Gruppendyn Organisationsberat DOI 10.1007/s11612-013-0216-0 Hauptbeiträge
Changes in professional vision in the context of practice Preservice teachers’ professional vision changes following practical experience: a video-based approach in university-based teacher education Kathleen Stürmer · Tina Seidel · Stefanie Schäfer
Abstract: In initial teacher education, it is a challenge to foster the development of teaching skills proximal to classroom action. In this study, the impact of a combined practical and theoretical university-based term on preservice teachers’ professional vision is investigated by a videobased approach to supervising their knowledge acquisition and assessing their learning outcomes. Participants were N = 109 preservice teachers attending a 5-month theory practice term guided through video-based courses about effective teaching and learning. We measured their changes in professional vision using the video-based tool Observer. Our results show that preservice teachers positively change their professional vision during the theory practice term, especially if they show low entry levels at the beginning. Their notes on the observed teaching lessons illustrate these changes. Keywords: Professional vision · Video-based learning · Practical experiences · Initial teacher education
In initial teacher education, opportunities for practical experiences are limited. Therefore, it is a challenge to foster the development of teaching skills proximal to classroom action (Brouwer 2010; Darling-Hammond and Bransford 2005; Grossman et al. 2009). Nevertheless, initial, university-based teacher education has two important objectives: (1) to support preservice teachers’ acquisition of knowledge about what constitutes effective teaching and learning (Cochran-Smith 2003; Darling-Hammond 2006; Darling-Hammond and Bransford 2005; Noell and Burns 2006), and (2) to enable them to apply this knowledge to classroom situations (Darling-Hammond and Bransford 2005; Koster et al. 2005). Professional vision is an important element of preservice teacher education (Goodwin 1994; Sherin © Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden 2013 K. Stürmer () · T. Seidel · S. Schäfer TUM School of Education, Marsstr. 20–22, 80335 München, Germany e-mail:
[email protected] T. Seidel e-mail:
[email protected] S. Schäfer e-mail:
[email protected]
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2001; Star and Strickland 2008). It describes a preservice teacher’s ability to notice and interpret features of classroom situations relevant for student learning (Sherin 2007; van Es and Sherin 2002). Professional vision is an indicator of whether preservice teachers have acquired conceptual knowledge about teaching and learning, and, at the same time, of whether they are able to apply it to classroom situations (Bromme 1987; Darling-Hammond and Bransford 2005; Darling-Hammond et al. 2005; Kersting et al. 2010). Professional vision is informed by knowledge about teaching and learning (Palmeri et al. 2004; Seidel et al. 2010a), whereby the acquisition of conceptual knowledge—as provided by initial teacher education at universities—constitutes an important baseline (Stürmer et al. 2012). Regarding knowledge relevant for teaching practice, it is often argued that this kind of knowledge can only be developed through a contextualized process of integrating conceptual knowledge with practice situations (Berliner et al. 1988; Darling-Hammond and Bransford 2005). To support this kind of integration at an early stage of teacher professionalization, different forms of internships and praxis elements have been implemented in initial, university-based, teacher-education programmes (Bauer et al. 2012; Brouwer and Korthagen 2005; Darling-Hammond 2010). However, empirical studies investigating how these elements affect preservice teacher learning and their knowledge development are still rare. Few studies indicate the positive effects of practical experiences on student teachers’ reported self-efficacy and teaching skills (Gröschner et al. 2013; Müller 2010). The impact of practical experiences on learning processes and knowledge development, especially with regard to developing integrated conceptual knowledge, has not yet been investigated in detail. Thereby, it has to be assumed that practical experiences as such are not necessarily integrated with the conceptual knowledge stemming from university contexts (Brouwer and Korthagen 2005). Generally, preservice teachers struggle when trying to transfer this kind of knowledge to actual teaching experiences in classrooms (Cochran-Smith 2003; Stokking et al. 2003). Moreover, during phases of practical experience, preservice teachers are confronted with a myriad of different kinds of learning experiences. To support the integration of these different kinds of experiences, and to provide some kind of structure for processing information, praxis elements in teacher education are often accompanied by education courses at universities (Gröschner and Seidel 2012; Darling-Hammond 2010). These courses aim to bridge the gap between practical experiences and conceptual knowledge regarding teaching and learning (Darling-Hammond 2010; Kee 2012; Zeichner 2010). In this context, the use of video has become a prominent tool. Using video is regarded as helpful both for supporting initial knowledge acquisition by linking theory to practice, and for reflecting on teaching experiences during practical phases (Brophy 2004; Goldman 2007; Gomez et al. 2008; Kersting 2008). To investigate the impact of practical experiences on preservice teachers’ development of their professional vision, we studied the change over a combined theoretical and practical university-based term (called the theory practice term). In our video-based instructional approach, we used video (1) as examples to support the initial acquisition of conceptual knowledge that was then to be transferred to practical experiences, as well as (2) stimuli to reflect on the learners’ own teaching experiences during the practical phases. In addition, we assessed professional vision changes with a video-based tool called Observer (Seidel et al. 2010b). To advance the understanding of changes in pro-
