Education
Wagdi Bin Hady
Communicative Competence in Teaching English at Secondary Schools.A Critical Investigation in Yaff'ae District of Yemen
Doctoral Thesis / Dissertation
Bibliographic information published by the German National Library: The German National Library lists this publication in the National Bibliography; detailed bibliographic data are available on the Internet at http://dnb.dnb.de .
This book is copyright material and must not be copied, reproduced, transferred, distributed, leased, licensed or publicly performed or used in any way except as specifically permitted in writing by the publishers, as allowed under the terms and conditions under which it was purchased or as strictly permitted by applicable copyright law. Any unauthorized distribution or use of this text may be a direct infringement of the author s and publisher s rights and those responsible may be liable in law accordingly.
Imprint: Copyright © 2016 GRIN Verlag ISBN: 9783668511453
This book at GRIN: https://www.grin.com/document/375138
Wagdi Bin Hady
Communicative Competence in Teaching English at Secondary Schools. A Critical Investigation in Yaff'ae District of Yemen
GRIN Verlag
GRIN - Your knowledge has value Since its foundation in 1998, GRIN has specialized in publishing academic texts by students, college teachers and other academics as e-book and printed book. The website www.grin.com is an ideal platform for presenting term papers, final papers, scientific essays, dissertations and specialist books.
Visit us on the internet: http://www.grin.com/ http://www.facebook.com/grincom http://www.twitter.com/grin_com
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS: A CRITICAL INVESTIGATION IN YAFF’AE DISTRICT OF YEMEN
A PhD Thesis Submitted to the Faculty of Humanities
Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar Marathwada University Aurangabad For the Award of Degree of Philosophy in English
By
WAGDI RASHAD ALI BIN-HADY Under the Supervision & Guidance of
Dr. S.S. KANADE Dept of English Shri Madhavrao Patil Mahavidyalaya Murum Dt. Osmanabad (MS) India
August - 2016
DEDICATION
To my parents, who left the comforts of a familiar life so I can discover mine. Any success I have is a direct result of your success as loving parents. To my brothers, Rami, Magdy, Fadel, and Ali, and my sister Jihad for their unconditional support and encouragements to pursue my interests. To my beloved wife, Sonia, and children Rashad, Rawan and Abdulrahman. To my extended family and the many friends, who have been so supportive and encouraged the fulfillment of this work. To all those who believed in me and pried for my success.
I
DECLARATION I, hereby declare that the work included in this thesis entitled, “COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS: A CRITICAL INVESTIGATION IN YAFF’AE DISTRICT OF YEMEN” is carried out by me under the guidance of Dr. S.S. Kanade, Asst. Professor, Department of English, Shri Madhavrao Patil Mahavidyalaya, Muurm Dt. Osmanabad. The work is original and has not been submitted in part or in full to any other University or institute for award of any research degree. The extent of information derived from the existing literature has been indicated in the body of the thesis at appropriate places giving the reference.
Place: Aurangabad Date:
Wagdi Rashad Ali Bin-Hady
II
CERTIFICATE This is to certify that work embodied in the thesis entitled, “COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS: A CRITICAL INVESTIGATION IN YAFF’AE DISTRICT OF YEMEN” being submitted by Wagdi Rashad Ali Bin-Hady to Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar Marathwada University, Aurangabad for the award of degree of Doctor of Philosophy in English is a record of bonafide research work carried out by him under my guidance and supervision, and has fulfilled the requirements for the submission of this thesis to my knowledge, has reached requisite standard. The results contained in this thesis have not been submitted in part or in full, to any other University or institute for the award of any degree or diploma.
