In fresh plant, 95 per cent of cannabidiol and. A9-THC exist ... richer in the cannabinoid content compared to the male .... Cannabidiol and cannabinol exhibited.
CANNABIS [Cobley, 186; Sundararaj & Balasubramanyam, 54; Sundararaj & Thulasidas, 234; Neal, 225; Ugent et al , Econ Bot, 1984, 38,417; Joseph & Peter, Indian Hort, 1985, 29(4), 11; Belavady & Balasubramanian, Indian J agric Sci, 1959,29,151]. The starch (C a n n a S t a r c h ) is obtained by a process of rasping, washing and straining of rhizomes. Analysis of rhizomes gave (edible portion, 73%): moisture, 73; protein, 1.1; fat, 0.4; carbohydrates, 24.0; fibre, 0.5; and minerals, 1.0 g/100 g; calcium, 20; phosphorus, 25; iron, 0.8; thiamine, 0.06; riboflavin, 0.06; niacin, 1.7; and vitamin C, 5 mg; and energy 104 Kcal/100 g (Nutritive Value of Indian Foods, 73; Sundararaj & Thulasidas, 235). Canna starch is a shining cream-coloured powder consisting of some grains large enough to be seen with the naked eye. It is very easily digestible and hence is used in making foods for infants and invalid persons; it is also used for making artificial honey and sago. In the pharmaceutical industry it is used in the manufacture of pills and tablets, dispersing powders, and starch-sugars. It also finds use as a finishing agent in paper-making, and textiles, and in the preparation of adhesives and pastes (Sundararaj & Thulasidas, 235; Hoppe, 173). The tender rhizomes are eaten. They are diaphoretic, demulcent and diuretic and useful in fevers. They are also fed to livestock (Sundararaj & Thulasidas, 235; Shah & Gupta, Indian Drugs, 1976-77,14,47). The dark coloured seeds are used as ammunition and as rosary beads, and as an ingredient in a substitute for coffee. Burning of the plants produces an insecticidal smoke (Rogers, / Arnold Arbor, 1984, 65, 35). C. orientalis Rose. syn. C. indica Linn. var. orientalis (Rose.) Baker I n d ia n S h o t
With India — Raw Materials, II, 58; FI Br Ind, VI, 260. Beng. — Sarbajaya, Hindi — Sabba jay a; Kan. — Kadu bale, kakale, kalahu; Mai. — Kandamani-vazha, Icattuvazha; Tam. — Kalvaazhai, poovaazhai; Tel. — Krishnataamara. An erect perennial leafy herb with a tuberous, fibrous rootstock and pseudostems 60-120 cm in height, widely cultivated throughout India for its beautiful foliage and flowers. Leaves c 15- 35 cm long, oblong or elliptic-lan
ceolate, acute; flowers bright red or light scarlet or yellow with red streaks; capsules globose or ellipsoid, echinate; seeds globose, black, hard. The plant can serve as a source of fibre. It can be grown on land unsuitable for rice or jute. It grows quickly and the leaf stalk can be retted in the green condition in a slightly acid medium to yield a light green fibre (length, 5 cm). Analysis of the leaf fibre gave: fat, 1.90; lignin, 13.08 (H2SO4 method), 12.61 (Chlorite method); a-cellulose, 52.19; hemicellulose, 32.25; furfural, 12.53; and ash, 1.06%. The fibre has a lower a-cellulose and higher lignin and furfural content than top quality jute. It is more coarse than jute and is inferior to it in strength and spinning quality. It may be used in admixture with jute in the production of fabrics. It may also be used for the production of paper pulp and viscose. The seeds yield a purple dye. They are also used in making necklaces and rosaries (Das et al, J sci industr Res, 1952,11B, 541; Viswanathan et al, Bull bot Surv India, 1981, 23, 240; Matthews, 434). Aqueous and ether extracts of the whole plant and methanol extracts of root and leaves were found to have molluscicidal activity. This may prove usefiil in control of schistosomiasis by controlling the molluscs. The roots are reputed as diuretic, demulcent, diaphoretic, for dropsy and for fever in indigenous medicine. The in fusion of the leaves is diuretic; it is used in fever. The seeds are cordial and vulnerary. Their infusion is a coffee substitute (Kloos & McCullough, Planta med, 1982,46,195; Kirtikar & Basu, IV, 2451; Quisumbing, 202; Rama Rao, 405). CANNABIS Linn. (Cannabaceae, Cannabinaceae) A monotypic* genus of herbs, distributed in the tropical and temperate regions. C. sativa occurs in India and is cultivated for its narcotic resin, fibre (HEMP) and oil. The narcotic resin is the chief constituent of the Cannabis drugs (known as M a r iju a n a in North and South America) such as B h a n g , G a n j a and C h a r a s (HASHISH) having euphoric and psychotomimetic * Some authors are of the view that the genus is polytypic with at least 3 species (Emboden, Econ Bot, 1974,28,304).
