International Journal of Research on Land-use Sustainability 1: 18-25, 2014 Copyright © 2014 ISSN: 2200-5978, print DOI 10.13140/2.1.3049.1848
Research Article Research Article
Can homegardens help save forests in Bangladesh? Domestic biomass fuel consumption patterns and implications for forest conservation in south-central Bangladesh Sharif Ahmed Mukul1,2,*, Mashiur Rahman Tito2,3, Shifath Ahmed Munim4 1
Tropical Forestry Group, School of Agriculture and Food Sciences, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD 4072, Australia 2 Centre for Research on Land-use Sustainability, Maijdi, Noakhali 3800, Bangladesh 3 Research and Innovation, mPower Social Enterprises Limited, Banani, Dhaka 1213, Bangladesh 4 Architecture Discipline, Science, Engineering and Technology School, Khulna University, Khulna 9208, Bangladesh *Corresponding author:
[email protected] /
[email protected] Received: April 1, 2014; Accepted: May 25, 2014 Communicated by: Dr. Mohammad Shaheed Hossain Chowdhury, Shinshu University, Japan ABSTRACT We conducted an exploratory survey in south-central Bangladesh to realize the contribution of homegardens to household domestic biomass fuel consumption. Households were placed into categories based on their land holdings. A total of thirty households were interviewed to understand their domestic fuel consumption pattern as well as the role played by homegardens in meeting their biomass fuel requirements. This study suggested that the majority of the households in the area rely extensively on homegardens to meet their domestic fuel requirements. 58% of the households biomass fuel were drawn from homegardens, followed by neighbours (16%), markets (12%) and from public/fallow land (14%). 47 species were identified from the homegardens that were used by the respondents as fuel. Fuelwood was a major type of biomass fuel used by the households, contributing to about 56% of households total biomass fuel consumption, followed by dried leaves (21%), dung cake/sticks (14%), and crop residues (6%). As homegardens were found to provide a valuable alternative source of biomass fuel, it was concluded that a rich homegarden system near forest regions should be supported in order to reduce pressure on the country’s remaining forests. Governments can facilitate this by granting marginal households access to trees in fallow lands, as well as public places including roads, railways and river banks. Key words: biomass fuel, domestic cooking, homegarden, forest conservation, deforestation
Introduction About 2.3 billion people worldwide – every two in five - rely on biomass fuel as their main sources of domestic energy requirements (FAO 1995; Sands 2005; Arnold et al. 2006). Whilst economic development in many developing countries has progressed rapidly in the last few decades, alternatives to biomass fuel are still scarce in many areas in those countries, particularly in remote rural
Highlights Homegardens are the primary source of fuel in forest poor regions of Bangladesh; Rural households prefer woodfuel from inferior tree spceis with higher calorific value; Promoting homegardens can be a easy way to reduce anthropogenic pressure on forests.
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areas (Soussan 1991; Koopmans 1993). Forests are still vital sources of biomass fuel, providing the majority of biomass fuel requirements in most developing countries (Arnold et al. 2006). According to FAO (2006), fuel wood harvests account for about 40% of the global removals of wood from forests. Extraction of fuelwood from forests is also one of the major reasons for its depletion and degradation in developing states (Sands 2005). In South Asia, projected biomass fuel consumption during the year 2010 was about 372.5 million cubic meters, which was second highest in the world (Arnold et al. 2003; Arnold and Persson 2003). This suggests that biomass fuels will continue to be a major source of domestic energy in rural areas in this region for many years ahead. However, a combination of rapid losses in forest cover and reduced access to forests due to conservation regulations have stimulated the need P a g e | 18