Place: Murum Date:
Dr. S.S. Kanade
III
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS First and foremost, I would like to thank Allah, Al-Mighty for helping me in doing this research study, without His help, I could not have done it. Next, my sincere thanks to the many people who helped with this research, and without whom this thesis would never have been completed. In particular, I would like to thank my supervisor, Dr. S.S. Kanade, for accepting me to be one of his students and for his motivation, endless help and greatest patience. I am deeply grateful to all those who support me financially in producing this work, my special thank would be sent to my greatest parents, and brothers, Rami and Magdi, and my friends Adel Ali Seb’a and Yasser Nasser. I also owe my uncle Zeed Hady and my cousin Samed for their supports. I would like to thank Dr. Rafiq Al-Shamiry, Dr. Adnan Saeed, Dr. Nabil Assomiate, Dr. Nancy Zingrone, Dr. Abdullnasser Alnakeeb, Abla Bella, and Mr. Aref Nassi for the many hours they spent while proofreading my first draft chapters. I owe a particular debt of gratitude to Prof. Pat Bazeley, (Macquarie University) for all her excellent tips about my conclusion. Special thank would be acknowledged to all the following doctors: Nancy Zingrone, Doris Molero, Janet Salmons, Reza Mobashshernia, Abdul Nasser Alnakeeb, Fowzia Bin Othman, Adel Khaleq, and Adnan Saeed, for referring my questionnaire. I would also want to thank Dr. Donna Butler, and Prof. David Morgan (Portland State University) for their guidance about the research methodology and design. I owe my friend, Abdo Saeed for all his help and appearance on my behalf in front of the university. A special thank is also acknowledged to all secondary school teachers in Yaff'ea, who participated by giving their opinions as well as allowing me to attend their class to observe them. Finally, I would like to thank all whosoever helped me with any kind of help to make this work fulfilled and existed.
IV
ABSTRACT Communicative competence globally becomes the aim of English language teaching and learning. So far, the aim of any English course should develop students’ communicative competence to the extent that they will be able to express themselves naturally, proficiently and appropriately. This study is conducted to check English language secondary school teachers’ knowledge about communicative competence elements and to what extent they are able to teach communicative competence elements to secondary school students. The researcher uses a non-probability sampling, taking into account the representativeness of the whole districts of Yaff’ea. Seventy English language teachers (n=70) at secondary schools in Yaff’ea responded to the questionnaire. Moreover, the researcher observed fourteen English language teachers (n=14) to check their classroom practices. The researcher followed the multi-methods research design. Data were collected by using a semi-closed ended questionnaire and a structured classroom observation. Both data were analyzed quantitatively. The validity was checked depending on the pilot study and referees whereas the reliability was checked by using a test-retest method with an interval time of two weeks. The findings of this study showed that teachers have to some extent good perceptions about communicative competence elements. However, strict contradictions were found between teachers’ perceptions and their actual practice. Moreover, the study revealed that teachers face difficulties in teaching communicative competence with different levels of complexity among its elements. Teachers neglected teaching phonology which is a basic element of linguistic competence as well as they taught vocabulary and grammar using traditional approaches. With reference to sociolinguistic competence, discourse competence and strategic competence, the study reported similar problems whether in the contradictions between what teachers believe in and what they actually do, or the overwhelmingly neglection of sub-elements. Finally, the study reflects the dominancy that teachers play and the passive orientation for learners.
V
KEYWORDS
Communicative
competence,
competence/pragmatic competence,
linguistic
competence,
sociolinguistic
discourse competence, strategic competence,
intercultural competence, communicative language teaching, secondary school teachers in Yaff’ea district of Yemen. Model of communicative competence, communicative competence theory, teaching communicative competence, four language skills.
VI
VII
TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter
Page No.
Contents Dedication...............................................................................................................
I
Declaration..............................................................................................................
II
Certificate................................................................................................................
III
Acknowledgements..................................................................................................
IV
Abstract...................................................................................................................
V
Key Words..............................................................................................................
VI
PH.D. VIVA- VOCE Examination Report..............................................................
VII
Table of Contents......................................................................................................
VIII
List of Tables & Charts...........................................................................................
IX
List of Figures.........................................................................................................
VIII
List of Abbreviations...............................................................................................
VIII
1. Chapter One 1.0 Introduction........................................................................................................