195
CANNABIS
properties (FI Malesiana, Ser. I, 4, 222; FI Europaea, I, 67; Chopra, SciRep, 1974, 11, 321). C. sativa Linn. SOFT HEMP, TRUE HEMP
With India— Raw Materials, II, 58; FlBrlnd, V,487; Kirtikar & Basu, PI. 888. Beng., Guj., Hindi, Mar. & Assam — Bhang, charas, ganja; Kan. — Bangi, Mai.— Kanchanchotti; Oriya — Ganjaie; Sans.— Bhanga, vijaya\ Tam. — Bhangi, ganja; TeL — Ganjai, kalpam-chettu. Kumaun — Bhangalu, bhangaw; Punjab — Bhang. A strong-smelling annual of variable height (1-5 m) occurring wild throughout the western Himalayas, and abundantly found as an escape throughout the greater part of India. It is cultivated in the warm valleys of the Himalayas in Himachal Pradesh and in the adjoining plains from Kashmir eastwards to Assam. It is also grown in Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh and Orissa. Some wild growth is reported from Tamil Nadu, Rajas than, Bihar and Kerala. Stem slender, angular, grooved; leaves 7-20 cm long, palmately 3-11 partite, stalked; leaflets sessile, narrow- lanceolate, serrate, upper sur face scabrid, lower slightly hairy; male flowers yellow, in short dense cymes uniting into a lax foliate terminal panicle, female flowers light green, solitary, in the axils of small membranous bracts; achene, smooth, shining, 4-5 mm long. The variation in C. sativa is considerable (2n=20), following mainly two patterns on the basis of which two widespread types are discernible. These have been raised to the rank of subspecies, viz. sativa Linn, and indica (Lam.) Small & Cronq. Subsp. sativa has a northern distribution (above 30°N) with a relatively limited potential for the production of the intoxicant material but with more of fibre and oil. It is common in North America, Europe and North Asia. The plants have hollow intemodes, sparse branching, relatively short periods of vegetative growth, and are monoecious. It comprises two varieties — var. sativa including the cultivars grown for fibre and oil and var. spontanea Vavilov cultivated in Nepal for its fibre. Subsp. indica has a considerable potential for the production of the intoxicant material. It is common south of 30°N, and has a long period of vegetative growth. It has two varieties: 1) var. indica (Lam.) Wehmer which is much branched 196
with short intemodes and solid stems, common in southern Asia and grown for narcotic trade; 2) var. kafiristanica (Vavilov) Small & Cronq. which includes indigenous or naturalised weedy plants commonly met with in the Himalayan region from Himachal Pradesh to Sikkim and West Bengal, and in South Asia, Africa and to some extent in Mexico and Central and South America (Kumar & Subramaniam, I, 122; Matoucha in Kihara, II, 135; Small & Cronquist, Taxon, 1976, 25, 405). Cannabis is cultivated for its narcotic resin, fibre, and seed. But the plants cultivated for fibre and seed are not used simultaneously for extracting the narcotic resin. The hilly areas are more suitable for the cultivation of the fibre and seed crop while the arid areas are ideal for the crop yielding the narcotic drugs. The seeds from the seed crop are sent to the areas where the crop is grown for the drugs. Thus, the area under cultivation, the cultivation practices, the methods of harvesting, etc. are different for the two types of crops, and are hence being dealt with separately under the product.
C a n n a b is D r u g s
Cannabis drugs have been used in India from ancient times. The drugs — bhang, ganja, and charas - common ly used in India, are derived from the flowers, leaves and the resinous matter obtained from them [Chopra & Chopra, Bull Narcotics, 1957, 9(1), 3]. Bhang Also known as Siddhi, sabji or path, bhang consists of the dried, crushed mature leaves and flower shoots of the male and/or female plants. It is the mildest of the three drug forms and being non-narcotic is not subject to the regulations of the excise department. Yet the collection and storage of leaves and flowers is allowed only under government licence in Punjab, Bihar and Uttar Pradesh. Major supplies of the raw material are from wild growth in the Himalayas; supplies are also available in Tamil Nadu, Bihar, West Bengal, Assam and Uttar Pradesh. About 4 tonnes are collected annually in Bihar alone (Information from Excise Commissioner, Govt, of Bihar, Patna; Brochure on Production & Use of Cannabis in India, Central Bureau o f Narcotics, Government of India, Gwalior, 13).
PLATE V
C A NN A B IS SATIVA—FL O W E R IN G B R A N C H ES
CANNABIS
The euphoric principle develops in the plant only when it matures and flowers, then gradually declines when the lower leaves begin to fall off and the flowering tops turn yellow. For making good bhang, the healthy leaves and flowering stalks are gathered when just ma ture. The usual time for gathering is May-June in the plains and June-July in the hills. They are alternately exposed to the sun and dew and then dried. The dried plants are struck against a block of wood to separate the stems from leaves and flowers. The separated leaves and flowers are stored in earthenware vessels after drying and grinding to a coarse powder, containing 15 per cent moisture. It is often adulterated with the refuse that collects on the kneading floor during the preparation of ganja [Chopra & Chopra, 165; Oza, Indian For, 1972, 98, 349; Chopra & Chopra, Bull Narcotics, 1957,9(1), 3; Cannabis in India, 13; Information from Excise Com missioner, Govt, of Bihar, Patna]. Ganja It is prepared from the flowering and/or fruiting tops of C. sativa which are coated with a resinous exudate. The plant is cultivated under licence for production of ganja only in two states of India, viz., Madhya Pradesh (Khandwa & East Nimar districts) and Orissa (Sambalpur, Koraput, Dhankanal, Ganjam and Phulbani dis tricts), under the strict control and supervision of excise officials. The licence for cultivation is valid for one working season only and the harvest is brought by each cultivator to the manufacturing yard specified by the excise department. The area and production of Cannabis for ganja in the two states is given in Table 1. Cultivation has been discontinued in West Bengal since 1978 and in Bihar since April 1981. It is banned in the rest of the country in conformity with the recommendations of the United Nations Organisation, to restrict and gradually
reduce its consumption [Chopra & Chopra, 165; Can nabis in India, 2; Chopra & Chopra, Bull Narcotics, 1957, 9 (1), 3; Information from Commissioner of Ex cise, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Bihar and West Bengal]. Cultivation — For production of ganja the plant requires a rich friable loamy soil. In summer, the soil in the nursery is repeatedly ploughed, well manured and laid into 30 cm high ridges spaced 30 cm apart. Seeds of high germination capacity obtained from Almora and other sub-Himalayan regions contain a mixture of three types, viz. tall (3 m), medium (2.4 m) and dwarf (1.8 m). The seeds are sown on a bright sunny day in August, the seed-rate being 5-8 kg/ha. Seedlings of 15-30 cm height are transplanted in the field in rows 120 cm apart and 15-20 cm between plants in each row. The field is given hand-weeding and interculturing to keep the crop free of weeds. The crop is irrigated 4-6 times during the whole cropping season. The lower branches are thinned to encourage upward growth of the plant. The crop grows thick and bushy and reaches a height of 120-180 cm by November when the plants start flowering and the crop consists of both male and female plants. Roguing of male plants is done repeatedly and thoroughly and only the female plants are allowed to remain. In ex perimental trials, apical application of silver nitrate, silver thiosulphate or cobalt chloride has induced for mation of male flowers also on female plants. The seeds from such plants produce only female plants. This tech nique may prove useful for maintaining gynoecious lines. The female flowerheads are soft as cotton when unfertilized but rough and knotty when fertilized. The narcotic resin begins to form rapidly in the unfertilized female flowerheads which become quite sticky (Can nabis in India, 1; Yegna Narayan Aiyer, 533; Ram &
TABLE 1 — AREA UNDER CANNABIS CULTIVATION AND PRODUCTION OF GANJA FOR EXCISE IN INDIA* 1981-82 1982-83 1983-84 1984-85 1985-86 States Madhya Pradesh Orissa TOTAL
Area Production (ha) (qt) 218
1566
Area Production (ha) (qO 141
1028
Area Production (ha) (qt) 101
1094
Area Production (ha) (qO 123
1575
Area Production (ha) (qO 101
1600
30
265
30
271
18
153
13
73
10
65
248
1831
171
1299
119
1247
136
1648
111
1665
* Information from the Commissioners o f Excise, Govt, of Madhya Pradesh and Orissa.