Homegardens can help save forests in Bangladesh for an alternative source of biomass fuel (Uddin and Mukul 2007). In tropical regions homegardens comprise an assemblage of plants around a residence, and typically include trees, shrubs, vines and herbs (Nair 1993). In fact, homegardens represent a wellestablished traditional land-use system in the tropics, playing an important role in the livelihoods and economy of small-holder rural households (Webb and Kabir 2009). They also play a considerable role in forest conservation by providing an alternative source of biomass fuel for local people, which may have otherwise been derived from forests (Uddin and Mukul 2007; Bardhan et al. 2012). We assume that, in a changing world with decreasing forest cover and/or limited access to forests for biomass fuel, homegardens will play an important role as a substitute source of biomass fuel together with sources other non-timber forest products (Mukul 2011). In areas where there are limited forests for public use, homegardens are already playing a noteworthy role in meeting household fuel requirements for domestic cooking (Miah et al. 1990, 2011). Bangladesh is characterized by a relatively small natural resource base and a population of more than 160 million. The official forest coverage of the country is about 17%, with per capita forestland of around 0.02 ha – one of the lowest in the world (Mukul et al. 2013). Moreover, the country’s public forests are often degraded and unevenly distributed or spatially scattered (out of 64 districts of the country, 28 districts have no state forests) (Zashimuddin 2004). Due to its high population density, poverty and unemployment the deforestation rate in the country is also one of the highest in tropical Asia (Poffenberger 2000). Despite this, per capita fuelwood consumption in the country is one of the lowest in the world (i.e. 0.1 m3) as there is a big gap between supply, availability and demand (Miah et al. 2011). More than 77% of people live in rural areas in Bangladesh and about 80% of them possesses small to medium sized homegardens which are used as a supply for domestic fuel (Zashimuddin 2004). In the southern and central regions of the country there are very limited public forests where people can collect biomass fuel for domestic use. In such circumstances homegardens have evidently played a vital role in meeting the demand for biomass energy (see for example: Zashimuddin 2004; Jashimuddin et al. 2006; Miah et al. 2009, 2011). This paper reports a caseInt. J. of Res. on Land-use Sust. 1: 18-25 | 2014
S.A. Mukul et al. study carried out in a south-central rural village of Bangladesh where we investigated households’ domestic biomass fuel consumption patterns and the role played by the homegardens in meeting household biomass fuel requirements. We believe the results of this study will provide insight into the prospective role of homegardens as an alternative source of biomass fuel.
Materials and methods Study area For this study the Noakhali district was selected purposively and the Sadar (also known as Sudharam) upazila (administrative unit, sub-district) was selected randomly from a list of six upazillas (i.e. Begumganj, Chatkhil, Companiganj, Sadar, Senbagh and Subarnachar) comprising the district. Geographically the upazila lies between 22034/ to 22054/ N latitude and 90053/ to 91018/ E longitude and is crossed by mighty Meghna river (SRDI 1999). The Bay of Bengal borders the upazila on its southern edge (Figure 1). The upazila is devoid of any kind of public forests except some mangrove plantations in the coastal areas, and is famous for its homestead forest resources. The field survey was conducted in Lalpur village of Binodpur union within the upazila.
Field techniques Several field visits were arranged in the study area for data collection between January to August 2006. We followed a multistage random sampling technique to locate the village and households, with households as the ultimate sampling unit. Households were categorized into three distinct land holding categories through a preliminary socio-economic survey, i.e. landless to marginal household ( ha). Both agricultural lands and homesteads were considered for this classification. Thirty households, taking 10 from each of the land-holding categories, were chosen randomly for the final study (Table 1). Information regarding the homegardens and household fuel consumption patterns were obtained by interviewing the selected households and by undertaking field visits to the respective homegardens. For interviews we used a semistructured questionnaire where details about the household’s homestead situation (i.e. homestead size, species composition etc.), species preferences and quality, fuel consumption pattern, quantity P a g e | 19
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Homegardens can help save forests in Bangladesh
Figure 1. Forest coverage in Bangladesh (highlighted in green) (left) and location map of study area in the country (right) (Source: Banglapedia)
Table 1. Classification of the households and sampling intensity Land holding category
Average homestead size (decimal)
No. of total household (N)
Percentage HH sampled (%)
Landless to marginal Small Medium to large
07
49
20
15 24
52 21
19 48
consumed (kg month -1 household-1), sources of biomass fuel etc. were recorded. Additional data regarding each household’s demographic and socioeconomic status were also gathered. On each topic households were free to express his/her views.
