferable to begin the sheep fattening cycle approximately 100-120 days before Biram “Eid EL-Adha”. A suitable weight at the beginning of the cycle is 20 – 25 Kg. A suitable market weight is 50 – 55 Kg. Applying the technical recommendations regarding sheep feeding and management results in the following : o Decrease in feeding costs. o Reduction of the cost per Kg gained during the fattening cycle. o Increase in daily animal weight gain (Barky strain: 0.218Kg/day and Rahmany strain: 0.193Kg/day). o Increased net profit (Barky strain: 93.32 L.E and Rahmany strain: LE 88.3Kg/day). 4.3.3.2 Livestock Breeders
Feeding: Locally available raw materials are mixed together to produce concentrated feed for different types of animals (30 % crushed maize + 30% wheat bran + 30% cotton seed cake + 10% additives ). Additives for concentrated feed are composed of 6% moulas + 3% limestone + 1% salt. A combination of vitamins and minerals should be added to the concentrated feed (3Kg per ton). Replacing wheat straw with rice straw reduces feeding costs. Breeding: Farmers are provided with technical assistance on livestock breeding principles: suckling of baby calves from birth to weaning, heifer growth, bull fattening and feeding, etc. The following are the main recommendations provided in this area: Baby calves should feed on the colostrums for the first 12 hours after calving, in order to acquire disease immunity. From calving to the fifth week, the baby calf suckles 10 % of its live weight in milk. Feeding baby calves with concentrates should gradually begin during the second week.
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Milk suckling is reduced for calves during the sixth week in order to encourage them to feed on concentrates which consequently help rumen development. Calves should be weaned when they reach 95 – 100 Kg and 3 months of age. 250 – 300 Kg is a suitable live weight for purchasing bulls for fattening, while the appropriate live weight for marketing is 420 – 450Kg. The daily weight gain during the fattening cycle ranges from 1.100 to 1.250 Kg/day. Drying off dairy animals for at least 2 months before next delivery is important. Additional attention is required while feeding pregnant dairy animals in the last month before calving. Livestock breeders need a good records system in order to be able to monitor the development of their animals’ weight, milk production, pregnancy cases, and calving. Insemination of dairy animals should not be allowed until 45 – 60 days after calving. Insemination of dairy animals is possible at the end of oestrus cycle. Veterinary services: Veterinary services are provided for contact farmers and breeders of dairy animals who are involved in silage or urea-treated straw activities. During the veterinarian’s visit, dairy breeders are provided with a comprehensive view of the following: Veterinary problems such as injecting the herd with a preventive dose of vaccine against “Fashiola” disease and/or other parasites. Balanced feeding rations and vaccinations to protect animals against common summer diseases. Caring of calves and mothers after calving. Infertility: “Smooth inactive ovary” and “repeat breeder” diseases treated using Phosphorus and Logol Iodine. “Mastitis” disease treated by injecting the udder teats with “Mastalon” or any other antibiotic drugs. 4.3.4
Training Program
The training program covers all aspects of livestock management and provides the participants with practical experience. Objective: The courses’ main objective is to enable livestock breeders to understand and acquire practical experience on improved livestock raising techniques, animal selection, livestock management, feeding practices, formulation of least-cost rations, medical care, diseases and their treatment, artificial insemination, sanitation services, livestock records and farm accounts. The courses also give a comprehensive view and on-site practice in the production of silage and urea-treated straw. Target population: The livestock training package is provided for two main categories: The WUUs’ technical committees dealing with livestock practices. The extension contact farmers working with livestock. Type: Short 3 – 5 day courses List of courses:
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Title
Summary of the content
Subjects for WUU livestock technical committees Animal nutrition (M1)
• • •
Basics of animal nutrition. Nutritional diseases. Formulation of rations.
Management of dairy animals (M2)
• • • • •
Dairy cattle management and clean milk production. Dairy animal husbandry. Principles of artificial insemination. Economics of a dairy farm. Farm visits.
• • • • •
Veterinary care. Field days on vet care. Different kinds of cattle rearing. Practical training on cattle rearing. Reproductive diseases.
Animal reproduction and vet care (M3)
Hoof care and artificial insemination (M4) a)
Hoof care:
• • • • •
Importance of taking care of animal’s hooves Hoof paring methods. Practical training on hoof paring. First-aid in case of hoof inflammation. Relation between poor housing conditions and hoof inflammation.
b)
Artificial insemination:
• • •
Reproductive systems in female animals. Semen collection and testing. Care of mothers during pregnancy and after delivery.
Courses for extension contact farmers ( livestock breeders ) Silage production
• • •
4.3.5
Introduction to the fodder crops suitable for making silage. Silage making process and nutritional value of silage. Practical training on silage making.
Informational Material
Based on experience acquired from extension locations, pamphlets are prepared which include the recommendations to be adopted, a discussion of the results of applying such
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recommendations, and the feasibility study. The pamphlet is made jointly by the extension service and the animal production and protection consultant. Once this pamphlet is revised and finalised, it will be printed and distributed during extension meetings and training sessions. Pamphlets should also be distributed among the working rural organisations such as agricultural cooperatives, water users unions, and NGO’s, in order to obtain a real impact for the implemented extension programs. Title
Type
Date
Location Code
Place
Silage production
Pamphlet
Dec. 2003 232
BADP
Feeding of dairy cattle
Pamphlet
Sep- 2004 285
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4.3.6
Monitoring
Livestock production monitoring is performed for the following activities: Silage and urea-treated straw processing. Sheep fattening. Contact farmers’ program. Two levels of monitoring are required: At the extension locations established by the project. At comparative locations where ordinary farms which do not apply the technical recommendations can be found. Monitoring of the silage and urea-treated straw (wheat) process: The silage and ureatreated piles are monitored from the beginning of processing to the opening date of the piles, which occurs 45 days later for the silage and 21 days later for the urea-treated straw. One has to make sure that the farmers do not open the piles before the process is truly completed. 1.
Monitoring of silage is necessary in order to ensure the farmer’s commitment to the technical recommendations issued by the animal production consultant. In addition, the replacement ratio between traditional fodder and processed fodders should be calculated.
2.
Periodic weekly records of animal productivity results before, during, and after feeding silage or treated straw for each animal should be kept.
3.
Every farmer must keep such a monitoring record for the development of his animals’ productivity.
Monitoring of the sheep fattening process: Changes in sheep weight are monitored using the following steps: 1.
Record of the weight before the fattening process is begun.
2.
Weekly record of the weight.
3.
Record of the daily weight growth and general growth.
4.
Comparison of the actual growth developments with the standard growth levels.
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5.
At the end of the process, calculation of the total weight growth by subtracting animal weight at the beginning of the period from its weight at the end of the fattening period.
6.
Calculation of the daily growth rate.
7.
Preparation of a technical report on the results achieved at different locations and economic study.
8.
Preparation of a comparative analysis between extension locations applying the recommendations and non-extension locations which do not apply such recommendations. Explanation of the variants.
Monitoring of the contact farmers’ activities: 1.
Recording calves’ weight developments: a) Recording of the animal’s initial weight at the beginning of the period. b) Weekly weighing of calves. c) Daily growth measurement. d) Comparison of the actual weight developments with standard levels. e) At the end of the processes, calculation of the total weight growth by subtracting animal weight at the beginning of the period from its weight at the end of the period. f) Calculation of the daily growth rate. g) Preparation of a technical report on the results achieved at different locations and the relevant economic study. h) Preparation of an error analysis made at the locations which do not apply the extension recommendations and explanation of their low productivity. In addition, preparation of a comparative analysis of results from the extension locations and non-extension locations.
2.
Monitoring of the breeding animals from before insemination to calving: a) Monitoring of the animals at the extension farms during the different stages of their growth cycle. b) Weekly monitoring of the animals’ weights developments since their arrival in the area. c) Calculation of the animals’ daily growth and comparison of the actual growth with the standard levels. d) At the end of the period, calculation of the total growth rate by subtracting the initial weight from the final weight. e) Determination of the heifer’s health status and suitability for reproduction based on her weight development. Recommendation for the date of fertilization and monitoring until calving.
3.
Monitoring of the dairy cows and buffalo: a) Monitoring of the dairy animals from calving until the next insemination.
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b) Monitoring of pregnant animals until they have been dried off, two months prior to the next calving, taking into consideration the application of a good nutritional system during the last month of pregnancy. 4.4 BUDGET / UNIT COSTS 4.4.1
Agricultural Production
Demonstration plots:
Crops
Inputs
Demo plots: Wheat 500 Faba Beans 500 Onion 500 Maize 500 Peanut 500 Millet 500 Potato 500 Beans 500 Tomato 500 Grape 1000 Citrus 1000 Mango 1000 Cropping patterns: Cropping P. 40000
4.4.2
Budget (L.E) Follow up cost
Total
Unit cost / Feddan
580 580 2030 580 580 580 580 580 580 1360 1360 1360
1080 1080 2530 1080 1080 1080 1080 1080 1080 2360 2360 2360
1080 1080 2530 1080 1080 1080 1080 1080 1080 2360 2360 2360
50040
90040
1125.5
Livestock Production
Extension units: Budget (L.E) Activity Silage Urea-treated straw
Unit cost Inputs
Follow up cost
100 50
340 000
Total 440 50
440 50
Extension meetings and field days: Budget (L.E)
# Participants
Unit cost
450
20
22.50
425
20
21.25
Activity Consultancy Field day
290
Extension meeting
125
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Farmers’ remuneration 160 300
143
Total
Exposure visit
320
600
920
25
36.80
S.M.S
250
75
325
15
21.66
Periodic meeting
200
100
300
20
15.00
4.5 USEFUL CONTACTS Serial
1
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
Authority / Institution
General Administration for Development and Cooperation
Nubariya Department of Agriculture
Location 3 in Nubariya Region: West Nubariya at Abo Bakr village Bustan 1, 2 area at Abo Taleb village Bustan 3 area at El Imam Malek village Nubariya City, Alex - Cairo Desert Road , Km 81
West Nubariya Executive Authority for Soil Nubariya City Improvement Projects Regional Agricultural Research Station of the New Alex - Cairo Desert Road , Lands Km 47 Alex - Cairo Desert Road , Desert Research Centre – Mariut Research Station Km 33 Moubarak National Project for Settling and Developing Nubariya City Newly Reclaimed Lands The International Centre for Training and Development El Amrya City, Alex in the New Lands Cairo Desert Road , Km 33 American University – Desert Development Centre Sadat City Micronutrients and Plant Nutrition Problems Project El Amrya City Development Support Com. Centre El Amrya City West Nubariya area, Abo West Nubariya Veterinary Department Bakr village Sakha–Kafr El Sheikh Pilot Training Unit for Dairy Production Governorate. Nubariya Animal Breeding Station – Untraditional Alex - Cairo Desert Road , Fodder Unit Km 47
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5
NGOs AND INCOME GENERATING ACTIVITIES The integration of gender issues is recognized as one of the factors ensuring the sustainability of any development operation. Women represent approximately half of the Egyptian population. However, their role and contribution to the household income in rural society is generally negligible and limited to off-farm labour. Women’s needs and interests were assessed at the project’s early stages. Investigations revealed that lack of technical knowledge and skills prevented women from supporting the household incomes. Constraints to the development of rural communities at the village level, such as lack of social infrastructures or facilities, access to credit, environmental protection, basic health services, etc. were also detected at a later stage of the project. Therefore, it was concluded that women’s groups organised into NGOs could address these important social issues and contribute to the communities’ economical development in a sustainable manner, and that women should be trained and assisted to create their own income-generating activities.