2
1.1 English Language Teaching in Yemen..............................................................
4
1.1.1 South Yemen...................................................................................................
4
1.1.2 North Yemen ………………………………………………………………... 5 1.1.3 Education System in Yemen after (1990)..…………………………..............
5
1.1.4 English Language Curriculum in Yemen......................................................... 6 1.1.5 Crescent English Course for Yemen ……………………………………....... 6 1.1.6 Techniques and Procedures Used for Teaching CECY ……………….........
6
1.2.1 Challenges of Learning and Teaching in Yemen ………………………......
7
1.2.1.1 The Political Conflict …………………………………………………......
7
1.2.1.2 Dark Future...................................................................................................
8
1.2.1.3 Cheating........................................................................................................
8
1.2.1.4 Unemployment.............................................................................................. 9 1.2.2 Challenges of Teaching English in Yemen...................................................... 10 1.2.3 Challenges of Teaching English at Yemeni Secondary Schools...................... 10 1.3.1 Communicative Competence in Yemen........................................................ VIII
11
1.3.2 Communicative Language Teaching in Yemen.............................................
12
1.4.1 Statement of the Problem...............................................................................
13
1.4.2 Significance of the Study..........................................................................................
14
1.5.1 Objective of the Study...................................................................................
15
1.5.2 Hypotheses of the Study.................................................................................
16
1.5.3 Questions of the Study ……………………...................................................
16
1.6 Research Methods ……………………..............………………………..........
16
1.6.1. Sample…………………………………………….............……………......
16
1.6.2 Design and Procedures Used.………………………………...………….....
17
1.6.3 Description of Data Gathering Instruments...………………..........……......
17
16.3.1 Questionnaire..……………....................... …………………………….....
17
1.6.3.2 Observation..………………..................................................... ……….....
18
1.6.3.3 Tools and Techniques of Data Collection ……………..............................
18
1.7 Scope and Limitation of the Research..........................................................…
19
1.7.1Scope...............................................................................................................
19
1.7.2 Limitation.......................................................................................................
19
1.8 Chapters Scheme..............................................................................................
20
1.8.1Chapter One....................................................................................................
20
1.8.2 Chapter Two..................................................................................................
20
1.7.1 Chapter Three................................................................................................
20
1.7.2 Chapter Four.................................................................................................
21
1.7.3 Chapter Five..................................................................................................
22
1.9 Definition of the Terms.....................................................................................
22
1.9.1 Communicative Competence.........................................................................
22
1.9.2 Linguistic (Grammatical) Competence…………………………………......
22
1.9.3 Sociolinguistic (Pragmatic) Competence ……………………………….....
22
1.9.4 Discourse Competence …………………………………………………….
22
1.9.5 Strategic Competence …………………………...……………………..........
23
1.10 Conclusion………………………………………………………………........
23
1.11 Works Cited…………………………………………………………….......
23
2. Chapter Two: Literature Review 2.0 Introduction ………………………………………………………………. IX
29
2.1 Communicative Competence……………………………………………........
29
2.1.1
Definition…………………………………………………………….
29
2.1.2
Background…………………………………………………………..
32
2.1.3
Competence and Performance……………………………………….
33
2.2 Theories on Communicative Competence ……………………………….....
34
2.2.1
Chomsky’s Theory of Universal Grammar …………………...….....
34
2.2.2
Hymes’ Theory of Communicative Competence ………………........
36
2.2.3
Widdowson’s Theory of Use and Usage …………………………....
38
2.2.4
Halliday’s Theory of Potentiality………………………………….....
40
2.3 Models of Communicative Competence ………………………………….....
42
2.3.1
Canale and Swain’s Theoretical Model ………………………….......
42
2.3.2
Bachman and Palmer’s Framework of Communicative Language Ability ………………………………………………………………...
45
2.3.2.1Organizational Knowledge....................................................................
47
(a) Grammatical knowledge..................................................................
47
(b) Textual knowledge..........................................................................
47
2.3.2.2 Pragmatic Knowledge.............................................................................
47
(a) Functional knowledge......................................................................
47
(b) Sociolinguistic knowledge...............................................................
48
Celce-Murcia, Dornyei, &Thurrell’s Model ………………………....