Results Structure and composition of the homegardens The average homegarden size of the households’ belonging to landless to marginal, small and medium to large land holding categories in the study area were, 0.07 (±0.01) ha, 0.14 (±0.04) ha and P a g e | 20
0.19 (±0.01) ha respectively. Species compositions in each homegarden varied according to the socioeconomic status of the owner. However, it was observed that wealthier households’ homegardens were richer in plant diversity than that of other households. About 37 tree species, 4 palms, 3 grasses and 3 species of shrubs and herbs were found in the homegardens of the area. Plant species that were used as a source of biomass fuel include: Acacia auriculilformis, Aegle marmelos, Albizzia lebbeck, Albizzia procera, Albizzia saman, Alstonia scholaris, Anthocephallus chinensis, Areca catechu, Artocarpus heterophyllus, Artocarpus lakoocha, Averrhoa carambola, Azadirachta indica, Baccaurea ramiflora, Bambusa balcooa, Bombyx ceiba, Borassus flabellifer, Butea monosperma, Cassia fistula, Citrus acida, Cocos nucifera, Delonix regia, Dillenia indica, Diospyros discolor, Diospyros embryopteris, Elaeocarpus robustus, Erythrina variegata, Eucalyptus camaldulensis, Ficus roxburghii, Garcinia cowa, Lannea coromandelica, Mangifera indica, Melia azedarach, Melocanna baccifera, Moringa oleifera, Musa spp., Odina wodier, Phoenix sylvestris, Phyllanthus acidus, Psidium guajava, Schumannianthus dichotoma, Swietenia macrophylla, Syzygium cumini, Syzygium grandis, Tamarindus indica, Terminalia catappa, Typha elephantine and Int. J. of Res. on Land-use Sust. 1: 18-25 | 2014
Homegardens can help save forests in Bangladesh
Zizyphus mauratiana. Figure 2 below shows the vertical composition of species in the homegardens in the area.
S.A. Mukul et al.
other hand, mainly used dried fallen leaves and dung cake/ sticks as their fuel for cooking. Agricultural crop residues, like rice husks and straw were also used extensively by households after the harvesting of these crops took place. Household usage of leaves as fuel increased during the winter season due to greater availability, whilst the use of firewood went down during the monsoon due to their incombustibility as a result of the higher moisture content.
Figure 3. Energy use in the study area by consumption
Sources and preferences of biomass fuel
Figure 2. Vertical stratification of a homegarden in the study area (top); and a typical homegarden edge dominated by palms and tall species (bottom)
Biomass fuel used by the households Fuelwood was the most commonly used biomass fuel by the respondents – it contributed around 56% of total households’ fuel consumption. Other kinds of fuel used by the households were fallen leaves, dung cake and dung sticks, crop residues and others (e.g. bio-gas, saw mill residues). Household fuel consumption is shown in Figure 3. Household fuel consumption patterns differed considerably according to their wealth status and the seasons, which influenced the access of households’ to different kinds of biomass fuel (Table 2). Wealthier households were more likely to use fuelwood, on average 24.0 kg/month, thereby constituting the highest share in their fuel consumption. Poorer households, on the Int. J. of Res. on Land-use Sust. 1: 18-25 | 2014
Homegardens were a major source of biomass fuel for 87% of the respondents in the area, and contributed about 58% of the households’ total fuel consumption for domestic cooking and other purposes. In fact homegardens were a major source of biomass fuel for households from all three land holding categories (Table 3). Households were also found to collect biomass fuel from neighbors (16%), government’s fallow land (14%) – mainly from roadside plantations and nearby markets (Figure 4). Households belonging to the landless to marginal landholding category collected a considerable amount (20.2%) of fuel from public and fallow land and from neighbours (15.0%). Households in this category also purchased 20.4% of their domestic fuel from markets. The most preferred fuel species, parts consumed and their abundance in local homegardens are listed in Table 4. In general, households were most likely to prefer the species that were lighter in weight and had higher calorific value.
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Homegardens can help save forests in Bangladesh
Table 2. Monthly household biomass fuel consumption (in Kg) Land holding category Landless to marginal Small Medium to large
Fuel type Fuelwood 15.8 (±3.49) 16.40 (±3.24) 24.00 (±3.40)
Dried leaves 8 (±3.46) 9.50 (±4.33) 3.00 (±2.16)
Dung cake 6.3 (±1.34) 5.90 (±3.35) 1.50 (±1.96)
Crop residues 4.6 (±0.97) 0.80 (±1.14) 0.50 (±0.71)
Others 2.1 (±0.74 0.60 (±0.70) 0.20 (±0.42)
Table 3. Biomass fuel sources (in terms of % share) of different households Land holding category Landless to marginal Small Medium to large
Source Homegarden 58.7 (±8.84) 58.8 (±8.80) 56.1 (±6.23)
Neighbour 15 (±6.68) 17.2 (±8.28) 15.1 (±10.7)
Market 6.1 (±3.21) 11.4 (±4.33) 20.4 (±5.40)
Public/Fallow land 20.2 (±4.49) 12.6 (±8.80) 8.4 (±6.92)
Table 4. Preferences for species as biomass fuel Botanical name Cocos nucifera Albizzia spp. Areca catechu Terminalia catappa Mangifera indica Bombyx ceiba Erythrina indica Bambusa spp. Typha elephantina Oryza sativa
Local name Narikel Koroi Supari Katbadam Am Shimul Madar Bamboo Hogla Dhan
Parts used Petiole, Fruit Leaves, Wood Petiole Leaves, wood Leaves, wood Wood Wood Sheath, twigs Grass Husk, Straw
Occurrence +++ ++ +++ +++ ++ ++ ++ +++ +++ +++
Preference* +++ + + ++ ++ +++ +++ ++ ++ +++
* Ranked by respondents as: +++ high; ++ moderate, and + low
area. No systematic method of biomass fuel collection was evident. When harvesting from their own homegardens, households usually preferred the parts of the plant that were defected or had no alternate use. Biomass fuel was stored by households during the rainy season for future use. However, there was no specific place for storage - any vacant area with a roof served for storage purposes. Households used any location close in proximity to their residence during the dry season for storage purposes (Figure 5).