5.1 NON-GOVERNMENTAL ORGANISATIONS
The role of civil society and its contribution to development has gained progressive importance with the Egyptian economical reform program begun in the early 90’s. The establishment of Non-Governmental Organisations in Egypt has gained momentum, especially after the International Conference on Population and Development (1994). Special interest in such organisations led the Government to revise the former law governing NGO activities (Law no. 32 /1964) and a new social law for NGOs has recently been issued (Law no. 84 / 2002). Therefore the involvement of NonGovernmental Organisations in the development of the new communities settled in the reclaimed lands is very much relevant and in line with the current trend, which considers NGOs as partners in the development process. Similarly, the establishment of rural NGOs gives women the necessary legal and operational framework to enhance their role, contribute to the improvement of living conditions, and support various economic initiatives. 5.1.1
Specific Strategy
5.1.1.1 Specific Problems
A baseline survey carried out at the beginning of the program revealed that the majority of women who joined the new rural communities in Bustan were from different governorates, with various backgrounds, customs, and traditions. Usually, women are engaged in individual field or household work and are not organised into local groups to serve their social and economic interests and needs. Further investigations revealed that most rural women have spare time but their contribution to the household income is limited. Lack of know-how, skills, and financial resources generally prevent women from setting up and managing income generating activities. A problem analysis conducted for the Bustan area highlighted the previous points, as shown in the following diagram:
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Figure 33: Specific Household Problems Tree Low household incomes & poor living conditions
Deterioration of environmental & health conditions Inappropriate household management
Low contribution of women to family incomes Limited knowledge & skills
Lack of equipment / inputs
No financial resources
Reduced commercial opportunities
Low quality standards and poor product presentation
Rural families and women in particular suffer from several constraints. Some obstacles to economic development are related to the non-optimal use of available resources and opportunities. The major problems in the area are: 1.
Lack of technical knowledge and experience to set up and manage small-scale enterprises.
2.
Lack of financial resources to set up any income-generating activity.
3.
Transportation difficulties.
4.
Absence of permanent markets in the villages.
5.
Lack of some basic facilities, such as: pharmacies, infirmaries, nurseries, medical laboratories, children’s play areas, libraries, etc.
6.
Poor environmental conditions.
5.1.1.2 Priorities
The order of priorities for solving these problems is: 1.
Acquisition of skills and technical knowledge in the field of income- generating small-scale enterprises and for the social issues that need to be addressed.
2.
Access to credit sources.
3.
Provision of basic village facilities and social services.
4.
Improvement of the environmental conditions.
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5.1.1.3 Specific Objectives
If resources and opportunities were well exploited, the impact on the welfare of the rural family would be remarkable. The strategy to cope with the rural communities’ constraints relies on the following actions: 1.
Development and improvement of women’s attitudes through the promotion of women’s awareness of family planning, mother and child care, and household management.
2.
Development of environmental awareness.
3.
Utilisation of available or potential resources using appropriate technologies, according to the concept of sustainability.
4.
Support and promotion of non-profit social work.
Within this context, women’s non-profit associations are likely to play an essential and effective role. More specifically, the NGOs aim to channel financing facilities to the members, lead awareness campaigns on sensitive issues, support and encourage the rural communities’ economical growth, and address social issues (e.g. provision of basic health facilities). 5.1.2
Methodology and Tools
5.1.2.1 Background Information
An NGO is an association with a permanent organisation for a specific or non-specific duration. It consists of physical persons of moral standing. NGOs are composed of a minimum of ten members. They perform activities under the umbrella of the Ministry of Social Affairs. The NGOs’ institutional structure and activities were originally governed by law No. 32 / 1964. This law was successfully amended in 2002 by law No. 84, which deals with the establishment of private associations and institutions. The following are the most significant considerations to take into account when establishing a non-governmental organisation: 1.
Each NGO must have written internal regulations signed by its founders. In addition, it must have an administrative hierarchy and office.
2.
People who have had previous criminal or freedom-restraining penalties cannot establish NGOs.
3.
According to the law, no private agency can perform any activity related to the practice of non-profit associations or institutions without the legal status of an NGO.
4.
NGOs may join, participate, or enrol in an organised club, society, or authority, with prior notification of the relevant administration.
5.
After the establishment of an NGO is announced, the management council must hold a formal meeting to acknowledge its executive bill. This bill identifies both the responsibilities and the duties of each council member. The minutes of the council meeting are signed by all members.
6.
It is forbidden to work as a member of the council in return for a salary.
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5.1.2.2 Specific Methodology
The establishment of NGOs and their capacity building must go through the following stages: 1.
Dissemination of the NGO’s intent through orientation or informational meetings which are held within the framework of activities for the development of rural women in the villages.
2.
Organisation of coordination meetings with the beneficiaries and the representatives of the concerned Ministry of Social Affairs branch in order to brief the attendees on the laws, by-laws, and benefits of joining social work, how NGOs operate, executive stages of establishing NGOs in the new lands, and networking between NGOs and other societies acting on the governorate level in different areas.
3.
Organisation of a planning workshop to define the fields of activity, priorities, and purpose(s) of new potential associations. These workshops are organised in collaboration with the Department of Social Affairs to which the villages are affiliated.
4.
Organisation of Management Council member elections and execution of the registration procedures for the newly established NGO.
5.
Training for board members (5 to 9 people) on finance, administration, management, communication skills, and feasibility studies for non-profit projects.
5.1.2.3 Tools
Registration: The registration document should include the NGO’s name, its field of activity and purpose(s), its location and geographical working area. This must be acknowledged by all its founders. The procedures to officially establish an association as an NGO are as follows: 1.
The individuals who are looking to establish an NGO must come from one area or one village. Their number may not be less than ten, and their age no less than sixteen years old. That is to say, each one must have a personal or family Identity Card.
2.
The NGO founders should hold a meeting to elect a board of directors who will be in charge of the NGO’s executive management. The number of board members, which must remain an odd number, ranges from 5 to 15.
3.
The board obtains the internal NGO regulations form from the concerned regional union forum. The internal regulations (IR) should include the basic disciplinary orders as well as the NGOs’ operating procedures.
4.
Application forms and internal regulations should be filled out. The IR should include the NGO’s standing regulations including: the NGO’s name, type of activity, address of its administrative office, founders’ names, ages, nationalities, occupations, and addresses.
5.
The NGO must have financial resources and an office, which is considered as temporary until registration has been completed. The office must have two rooms, a bathroom, and electrical facilities.
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6.
A delegate from the Department of Social Affairs visits the NGO office and accredits the location. He records the minutes of the situation to be attached to the other notification papers.
7.
The executive bill of the NGO law determines the registration procedures and fees due for the entry of this document into the State’s special records. This must include a contribution in an amount not exceeding 100.00 L.E. This amount helps subsidise the NGO and institutions fund. The bank draft is enclosed with the application entry form.
8.
A meeting of the NGO founders takes place in order for them to choose a representative. They register the details in minutes, which they all sign. The representative then applies for the NGO’s internal regulations’ registration with the concerned agency. The file consists of the following papers and a stamp in the amount of 50.00 L.E: a) Three copies of the NGO internal regulations signed by all founders. b) Three copies of the founders’ list. c) Acknowledgment by each founder that he has no previous criminal record. d) The agreed designation by the founders of the NGO’s representative and the procedures of establishment. e) Title deed for the NGO’s office location, whether it is a deed of dedication, usufruct, rent, or assignment. f) A document to certify that one hundred pounds was deposited to assist the NGOs’ activities.
9.
The afore–mentioned file is submitted to the Public Security Directorate and the Department of Social Affairs.
10. Once these departments approve the application, the NGO is given an entry number. 11.
The nearby police station has the authority to summon the management board and inspect the NGO’s office.
12. The police station, as a representative of public security, dispatches an answer to the Department of Social Affairs as the last step towards registration. The management board then receives the following: a) The certificate of registration. b) The acknowledgment of approval by the concerned under-secretary of state. c) A copy of the bill. 13. The NGO will create a stamp that carries its name and the date / number of registration. Accounts: The NGO must open a private account in a bank, bearing the NGO’s entry name and number. This entails the following steps: 1.
Preparation of minutes by the management board, where all members agree on opening a current account in a specified bank.
2.
In the same minutes, members agree that checks issued by the NGO must bear a double signature: the chairman’s and the treasurer’s.
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3.
A copy of these minutes is sent to the Department of Social Affairs for notification. A letter from the Department of Social Affairs must be enclosed in order to open an account. At least 50.00 L.E. are required to open the account. Each NGO is subsidized with 1000 L.E. as a contribution to establishing activities or renovating the association building.
4.
The NGO shall invest its revenues in order to sustain its activities and meet the statutory objective(s). It also has the right to fund productive projects and services.
5.
The NGOs should refrain from participating in any financial speculation.
Records system: Each NGO must keep records at its administrative office, where data, documents, and correspondence are kept, such as: 1.
Basic internal regulations bill.
2.
NGO membership record and subscriptions.
3.
A record of board membership changes.
4.
The general assembly meeting logbook.
5.
The minutes of board meetings and decisions.
6.
The records of financial inputs and outputs.
7.
Bank account, treasury, and bookkeeping records.
8.
A record of the NGO’s possessions, i.e. land, buildings, fixed assets, etc.
9.
A record of visits.
10. A record of donations. These records must be signed by the competent agencies before circulation. Then they are stamped and given serial numbers by the NGO’s administration. NGO private records include the following: 1.
The management board record book: where council meeting minutes are registered, focusing on the meeting’s objectives and conclusions or decisions taken by the council.
2.
The general assembly record book: where ordinary and extraordinary general assembly meetings are registered.
3.
Record No. 118 (bookkeeping): where all NGO possessions are registered whatever the type.
4.
Visit record book: where visits to the NGO are registered, with mention of the visitor’s purpose and identity.
5.
Record of membership: where the NGO board members are registered, as well as their date of subscription and background.
6.
Management council minutes’ book, which represent the formal channel for dealing with the Department of Social Affairs.
7.
General assembly minutes’ book, which represent the formal channel for dealing with the Department of Social Affairs.
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NGO financial records include the following: 1.
Bank records, where all banking activities are registered.
2.
Financial input - output record, where the NGO’s revenues and expenditures are registered.
3.
Receipts book, where members’ subscriptions are recorded.
5.1.3
Standard Logbooks
The BADP provided each NGO with a set of standard books for keeping records on data and activities, as specified in the table below: No.
5.1.4
Items / description
1
Expense and revenue book
2
Management board minutes book
3
General assembly minutes book
4
Members’ subscriptions book
5
Book for technical committees’ affairs
6
Bank account records book
7
NGO activities book
8
Store records
Training Program
Overall objectives: Founders of rural NGOs in the Bustan area are women from different governorates, with various educational backgrounds and traditions, and usually with no previous experience of such organisations. Therefore, training is critical in order to give the board members the necessary skills and capacities and enable them to effectively start up and manage the newly registered organisations. Target group: Training is only delivered to the board members (from 5 to 15). Ordinary members are not trained, since purpose(s) and features of the NGOs are variable. Training aims to make the board members aware of the legal basis, developmental role, and expected benefits from the NGOs, and to increase their capacity in addressing social and economic issues within the rural communities. Once they are trained, the board members will be able to properly administer and manage the organisation, design and implement development activities in accordance to the NGO’s mandate, and represent the organisation. Type: In order to encourage and stimulate positive and constructive interaction amongst the participants, theoretical lectures will be complemented by a variety of participatory training tools and techniques, such as: lectures, brainstorming, group activity / work, group discussions, and case studies.