197
CANNABIS
Sett, Proc Indian AcadSci, 1978,88B, 303; ChemAbstr, 1982,97, 124124). In USA C. sativa was successfully propagated by cuttings under greenhouse conditions. Concentration of the major active principle A9-tetrahydrocannabinol in vegetative propagules was found to be four times higher than in seed propagules. However, the cannabinoid level within the population of vegetative cuttings remained highly variable (Coffman & Gentner, Econ Bot, 1979, 33, 124). Diseases — In Khandwa, Madhya Pradesh, the ganja crop is attacked by Sclerotium rolfsii Sacc. which causes wilt diseases when the plants are 2 months old. The damage caused is about 40-60 per cent. The dwarf type is reported to be completely resistant to the wilt disease, whereas the tall and medium types are susceptible. Also the dwarf type yields more ganja. The disease can be controlled by drenching the field with Brassicol (0.25%), Calixin (0.1%) or by application of 100 kg N per hectare (Krishna et al, Indian Phytopath, 1983, 36, 204). Harvesting — The plants are harvested when the lower leaves fall off and the tops of the flowering stalks begin to turn yellow. They are cut at the base of the stem, and the flower bearing branches are cut and arranged in a circular fashion on the floor and trampled over. As a result, smaller leaves and blocks of inflorescences be come agglutinated into a flat cake and adhere firmly owing to the gummy resin. This material is then col lected as ganja and is separately treated to obtain three types of ganja, viz. flat ganja, round ganja and choora ganja. For preparing flat ganja, the crop is harvested a little earlier than for round ganja.. Processing and Storage — For preparing flat ganja, the harvested material is spread out in ridges and fur rows. The ridges are trodden upon to level them down to press the floral shoots into sheets. At intervals the material is turned over, allowed to dry for sometime and trodden over again. It is then collected and arranged in a flat circular heap called chakki, more layers being added until a height of 90 cm is reached. The compact mass is kept under pressure for sometime to promote chemical changes and then turned over and trodden on again. On the fourth day, the ganja thus obtained is ready for storage. It is then freed of dust, stones, seed and leaves and sent to the excise depot. 198
For preparing round ganja, the harvested flowerheads are rolled into a small rounded or sausage-shaped mass between hands or under feet. The broken frag ments obtained during the preparation of flat and round ganja constitute the third type, choora ganja. It is also prepared by boiling flat or round ganja in water when the homogenous mass is broken up into loose fragments. These fragments are usually distinct and do not stick together [Chopra & Chopra, 166; Cannabis in India, 2; Chopra & Chopra, Bull Narcotics, 1957, 9(1), 4]. Charas or Hashish It is the resinous matter collected from the leaves and flowering tops of the female plants. In India, the cul tivate^ plants do not yield sufficient resin to be collected separately. Charas is collected in parts of central Asia from plants grown for this purpose. Big tufts of flowers appear in Sept-Oct on these plants. The female flowerheads are collected, dried and crushed. This powder, kneaded by means of wooden rods into a mass forms the charas. Alternatively, the flower-heads are crushed and squeezed and the resin is scraped off. It is generally sold compressed into lumps of various shapes. Charas was imported into India till 1945 after which date import as well as export of charas has been completely banned. However, a certain quantity of illicit charas finds its way into the country through the northern frontier. Charas is a greenish mass with a characteristic odour. When kept for sometime, it turns brownish grey, becomes hard and friable and loses some of its narcotic activity. Hashish oil or liquid hashish is a thick pasty product obtained by extracting the resin with an organic solvent, removing the solvent and dissolving the residue in vegetable oil. It is rich in tetrahydrocannabinol and is consumed by smoking [Chopra & Chopra, 166; Chopra & Chopra, Bull Narcotics, 1957, 9(1), 4; Cannabis in India, 2; Ramanathan, EastPharmy 1978, 21(249), 23]. Chemical composition o f Cannabis drugs Several cannabinoids have been isolated from the resinous exudate of the plant. Most of the cannabinoids are oily in nature and have the Ai-pentyl side chain. They are: tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), cannabidiol, cannabinol, cannabichrom ene, can n abicitran, cannabicyclol, cannabigerol, cannabielsoin, stereo isomers of cannabitriol, 8, 9-dihydroxy-A6a(10a)-THC, (-)- 10ethoxy-9-hydroxy-A6a(10a)-THC, cannabinodiol, can-
CANNABIS
nabicumaronone, cannabiglendol and cannabitetrol. In natural form, tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) exists in many isomeric forms, viz. (-) A9-trans-THC (A9-THC; (A1- THC); A9 - cis-THC and A8- trans-THC (A8-THC; (A1(6)-THC); A3- and A5-isomers of THC have also been isolated. These cannabinoids are accompanied by homologues having methyl or n-butyl side chains in place of rt-pentyl side chain. Hashish and ganja of Indian, Pakistani and Nepalese origin contain fairly large amounts of propyl homologues. The propyl can nabinoids, cannabidivarol, cannabidivarolic acid, A9tetrahydrocannabidivarol, and A9- tetrahydrocannabidivarolic acid were isolated from the Soviet variety of hemp grown in Mississippi. Propyl homologue of A9THC is about one-fifth as active as A9-THC in producing cataleptic state in mice. These cannabinoids are general ly associated with their corresponding 2-carboxylic acids. In fresh plant, 95 per cent of cannabidiol and A9-THC exist as cannabidiolic acid and A9-THC acids A and B respectively (Dahiya, Indian Drugs, 1976-77, 14,66; Mechoulam & Gaoni in Zechmeister, XXV, 179; Turner et al, J nat Prod, 1980, 43, 169; 1981, 44, 27; Shoyama etal, Phytochemistry, 1984,23,1909; Bercht et al, ibid, 1974, 13, 619; Bhakuni, J sci industr Res, 1977, 36, 490; Harvey, J Pharm Pharmacol, 1976, 28, 280; Zeeuw etal, Science, 1972,175,778; ChemAbstr, 1984,101,207588; 1988,108, 52778). The yield of cannabinoids, as also the nature and ratio of its constituents, varies widely in different samples of hashish and ganja and depends on geographical origin, variety, time of harvest, plant part used and age of the sample. Indian varieties of Cannabis contain A9-THC as the main constituent while the USSR and US varieties contain cannabidiol as the major component. The cannabinoid content is maximum in bracts (up to 11.04%) and lowest in seeds. Contrary to the popular belief that the active constituents are present exclusively in the female plants, the cannabinoid content in male and female plants does not differ much. The female flower ing tops are clustered with foliage and are therefore richer in the cannabinoid content compared to the male flowering tops which have less foliage [Bhakuni, loc. cit.; ChemAbstr, 1975, 83, 32947; Valle et al,J Pharm Pharmacol, 1968,20,798; Waller etal, 1,131; Ohlsson et al, Bull Narcotics, 1971,23(1), 29].