Figure 4. Different sources of biomass fuel in the study area
Collection and storage of biomass fuel In general, women and children were responsible for the collection of biomass fuel in the P a g e | 22
Discussion The findings of our study are coherent with the findings of several other authors who have also conducted their studies in similar regions in Bangladesh (see for example: Miah et al. 1990, 2003; Jashimuddin et al. 2006). In their studies, Miah (2003) and Jashimuddin et al. (2006) also found that homegardens Int. J. of Res. on Land-use Sust. 1: 18-25 | 2014
Homegardens can help save forests in Bangladesh
S.A. Mukul et al. involves gathering of litter from the forest floor, and as a result there is often complete removal of young seedlings and saplings, aggravating forest degradation through nutrient depletion, soil erosion and poor regeneration (Sherstha 2005). In Bangladesh, like many other tropical regions, an increasing focus on the the importance of conservation has resulted in stricter forest protection regimes. Consequently, household access to state forests is becoming increasingly limited (Uddin et al. 2013). In many forested areas, however, traditional forest uses are still common and are sources of forest conflicts (Mukul et al. 2013; Mukul 2014). Under these circumstances, homegardens can undeniably help to reduce pressure on existing public forests and thus enhance forest conservation efforts.
Conclusion
Figure 5. Stack of firewood for future use (top) and straw collected from paddy for multiple application (bottom) were a major source of household domestic fuel. Fuelwood was the most common form of biomass derived from homegardens, representing over half of households’ biomass consumption. Miah et al. (2003, 2011) also reported similar trends in the Chittagong and Noakhali districts of the country. In Bangladesh, 39.5% people are still relying on woodfueld for domestic cooking purpose (FAO 2014). An estimated 88% of all wood products in the country are still drawn from homegardens (Poffenberger 2000), suggesting that homegardens and trees outside of forests generally act as a major source of biomass fuel. Biomass fuel is also preferable to fossil fuels when considering climate change regulations (Koh and Ghazoul 2008). In countries like Bangladesh, biomass fuel is also more affordable for rural households who have limited access to advanced technologies for cooking and other domestic purposes (Chowdhury et al. 2011). In tropical developing countries where the majority of forests are poorly delineated and/or unregulated, unsustainable biomass fuel collection may lead to deforestation and forest degradation (Mukul et al. 2014). Biomass fuel collection from forests also Int. J. of Res. on Land-use Sust. 1: 18-25 | 2014
As alternatives to biomass fuels are still scarce in tropical developing countries, forests are still a vital source of biomass fuel. Our study clearly demonstrates that in areas where household access to public forests is limited and/or forests are scarce, homegardens can play an important role. However, the promotion of homegardens is not a long-term solution in the fight against deforestation. In areas where unsustainable harvesting is leading to forest loss and degradation, homegardens can act as an initial alternative to biomass harvesting from forests. Governments can allow land-less and marginal people to have access to plantations in governments’ fallow lands and public areas - including roads, railways and canal banks. It is recommended that fast growing species with high calorific values and substantial growth and branching capacity are used in such plantations. Acknowledgement An abridged version of this paper has been presented in the Swedish Bioenergy Conference held in Jonkoping, Sweden. The authors would also like to thanks Dr. Johan Vinterback (Swedish Bioenergy Association) and Dr. Hubertus Pohris (Technische Universität Dresden, Germany) for their valuable comments on an earlier draft of this manuscript.
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Photograph 1. Improved cooking klin can minimize rural households fuelwood demand and thereby could also reduce pressure on forests
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