49
2.3.3.1 Socio-cultural Competence..............................................................
51
2.3.3.2 Discourse Competence....................................................................
52
2.3.3.3 Linguistic Competence....................................................................
52
2.3.3.4 Formulaic Competence....................................................................
53
2.3.3.5 Interactional Competence................................................................
53
2.3.3.6 Strategic Competence......................................................................
53
The Common European Framework of Reference (CEFR)………………..
55
2.3.4.1 Linguistic Competence....................................................................
55
2.3.4.2 Sociolinguistic Competence............................................................
56
2.3.4.3 Pragmatic Competence....................................................................
56
2.3.3
2.3.4
2.3.5
Usó-Juan &Martínez-Flor’s Framework of Integrating the Four Skills........
57
2.3.5.1 Discourse Competence..............................................................
57
2.3.5.2 Linguistic Competence..............................................................
57
X
2.3.5.3 Pragmatic Competence..............................................................
58
2.3.5.4 Intercultural Competence...........................................................
58
2.3.5.5 Strategic Competence................................................................
58
2.4 Communicative Competence Coverage...…………………………………......
59
2.4.1
Linguistic Competence..……………………..……………………......
59
2.4.1.1 Graphology …………………………………......…………….......
60
2.4.1.2 Phonology…………………………………………………….......
61
2.4.1.3 Morphology…………………………………………………........
61
2.4.1.4 Syntax ………………………………………………………….....
61
2.4.2
Sociolinguistic Competence………………………………………......
61
2.4.2.1 Rule of politeness ……………………………………………........
65
2.4.2.2 Knowledge of genre …………………………………….…….......
65
2.4.2.3 Sensitivity to difference in dialects or variety ………………........
65
2.4.2.4 Sensitivity to difference in registers ………………………….......
65
2.4.2.5 Sensitivity to naturalness ……………………………………........
66
2.4.2.6 Ability to interrupt cultural references and figures of speech.........
66
Discourse Competence ………………..………………………….......
67
2.4.3.1 Cohesion……………………………………………………….....
68
2.4.3
2.4.3.1.1
Reference: (anaphora, cataphora)…………………….......
68
2.4.3.1.2
Substitution/ellipsis………………………………….........
68
2.4.3.1.3
Conjunctions………………………………………….......
68
2.4.3.1.4
Lexical chains/ Parallel Structures……………………......
69
2.4.3.2 Coherence...………………………………………………….........
69
2.4.3.3 Conversational Structure...…………………………………….......
69
2.4.3.4 Deixis...…………………………………………………………....
70
2.4.4
Strategic Competence............................................................................
70
2.4.4.1 Types of communicative strategies …………………………........
71
2.4.4.2 Avoidance or Reduction Strategies ………………………………
71
2.4.4.3 Achievement or Compensatory Strategies ………………..……....
71
2.4.4.4 Stalling or Time-gaining Strategies ……………………………....
72
2.5 Previous Studies on Communicative Competence ……………………….......
73
2.5.1
Pedagogical
Focus
for Developing Students’ Communicative
Competence ………………………………………………………......
XI
73
2.5.2
Studies Relating to the Importance of Intercultural Communicative Competence …………………………………………………………..
75
2.5.3
Communicative Competence and Language Skills ……………..........
76
2.5.4
Communicative Competence and Input ………………………….......
77
2.5.5
Communicative Competence and Motivation …………………..........
76
2.5.6
Assessing Students’ Communicative Competence ……………….......
77
2.6 Teaching Communicative Competence …………………………………........
78
2.6.1
Linguistic Competence……………………………………………......
80
2.6.2
Sociolinguistic Competence……………………………………..........
83
2.6.3
Discourse Competence …………………………………………….....
85
2.6.4
Strategic Competence………………………………………………....
87
2.6.5
Teaching Communicative Competence through the Four Skills …….