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fessional vision during the theory practice term, we were also interested in individual differences between preservice teachers at the start of the process, as well as individual learning trajectories over time. 1 Professional vision as an aspect of teacher expertise Methods involving the observation and interpretation of classroom situations have been used to stimulate and support preservice teachers’ professional learning processes since the early 1970s (e.g. Acheson and Zigler 1971; Allen and Clark 1967; Santagata 2009). The concept of professional vision highlights the key relevance of knowledge-guided information processing (Goodwin 1994; Sherin 2002). From this perspective, preservice teachers have to learn to draw on knowledge about teaching and learning, for example, when observing and interpreting classroom situations (Sherin 2007; van Es and Sherin 2002). Professional vision entails two interconnected processes: (1) noticing, which describes preservice teachers’ ability to direct their attention to relevant classroom situations; and (2) knowledge-based reasoning, indicating how events in the classroom are interpreted based on knowledge about teaching and learning (van Es and Sherin 2009). Noticing involves the identification of classroom situations that, from a professional perspective, are decisive for effective instructional practice. Teaching effectiveness research (Seidel et al. 2010a, b; Seidel and Shavelson 2007; Hattie 2009) specifically highlights the importance of (a) goal clarity and coherence; (b) teacher support through elicitation, guidance, and feedback; and (c) a positive and supportive learning climate. Preservice teachers’ ability to apply conceptual knowledge by noticing classroom elements that represent these components can be used as an indicator of their professional vision ability. Preservice teachers’ who have no or very limited knowledge are often not able to notice these kinds of components (Star and Strickland 2008). Knowledge-based reasoning is the ability to process and interpret the situations that have been noticed based on knowledge about teaching and learning (Borko 2004; Sherin 2007; van Es and Sherin 2002). In modeling the processes involved, three aspects can be differentiated (Seidel and Stürmer 2013): (1) description, (2) explanation, and (3) prediction. Description reflects the ability to identify and differentiate between relevant events without making any further judgments. Explanation refers to the ability to use what one knows to reason about a situation. This means linking classroom events to conceptual knowledge and classifying situations according to the components of the teaching involved. Prediction refers to the ability to predict the consequences of observed events in terms of student learning. It draws on broader knowledge about teaching and student learning as well as its application in classroom practice. The three aspects of description, explanation and prediction are conceptualized as distinct but highly interrelated components. Findings from expertise research have revealed systematic differences between experienced and inexperienced teachers in terms of their professional vision (Gruber 2001; Putnam and Borko 2000; Shulman 1987). Experts are able to notice critical classroom situations and to draw on their conceptual knowledge to reason about these situations (Palmer et al. 2005). Preservice teachers without training, in contrast, tend to describe classroom situations in rather limited and naïve terms (Carter et al. 1987). They are less
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able to identify relevant events, or to explain and predict their effects compared to experienced teachers (Seidel and Prenzel 2007). It is assumed that professional vision is an ability that can be fostered in the course of teacher training (Berliner et al. 1988). However, little is known regarding how practical experiences within initial university-based teacher education can already influence this process in a positive way. 2 Preservice teachers’ development of professional vision Many of the studies investigating professional vision are video-based and embedded in the context of in-service teacher professional development (Borko et al. 2008; Sherin and van Es 2009; van Es 2009). Using videotaped classroom situations has also become more and more popular when working with less advanced teachers, as in initial, university-based teacher education (Beck et al. 2002). Video in this context provides the possibility of offering students secondhand experiences of teaching (Goldman 2007), and helps them to integrate theory practice to support their initial acquisition of integrated knowledge (Cochran-Smith and Zeichner 2005). Star and Strickland (2008) describe an increase in preservice teachers’ ability to focus on important classroom features while observing videotaped lessons over the course of one term of video training at university. Santagata and Guarino (2011) showed that preservice teachers who participated in a one-term, video-analysis course, changed positively in their lesson-analysis abilities. Stürmer and colleagues (2012) showed that preservice teachers who attended one of three one-term education courses, in which they systematically acquired integrated knowledge about teaching and learning, positively developed their reasoning abilities. Thereby, preservice teachers mainly improved their ability to predict the consequences of classroom events for student learning if they participated in the one course that used video examples. Similar results are reported by Moreno and colleagues (2008), whereby the transfer of theoretical principles to classroom examples was only supported with video-based, and not with text-based examples. The previous studies illustrate that a video-based instructional approach has the potential to foster preservice teachers’ professional vision when learning takes place in the context of university courses. However, expertise research reveals the need for practical experiences to systematically contextualize knowledge. Therefore, the question arises as to whether a video-based instructional approach at university also has an impact if preservice teachers are, at the same time, additionally exposed to practical experiences in the complex setting of an internship in a school. 3 Research question The objective of our study is to investigate preservice teachers’ changes in professional vision during a combined theory practice term. Thereby, we take different entry levels in professional vision into account (Stürmer et al. 2012; Vermunt and Endedijk 2011) and use a video-based approach in instruction, as well as in assessing professional vision. To deepen