Besides the cannabinoids, the plant also contains several non- cannabinoid phenols: cannabispiran (cannabispirone), isocannabispiran, dehydrocannabispiran (cannabispirenone), (3 -cannabispiranol (cinnabispirol), acetylcannabispirol, cannabispiradienone (spiradienone), canniprene (C21H26O4 ), 3-[2-(4-hydroxyphenyl) ethyl]-5- methoxyphenol, 3-[2-(3-hydroxy-4methoxyphenyl) ethyl]-5- methoxyphenol, 3-[2-(3isoprenyl-4-hydroxy-5-methoxyphenyl) ethyl]-5methoxyphenol, cannabistilbene-I (C20H24O3) and -II (C17H20O5), cannithrene-I (C15H 14O3) and -II (C16H16O4) and 3,5,4'-trihydroxybibenzyl. The methyl ether of the last compound shows estrogenic activity. The flavonoids isolated from the plant are: flavocannabiside, flavosativaside,orientin, vitexin, 2"-0- glucopyranosylorientin, 2"-0-glucopyranosyl-vitexin, cytisoside, a Cglycuronide of luteolin, geranylated and prenylated chrysceriols, cannflavin A and B, canniflavone-I and -II, and 3- 0-diglucosides of kaempferol and quercetin. Presence of blumeol A (vom ifoliol) and B(dihydrovomifoliol) is also reported. The pollen con tains apigenin and luteolin glycosides (El-Sohly et al, J nat Prod, 1984, 47, 445; Turner et al, ibid, 1980, 43, 169; El-Feraly, ibid, 1984,47, 89; Crombie & Crombie, Tetrahedron Lett, 1978,4711; Crombie etal, ibid, 1980, 21, 3607; El-Sohly & Turner, Experientia, 1982, 38, '229; Crombie & Crombie, / chem Soc, Perkin Trans, 1, 1982, 1455; El-Feraly et al, Lloydia, 1976, 39, 474; Segelman et al, Phytochemistry, 1978,17, 824; Bercht etal, ibid, 1976,15,830; ChemAbstr, 1980,92,124924; 1986,105,75909; Paris etal, Econ Bot, 1975,29,245). Cannabis smoke is reported to contain campesterol, stigmasterol and p-sitosterol, the precursors of car cinogenic hydrocarbons in the same ratio as present in the plant material. The smoke condensate contains demethylamine, piperidine, pyridine, 2-methylpyridine, pyrrole, 3- (and/or 4-) methylpyridine and dimethylpyridine, phenol, cresol, guaicol, catechol, hydroquinone, p-hydroxyacetophenone, scopoletin, and/or esculetin and several acids. The smoke condensate con tains all the paraffins identified in the plant material along with several unsaturated hydrocarbons resulting from the pyrolytic cracking of the higher straight chain homologues. A significant similarity exists between tobacco and Cannabis with respect to the hydrocarbons and their pyrolysis products (Adams & Jones, J agric
CANNABIS
FdChem, 1975,23,352; 1973,21,1129; Jones&Foote, ibid, 1975,23, 1129). Several quaternary bases, amides, and amines have also been isolated from the various parts of the plant. Choline and trigonelline were found to be present in all the parts, muscarine in the leaves, L-(+)-isoleucine betaine in the seeds and neurine in the roots. Plant resin contains hexadecanamide. Another amide, N-(phydroxy- p-phenylethyl-/?-hydroxy-fraAiy- cinnamide has been isolated from the roots. Some of the amines identified in the plant are: piperidine, hordenine, cannabamines A-D, pyrrolidine, and trimethylamine. Cannabamines show decreased motor activity in mice. Presence of N-acetylglucosamine and N- acetylgalac tosamine is reported in the leaves and stem. Two sper midine alkaloids, cannabisativine and anhydro-cannabisativine have been isolated from the leaves, young stems and roots. Leaves contain 3methyl-6-isopropyl-4'-pentyl-2', 6'-dihydroxy-1,2,3,6tetrahydrobiphenyl-3'-carboxylic acid, trans-cinnamic acid and 2-C-methyl aldotetronic acid (Turner et al, loc. cit.; Bercht et al, loc. cit.; Wold & Hillested, Phytochemistry, 1976, 15, 325; Kringsted et al, ibid, 1980, 19, 543; Klein et alt Nature, Lond, 1971, 232, 258; Smith et al, J Pharm Pharmacol, 1977, 29, 126; ChemAbstr, 1960, 54, 13543). Freshly harvested male and female plants from Jammu-Tawi, on hydrodistillation, yielded two light yellow oils (c 0.1%) with similar characteristic odour, physico-chemical constants, and having identical gas chromatograms. The oil from the male plants had the following physicochem ical constants: d$, 0.9012; nh°\ 1.495; [a]#, -11.8°;and acid val,. 1.24 and contained several mono- and sesquiterpenes. The main constituents identified are: p-caryophyllene, (3humulene, a -sellinene, a -bergamotene, p- famesene, limonene, p-phellandrene, caryophyllene oxide, a pinene, myrcene, and y-terpinene. Caryophyllene, the major constituent of the oil, on exposure is rapidly converted into its epoxide and is responsible for recog nition of charas by police dogs. Essential oil of a German sample contained longifolene, humulene epoxide -I and -II, caryophyllenol-I and m-mentha-1, 8(9)-dien-5-ol (Nigam etal, CanadJ Chem, 1965,43,3372; Hendriks etal, Phytochemistry, 1975,14,814; ChemAbstr, 1975, 200