88
2.6.5.1 Teaching Listening Skill to Develop Learners’ Communicative Competence………………………………………………………
90
2.6.5.2 Teaching Speaking Skill to Develop Learners’ Communicative Competence ………………………………………………………
91
2.6.5.3 Teaching Reading Skill to Develop Learners’ Communicative Competence ………………………………………………………
94
2.6.5.4 Teaching Writing Skill to Develop Learners’ Communicative competence ……………………………………………….............
95
2.7 Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) …………………………….........
96
2.7.1
Theoretical Basis of CLT ……………………………………….........
97
2.7.2
Principles of CLT …………………………………….……………...
98
2.7.2.1 The Goals of Language Teaching …………………………….......
100
2.7.2.2 How Learners Learn a Language………………………………....
101
2.7.2.3 The kinds of Classroom Activities that Best Facilitate Learning...
101
2.8 The Roles of Teachers and Learners in the Classroom …………………........
103
2.9 Curriculum Components of CLT …………………………………………......
104
2.10
Implication of Communicative Language Teaching in Classroom….......
105
2.11
Conclusion…….……………………………………………………….....
106
2.11Works Cited………………………………………………………………......
106
3. Chapter Three: Research Methodology 3.0 Introduction………………………………………………………………........ XII
116
3.1 Research Design and Methods ……………………………………………......
116
Research Design ……………………………………………………...
116
3.2 Sample Design ……………………………………………………………......
117
Nonprobability Sampling …………………………………………......
119
3.2.1.1 Snowball Sampling …………………………………………….....
119
3.2.1.2 Quota Sampling ……………………………………………..........
120
3.2.1.3 Convenience Sampling …………………………………………...
120
3.3 Method Design …………………………………………………………….....
121
3.3.1
Multi-methods Approach ………………………………………….....
122
3.3.2
Triangulation …………………………................................................
122
3.3.3
Methods Triangulation …………………………………………….....
122
3.4 Quantitative Paradigm ……………………………………………………......
123
Questionnaire ………………………………………………………....
123
3.4.1.1 Questionnaire Design …………………………………………......
123
3.4.1.2 Questionnaire Referee …………………………………………....
124
3.4.1.3 Questionnaire Piloting………………………………………….....
125
3.4.1.4 Questionnaire Administration ………………………………….....
126
Classroom Observation Checklist ………………………………….....
127
3.4.2.1 Piloting the Observation Checklist …………………………….....
128
3.4.2.2 Administrating the Classroom Observation Checklist ………........
128
3.1.1
3.2.1
3.4.1
3.4.2
3.4.3
Validity and Reliability…………………………………………….....
131
3.4.3.1 Reliability in Quantitative Research ………………………….......
131
3.4.3.2 Validity in Quantitative Research …………………………….......
132
3.4.3.2.1 Face Validity …………………………………………....
132
3.4.3.2.2 Content Validity …………………………………….......
133
3.4.3.2.3 Criterion (Related) Validity ……………………….........
133
3.4.3.3 Validity and Reliability of the Questionnaire ……………….........
133
3.4.3.3.1 Test-Retest …………………………………………….........
133
3.4.3.4 Validity and Reliability of the Observation Checklist……….........
134
3.4.3.4.1
Inter-rater Reliability...........................................................
135
3.5 Ethical Consideration ……………………………………………………........
135
3.6 Analysis of Data …………………………………………………………........
136
3.6.1
Quantitative Analysis……………………………………………........
XIII
136
3.6.1.1 Preparing the Data for Analysis ………………………………......
136
3.6.1.2 Analyzing the Data…………...………………………………......
136
3.7 Conclusion………………………………………….…………………….......
136
3.8 Works Cited……..………………………………………………………........
137
4. Chapter Four: Data Analyses and Interpretations 4.0 Introduction........................................................................................................
142
4.1 Questionnaire findings.......................................................................................
142
4.1.1
Teachers’ Responses to/ or Teachers’ Perceptions about Linguistic Competence Items..................................................................................
143
4.1.1.1 a) Teaching English grammar rules is necessary to secondary school students.................................................................................
143
4.1.1.1 b) If you selected a positive answer, what is the best way to teach grammar? ....................................................................................................
144
4.1.1.2 a) Teaching new English words is best through:............................