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Training curricula: Basic training for board members, as applied by the BADP, consists of 3 three-day modules, as follows: 1. 2. 3.
Module 1 : Forming and enrolling in NGOs Module 2 : NGO administration Module 3 : Communication, decision-making and group dynamics
After basic training, board members are provided with a comprehensive 21-day training cycle entitled “NGO Empowerment”, delivered by a specialised service provider. Program contents: Module 1:
1. Day 1 - Introduction and concept of NGOs Identifying NGOs. Motivating farmers to form NGOs. Types of NGOs (charitable, private institutions, and unions). NGO objectives as effective instruments for reaching and involving the local population. Procedures for forming and establishing NGOs. Factors ensuring NGO success: social cohesion, mutual trust and joint action. 2. Day 2 - The organisation of NGOs NGO laws and by-laws. Structure and functions of the general assembly and board of directors, steering committees, and technical committees. Relationships between NGOs and governmental departments and /or authorities. 3. Day 3 - Role and responsibilities of NGOs in rural development Rural development concepts and dimensions. Role of NGOs in rural development : o economical o social o institutional Sustainability of NGO developmental efforts once external support is withdrawn : o Creating the institutional set up of NGOs, with adequate attention to capability, knowledge and technical skills o The extent to which the NGO operates in a participatory manner Preparation of action plans and annual reports. Expected Outputs: As a result trainees will be able to: Convene and manage meetings (general assembly of directors, steering committees and technical committees). Prepare annual Action Plans. Prepare the annual reports on the union’s activities at the end of each financial year of the general assembly. Deal and cooperate with executive bodies, local authorities. Settle disputes amongst members.
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Module 2:
1. Day 1 - NGO Financial Affairs Financial resources. Keeping financial records (expense / revenue book). Steps needed to organise, administrate, and finance the NGO accounting system. Micro- finance. Members’ control and audit of funds. 2. Day 2 - Bookkeeping Recording system for NGO administration. How to keep books and register accounting records. How to calculate a budget. 3. Day 3 - Practical training on finance and bookkeeping Preparing financial plans. Mandating financial accounts in books. How to apply for a loan/grant. Managing the credit programs. Calculating the annual budget. Expected Outputs: The trainees will be able to: Recognize the different types of records (financial record – administrative record – assistant record). Seek financial resources and collect annual fees / contributions. Manage a credit program. Calculate the estimated costs, profits and return of expenses. Prepare budgets. Module 3:
1. Day 1 - Communication skills Definition of communication. Principles of communication. Tools and types of communication. Interaction in communication. Active listening. Communication in community development and its feedback. 2. Day 2 – Decision-making inside groups Definition of decision-making. Types of decisions and their importance. Guidelines for taking rational decisions. 3. Day 3 - Keeping effective and dynamic groups Concept and types of groups. Group dynamics. Ways to strengthen local level coordination with public and private agencies. Factors to ensure sustainability.
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Expected Outputs: The trainees will be able to: Work as a group in making decisions. Solve community problems collectively. Engage in social work. Serve their community. NGO Empowerment training cycle:
1. Part I – Refresher course: NGOs’ scope of work (3 days) o Types of NGOs. o Laws and by-laws. o Role and responsibilities of the board / general assembly. o Principles of NGO management. Improving management and leadership skills (2 days) o Organizing and planning. o Management of human resources. o Definition / types of leaders. o Skills of a clever manager. Improving communication skills and tools (2 days) o Definition of communication. o Types of communication. o Active communication skills. o Negotiations skills. 2. Part II – Advanced training: Carrying out a feasibility study (4 days) o Operational steps o Case studies Project design for community-based activity (3 days) o Community needs : identification and assessment o Data collection and analysis o Formulation of project objectives o Database content / method Writing a proposal for project financing (3 days) o Concepts and importance o Main components of a proposal o Practical application Project monitoring and evaluation (2 days) o Project cycle o Plan for achievement o Definition of monitoring o Design of monitoring forms o Evaluation concept and plan o Types of evaluation o Analysis of results Networking (2 days) o Meaning and concept of networking o Importance of NGO networking o NGOs’ incentives to establish networks o Advantages / disadvantages of networking
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o Main steps to establish the NGO network
Expected outputs: The trainees will be able to: Understand the basic elements of good NGO governance. Understand the role and responsibilities of the board and general assembly. Formulate a plan in a participatory way. Acquire practical knowledge in NGO management. Identify strategies for securing NGO financial sustainability. Realize the importance of networking with other associations. Implement, monitor, and evaluate both economic and social activities.
Photo 25: NGO training
5.1.5
Informational Materials Title
Date
Location Code
Role of NGOs in Developing New Communities - leaflet
5.1.6
June 2004
266
Place BADP
Monitoring
NGO monitoring is performed at two levels: 1.
The project (or sponsoring agency)
2.
Department of Social Affairs
Project level: From an administrative viewpoint, the sponsoring agency carries out the following tasks: 1. 2. 3.
Monitoring of NGO records, as well as preparation of the meeting minutes. Monitoring of the collection and recording of subscriptions. Assessment of the degree of commitment at the fortnightly and monthly meetings scheduled by the NGO.
The meeting procedures are also evaluated, such as respect of the quorum for resolutions and compliance / implementation of the decisions. Department of Social Affairs level: The concerned Department of Social Affairs monitors the NGOs’ actions and management board minutes. The department officer in charge signs them. Each NGO has an annual balance sheet. It keeps accounting books
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where it records expenditures and revenues, including donations and their sources. If the NGO’s financial input / output exceeds 20.000 L.E, an accountant should review the closing balance sheet. The Department of Social Affairs reviews the NGO’s annual balance sheet, the management board report, and the report of the account supervisor at the NGO office. 5.1.7
Scheduling Activities
Based upon the BADP pilot experience, the entire process of establishing and building the operational capacity of a women’s NGO takes almost two years, as detailed in the following timeframe: 1st semester
Activities
2nd semester
3rd semester
4th semester
Information Workshop, elections Registration Basic training Advanced training Capacity building
This time schedule refers to a cluster of 3 NGOs being established simultaneously, so as to optimise the resources / inputs provided by the project. 5.1.8
Budget / Unit Costs
Based upon the BADP’s experience, the budget needed to establish and sustain a standard 20–25 member NGO until it reaches full capacity amounts to approximately 24 500 L.E, broken down as follows: Activities
Cost (L.E)
Remarks
From assessment up to registration
4 500 Meetings, workshop, elections
Seed money (grant)
2 000
Training of board members - basic
5 300 3 modules totalling 9 days
Training of board members – advanced (empowerment)
Management, need assessment, 7 600 project design and feasibility, fund raising.
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Provision of standard logbooks
100
Capacity building
5 000
TOTAL
At least 8 animation meetings for BM and members
24 500
5.2 INCOME-GENERATING ACTIVITIES
Egyptian women represent half of the population and 60% of these women live in rural areas. Despite this high percentage, few rural women are actually able to significantly contribute to the family income through income-generating activities, and even fewer own or operate farms or agricultural enterprises. It is vital to include these women in the development process, not only to increase economic revenues, but also to improve living conditions, knowledge and skills, environmental circumstances, and the general setting required for sustainable and effective growth. 5.2.1
Specific Problems
An exploratory study examined the problems and needs of families in the Bustan region with a particular focus on women’s issues: 1.
Rural families’ have very low revenues and need to find alternative sources of income in order to adjust to the new community.
2.
Women receive little education and there is a high percentage of female illiteracy in the area.
3.
Rural families who have resettled from the old lands bring with them outdated social traditions and habits such as marrying their daughters very young and not caring about education for girls. In addition, the majority of these new settlers use harmful environmental practices.
4.
Women are not involved in income-generating activities because of their lack of experience and skills.
5.
Home-manufactured products, such as butter, cheese, and poultry, are consumed by the families themselves without any thought for marketing or sales potential. In addition, the absence of a nearby wholesale market, and the inadequacy of local transportation and its high prices, is an obstacle to any real trade.
6.
Proper home-manufacturing requires expensive equipment such as refrigerators. Even if these are made available, the unstable electrical supply makes food preservation difficult.
7.
Some women must obtain water for their households from public drinking water installations which are liable to be polluted.
8.
Although 50% of rural women assist in raising animals such as buffalo, caws, and goats, they lack animal husbandry skills and basic veterinary services.
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Figure 34: Specific Women's Problems Tree (a) Low farm / household income and poor living standards Low women’s contribution to family income
Limited skills to set up home-based enterprises
No access to funds
Lack of equipment
Limited marketing opportunities for homemade products
Low quality standards & poor presentation of products
Figure 35: Specific Women's Problems Tree (b) Low farm / household income and poor living standards
Deterioration of environmental and health conditions
Inappropriate environmental habits
5.2.2
Lack of social activity
Poor family health
Specific Objectives
The proposed solution for the above mentioned problems are as follows: 1.
Women’s awareness of the best practices to increase production and rationalize consumption should be developed.
2.
Families should be made aware of the need to change negative habits and irrational behaviours. In addition, settlers should be shown environmentally-safe methods of combating insects and rodents and how to use and store potable water economically and hygienically.
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3.
Women should be trained and extension units should be established to encourage them to carry out small business enterprises. Extension units should present approaches for income generating activities such as food processing, poultry production, rabbit breeding, and sheep fattening.
4.
The establishment of specialized marketing cooperatives and non-governmental organisations to overcome marketing problems should be encouraged.
5.2.3
Methodology and Tools
Although, as studies indicate, rural women contribute to agricultural activities and housekeeping, these efforts do not affect family income. Most rural women lack the proper technical information and necessary skills to produce high quality products with an economic return. Acquiring new small business skills will give them the opportunity of generating additional income. In addition, health issues and environmental concerns also need to be addressed. Therefore, two types of activities need to be implemented: Organisation of forums and focused visits where health and sanitation information can be presented to women by physicians and other healthcare workers. Definition of a training program to develop the women’s skills and provide them with the necessary experience and information to begin their own incomegenerating activities. 5.2.4
Health Program
In response to the difficult living conditions, lack of access to medical facilities, and lack of information on health and hygiene issues, the Family Development Unit organised visits by healthcare professionals to several project locations. Physicians from the Ministry of Health were hired to give lectures at village clinics, host houses, and training halls, on the following topics: Maternity care during pregnancy and after delivery. Baby and infant care during different growing stages. First aid and children’s vaccinations. Family nutrition programs. As this was considered an awareness-raising campaign, no medications were distributed, but monitoring is carried out by the family development team and healthcare centres are being developed by the Ministry of Health. 5.2.5
Training Program
The training program was financed and implemented through the BADP’s training unit, whose family development staff consists of: Unit Chief Two sections (income-generating activities and environmental department and NGO department). Field officers to implement the activities and monitor achievements.