83, 168298; Stahl & Kunde, Tetrahedron Lett, 1973, 2841). The roots contain campesterol, campest-5-en-3p -ol7-one, campest-4-en-3-one, p -sitosterol, stigmasterol, stigmast-4-en-3-one, stigmast-4, 22-dien-3-one, stigmast-5-en-3p-ol-7-one, stigmasta-5,22- dien-3 p -ol-7one, friedelin, ep ifried elin o l, carvone and dihydrocarvone. The cannabinoids present in the roots are: cannabidiol, cannabidiolic acid, A9-THC, A9tetrahydrocannabinolic acid, A8-TH C, cannabichroman, cannabicyclol, cannabinol and cannabigerol. Ergosterol and 5 a - stigmasta -7,22(28)dien-3 p-ol were found to be present in the leaves (Slatkin et al, Phytochemistry, 1975,14, 580; Turner et al, loc. cit.; Sethi etal, Plantamed, 1977,32,378; Chem Abstr, 1987,107, 233159). The fruits contain edestin, zeatin, zeatin nucleoside, edestinase, glucosidase, polyphenol oxidase, peptidase, peroxidase, adenosine-5-phosphatase and two glycoproteins (Turner et al, J nat Prod, 1980, 43, 203; Phybicka & Engelbercht, Phytochemistry, 1974, 13, 282). Utilization Cannabis drugs are used as narcotics and in medicine Narcotic — As a narcotic, bhang is always consumed orally, either in the form of a beverage or a confection. It is consumed by the poor and the well-to-do alike in many parts of India as a mild narcotic and a food accessory. Beverages made from bhang are known under different names in various parts of India. Pound ing the dried leaves with black pepper and sugar and diluting with water makes the simplest beverage; the addition of other ingredients like almonds, iced milk, curds, aniseed,ajwain, seeds of poppy, cucumber and melon, rose petals, saffron, cloves, cardamom and musk are reported to improve the taste and also possibly enhance the euphoric effect. Addition of fruit juices such as those from pomegranate, date and bael, and coconut milk are popularly believed to counteract the harmful effect of the drug [Chopra & Chopra, Bull Narcotics, 1957, 9(1), 6; Chopra, Sci Rep, 1974, 11, 321; Chopra & Chopra, 168]. The dried bhang is sometimes eaten as such for its sedative, mildly stimulating and pleasure giving effects and on festive occasions is incorporated in a variety of
CANNABIS
sweets. Ice-cream containing bhang is also sometimes available in towns during the hot weather. On keeping, it loses its narcotic effect and after three years storage it is only a soothing and cooling drink for the hot season [Chopra & Chopra, 168; Chopra & Chopra, Bull Nar cotics, 1957, 9(1), 4; Chopra, loc. cit.]. Both ganja and charas are usually smoked to induce a state of intoxication. Both have the reputation of enhancing sexual pleasures and appetite. Usually they are taken only once a day generally towards the evening when the individual feels tired after the day’s hard work. In India some preparations for oral consumption of ganja are also available. Ganja and charas differ in the quantity of narcotic principle contained, smoking of the latter having the stronger action. The United Nations convention on narcotic drugs held in 1961 and ratified by the Government of India prohibited non-medicinal consumption of Cannabis drugs after 1990. In India use of charas, its export and import are already prohibited. All the Indian states have also prohibited the non-medicinal consumption of ganja except the producer states, viz. Madhya Pradesh and Orissa. Since 1990 private possession and consumption of ganja for non-medicinal purposes has been totally banned [Chopra, loc. cit.; Chopra & Chopra, Bull Nar cotics, 1957, 9(1), 6, 9, 10]. Inspite of all restrictions and prohibition hashish and other Cannabis preparations are used widely all over the world as illicit narcotic drugs for their euphoric and hallucinogenic effects. The effects are associated with the tetrahydrocannabinols present in them. The active principles of cannabis resin, A9- and A8- THCs are active when taken orally or smoked, the former being c three times more potent when smoked than on oral ad ministration. Absorption of the drug, from gastrointes tinal tract, is slow and irregular and the resultant effects are variable. Smoking is therefore preferred since the desired pleasant psychological effect is produced almost immediately. Cannabichromene is also reported to have euphoric activity. Cannabidiol and cannabinol exhibited activity similar to A9-THC on intracerebral administra tion in mice. Cannabis drugs resemble cocaine and amphetamine in their euphoric and sympathomimetic activity, and morphine in its euphoric and analgesic activity (Mechoulam & Gaoni in Zechmeister, XXV, 176; Dahiya, loc. cit.; Bhakuni, loc. cit.; Chopra, loc.