145
4.1.1.2 b)Which of the above list do you usually use to introduce new words to your students?...............................................................................
146
4.1.1.3 To understand and produce isolated sentences in English, students need to get knowledge in:............................................................................
147
4.1.1.4 Which areas of English phonology do you focus on?.....................
148
4.1.2 Teachers’ Responses to/ or Teachers’ Perceptions about Discourse Competence Items....................................................................................................
149
4.1.2.1 a) To understand and produce English texts in writing or speaking, students need to get knowledge in:..............................................
149
4.1.2.1. b) Please specify which of the above choices do you explain to your students? .............................................................................................
150
4.1.2.2 a) To organize a written paragraph or a spoken utterance in a logical structure, students need to get knowledge in:..................................
151
4.1.2.2 b) Which element(s) of the above choices do you make your students familiar with?.................................................................................
152
4.1.2.3 To organize a written paragraph or spoken conversation in a meaningful way, students need to get knowledge in:..................................
153
4.1.2.4 To participate effectively in a conversation, students need to get knowledge in:............................................................................................... XIV
154
4.1.3 Teachers’ Responses to/ or Teachers’ Perceptions about Strategic Competence Items....................................................................................................
155
4.1.3.1a) Do you motivate your students to use communicative strategies?.....................................................................................................
155
4.1.3.1 b) If you selected yes, how often do you motivate your students to use communicative strategies? ....................................................................
156
4.1.3.2 Which of the following strategies can help them keep the communicative channel open? ....................................................................
157
4.1.4 Teachers’ Responses to/ or teachers’ Perceptions about Sociolinguistic Competence Items....................................................................................................
158
4.1.4.1 a) To understand the intention of native speakers in their talks or writings, students need to get knowledge in:...............................................
158
4.1.4.1 b) Which elements of the above choices do you focus during your classroom teaching? ............................................................................
159
4.1.5 Teachers’ Responses to/ or Teachers’ Perceptions about Fluency/Accuracy Items.........................................................................................................................
160
4.1.5.1 When students participate in classroom activities, teachers focus on:................................................................................................................
160
4.1.5.2 When students make mistakes in grammar during their talk in English: .......................................................................................................
161
4.1.5.3 Which types of students’ errors should teachers correct directly?.......................................................................................................
162
4.1.6 Teachers’ Responses to/ or Teachers’ Perceptions about their Roles inside Class Items...............................................................................................................
163
4.1.6.1 The roles of teacher change depending on the tasks or activity s/he is teaching to class................................................................................
163
4.1.6.2 Which role do you play mostly in your classroom?........................
164
4.1.7 Teachers’ Responses to/ or Teachers’ Perceptions about Communicative Competence/Communicative Language Teaching Items........................................
165
4.1.7.1 a) Are you familiar with the term " Communicative Competence"?
165
4.1.7.1 b) If your answer was yes, where have you got that familiarity?.........
166
4.1.7.2 The purpose of English Language Teaching is to enhance students’ communicative competence? ............................................................................
XV
167
4.1.7.3 Communicative Language Teaching is the best teaching method for developing students’ communicative competence..........................................
168
4.1.7.4 Using technology in teaching English can motivate students to learn language better...................................................................................................
169
4.2 Presentation of the Observation Checklist Results............................................
169
4.2.1Teaching Grammar....................................................................................