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Training was provided by teachers from the Agricultural University and from different research institutes and took place at these locations and in the field. Overall objectives: In order for a training program to be truly effective, it must address the actual needs of the target group. Therefore, before the training activities begin, a survey should be made of the women’s needs and expectations. The training program’s objective is to improve rural women’s ability to create and manage small enterprises and provide them with the technical skills required to ensure their success and sustainability. Target group: Participants consist of WUU member farmers’ wives, female members of existing NGOs, and general women from the villages within the project area. Type: In order to encourage and stimulate a high level of positive and constructive interaction amongst the participants and ensure productivity, the training unit uses a variety of participatory training techniques such as: lectures, practical training and demonstrations, excursions, interactive discussions, and brainstorming. Programme organisation: The training program is divided into two sections. The first one covers basic information on several income-generating activities appropriate for the area and lasts six days. At the end of this phase, participants are asked to respond to a questionnaire, provided by the family development staff, in order to divide the participants according to their personal interests. Groups are thus formed and participants are enrolled in different advanced training courses, which last ten days. Figure 36: Training Package Training package
Basic training
Assessment of women’s needs and interests
Advanced training
Food processing
Dairy processing
Small livestock
Livestock
Extension role of female leaders
5.2.5.1 Basic Training Lecture 1: Technical recommendations for livestock management (nutrition, housing, milking, reproduction, veterinary care)
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Expected Output: The trainees will have knowledge of appropriate techniques in the following areas: Breeding and housing management. Animal care during dry periods and pregnancy. Calf rearing from birth to weaning. Milking process and high quality milk production. Animal nutrition. Reproduction and veterinary management. Lecture 2: Technical recommendations for poultry management (nutrition, housing and veterinary care)
Expected Output: The trainees will have knowledge of appropriate techniques in the following areas: Poultry breed selection for home rearing. Choice and preparation of appropriate housing to provide suitable environmental conditions for the flock. Poultry nutrition. Health measures for poultry breeding. Feasibility studies for small poultry enterprises. Lecture 3: Processing jams, juice syrups, and pickles.
Expected Output: The trainees will have knowledge of appropriate techniques in the following areas: Choosing raw materials (variety – maturity – shrinkage). Handling, receiving, and inspecting. Cleaning, peeling, and trimming. Slicing, cutting, pulping, and homogenization. Juicing and concentration. Methods of drying fruit. Lecture 4: Storage and preservation of vegetables and fruit (cold storage, freezing) and dehydration of meat and fish
Expected Output: The trainees will have knowledge of appropriate techniques in the following areas: The nutritive value of meat and the processing of pasterma and sausage. The nutritive value of fish and different methods for preservation (drying, salting, or smoking). Preservation of vegetables and fruit: freezing process steps and methods. Lecture 5: Role and responsibilities of NGOs
Expected Output: The trainees will be able to understand the following: Definition and creation of NGOs. Internal regulations, framework, and by-laws of NGOs. The role of NGOs in community development. Tasks and responsibilities of NGO members.
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Lecture 6: The environmental impact of technology
Expected Output: The trainees will be able to understand the following: Improper use of some agricultural inputs such as pesticides. Correct ways to store cattle manure. The negative impacts of burning straw in fields and burning plastic waste in stoves. The dangers of allowing children to swim in canals and using canal water for domestic purposes which may cause health problems. 5.2.5.2 End of Session Questionnaire
After basic training has been completed, the participants answer the following questionnaire which will help decide what advanced courses they participate in. As 20% of these women are illiterate, the supervisors read the questionnaire and help them circle the correct answers if necessary. The results are then analysed by the family development staff. Figure ??: Questionnaire
QUESTIONNAIRE
Area: ……………………………………………………………………………………… Village Name: ……………………………………………………………………………. Mesqua Number: ………………………………………………………………………... Date ………………………………………………….........................................................
Primary data:
A. Name: …………………………………………………….
usufruct- graduate
B. Age: ……………………. C. Plot number: ………………………..
House number: …………………..
D. Number of children: …………………………………… Sons
- Daughters
E. Name of spouse: …………………………………………………………………. F. Occupation of spouse: …………………………………………………………… Data related to training needs: Have you applied what you have learned in the sessions that were conducted by…………..
………………………….? Yes (
)
No (
)
If you answered yes, which activity did you apply ………………………………………… If you answered no, why did you choose not to apply what was taught?
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(
) I am not satisfied with the idea.
(
) The high cost.
(
) I have no time.
(
) Other reasons. 162
Training needs:
Please note which of the following training fields you need, according to their importance. Serial
Field
1
Animal Production
2
Food Processing
3
Dairy Manufacturing
4
Raising Rabbit
5
Raising Chickens
6
Environmental Issues
1
2
3
4
5
6
Technical questions:
Here are some questions that were discussed during the training sessions you took part in. Please choose the right answer: (1) When freezing vegetables, the procedure is:
1. Vegetables are washed then packed. 2. Vegetables are washed and cut then packed. 3. Vegetables are boiled in water after washing and cut before packing. (2) To correctly prepare jam:
1. Sugar is added to the fruit, then left for 12 hours, then cooked. 2. Sugar is added to the fruit and cooked directly. 3. Fruit is boiled, and then sugar is added. (3) When drying vegetables, the procedure is:
1. Vegetables are spread in the sun after being washed. 2. Vegetables are washed then spread in the shade. 3. Vegetables are exposed to the sun for a day after being washed and then they are moved to a place in the shade. (4) When insects came into the house one should:
1. Spray the house with pesticides. 2. Take other precautions rather than spraying with pesticides. (5) When you spray the house with insecticides the spray direction is:
1. Up
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(6) When there is no water supply to the house:
1. Water is kept in plastic containers. 2. Water is kept in pottery containers. 3. Water is kept in metal containers. (7) After chicks hatch:
1. Food is given directly after hatching. 2. Food is given four days later. 3. Food is given three days later. (8) How many weeks old should ducks be before they are sold and why:
1. 15 weeks
the reason is……………………………………………..
2. 13 weeks
the reason is……………………………………………..
3. 12 weeks
the reason is……………………………………………..
(9) When raising cows, it is best to select:
1. Local cows. 2. Mixed hybrid cows. 3. There is no difference between the two kinds. (10) Feeding animals clover:
1. Only clover should be fed. 2. Clover with barley should be fed. 3. Clover with barley and straw should be fed. (11) Livestock to be fattened can be bought from markets at a suitable price when:
1. There is enough green fodder available. 2. The price of fodder is high. 3. At any time all year round. (12) To make a kilo of Domitta cheese one needs:
1. Five kilos of buffalo milk. 2. Three kilos of buffalo milk. 3. Two kilos of buffalo milk. (13) There is no difference between butter and oil:
Yes ( )
No ( )
If yes, what is this difference?.........................................................................
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5.2.5.3 Advanced Training Food Processing (Stage 1):
Photos 26 & 27: Meat processing and juice production
Lecture 1: Methods of preserving and processing fish and meat
Nutritive value of fish and meat. Processing of fish and meat (drying, salting, and smoking). The differences between fresh and spoiled fish and meat. Cold storing fish and meat. Freezing fish and meat. Practical training. Expected output: The trainees will understand and have experience of the different ways of processing meat and fish and different types of storage. Processing and preserving sausages. Processing and preserving beef burgers. Processing and preserving beef koftas. Lecture 2: Processing juices and syrups
Raw materials used for processing. Handling, receiving, and inspecting ingredients. Cleaning, peeling, and trimming. Slicing, cutting, pulping, and homogenization. Juicing and concentrating. Methods of processing syrup. Practical training. Expected Output: The trainees will understand and have experience of the different ways of processing juices and syrups, such as guava and mango, and will be able to do the following: Select suitable varieties of fruits and vegetables. Go through all the recommended processing steps. Lecture 3: Processing jam
Raw materials used for processing. Handling, receiving, and inspecting ingredients.
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Cleaning, peeling, and trimming. Slicing, cutting, pulping, and homogenization. Juicing and concentrating jam. Methods of processing jam. Practical training. Expected Output: The trainees will understand the different ways of processing jam. They will also practice producing jam from fruits and vegetables, such as guava and dates, and will be able to do the following: Select suitable varieties of fruits and vegetables. Go through all the recommended processing steps. Lecture 4: Food preservation
Preservation by freezing and dehydration The difference between slow and quick freezing. Sun dehydration. Practical training. Expected Output: The trainees will understand the different ways of preserving food. They will also practice food preservation of green beans, cabbage, and oulqas, and will be able to do the following: Select suitable varieties of fruits and vegetables for preservation. Go through all the recommended preservation steps (slow and quick freezing). Preservation through sun dehydration. Store the products in the correct manner. Lecture 5: Pickling
What is pickling? Raw materials used for pickling (vegetables, vinegar, salt, spices, etc.). Pickling vegetables. Salting and fermentation. Some defects of pickled vegetables. Storage. Practical training. Expected Output: The trainees will understand the different pickling methods. They will also practice pickling vegetables such as onions, lemons, and carrots, and will be able to do the following: Select high quality vegetables. Be familiar with salting and fermentation techniques. Select appropriate storage facilities.
Photo 28: Pickling
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Lecture 6: Preparing traditional sweets such as sudania (groundnut), homosia (chick pea) , semsimia (sesame) and tehina.
Expected Output: The trainees will understand and have experience in making these sweets: Select the raw materials. Go through all the recommended processing steps Food Processing (stage 2): Lecture 1: Baking pizza
Main ingredients. Making pizza sauce and baking the pizza. Different types of pizza (vegetable, calzone, tuna, and mushroom). Lecture 2: Baking different types of bread and making macaroni
Types of bread and their importance. Tools used in baking bread. Stove temperature. Main bread and macaroni ingredients. Manufacturing of macaroni, the macaroni machine, and different shapes of macaroni. Practical training. Lecture 3: Baking different types of biscuits
Types of biscuits and cakes and different required ingredients Different recipes and baking techniques. Practical training for making petits fours, anise biscuits, cheese fingers, angel cakes, etc. Course Expected Output: Trainees will understand and have experience in producing all these products. Small Livestock (stage 1): Lecture 1: Keeping and breeding poultry
Poultry breed selection for home rearing. Choosing the right housing according to the environmental conditions. Poultry nutrition (nutrition techniques and materials used) and healthcare. Feasibility study for small poultry enterprises. Expected Output: The trainees will understand the techniques involved in keeping and breeding poultry and possess the skills to start their own small poultry enterprise. Lecture 2: Poultry disease control
Identification of common diseases in the Bustan area (viruses; bacterial, parasitic, skin, and fungal infections; malnutrition disease) Causes of infection and preventive measures (daily cleaning of housing and healthy nutrition). Controlling the spread of disease. Vaccination programs and care.
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Expected Output: The trainees should be able to quickly identify common poultry diseases and deal with them appropriately. Lecture 3: Keeping and breeding laying hens
Laying hens breed selection for home rearing. Choosing the right housing according to the environmental conditions. Laying hens’ nutrition (nutrition techniques and materials used) and healthcare. Egg marketing. Feasibility study for small enterprises. Expected Output: The trainees will understand the techniques involved in keeping and breeding laying hens and possess the skills to start their own small enterprise. Lecture 4: Keeping and breeding broiler breeds
Broiler breed selection for home rearing. Choosing right the housing according to the environmental conditions. Broiler breed nutrition (nutrition techniques and materials used) and healthcare. Suitable weight for marketing. Feasibility studies for small broiler breed enterprises. Expected Output: The trainees will understand the techniques involved in keeping and breeding broiler breeds and possess the skills to start their own small enterprise.