cit.; Clausscn & Korte, Tetrahedron Lett, 1967, 2067; Farnsworth, Science, 1968,162,1086; Zeeuw etal, ibid, 1972, 175,773). Unlike most biologically active compounds, THCs do not contain any sulphur or nitrogen atom in the molecules. A9- and A 8-THCs produce a state of intoxica tion which is a unique mixture of central nervous system stimulation and depression. The spontaneous activity gets depressed but animals become hypersensitive to external stimuli, such as sound or touch. Though their effects are largely confined to the CNS, they sometimes produce vomiting and diarrhoea, fibrillary tremor and ataxia. Blood pressure and respiration are lowered but heart rate increases [Bhakuni, loc. cit.; Stohs, East Pharm, 1970,13(153), 23; Jaffe in Goodman & Gilman, 300; Dewey etal, Nature, Lond, 1970, 226, 1265]. The major toxic effects of Cannabis drugs are on brain and lungs. The most serious social evil of chronic and heavy use of these drugs is the development of the demotivation syndrome even though there is no evidence of physical damage. The most consistent ob jective effects noticed are tachycardia, conjunctival in fection, increased body sway, increase in pulse rate, a slight rise in blood pressure and blood sugar, urinary frequency without diuresis, dryness of the mouth and throat, nausea, vomiting and occasional diarrhoea. Hunger or a marked increase in appetite are also char acteristic of the drug. Among the subjective effects the most common experience is the development of a dreamy state of altered consciousness, euphoria, sen sory perceptual distortion and depersonalization; with high doses, hallucination is followed by sedation. Un controllable laughter and hilarity at minimal stimuli are common. High oral doses result in temporal disintegra tion leading to impairment of rational thinking and loss of recent memory. Most characteristically there is a feeling of extreme well-being, exaltation, excitement and inner joyousness or the so-called “high”, increased awareness of colours, panicky state and fear of death (Dahiya, loc. cit.; Bhakuni, loc. cit.; Jaffe in Goodman & Gilman, 300; Melgesetal, Science, 1970,168,1118; Stohs, loc. cit.). The A 9- and A8-THCs have powerful psychoactive effects on humans and account for all the cffccts as sociated with the use of the crude drug. They are fat soluble and are eliminated very slowly from the system 201
CANNABIS
through the urine and faeces. They induce enzymes in the lungs and liver which in turn produce the psychoac tive 11-hydroxy THC metabolites. These have been found to be more active than the parent compounds when administered to mice either by intravenous or intracerebral routes. On intravenous administration the drug is distributed throughout the body within 5 minutes while on intraperitoneal administration it remains in the abdominal cavity with little distribution in other tissues including CNS. Contrary to the popular belief that Can nabis drugs are not addicting, A9-THC rapidly nduces tolerance in all the animals studied. It alters the turnover rate of the major neuro-transmitters, 5-hydroxytryptamine and acetyl choline in the CNS. It also interacts with other commonly used centra j acting drugs like alcohol, amphetamines, morphine and barbiturates [Bhakuni, loc. cit.; Dahiya, loc. cit.; Christensen et al, Science, 1971, 172, 165; Science J, 1970, 6(7), 15; Ho et a l,J Pharm Pharmacol, 1971, 23, 309]. Medicine — Cannabis drugs have been used in in digenous medicine for a long time in the treatment of several diseases. Bhang is more commonly taken than ganja or charas. When taken orally in small doses they stimulate the appetite and digestion but their prolonged use leads to loss of appetite. They are prescribed in dyspepsia, colic and diarrhoea along with other drugs. Their chief effect is a pleasurable sensation and a refreshing feeling followed by exhilaration, excitement and later sleep; they are mainly used for this effect, i.e. to relieve a person of fatigue, strain and worry. The addictive potential of Cannabis is similar to that of opiates; also the active cannabinoids remain in the tis sues for a longer time than alcohol or nicotine. Though occasional use is believed to be innocuous, this claim is contradicted by many experts who have found that they precipitate psychiatric disorders [Cannabis in India, 6; Chopra & Chopra, 167; Grinspoon, Sci Amer, 1969, 221(6), 17; DattaySciRep, 1975,12,142; Kaymacalan, Bull Narcotics, 1981, 33(2), 21; Waller etal, I, 157]. Cannabis is recommended as a psychiatric aid in treating depression and high blood pressure. It is useful in treating glaucoma by reducing intra-ocular hyperten sion. It has proved favourable in treatment of extreme nausea in patients undergoing cancer therapy. It is also prescribed in treating menstrual disorders and during labour pains. Though considered an aphrodisiac, its 202
effect is reported to be only marginal. In experimental trials, it inhibited the secretion of testosterone [Dahiya, Indian Drugs, 1976-77, 14, 66; Amer J Pharm, 1981, 153, 27; Datta, loc. cit.; Merritt et al, J Pharm Phar macol, 1981, 33, 40; Gharat, Pharmaceutist, 1958-59, 4(2), 21; Dalterio et al, Science, 1977,196, 1472]. G abis was official in the I .P. till 1966 as a sedative and an analgesic. However, its use has greatly declined due to rapid deterioration of its preparations and their uncertain potency. The crude drug and its preparations lose potency on storage. Acidic cannabinoids in solution decompose in dark in varying amounts depending on the temperature, solvent used and storage time while neutral cannabinoids are relatively stable. Daylight causes ap preciable decomposition of both acidic and neutral can nabinoids 0Cannabis in India, 6; I.P. 1966, 101; Fairbaim et al, J Pharm Pharmacol, 1976, 28,1; Smith & Vaughan ibid, 1977,29,286; Grover, EconBot, 1965, 19, 99; Int Pharm Abstr, 1970, 7, 4212; U.S.D., 1955, 1614; Schultes, Science, 1969,163, 245). The active principles responsible for the analgesic activity and for the profound effect on the cardiovas cular system are A 9- and A8-THCs. The analgesic ac tivity is particularly attributed to the 11-hydroxy metabolites of A 8- and A 9-THCs. A 9-THC helps in decreasing the intra-ocular pressure. The cannabinoids exhibited antiestrogenic activity in vitro', cannabigerol and cannabidiolic acids are sedative principles; the latter along with cannabidiol and THC also act as potent antimicrobial agents. Cannabidiol shows anticonvulsant activity. Besides, they show promise in controlling various forms of cancer in experimental animals. The traditional use of cannabis for treating infections of the urinary tract may have a scientific basis because of its diuretic activity combined with its known antispasmodic, pain relieving and antibacterial activities. Its febrifugal effects have been known for ages and now have been confirmed in clinical trials [Dewey etal, loc. cit.; Jaffe in Goodman & Gilman, 300; IDMA Bull, 1980, 11, 80; Johnson & Milne in Wolff, pt. Ill, 746; Merritt etal, loc! cit.; Bhakuni, loc.cit.; Indian chem 7, 1974-75, 9(7), 35]. Ganja is sometimes administered as pills with bran or grass to bullocks as a tonic to relieve fatigue and to jtapart additional staying power. It is considered a good remedy against intestinal worms and footsore disease.