170
4.2.2 Teaching Vocabulary................................................................................
170
4.2.3 Teaching Areas of Phonology...................................................................
171
4.2.4 Teaching Cohesion Elements....................................................................
172
4.2.5 Teaching Coherence Elements..................................................................
172
4.2.6 Teaching Conversation Structures............................................................
173
4.2.7 Focusing on Strategic Competence………………………...…………....
174
4.2.8 Teaching Language Functions..................................................................
175
4.2.9 Teaching Culture.......................................................................................
175
4.2.10 Teaching Registers of English................................................................
176
4.2.11 Teaching Varieties of English……………………………….………....
177
4.2.12 Fluency versa Accuracy..........................................................................
177
4.2.13 Teachers’ Role inside classroom............................................................
178
4.3 Summary of the Findings...................................................................................
179
4.3.1 Linguistic Competence …………………………………………...………...
179
4.3.1.1 Grammar................................................................................................
179
4.3.1.2 Vocabulary.............................................................................................
180
4.3.1.3 Phonology..............................................................................................
180
4.3.2 Discourse Competence ……………………………………………....…......
181
4.3.3 Strategic Competence.....................................................................................
182
4.3.4 Sociolinguistic Competence...........................................................................
182
4.3.5 Fluency versus Accuracy................................................................................
183
4.3.6 Teachers’ Roles inside Classroom..................................................................
183
4.3.7 Communicative Language Teaching..............................................................
184
4.4 Works Cited ………………………………………………………………......
18
5. Chapter Five: Conclusions, Discussions and Recommendations 5.0 Introduction........................................................................................................ XVI
187
5.1 Discussion..........................................................................................................
187
5.1.1
5.1.1 How do Teachers Teach Grammar?.............................................
187
5.1.2
How do Teachers Teach Vocabulary?...................................................
189
5.1.2.1 The First Hypothesis..................................................................
191
5.1.3
5.1.4
5.1.5
5.1.6
To What Extent do Teachers Focus on Developing Students’ Discourses Competence?.......................................................................
192
5.1.3.1 The Second Hypothesis.............................................................
194
To What Extent do Teachers Focus on Developing Students’ Strategic Competence?..........................................................................................
195
5.1.4.1 The Third Hypothesis..............................................................
197
To What Extent do Teachers Pay Attention to Develop students’ Pragmatic Competence?........................................................................
198
5.1.5.1 The Fourth Hypothesis...............................................................
199
To What Extent do Teachers focus on Students’ fluency/ accuracy?...............................................................................................
5.1.7
What
are
the
Roles
of
the
Teachers’
inside
200
the
Classes?.............................................................................................
201
5.2 Conclusion.........................................................................................................
202
5.3 Recommendations and Suggestions............................................................
204
5.3.1 Further Researches....................................................................................
205
5.3.2 Implications of the findings......................................................................
206
5. 3. 3 Limitations of the Study.........................................................................
208
5.4 Works Cited....................................................................................................
209
6. Bibliography 6.1 Primary Sources.................................................................................................
213
6.2 Secondary Sources.............................................................................................
214
6.2.1 Book ………………………………………………………………….....
214
6.2.2 Journals ………………………………………………………………....
217
6.2.3 Dissertations ………………………………………………………….....
226
6.2.4 Others ……………………………………………………………….......
228
6.2.5 Dictionaries …………………………………………………………......
229
XVII
7. Appendices 7.1 Appendix (A)....................................................................................................
230
7.2 Appendix (B)...................................................................................................
240
7.3 Appendix (C)...................................................................................................
242
7.4 Appendix (D)...................................................................................................
248
7.5 Appendix (E)....................................................................................................
251
7.6 Appendix (F)....................................................................................................
253
7.7 Appendix (G)....................................................................................................
254
XVIII
Lists of Tables & Charts
Table/Chart No.
Page No
Chart (2.1) Bachman’s (1990) theoretical model............................................
46
Chart (2.2) comparison between Bachman’s 1990 and Bachman and Palmer’s 1996…………………………………………………………………………
49
Table (No.3.1) demonstrates the representative of sample to each district......
118
Table (No.3.2) illustrates the observed teachers in two districts......................
119
XIX
LIST OF FIGURES Figure No.
Page No.