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our understanding of changes in professional vision, we additionally analyzed preservice teachers’ notes on lesson observations. The following research questions are addressed: 1. How do preservice teachers change their professional vision during a universitybased theory practice term? 2. Are differences in preservice teachers’ entry levels regarding professional vision related to different changes? 3. Can preservice teachers’ notes during observed teaching lessons illustrate professional vision changes? We expected that the focus of the theory practice term on integrating knowledge and practice would be related to positive changes in professional vision. At the same time, we conjectured that the practice element involves a myriad of different tasks (e.g. planning lessons, teaching, establishing colleagueship with other teachers, evaluating student progress, talking to parents). For this reason, we expected that the theory practice term would contribute toward improving professional vision, but in a more limited way than has previously been reported in the more “theoretical” context of university courses without practical elements. Furthermore, we expected positive changes especially with regard to preservice teachers with low entry abilities. We assumed that these students might profit most from systematic guidance, as provided through the video-based instruction in the university courses. 4 Method 4.1 The learning context: theory practice term The study took place in the context of a university-based theory practice term at a German university (see Fig. 1). The 5-month internship was scheduled for the third year of the teacher education program, and was combined with theoretical courses held at the university every second week. The aim was to foster knowledge application in an integrated manner (Gröschner and Seidel 2012). The internship schools represent a network located within the federal state of the university. Learning groups of two or three preservice teachers with the same major subjects were assigned to one school. Mentor teachers supported the group of preservice teachers. To train in observation skills, preservice teachers were required to make weekly notes of observed teaching lessons held by their mentor teachers. Fig. 1: Design of the theory practice term
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At university, preservice teachers were engaged in three consecutive video-based courses providing conceptual knowledge about effective teaching and learning components (Fig. 1). In these courses, preservice teachers watched and analyzed videotaped classroom situations selected to represent the three components of goal clarity, teacher support, and learning climate. The courses had the purpose of promoting preservice teachers’ knowledge acquisition and of fostering their reasoning abilities. In addition, the video examples served as stimuli to reflect upon practical experiences at the internship schools. 4.2 Sample Our sample included all 109 preservice teachers who were enrolled for the internship semester. On average they were 21 years old ( SD = 1.42), and 66 % were female (this gender ratio is representative for German teacher education). They were attending their fifth term of the teacher education program ( M = 4.95; SD = 0.21). The participants were randomly assigned to one of three courses. All courses were based on the same curriculum, and took place simultaneously. The instructors were trained together, and exchanged their experiences during the course to ensure comparable implementation and instructional quality. Evaluation scores showed the same positive ratings for the three courses regarding required learning time, structure, and support through the instructor. Differences between groups were tested, and no systematic differences between preservice teachers were found regarding age ( F(2,106) = 0.68, p = 0.51, η2 = 0.01) and gender ( F(2,106) = 1.13, p = 0.33, η2 = 0.02). Overall, our findings indicate that the three groups can be regarded as comparable in their composition. A scale assessing interest in the topic of teaching and learning from 0 ( very low) to 5 ( very high) from Drechsel (2001) showed that preservice teachers in our sample started the theory practice term with a mid-level interest in teaching and learning ( M = 2.97, SD = 0.58). Furthermore, we assessed preservice teachers’ self-efficacy for observing lessons on a 4-point Likert scale (1 = totally disagree to 4 = totally agree). They started the theory practice term with a mid to high level of self-efficacy ( M = 2.72, SD = 0.42). 4.3 Data collection The study took place in the winter term of 2009/2010. Participants’ professional vision was assessed at the beginning and at the end of the term (see Fig. 1). The assessment was obligatory and was administered to all preservice teachers both at the beginning and at the end of the term (pre/posttest). In the first and final session on effective teaching and learning components, participants were given a link to a website hosting an instrument to assess professional vision, and were assigned to complete the assessment within one week. Protocols of observed teaching lessons during the internship were collected in the form of a portfolio to be handed in to the instructor at the end of the term. 4.4 Instruments Professional vision. Preservice teachers’ professional vision was measured at the beginning and at the end of the term by the online tool Observer: Video-based tool to diagnose