CANNABIS
Cannabis preparations, though not having any anaes thetic effect, prolong the duration of surgical anaes thesia and are useful as an adjunct to conventional anaesthetics (Dass et aU Indian vet J, 1981, 58, 731; Cannabis in India, 7). H em p
and
S eed
HEMP
Cultivation — For the production of hemp fibre and seed, the cultivation of C. sativus is strictly limited to Himachal Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh and Jammu and Kash mir. The districts under fibre cultivation are: Chamba, Lahul, Spiti, Simla, Kulu and Kinnaur in Himachal Pradesh; Uttarkashi, Almora, Nainital and Pauri Gaihwal in Uttar Pradesh; and Ladakh in Jammu and Kashmir. Thus cultivation is advocated in places with a temperature range of 15-27° during the growing season and a humid atmosphere with an annual rainfall of at least 70 cm where other fibre crops like sunn hemp cannot be grown. The plants grow well on rich and fertile soils which are retentive of moisture. The crop can be grown forseveral years in succession on the same plot ploughing back the leaves or refuse obtained during retting into the soil. However, a rotation with other crops is considered desirable. A dressing of farmyard manure or a green manure crop is helpful in poor soils. Some times chalk, gypsum and potash are applied. Trials in America have shown that nitrogen has a beneficial effect. The land is usually ploughed to a depth of 20-23 cm and repeatedly harrowed. Sowing is done in early spring by broadcasting or by drills in rows 12 cm apart and c 3 cm deep. The sped rate is 50-80 kg/ha according to the type of fibre required; lower seed-rate yields coarse fibre available for cordage while a higher seed-rate yields finer fibre. The crop suffers little damage from rain, wind and hail when it is broadcast, but is susceptible to damage when sown wide apart as for seed production. Frost destroys young plants and prolonged drought impedes the growth, and such plants yield harsh and woody fibre. The plants require little cultivation except weeding in the early stage of growth and thinning if sown thick. They grow fast and soon cover the ground choking out the weeds. Phomopsis cannabina Curzi is reported to
cause leaf spot disease of hemp in Almora. The crop is subject heavy infestation by cutworms [Agrotis ypsilon 1. and Mythimna (Pseudalatia) separata Howarth] in Bhagalpur district of Bihar. The cateipillars cut the leaves near the soil and later climb up the plants to feed on tender foliage. They are active during the night (Gupta, Curr Sci, 1985, 54, 1287; Singh et al, Indian J Entomol, 1979,41,296). The crop is ready for harvesting after four-five months. Both male and female plants look alike until they flower in Sept-Oct when tfp male plants turn yellow. The female plants remain dark green for a month more until the seeds ripen. The male plants are ready for harvesting when they are shedding the pollen and change colour from deep green to light brown and have turned white especially near the root. They yield the best quality of fibre. The fibre from male and female plants is more or less similar in chemical composition and textile properties (Kirby, 52; Textile Technol Digest, 1961,18, 3895). Harvesting — It is started from the periphery of the field as the plants in this area are the first to ripen. The plants are cut off 2-3 cm from the ground with a longhandled sickle or knife or pulled off the ground. Then they are spread on the floor to dry (Kirby, 52). Yield — The crop yields 1.5-3 tonnes/ha of dried Sterns. Continuous selection and breeding of improved varieties has led to an increase in fibre content from 11 to 25 per cent of the dried stems. In Italy about 1 tonne/ha of fibre is obtained. Application of gibberellic acid was found to increase the length of the stem and consequently the yield of fibre, as the stems constitute 60 per cent of total weight of the plant. The treated plants lack lateral branching and have a higher bark/wood ratio. The fibres produced are longer, thicker and more lignified (Kirby, 54; Atal & Sethi, Curr Sci, 1961, 30, 177; Atal, Econ Bot, 1961, 15, 133; Plant Breed Abstr, 1954, 24, 486). Retting — The fibre is extracted from the stems by one of the three retting processes, water retting, dew retting and snow retting. Dew retting is practised in USA and USSR; whereas in India, Italy and France, water retting is more common. Snow retting is employed in parts of USSR and Sweden. For water retting, the dried stems tied into bundles, are usually submerged in rivers, pools or tanks, although 203
CANNABIS
river retting is considered to give better results. Retting takes place in 10-15 days depending on the temperature of water. After retting, the fibre is taken out by hand in India whereas in Europe and America it is extracted by breaking and scutching of the dried retted stems. The separated fibre is further cleaned and split into finer strands by hackling. It is then sorted out into grades based on quality, colour and length (Kirby, 55; Informa tion from Assistant Development Officer, Khadi & Vil lage Industries Commission Fibre Experimental Station, Chachhrauli, Haryana). Chemical Composition and Utilization — Hemp fibre is light coloured and lustrous. Commercial grade fibre is pale grey, yellowish green or dark brown depending upon the variety and method of preparation. The length of the fibre varies between 2,500 and 5,500 }i and diameter between 6.8 and 50 [i (average, 22 |i). Analysis of hemp fibre from Italy gave: moisture, 8.88; aqueous extr, 3.48; fat and wax, 0.56; cellulose, 77.77; intercellular matter and pectin bodies, 9.31; and ash, 0.8%. Hemp is used for making cellulose pulp, which replaces kraft and sulphate pulps in many grades of printing paper and textiles (Matthews, 319; Kirby, 60; Deshpande, Indian Pulp Pap, 1956-57, 11, 51; Chem Abstr, 1959, 53, 1706; 1962, 57, 11437). The fibre from Cannabis is longer than flax but is less flexible and more coarse. It does not bleach well and as it lacks elasticity and flexibility it cannot be used for fine textiles. It can, however, be used as intermediary be tween flax and jute for textile and Cordage production. The fibre is not much better than sun hemp but has special advantages for making sail-cloth, tarpaulins, canvas goods and twine. It is more durable and stronger than jute and is better suited for making these products. It can be spun on jute mill machinery without much difficulty. Recently it has been mixed with woollen yam to make bed sheets, shawls, and shoulder bags. The products are wanner and cheaper than ordinary textiles. In the hills of Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh the fibre is extracted and made into ropes, fishing nets, and non-slippery shoes for use in snow-clad regions. USSR is by far the largest producer of this fibre followed by Yugoslavia, Hungary, Rumania and Italy. All the fibre produced in USSR is used locally and the main exporting countries are Italy and Yugos lavia [Kirby, 60; Biswas, J Proc Instn Chem, 1950, 22, 204