Photo 29: Poultry
Lecture 5 : Keeping and breeding ducks and pigeons
Duck and pigeon breed selection for home rearing. Choosing the right housing according to the environmental conditions. Duck and pigeon nutrition (nutrition techniques and materials used) and healthcare. Suitable weight for marketing. Feasibility study for small enterprises. Expected Output: The trainees will understand the techniques involved in keeping and breeding ducks and pigeons and possess the skills to start their own small enterprise. Lecture 6: Feasibility studies for small livestock enterprises (turkeys, rabbits, chickens, etc.)
Basics of a feasibility study.
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Introducing data required to carry out the feasibility study (such as equipment, materials, fodders, budget, labour, other facilities and marketing opportunities). Feasibility study process: o Technical aspects of a feasibility study. o Financial aspects of a feasibility study (calculation of required capital and variables, running and depreciation costs). Expected Output: The trainees will understand how a feasibility study for small livestock enterprises can be calculated and applied. Small Livestock (stage 2): Lecture 1: Practical training at the turkey and rabbit breeding unit of the Mariut Research Institute
Turkey and rabbit breed selection for home rearing. Choosing the right housing (cages and batteries) according to the environmental conditions. Turkey and rabbit nutrition (nutrition techniques and materials used) and healthcare. Expected Output: The trainees will have practical training on : Using the tools and equipment for feeding turkeys and rabbits. Preparing the components of turkey and rabbit fodders. Healthcare program for breeding turkeys and rabbits. Medical treatments and vaccination programs. Lecture 2: Practical training on poultry and rabbit disease control
Symptoms and diagnosis of different diseases in poultry and rabbit. Causes of infection. Treatment and handling precautions during disease outbreaks. Sanitary conditions. Expected Output: The trainees should be able to quickly identify common poultry and rabbit diseases and know how to prevent, treat, and handle them appropriately. Lecture 3: Keeping and breeding turkeys
Turkey breed selection for home rearing. Choosing the right housing according to the environmental conditions. Turkey nutrition (nutrition techniques and materials used) and healthcare. Feasibility study for small turkey enterprises. Expected Output: The trainees will understand the techniques involved in keeping and breeding turkeys and possess the skills to start their own small enterprise. Lecture 4: Keeping and breeding rabbits
Rabbit breed selection for home rearing. Choosing the right cages and batteries for housing according to the environmental conditions. Rabbit nutrition (nutrition techniques and materials used) and healthcare. Feasibility study for small rabbit enterprises.
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Expected Output: The trainees will understand the techniques involved in keeping and breeding rabbits and possess the skills to start their own small enterprise. Livestock (stage 1): Lecture 1: Breed selection and housing management
Standard morphological features of animals. Selecting animals according to breeding objectives. Suitable age for breeding. Home breeding and housing management. Expected Output: The trainees will be able to select healthy animals, of suitable breeding age, and prepare their housing according to environmental guidelines. Lecture 2: Animal husbandry and care
Livestock healthcare and recognisable disease symptoms. Vaccination programs which should be provided for the animals. Hoof care and treatment . Importance of artificial insemination and its effects on animal production . Expected Output: The trainees will be able to vaccinate their animals and cross-breed their livestock by using artificial insemination techniques. Lecture 3: Animal nutrition
Nutrition for dairy animals and animals being fattened. Ways to improve animal nutrition. Principles of animal nutrition in the new lands. Use of agricultural by-products in animal nutrition. Nutritional programs according to the different stages of an animal’s life. Relationship between feeding, care, and productivity. Expected Output: The trainees will be able to feed their animals with balanced fodders and use agriculture by-products in animal nutrition. Lecture 4: Calf care from birth to weaning
Pre-calving care and calving symptoms. Quality of the colostrums. Calf care until weaning. Weaning from dam and liquid diets to milk replacement formula. Vaccination programs. Expected Output: The trainees will be able to properly care for calves. Lecture 5: Production of forage and silage
Definition and classification of fodders. Agricultural rotation of fodder. Recommended planting dates and methods, seedling rate, Azzoto Bacter (added). Fertilization and irrigation programs. Crop productivity level (green – seeds). Storage of fodder crops (silage, hay).
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Expected Output: The trainees will be able to apply agricultural rotation for fodders and appropriately store fodder crops (silage, hay, straw). Lecture 6: Practical training on animal breeding at a research centre
Breed selection and housing management. Animal husbandry and veterinary care. Animal nutrition and different fodder formulas. Calf care and early weaning. Expected Output: The trainees will have practical training in technical skills for healthy breeding and calf care. Livestock (stage 2): Lecture 1: Breed selection and housing management for sheep
Breed selection and selection of appropriate rams, ewes, and lambs. Factors affecting flock structure (breed, size, time of purchase, health, etc.). Planning sheep housing. Expected Output: The trainees will be able to select healthy animals and prepare their housing according to the environmental guidelines. Lecture 2: Animal nutrition and grazing
Nutrition during the different stages of the animal’s life. Best utilization of pasture. Concentrated mixture. Use of agricultural by-products in animal nutrition . Green fodder and its preservation. Expected Output: At the end of the session, the trainees will be able to feed their animals balanced fodders and use agricultural by-products in animal nutrition. Lecture 3: Practical training on animal nutrition at a research centre
Expected Output: At the end of the visit, the trainees will have practical training and knowledge on the following : Use of agricultural by-products (straw) in animal nutrition. Increase in proton percentage by feeding treated straw. Use of Mashrom as a by-product for animal nutrition. Preparing a feasibility study on untraditional animal nutrition . Lecture 4: Animal husbandry and veterinary care for sheep
Disease diagnosis and vaccination programs which should be provided for the animals. Foot rot treatment. Selecting mating methods and periods. Oestrus reorganisation. Lambing and caring of lambs . Expected Output: The trainees will be able to vaccinate their animals, organise breeding operations, and care for their lambs.
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Manufacturing and Processing of Dairy Products (stage 1): Lecture 1: High quality milk production
Milk composition and production of clean milk. Tests used to determine the quality of milk . Natural and chemical adulteration. Expected Output: The trainees will be aware of the techniques for producing high quality milk and will be able to use tests in order to discover milk adulteration. Lecture 2: Cream separation (skimming)
Components and advantages of separators. Producing cream by using centrifugal separation or churning methods. Cream storage. Expected Output: The trainees will understand the basics of cream separation and will be able to carry out this process either as a small enterprise, using centrifugal separation methods, or at home by using simple methods such as churning. Lecture 3: Manufacturing different types of cheese (kariesh, ricotta, and gerve)
Different types of cheese. Using pasteurization in cheese manufacturing. Characteristics of the milk used in cheese manufacturing and milk coagulation. Manufacturing processes for different cheeses. Common defects in cheese flavours. Expected Output: The trainees will understand the basic techniques for manufacturing the above mentioned types of cheese. Lecture 4: Practical training on manufacturing domyati cheese
Main features of domyati cheese. Using pasteurization in manufacturing domyati cheese. Characteristics of the milk used in manufacturing domyati cheese. Applying traditional methods for manufacturing domyati cheese (by using starters). Slow and fast coagulation. Avoiding possible defects in domyati cheese which may occur during and after processing. Proper storage of domyati cheese. Expected Output: The trainees will be able to manufacture this product following the recommended steps and avoid the defects that affect the cheese’s colour and flavour.
Photo 30: Manufacturing cheese
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Lecture 5: Practical training on manufacturing of kariesh cheese
Main features of kariesh cheese. Using pasteurization in manufacturing kariesh cheese. Characteristics of the milk used in manufacturing kariesh cheese. Applying traditional methods for manufacturing kariesh cheese (by using starters). Slow and fast coagulation. How to avoid possible defects in kariesh cheese which may occur during and after processing. Proper storage of kariesh cheese. Expected Output: The trainees will be able to manufacture this product following the recommended steps and avoid the defects that affect the cheese’s colour and flavour. Lecture 6: Manufacturing ice cream
Definition of ice cream manufacturing. Nutritional and economic value of ice cream. Development of ice cream manufacture. Techniques for producing ice cream at home. Defects in ice cream flavour and taste. Expected Output: The trainees will understand the techniques used in manufacturing ice cream and will be able to manufacture their own ice cream by themselves. Manufacturing and Processing of Dairy Products (stage 2): Lecture 1: Practical training on manufacturing mozzarella cheese
Main features of mozzarella cheese. Characteristics of the milk used in manufacturing mozzarella cheese. Using pasteurization in manufacturing mozzarella cheese. Applying traditional methods for manufacturing mozzarella cheese (by using starters). Slow and fast coagulation. How to avoid possible defects in mozzarella cheese which may occur during and after processing. Proper storage of mozzarella cheese. Expected Output: The trainees will be able to manufacture this product following the recommended steps and avoid the defects that affect the cheese’s colour and flavour. Lecture 2: Manufacturing yoghurt and labana
Main features of yoghurt and labana. Characteristics of milk used in manufacturing yoghurt and labana. Type and percentage of starter used in manufacturing yoghurt and labana. How to avoid possible defects in yoghurt and labana manufacturing. Use and benefits of yoghurt and labana. Expected Output: The trainees will be able to manufacture these products following the recommended steps.
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Lecture 3: Manufacturing butter and butter oil
Definition of the different types of butter and butter oil. Common butter production methods (churning). Production of butter oil by heating butter. Defects in butter and butter oil flavour. Storage and packaging of butter oil. Expected Output: The trainees will be able to manufacture butter and butter oil at home. Lecture 4: Animal husbandry and veterinary care for dairy animals
Care of dairy animals. Symptoms and diagnosis of diseases. Vaccination programs which should be provided for the animals. Importance of artificial insemination and its effects on animal production . Expected Output: The trainees will have practical training on: Different methods of healthy milking (manual and mechanical) Health precautions for producing clean milk. Healthy morphological characteristics of cows which indicate their ability to produce high quality milk. Control of udder diseases. Precautions for feeding cows in order to produce high quality milk. Extension Role of Female Leaders: Lecture 1: Decision-making inside a group
Concepts and techniques for dealing with problems in a rational manner. Concepts and fields of decision-making . Relationship between rational attitudes and decision-making. Ways of improving decision-making capabilities. Expected Output: The trainees will be able to approach and deal with problems and decisions in a rational and effective manner. Lecture 2: Group dynamics - The role of female leaders in modifying farmer’s behaviours and attitudes
Definition of group dynamics. Ways of formulating a group dynamic. Relationships between groups. Factors affecting group dynamic. Expected Output: The trainees will be aware of the concept of female rural leadership, how to create an active group, and how to improve relations between different groups. Lecture 3: Communication skills
Expected Output: The trainees will be able to organise successful contacts / meetings in their villages and will know how to communicate with the mass media and other groups.
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5.2.5.4 Other Activities
Field Trips: After the specialized training sessions have been completed, the participants visit established small-scale enterprises or specialized research stations such as: 1.
The Desert Research Institute, to see modern techniques for breeding sheep, goats, and turkeys.