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teachers’ professional vision (Seidel et al. 2010b). The instrument combines video clips of classroom situations with standardized rating items (Seidel et al. 2010a; Seidel and Stürmer 2013). Participants are shown six short video clips (2–4 min), which function as item prompts. The clips feature three components of effective teaching and learning, as identified above (goal clarity, teacher support, and learning climate). Each clip is followed by standardized rating items tapping the three dimensions (description, explanation, prediction) of professional vision. Responses are given on a 4-point rating scale: 1 ( disagree), 2 ( disagree somewhat), 3 ( agree somewhat), and 4 ( agree). Participants’ ratings are then compared to the ratings of experts in the field of professional vision. For each response, a calculation is made regarding whether or not the participant’s rating matches with the expert’s vision (= 1) or not (= 0). Using this transformation, agreement-score percentages are used as an indicator for preservice teachers’ professional-vision abilities. Items measuring description tap participants’ ability to identify and differentiate between relevant events without making any further judgments (sample item: “In the excerpt that you saw: Does the teacher explain how the students are to carry out the tasks?”). Items tapping explanation focus on the link between an observed event and theoretical knowledge (sample item: “In the excerpt that you saw: Do you think that the students have the opportunity to see what is expected of them?”). Items assessing prediction assess participants’ ability to predict the consequences of observed events for student motivation and learning (sample item: “Based on what you saw: Will the students be able to experience themselves as self-directed learners?”). Results of a study assessing the measurement quality of the instrument showed that the instrument provides a reliable assessment of professional vision (Seidel et al. 2010a; Seidel and Stürmer 2013). A replicative scaling shows that the instrument also provides a reliable measure of professional vision in total ( α = 0.92) for this sample, as well as of its three subdimensions of description ( α = 0.83), explanation ( α = 0.85), and prediction ( α = 0.88). In addition, a further study showed that completing the instrument does not have a learning effect. Ten preservice teachers who were not participating in this study completed the instrument twice in one day (with a 2-h break). A comparison of their results at time 1 and time 2 showed no significant differences: t(18) = 0.12, p = 0.91, d = 0.06. Illustrating change processes. To deepen our understanding of our preservice teachers’ learning processes, the trainee teachers were asked to fill out protocols for observed teaching lessons. During the term, each preservice teacher had to write one protocol per week (in sum 16). The protocols were prestructured to guide preservice teachers’ attention (Schäfer et al. 2012). Preservice teachers were instructed to write down notes regarding (1) teacher activities and (2) student activities. Furthermore, they were requested not only to focus on the description of the observed instruction, but also to interpret the observed events by writing down their (3) own thoughts about the situation. 4.5 Data analysis Professional vision changes. Potential changes in professional vision over the theory practice term were examined by conducting a MANOVA with repeated analyses for the whole sample with the scales total (pv), description (de), explanation (ex), and prediction
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(pr). In addition, difference scores for each of the four dependent variables were calculated (∆pretest−posttest for the total, description, explanation, and prediction). A significance level of 0.05 was used for all statistical tests. Effect size was measured by partial η2 with effect sizes below 0.06 being interpreted as small, effect sizes between 0.06 and 0.14 as moderate, and effect sizes above 0.14 as large (Cohen 1988). Differential effects in professional vision change. To analyze the differential effects, MANOVAs with a factor differentiating between two extreme groups were conducted. The first group represented preservice teachers with the 25 % lowest professional-vision entry scores ( N = 29), and the second group, students with the 25 % highest scores ( N = 27). Illustration of change processes. The written observation protocols were analyzed qualitatively by focusing on individual descriptions of the subdimensions of professional vision (descriptions, explanations, predictions). Furthermore, exemplary protocols were selected for two cases of each extreme group, illustrating the connection between the preservice teachers’ notes of observed lessons and professional-vision changes, as assessed with the online instrument. 5 Results 5.1 Changes in professional vision In our first research question, we were interested in changes in professional vision during a university-based theory practice term. Therefore, we examined whether and how preservice teachers’ professional-vision ability changed over the course of the 6-month theory practice term. In Table 1, the results of a repeated-measures analysis are presented, including means and standard deviations of the pre- and posttest results, as well as the difference scores (∆pretest−posttest). At the beginning of the theory practice term, preservice teachers scored in the low third of professional-vision abilities ( M = 33 % agreement with expert professional vision). Multivariate tests show that their abilities significantly differ in the three subdimensions of professional vision ( F(2,218) = 119.03, p =