65; Ray, Jute Bull, 1952-53, 15, 79; Haarer, World Crops, 1953, 5, 445; Jagriti, 1976-77, 20(9), 4; Infor mation from Assistant Development Officer, Khadi & Village Industries Commission Fibre Experimental Sta tion, Chachhrauli, Haryana]. S ee d
For the crop grown for seed and oil extraction, the seed is sown by drills about 12 cm apart. Varieties grown are short in height and mature earlier, varieties cul tivated for fibre yield only small quantities of seed. Flowering is in Sept-Oct and the seeds mature in a month. The plants are left in the field for three more weeks for the seed to ripen. They are then harvested in the early morning hours and the cut stems left to dry. The dried cut stems are put on canvas sheets and beaten with sticks to extract the seeds. They are stored in a cool dry store, and are viable up to two years. Good seed has a germination rate of at least 90 per cent (Kirby, 48; Biol Abstr, 1960, 35, 57000). Oil — The seeds yield 30-35 per cent of a greenish yellow oil having the following constants: spgr 0.923-0.925; «d, 1.470-1.473; iod val, 140-175; sap val, 190-193; and upsapon matter, 1%. The fatty acid composition of the oil is as follows: saturated, 5-10; oleic, 7-14; linoleic, 46-49; and linolenic, 16- 28%. The oil resembles linseed oil in its properties and uses; it is used as a drying oil in paints and varnish and in the manufacture of soft soaps. The oil is commonly believed to have insecticidal properties; tests have proved that while it has only mild insecticidal properties, it is a good insect repellent. The seed cake is used as a feed. Analysis of the cake gave the following values: moisture, 12.55; fat, 8.30; carbohydrates, 16.02; fibre, 22.90; al buminoids, 32.38; and minerals, 7.85% (Sonntag in Swem, I, 435; Eckey, 389; Williams, K.A., 288; Abrol & Chopra, Bull reg Res Lab, Jammu, 1962- 63,1, 156; Rao, Indian Soap J, 1952-53,18, 134). The seeds are roasted and eaten in the hilly regions. They are also added to food to improve taste and flavour. They make a good poultry feed (Chopra, loc. cit.; Oza, Indian For, 1972,98,349; Haarer, loc. cit.; Biswas, loc. cit.). C. sativa is a serious weed in the wheat fields of North Bihar. Its seeds remain viable in the field for a long time. Femoxone spray effectively kills it The plant is
CANSCORA
poisonous to cattle. It causes profound depression, un consciousness and narcosis. Symptomatic treatment cures the poisoned animal. The plant possesses mild insecticidal activity. Its alcoholic extract has a limited lethal effect on flies and mosquitoes but has a marked repellent action against both [Thakur, Indian Fmg, N S, 1956-57,6(10), 6; Christopher, ibid, 1966-67,16(9), 43; Abrol & Chopra, Bull reg Res Lab, Jammu, 1962-63,1, 156,164]. Canon Ball Tree — see Couroupita Cantala — see Agave CANSCORA Lam. (Gentianaceae) A genus of annual herbs, distributed in the tropics, chiefly in South-East Asia, Australia and Africa. About 12 species occur in India. C. decussata Roem. & Schult. With India — Raw Materials, II, 65; FI Br Ind, IV, 104. Beng. — Dankuni', Hindi — Sankhaphuli; Mar. Sankhvel, titavi\ Sans. — Sankhapushpi. A slender, erect, somewhat flaccid annual, up to 60 cm in height, commonly distributed throughout India on damp, grassy localities, fields and ^/-forests, ascending up to 1,600 m in the Himalayas. Stems quadrangular, 4-winged; leaves oblong, ovate- lanceolate, 0.5-4.0 cm long; flowers white, in leafy cymes; capsules oblong with brown seeds. The herb is bitter, pungent and oleaginous, and is regarded as laxative and tonic. It is reported to be used as a febrifuge. The fresh juice of the herb is prescribed in nervous debility. It is reported to promote memory power, cure leprosy, ulcers, oedema, urinary disorders and snake-bites. The crude dried powder of the herb and its alcoholic extract have shown anti-convulsant ac tivity. The ethanolic extract of the herb lowered bloodpressure in albino rats and also showed stimulant action on the smooth muscle of the intestine, uterus and bronchus. It also showed spermicidal activity in rats (Chopra ex al, 1958, 600; Kirtikar & Basu, 111, 1659; Bressers, 94; Sinha et al, Bull med-ethno-botRes, 1986, 7, 62; Dikshit et al, Indian J Physiol Pharmacol, 1972, 16, 81; ChemAbstr, 1960, 54,14474; BiolAbstr, 1960, 35,4580).
The herb is rich in tri-, te tra -, penta- and hexaoxygenated xanthones. Mangiferin, the major and the most polar tetraoxygenated xanthone, produces CNS depressant and significant anti-inflammatory ac tivity in rats on intraperitoneal as well as oral ad m in istra tio n . It e x h ib ite d p ro te c tio n a g a in st experimentally induced liver injury in albino rats. The total xanthones, even in minimum concentration, showed significant inhibitory activity against Mycobac terium tuberculosis (Zopf) Lehmann & Neumann H37RV which was comparable to that of Streptomycin. The minimum inhibitory concentration of each xan thone indicates that for a moderate to significant anti tuberculosis activity, the xanthone nucleus should contain oxygen function at 1,3- and 5,6- or 8-position. The 1,3,5,6,7- and 1,3,6,7,8-pentaoxygenated xan thones were found to be the most potent (Bhattacharya et al, Naturwissenschaften, 1972, 59, 651; Shankarnavay m etalJndianJ pharmSci, 1979,41,78; Shankarnarayan et al, Mediscope, 1979, 22, 65; Ghosal & Chaudhury,/ pharm Sci, 1975, 64, 888; Ghosal et al, ibid, 1978, 67, 721). Besides xanthones, the aerial parts of the plant con tain: (-)- loliolide, gluanone, canscoradione, fricdelin, friedelan-3p-ol, p-amyrin, sitosterol, stigmasterol, campesterol, n-alkanes, and Ai-alkanols. These con stituents are also present in the roots in small quantities. The presence of the carotenoids, phytone, phytofluene, p-carotene, lutein epoxide and violaxanthin is also reported from the aerial parts. An alkaloid gentianine, a new glycoalkaloid, and epifriedelanol arc also present in the roots (Ghosal et al, Phytochemistry, 1973, 12, 1763; Ghosal etal, J pharm Sci, 1976,65,1549; Ghosal, J Indian chern Soc, 1971,48, 589). C. diffusa R. Br. ex Roem. & Schult. With India — Raw Materials, II, 65; FI Br Ind, IV, 103; Brown, 1946,111,227. Mai. — Jeerakapullu'y Mar. — Sankhvel:1 Oriya — Banbana. An erect,much-branched herb, 15-60 cm in height, commonly distributed throughout India on river banks, ravines and steep walls, up to an altitude of 1,500 m, and in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Stems quadran gular, leaves elliptic-ovate to oblong, 1.5-4.0 cm long, the uppermost being smaller and passing into bracts; 205