2.
The Animal Production Research Institute, to see different feeding techniques for farm animals and how to compose balanced fodder meals.
3.
The dairy products unit at the Faculty of Agriculture, to get oriented on dairy product processing.
4.
The agribusiness laboratory of the Faculty of Agriculture.
5.
A chick-hatching laboratory, to see the different stages of chick production.
These field trips increase the women’s experience and skills and encourages them to adopt the new ideas for small-scale enterprises. Field Days: A field day, as described in previous chapters, is an effective extension method for communicating new practices and recommendations. The visits take place at a contact person’s farm or place of operation and allows for a large number of viewers and participants to come together. On the spot, the contact woman explains her activity, the recommendations she has followed, and the benefits she has accrued. Whenever necessary, the technology specialist will comment or respond to any questions and develop the presentation. During these field days, attendees will become familiar with the following: 1.
New breeds of dual-purpose chickens, how to fatten animals, and breeding.
2.
Demonstration of different practices for preparing animal shelters, nutrition techniques, and animal husbandry. This is followed by a demonstration of achievable results and potential benefits.
3.
Modern techniques of fodder combinations.
4.
Information on how income-generating small enterprises can increase family income and improve the women’s living conditions.
5.2.6
Informational Materials Title
Type
Women in development
Poster
Small enterprises
Poster
5.2.7
Monitoring
The extension service in charge of income-generated activities is divided into separate units which deal with the different types of small enterprises such as poultry operations, rabbit and sheep operations, and manufacturing. The monitoring activities are carried out by technical counsellors in the following manner:
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Poultry operations: The counsellor visits the small enterprise every three months and takes notes on the installation which will be recorded for the extension unit. He gives the operator recommendations and she in turn provides him with a record of her activities including: Food types and quantities. Medications used. Date of vaccinations and weights of animals sold. The technical counsellor will submit a report of his findings describing the latest developments / setbacks as well as the possibility for expansion. Rabbit and sheep operations: Monitoring visits of rabbit or sheep operations are carried out in the same manner as those for poultry operations. The operator provides information on the following: Quantity and type of fodder. Date of fertilisation and date of delivery. Sale revenues and weight of animals at date of sale. Manufacturing operations: The counsellor visits the operation and examines the following, after which he will make a report and give his recommendations: Size of daily labour and variety of products. Techniques used in manufacturing. Expenditures and revenues. 5.2.8
Viability Studies
Based on the results achieved during the training activities, a consultant from the Alexandria University Agroeconomic Department was able to determine viability studies for each of the proposed small enterprises. Candidates for the implementation of small-scale enterprises are then determined along the following criteria: 1.
She must be a graduate, or a beneficiary, or the wife of a graduate or beneficiary.
2.
She must reside permanently in the village.
3.
She must succeed in both the general and specialized training sessions. This will enable her to operate a small enterprise and work as a contact leader for other women.
4.
It would be preferable for her to have previous experience of animal production, as well as the inclination to respond positively to new technical practices and recommendations.
5.
She should be committed to providing the effort and time required to implement a small enterprise and share the costs with the BADP, who will fund some basic costs.
6.
She should have an appropriate location to shelter the flock, or at least be prepared to create or rehabilitate such shelter.
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5.2.8.1 Poultry Operations
Small-scale enterprise for fattening improved hybrid chickens (200 chicks). Item
Calculation
Aggregate
Price of chicks
200 x 1.75= 350.00
350 L.E
Fodder Costs
200 x 4.5Kg fodder per one chick during the cycle = 900 Kg x 1.00
900 L.E.
Medications
200 x 5 piastres/chick in one cycle
100 L.E.
Labour + electricity + water
200 x 5 piastres per chick in one cycle
100 L.E.
Total
1450 L.E.
Expected mortality: 5% = 10 chicks. Average weight per operation = 285Kg Total meat output sold: 285Kg meat x 7L.E = 1995 L.E Net profit = 1995- 1450= 545 L.E per cycle. Fixed expenditure: 4 eight-litre capacity water pots = 4 x 4 L.E = 16 L.E 4 fodder bins = 5 L.E x 4 = 20 L.E Total = 36 L.E The above-mentioned equipment can last for 5 years. That is to say, its annual consumption rate is 7.5 L.E. Three cycles can be done annually. The consumption rate per one cycles 7.5 ÷ 3= 2.4 per one cycle of production. If we subtract the consumption value from the calculated profit, the profit of one cycle = 545 L.E/ Cycle - 2.4 = 542 L.E. These cycles are repeated three times a year. The annual profit of the enterprise = 542.6 x 3 = 1627.8 L.E/year. 5.2.8.2 Rabbit Breeding Enterprise
For a battery with three females plus one male. Costs
Revenues
Purchasing one battery = 500 L.E
Average number of rabbit per one delivery = 8 rabbits.
The price of the rabbits = 3 female + 1 male = The output revenue per one mother a year = 75 x 4 = 300 L.E 8 x 8 x 1.5 Kg x 10 L.E = 960 L.E The price of fodder for the first three months = The total revenues for the herd of three 200 L.E mothers = 960 x 3 = 2880 L.E The price of purchasing fodders in the first year 1000 L.E Total costs in the first year = 2300 L.E
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The net profit is = 2880 - 2300 = 580 L.E for the first year. In addition, the operator can use the rabbit manure, which amounts to 80Kg annually, as fertilizer for the soil. The battery, whose cost is 500 L.E, lasts for five years. So, the battery consumption per annum equals 50 L.E. However, the costs of establishing one unit are 500 L.E. So, the per annum consumption for the unit = 500 ÷ 10 = 50 L.E. 5.2.8.3 Food Processing Frozen Taro (colocasia): Costs
Revenues
10Kg taro x one pound per kilo = 10 L.E
Taro net weight after boiling = 9Kg.
Polyethylene packing = 250 gm x 8 .L.E = 2 L.E
No. of 500gm packages = 18.
Cost of raw materials = 12 L.E labour 10% = 1.2 Proposed price for one package is 1.5 L.E. L.E Replacement, renovation, and administrative expenditures, and transportation 5% = 0.60 L.E Total cost = 13.80 L.E of production
Total sold = 18 x 1.5 = 27 L.E.
The profit of producing 10 Kg = 27 – 13.8 = 13.2 L.E The profit of producing 100 Kg = 132 L.E. Frozen Peas: Costs
Revenues
10 kilos of peas x 1.25 L.E = 12.5 L.E Polyethylene package 250gm x 8 L.E = 21
The quantity of dressing after boiling and packing = 7 Kg
Cost of raw materials = 14.5 L.E
No. of 500gm packages = 14.
Labour 10% = 1.45 L.E Replacement, cleaning, administrative expenses, Proposed price for one package = 2 L.E and transportation 5% = 6.65 L.E Production total costs = 16.615 L.E
Total revenue = 14 x 4 = 28 L.E
Profits of producing 10 Kg = 28 ÷ 16.61 = 11.380 L.E Profits of producing 100 Kg = 227.70 N.B: Peas can be graded into two sizes and sold as follows: Large size peas, 500gm package = 2.20 L.E. Small size peas, 500gm package = 1.70 L.E. Frozen Phasilea (haricot): Costs
Revenues
10Kg of haricot x 0.80 L.E = 8 L.E
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Polyethylene package 250gm x 8 L.E = 2 L.E Cost of raw materials = 10 L.E
Number of 500gm packages = 18.
Labour 10% = 1 L.E Replacement, cooling, sundry expenses, and Price of one package = 1.25 L.E transportation = 0.50 L.E Total production cost = 11.50 L.E
Total revenue = 18 x 1.25 = 22.5
Profits of producing 10Kg = 22.5 – 11.5 = 11 L.E Profits of producing 100Kg = 110 L.E Frozen Okra: Costs
Revenues
10Kg of okra x 0.8 L.E = 8 L.E
The quantity of dressing after cleaning and packaging = 9 Kg
Polyethylene package 250 gm x 8 L.E = 2 L.E Raw material cost = 10 L.E Labour 10 % = 1 L.E.
Number of 500gm packages = 18.
Replacement, cooling, sundry expenses, and Package price = 2 L.E transportation = 0.5 L.E Total production cost = 11.50 L.E
Total sold = 18 x 2 = 36 L.E
Profits of 10 Kg = 36-11.5 = 24.5 L.E Profits of 100 Kg = 245 L.E Okra can be graded into 3 types. Small size okra, 500 gm package = 2.25 L.E Medium size okra, 500 gm package = 2.00. L.E Large size okra, 500 gm package = 1.75 L.E Frozen Grape Leaves: Costs
Sold Revenues
10Kg of grapes leaves x 0.80 L.E= 8 L.E
Dressing after boiling and packaging = 9Kg
Polyethylene package 250 gm x 8 L.E= 2 L.E
No. of 250gm packages = 36.
Cost of raw materials = 10 L.E
Price of one package = 1 L.E
Labour 10 % = 1 L.E. Replacement, cooling, sundry expenses = 0.50 L.E Total production cost = 11.50 L.E
Total revenue = 36 x 1 = 36 L.E.
Profits of producing 10 Kg = 36 – 11.5 = 24.5 L.E Profits of producing 100 Kg = 245 L.E
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5.2.8.4 Bakeries Cakes:
Raw materials
(Kg) quantities
L.E Price per unit
Without fruit layer
Flour
2
1.40
2.80
Butter
1
12.00
12.00
½ cup
1.08
0.50
Maize oil Dried Yeast
0.25
Sesame
1/8
10.00
1.50
Cake spice + makaleb
1.50
Fruit
1.00
2.00
¼
40.00
4 sheets
0.25
Stuffing seal (caramel, coconut) Table cover sheets
With fruit layer + stuffing
Total costs
2.00 10.00 1.00 21.55
31.55
Labour 10%
2.20
3.20
Sundries 5%
1.10
1.60
24.85
36.35
6.00
9.00
13.00
18.00
7.00
9.00
Quantity of cake produced
4 Kg
Cost of 1Kg cake The proposed price of selling 1Kg Profit of producing 1Kg
Sweets:
Raw materials
Quantities
Price per unit
Without decoration
With decoration
Flour
1Kg
1.40
1.40
1.40
Eggs
4 units
0.25
1.00
1.00
Butter
3 cups
2.25
6.75
6.75
Fine sugar
2 cups
0.40
0.80
0.80
Baking powder
1 bag(18gm)
0.25
0.25
0.25
Vanilla
1 bag
0.20
0.20
0.20
Cocas
100 gm
20.00 gm
2.00
2.00
Decorations Apricot jam
Bottle
Seal
450 Gm
Raw chocolate Indian walnut
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2.75
2.75
12
1.50
1/8 Kg
9.00
2.25
¼ Kg 1 cup
0.65
0.65
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Raw material costs
12.40
19.55
Labour 10%
12.40
19.55
Sundries 5%
0.62
1.00
14.25
22.5
1.60Kg
2.5Kg
9.00
9.00
15.00
18.00
6.00
6.00
Total costs Individual weight Cost of 1Kg Proposed sale price Profit for 1Kg
Indian Walnut Biscuits: Costs
Revenue Biscuit output = 1.75 Kg
4Kg of flour ½ Kg flour x 1.40 ll. 0.70 L.E The yellow part of 6 eggs = 1.50 L.E A cup of butter x 2.25 = 2.25 L.E 1 ½ cup of fine sugar x 0.40 = 0.60 L.E 2 cups of Indian walnut x 1.3 L.E Baking powder and a bag of vanilla = 0.50 L.E
Cost of 1Kg of biscuits = 4.57 L.E
Raw material costs = 7.00 + labour 10% = 0.70 + sundries The proposed price for 1Kg = 5% = 0.35 9.00 L.E Total cost = 8 L.E
Profit from 1 Kg = 4.5 L.E
Bread: Quantity
Price L.E
Profits
1Kg flour 1Kg milk powder
1.2 1.00
50gms of yeast 1 egg 50gms of butter Salt Sesame Total Cost = 3.75 L.E
0.50 0.25 0.40 0.10 0.30 Total Revenue = 7.5 Total profit = 7.50 – 3.75 = L.E 3.75 L.E
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Number of produced units = 30 units Price of one unit = 0.25 L.E
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5.2.8.5 Preserves Strawberry Jam: Item
Quantity
Unit price
Total price
Strawberries
40 Kg
1.00
40.00
Sugar
37 Kg
1.5
55.5
Pectin
0.25 Kg
100. 00
25.00
Citric acid
0.125 Kg
12.00
1.50
Bottles
30 Bottles
0.50
65.00
Other requirements
5.00
Total Cost
192.00
Total production = 130 bottles of 500gms Price per unit = 2.00 L.E Total revenue = 260.00 L.E Net profit = 260-192= 68. L.E Palm Date Jam: Item
Quantity
Unit price
Total price
El Sammy variety palm dates
50Kg
0.35
17.5
Sugar
24
1.5
36.00
Pectin
0.25
100
25.00
Citric acid
0.125
12
1.50
125
0.5
62.5
Bottles Other requirements
30.00
Total cost
172.50
120 bottles produced of 500gm Price per unit = 2.25 L.E Total revenue = 270 L.E Net profit = 97.50 L.E Seville Orange Marmalade: Item
Quantity
Unit price
Total price
Seville fruit
50Kg
0.25
12.50
Sugar
60Kg
1.5
90.00
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Bottles
220 Bottles
0.50
Other requirements
110.00 20.00
Total cost
232
120 bottles produced of 500gm Price per unit = 1.50 L.E Revenue = 310 L.E. Net profit = 82.50 L.E 5.2.8.6 Meat Processing Sausages: Raw Materials
Quantity
Price L.E
Meat
1Kg
17.00
Soya bean
200gm
2.40
Salt
200gm
0.01
Spices
10 gm
0.06
Local natural intestine
0.1 roll
1.20
Water
260ml
-
Total Cost
20.67
Profit One Kg meat produces 1 ½ Kg of processed sausage
Sale price = 26 L.E
Profits = 26 - 20.67 = 6.22 L.E per 1 Kg Profit ratio = 45% Hamburger: Hamburgers use the same processing methods and ingredients as sausages but natural intestines are no longer used and 1Kg of onions are. Both cost the same and provide the same profits. Kofta: Raw materials
Quantity
Price L.E
Meat
1 Kg
17.00
Soya bean
200 gm
2.40
Spices
10 gm
0.06
Parsley
50 gm
0.50
Water
260 ml
-
Total cost
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19.91
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Profit One Kg of meat produces 1.5Kg of kofta meat fingers Price = 17 L.E per Kg
Price sold 25.5 LE
5.2.8.7 Pickling
Pickling production as a small enterprise aims at producing different types of pickles on a commercial scale. The enterprise needs:
1.20
1.50
13.50
Lemons
50
50%1 = 50
50
1.50
2.50
50.00
Peppers
50
50 x 1.5 = 75
45
1.75
200
11.25
Cucumbers
50
50 x 1 = 50
50
1.25
2.00
17.5
Turnips
100
100 x 0.25 = 25
40
0.95
1.25
12.00
Olives
50
40
40
2.25
2.75
25.00
Onions
50
1 x 50 = 50 50 x 0.50 = 25
40
0.95
1.25
12.00
Profit
produced in Kg
Quantity of pickles
pickles
45
Sale price of 1 Kg of
100 x 0.50 = 50
(L.E)
100
Cost for 1 Kg of pickles
Quantity of raw material
Carrots
Price of raw materials
Vegetables
Raw materials: any vegetables available at the markets. A plastic 50-litre capacity barrel. Food salts: 2.5 Kg per barrel.
For lemons: 5 litres of acetic acid are needed. For olives: 10 litres of sodium carbonate (2 % concentration) are needed to remove the bitterness. 5.2.8
Budget / Unit Costs
Budget
Activity No. of trainees
Total
No. of days
No. of Meetings/ Specialists
625 L.E
1
4
Hospitality Allowance Consulting allowance
Animation Meeting
25
5 L.E
Farm training group meeting
25-30
5 L.E
150 L.E
1
40
Informative meeting
30
5 L.E
150 L.E
1
127
Subject Matter Specialist
30-40
5 L.E
400 L.E
1
18
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20 L.E
250 L.E
184
Extension Meeting with Mobile Unit
30
5 L.E
Field Days
10-20
5 L.E
Exposure Visits
30
5 L.E
5.2.9
10 L.E
20 L.E
250 L.E
700 L.E
1
12
290 L.E
390 L.E
1
60
250 L.E
1000 L.E
1
30
Useful Contacts Agency
Location
West Nubariya Veterinary Department
Abo Bakr village, West Nubariya, East Road
Nubariya Anima Breeding Station – Fodder Production Unit
Alex-Cairo Desert Road, Km 47
Desert Research Centre – Mariut Research Station
Alex-Cairo Desert Road, Km 23, El Nasseria entrance
Faculty of Agriculture Food Processing Unit: Poultry Department, Livestock Department, Food Industry Department
Faculty of Agriculture, El Shatby, Alexandria
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ANNEXES
WUU record of Mesquas, wells, and pipelines on the new lands Ministry of Irrigation and Water Resources Model No. 1
Chairman Treasurer Secretary Member Member
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Remarks
member
Position of each
members
Names of board
No. of beneficiaries
boundary
Water resource
Full address
well, pipeline
Name of Mesqua,
Name of the union
Date of entry
No. of entry
Irrigation Department
Invitation to attend a first WUU general assembly meeting
At the district of …………………………..…
Markaz of…………………………………
Governorate of…………………………………………………………………………………… Mr/Mrs…………………………
the landholder of a plot sized …………………….
sahm,……………...kirats,………………. Feddans, in the district of ………………………... Markaz of……………..…, Governorate of ………………………. who uses irrigation water from (Mesqua, well, pipeline)……………………………………………………………………. We are pleased to inform you that on ……………………….… date ………..
/……../200...
at ……… o’clock will be the first WUU general assembly meeting for the above mentioned Mesqua/ well/ pipeline in …………………….…… District…………….Markaz……………..Governorate…………………………..…….. Please find attached herewith a copy of the agenda for the assembly meeting. We look forward to you joining us,
The Irrigation Engineer
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Minutes of the first general assembly meeting Water User Union (Mesqua/ well/ pipeline) District ……… Markaz ……….. Governorate ……… The agenda includes the following: 1-
Signing and acknowledging the union’s regulations.
2-
Choosing a name for the union.
3-
Selecting the union headquarter office.
4-
Electing union board members.
Minutes On ………………at ………….o’clock, the general assembly council, held under the chairmanship of Mr. ………………………………………….………, came together at ………………………………………….. A list of farmers’ names attached herewith. The presence of the irrigation engineer, Mr…………. collected the votes. According to the legal quorum regarding meeting attendance, ……….members out of ……….. members attended, and their total landholdings exceeds 50% of the Mesqua boundaries. The election of the WUU board members procedures began with the following candidates: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
6.
7.
8.
The voting process is concluded by recording the following candidate’s scores: No.
Candidate
Number of votes
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Thus, the union council is now composed of the following members: 1-
4-
2-
5-
3Signature of the votes’ collector 1- ……………………………………... 2- …………………………………….. Chairman of the session ……………………………..
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Secretary of the session ……………………………..
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Secretary
Chairman
…………
……………
Date
Issued by
No.
Residence
holding
Type of
holding
Size of
D
I.
Occupation
Birth place
Date of birth
Name
No.
A list of general assembly members
A list of members who attended the first general assembly meeting.
Water User Union of (Mesqua/ well/ pipeline) At District ……… Markaz ……… Governorate ……… Date ….. / …… /200..
No.
Name
Size of Holding
Legal capacity
Aggregate size of holdings: …………
Secretary,
Chairman,
………….
…………..
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Signature
A list of members who were absent from the first general assembly meeting.
Water User Union of (Mesqua/ well/ pipeline) At District …………. Markaz ………… Governorate ………………………… Date ….. / …… /200.. No.
Full name
Size of holding
Aggregate size of holdings: …………
Secretary,
Chairman,
………….
…………..
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Minutes from the first WUU board of directors meeting. Water Users Union of (Mesqua/ well/ pipeline) At District ………… Markaz ……… Governorate ………… Agenda: 1. Allocation of council tasks On ………… …. / …. / 200…
Minutes of the Session at ………… o’clock, the board members, with members of the general
assembly council, M.M ………………………………………………………………………………….... ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………... ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………... ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………... are legally authorized, by the quorum of attendance of ………….. persons out of ………… persons, to take the following decisions: The Council Decisions 1. Mr. …………………………………………..….. is elected as a chairman 2. Mr. ……………………………………………… is elected as a cashier treasury 3. Mr. ……………………………………………… is elected as a secretary Once all the agenda topics were reviewed, the session ended at …….…… o’clock
Members …………
Secretary …………
Chairman …………
Ministry of Irrigation and Water resources General Irrigation Administration Department of Irrigation Engineering of ……………………….Markaz
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WATER USERS UNIONS INTERNAL REGULATIONS FOR MESQUA/ WELL/ PIPELINE at
District………… Markaz………… Governorate………… CHAPTER 1 Article 1. On………… / /200… , the hereinafter individuals who undersigned this document, establish a water users union (hence forth WUU) at Mesqua/ well/ pipeline district…………..Police Station…………Markaz………….Governorate…………………… This WUU, whose membership is open to any relevant people will go by the name of…………......................., and a corporate competence of law No. 113 issued in 1994. Article 2. The objective of establishing this union is to ensure the water users’ effective participation in the operation and maintenance of its pumping stations and general water flow in order to have an equitable distribution of water among the members of the union according to their agricultural production needs. The geographical workspace is …………………….... basin………………………….. Union headquarters are at…………………………………………………………….. which is affiliated to the engineering irrigation Markaz of ……………………………………………….. CHAPTER II FINANCIAL RESOURCES Article 3. The financial resources of the union include the following items: The union members’ contributions, which run proportional to the size of their holding or the value deemed necessary by the general assembly at the time of the union’s initial establishment. Members’ subscriptions to face the costs of irrigation, operation, and maintenance of the Mesqua/ well/ pipeline. Bank interests and revenues from the union’s deposits. Any donations or grants from a union member or any third party. Other funding resources acknowledged by the union. Article 4. The collection of costs necessary for developing and maintaining the union is carried out as follows: Item (1) After the irrigation network’s completion, the concerned authority prepares a statement regarding each member’s per Feddan share of the total costs of installation. The cost of implementing the developed field irrigation network is either paid as one lump sum or by annual instalments, which cannot exceed 20 years. The general irrigation administration determines the number and the value of these instalments based on the required sums. The landholder, whether he is the owner, the beneficiary, or the leaser, will pay the annual instalments for these costs. However, in case of crop-sharing, both the operator and land owner must jointly shoulder these costs.
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Item (2) A list of beneficiaries is published at the agricultural cooperative, the mayor’s residence, the centre poster board, and the concerned police station, for at least two weeks. This must be preceded by an official announcement in the formal Egyptian Journal El Wakaie. Item (3) Within thirty days of publication, the concerned parties have the right to object to the amount of the costs, otherwise the estimate will be considered permanently valid. Any raised objections should be presented to the concerned public department. Item (4) The Ministry of Public Utilities and Water Resources dispatches a statement to the concerned authorities in order to collect property taxes for the areas and basins where the irrigation networks have been constructed, as well as the requested costs per Feddan. A timetable is set to collect such property tax, which is deposited in the Mesqua Development and Maintenance Project Fund Account. Article 5. The fiscal year begins on January 1st and ends on December 31st of the same year. Article 6. The union’s capital is deposited under its initial entry name at the bank determined by the general assembly. However, if the union wishes to change banks, the chairman of the union or his attorney should notify the public irrigation administration within one week of such a change. Article 7. A cheque must be endorsed by both the treasurer and the chairman of the union in order to draw any sum from the union’s account. Article 8. The union’s money serves to fulfil its objectives and it is forbidden to be spent in any other manner. Article 9. The WUU keeps accounts of expenditures and revenues at its headquarters. CHAPTER III MEMBERSHIP Article 10. Union members benefit from the Mesqua, well, or pipeline irrigation water located in the union’s geographical area. Article 11. Annual subscriptions are determined and paid one month after the end of the fiscal year. In the event of a member not paying his subscription or fulfilling any of his legal or disciplinary obligations, the union chairman possesses the authority to take the necessary measures to protect the rights of other members in line with what is deemed necessary by the managerial board of directors. Article 12. If the individual is no longer benefiting from the irrigation water at the Mesqua, well, or pipeline, he loses his membership in the union. However, anyone who falls under these conditions must formally notify his union within no more than one month. Article 13. It is not forbidden for any person who has lost his union membership to restore subscriptions or donations he offered to the union.
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CHAPTER IV GENERAL ASSEMBLY COUNCIL Article 14. The general assembly includes all landholders whose plots benefit from the Mesqua, well, or pipeline, whether this landholder is a land owner, beneficiary, or leaser. Please, find, attached herewith a list of these landholders and the date of the union’s entry in the general department of irrigation’s records. Article 15. The general assembly must be summoned annually following the end of the fiscal year in order to review the budget, the closing balance sheet, the report presented by the union board of directors on the year’s achievements, the election of the union management board, and all issues included in the agenda. The general assembly council may be summoned for an additional meeting in order to consider any amendments to the union’s regulations, the union’s possible dissolution, the removal of a board member, or any other pertinent reason. Article 16. The general assembly council may be summoned by the chairman, by two thirds of the members whose plots represent no less than 30% of the Mesqua area or union area , or by request of the concerned irrigation engineer . In the latter case, the request must be approved by the general irrigation department director and the request must be given to the union members or their legal representatives. They must acknowledge receiving this request in writing. This is done at least three days prior to the meeting day. The union keeps records of member signatures as dated in the documents in order to prove the validity of the request. An announcement of the meeting is published at the union’s headquarter with a list of members who are eligible to attend. The invitation indicates the agenda, time, and place of the meeting. In addition, a copy of the agenda topics is attached to the invitation. The concerned irrigation administration is notified of the meeting and its agenda three days prior to the planned date. Union members either attend personally or delegate someone. Each member can have no more than one representative. The competent irrigation engineer may attend the meetings of the general assembly acting as controller. Article 17. The general assembly meeting will be valid if it is attended by a number of members whose total plots represent 50% of the entire area. The meeting may be adjourned to the following week if the quorum is not attained. The next meeting will be valid irrespective of attendance or percentage of landholdings. Decisions are taken by absolute voting scores from the attending members. A member may be excluded from voting if the proposed decision concerns him directly. Board election is an exception in this case. Article 18. The general assembly is presided by the chairman of the board of directors. In his absence, the secretary will take his place. If the secretary is absent, the oldest member will hold the position. If the general assembly is summoned to hold a meeting at the request of the irrigation engineer, the later will preside the meeting but will not vote when decisions are taken. Article 19. The chairman of the board of directors keeps minutes of all sessions held by the general assembly council. He should includes the time, date, and place of the meeting as well as the total number of union members in attendance, their names, and plots. He should also include a list of absent members with the same information. Each decision is calibrated according to the number of votes it receives. A copy of the minutes is dispatched to the concerned irrigation management within one week.
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CHAPTER V THE UNION BOARD Article 20: During its first meeting, the general assembly council chooses – by direct vote - its board of directors which consists of 5 members, elected for two years. However, it is possible to re-elect individuals whose membership has expired. One may not receive a salary in exchange for a place on the board. If any of the board member positions become available, the candidate who received the next highest number of votes will take the position. This situation will last until the following general assembly where a candidate will be officially elected. Article 21. The board members select one of their own to be chairman and represent the union in different circles, another to be treasurer, and a third as secretary. This team will be responsible for managing the union’s affairs. Article 22. The board has full authority to take necessary union measures, except when these measures require the acknowledgment of the general assembly council. The board must fulfil the following requirements: Manage and operate the Mesqua and its water pumping station, as well as the Mesqua located at the main canal. Prepare the water distribution schedule. Maintain the Mesqua and joint special water resources as well as keep its equipment in good condition. Maintain the water pumping unit and carry out any necessary replacements and renovations. Determine the criteria for measuring the costs of irrigation, whether it is based on per hour, per Feddan, per season, or per crop. Make the necessary financial transactions for all operation and maintenance works. Obtain the best credit for developing the union’s objectives. Settle disputes among members of the union. Cooperate with central, local, popular, and executive agencies. Cooperate with the concerned general department of irrigation to train the committee members and Mesqua leaders. Open an account at any bank where union money and capital may be deposited. Article 23. The board of directors meets at least once every month at the request of its chairman to perform its responsibilities and roles indicated here above. A member who absents himself from attending the scheduled sessions for one year is considered as resigned. The decisions taken by the board are acknowledged according to the attending majority. In addition, a member of the management board is excluded from voting if the proposed decisions concern him. All the beneficiaries have the right to receive a copy of the board’ decisions. Moreover, the board’s decisions are announced to both the Markaz irrigation engineer and the general director of the irrigation department. Article 24. Decisions regarding irrigation shifts must be unanimously acknowledged by the beneficiaries. In case of indecision, the Markaz irrigation engineer assumes the organisation of these shifts, in response to a complaint presented by any member of the union. The decisions taken by the irrigation engineer are put into effect. In the event of the union’s non-responsiveness, the issue is presented to the general director of irrigation, and his decision is irrefutable. Article 25. The irrigation engineer has the power to oppose any decision issued by the general assembly
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council or the management board within one week of being briefed of any decision. In addition, the general director of irrigation has the power to oppose any decision issued by the union within two months of being briefed of any decision. This opposition must be justified. CHAPTER VI THE RESPONSIBILITIES OF THE CHAIRMAN, THE TREASURER, AND THE SECRETARY OF THE UNION BOARD OF DIRECTORS Article 26. The chairman of the board of directors has the following responsibilities: Preparing the general assembly’s agenda, taking measures to summon a meeting and putting its decisions into effect Supervising the implementation of maintenance, cleaning, and organizing of the Mesqua, and ensuring the completion of irrigation on one aggregate plot before shifting to another. Supervising administrative and financial affairs. He acts as a link between the union and the concerned irrigation department by receiving its instructions, reviewing such instructions with his team, as well as supervising implementations. Preparing the estimated balance sheet for the union where he refers to the required expenditures during the fiscal year as well as the funding resources and revenues. This estimation must be acknowledged first by the board, then discussed and accredited by the general assembly council. Supervising the collection of operation, maintenance, replacement, and renovation costs. He represents the union when signing contracts or agreements already accepted by the general assembly. However, the general assembly has the right to deputize someone. Signing cheques and financial papers in collaboration with the treasurer. Receiving any remarks from the irrigation engineer concerning Mesqua cleaning and maintenance as well as pumping stations. He reviews such remarks wit the management board in order to take the necessary measures to correct the situation, then notifies the irrigation engineer about what has been implemented. Presenting an annual report on the union’s activities at the end of the fiscal year. Acting as a representative and as a deputy for the union in legal and administrative circles. The chairman, in case of emergency, has the right to take any spontaneous measures to keep the Mesqua, the Mesqua pump, or the main pump in good condition. Article 27. The Treasurer fulfils the following roles: Collecting union resources such as irrigation costs, subscriptions, and guarding fees from farmers and giving them receipts in return. Depositing money at the bank determined by the general assembly. Jointly signing checks with the union chairman. Bookkeeping and accounts of expenditures and revenues. Preparing the estimated budget and the private union accounts in cooperation with the chairman. The bookkeeping and accounts he prepares are liable to be reviewed and controlled by the union general assembly council and the concerned irrigation engineer. Article 28. The Secretary fulfils the following roles: Registering all works and decisions carried out by the board of directors in a special logbook. Notifying the Markaz engineer about both general assembly and board meetings and decisions within no more than one week. Keeping basic data about the union, its members, and their plots. Writing down minutes of meetings held by the general assembly and the management board.
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Performing all administrative tasks of the union. The union is given an entry number certificate. All the members of the general assembly council sign as to the validity of the regulations after filling in the vacant data. The following set of statements is used: 1.
WUU Record.
2.
An invitation card for the first meeting of the general WUU assembly.
3.
Minutes from the first meeting of the general assembly.
4.
List of WUU members.
5.
List of WUU members who attended the first meeting.
6.
List of WUU members who were absent at the first meeting.
7.
Minutes from the first meeting of the board of directors.
8.
Decisions.
9.
Operational standing orders. CHAPTER VII DISSOLUTION and ENTRY
Article 29
There are two reasons for dissolving the WUU: 1- Change in the number of landholders, so it becomes less than six beneficiaries. 2- Expiry of the union’s objective. The general assembly assumes the responsibilities of dissolving the expired union and the accrual of its capital to its members according to the rules deemed necessary by the general assembly council. The general director of irrigation should acknowledge such dissolution procedures. Article 30.
The union is registered in the State records of the general department of irrigation under the name of …………… …………. with an entry No. ……… Registered certificate for the WUU No……… General assembly members to sign the internal regulations of the completing the following form. Plot location No.
Name
Basin
Distract
Area of the plot
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198
Address
I.D number
Signature
The above mentioned members attended on ……….. and signed their approval of the establishment of the union and its basic discipline orders .
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BADP 92-98 BD VICTOR HUGO 91115 Clichy FRANCE Tél : 00 33 1 41 27 95 95 Fax : 00 33 1 41 27 95 96 Email :
[email protected]
Mariut Training Centre PO Box 1023 El Manshia EGYPT Tel : 03 448 65 47 / 03 448 65 46 Fax : 03 448 65 45 Email :
[email protected]
November 2004