Figure (2.1) Canale and Swain’s theoretical models as appeared in (Johnson 91).......................45 Figure (2.2) Celce-Murcia, Dornyei, and Thurrell’s (1995) theoretical model.............................51 Figure (2.3) Celce-Murcia’s (2007) theoretical model...................................................................54 Figure (2.4) Usó-Juan and Martínez-Flor’s theoretical model.......................................................58 Figure (2.5) Savignon’s communicative language teaching model................................................97 Figure ( 2.6) Farrell and Jacobs’ principle of communicative language teaching ......................100 Figure ( 4.1) Teachers’ beliefs about teaching grammar…………………………………...............143 Figure (4.2) Teachers’ approach to teach grammar………………………………………................144 Figure (4.3) Teachers’ perceptions about teaching new words…………………………………......145 Figure (4.4) Teachers reflections to teaching new words………………………………………...…..146 Figure (4.5) Teachers’ perception about linguistic competence…………………………................147 Figure (4.6) teachers’ focus about English phonology………………………………...............….....148 Figure (4.7) Teachers’ perceptions about aspect Discourse competence……...............………….149 Figure (4.8) Teachers’ focuses on discourse competence aspects……………………….................150 Figure (4.9) Teachers’ perception about cohesion ………………………………………..................151 Figure (4.10) teachers’ perception about their focus of teaching cohesion……………................152 Figure (4.11) teachers’ perceptions about coherence ……………………………………................153 Figure (4.12) teachers’ perceptions about conversational structures………………………...........154 Figure (4.13) Teachers’ perceptions about strategic competence……………………….................155 Figure (4.14) Teachers’ frequency in motivating students to use communicative strategies....…156 Figure (4.15) teachers’ perception about using communicative strategies…………….................157 Figure (4.16) teachers’ perceptions about pragmatic competence……………………...............…158 Figure (4.17) teachers focus on teaching pragmatic competence……………………….................159 Figure (4.18) Teachers focus on students’ fluency………………………………………...............…160 Figure (4.19) teachers’ focus on students’ grammatical errors………………………….................161 Figure (4.20) teachers’ perceptions on direct type of error corrections………………..................162 Figure (4.21) Teachers’ perceptions about changing their roles in classes……………................163 Figure (4.22) teachers’ role inside class…………………………………………………...............….164 Figure (4.23) teachers’ familiarity with communicative competence…………………...............…165 Figure (4.24) teachers’ source of familiarity with communicative competence…...............……..166
XX
Figure (2.25) teachers’ perceptions about communicative competence………………..................167 Figure (2.26) teachers’ perceptions about communicative language teaching………...............…168 Figure (4.27) teachers’ perceptions about integration technology in ELT…...............…………...169 Figure (4.28) teachers’ actual focus on teaching grammar…………………………...............…….170 Figure (4.29) teachers’ focuses for teaching vocabulary…………………………..……..................170 Figure (4.30) teachers focus on teaching areas of phonology…………………………................…171 Figure (4.31) teachers focus on areas of cohesion…………………………………….................172 Figure (4.32) teachers focus on elements of coherence……………………………...............………172 Figure (4.33) teachers’ focus on conversation structures………………………………...................173 Figure (4.34) teachers’ focus on strategic competence elements………………………...............…174 Figure (4.35) teachers’ focus on language functions……………………………………...................175 Figure (4.36) teachers focus on culture of English people…………………...…………..............…175 Figure (4.37) teachers focus on registers of English…………………………..............…………….176 Figure (4.38) teachers focus on varieties of English……………………………………...............….177 Figure (4.39) teachers focus on fluency/accuracy…………………………………………................177 Figure (4.40) Teachers’ focus on students’ error……………………………………...............……..178 Figure (4.41) teachers’ roles………………………………………………………………….................178
XXI
ABBREVIATIONS USED IN THE STUDY
Abbreviation
Complete Sentence
CLA
Communicative Language Ability.
CC
Communicative Competence
CLT
Communicative Language Teaching
DRT
Discourse Rating Task
CEFR
Common European Framework of Reference
ICC
Intercultural Communicative Competence
CSs
Communicative Strategies
CLT
Communicative Language Teaching
CTS
Communicative Tasks
CECY
Crescent English Course for Yemen
CA
Communicative Approach
PDRY
People’s Democratic Republic of Yemen
ECFY
English Course for Yemen
ECCFY
English Crescent Course for Yemen
CEC
Crescent English Course
CECY
Crescent English Course for Yemen
TOEFL
Test of English as a Foreign Language
IELTS
International English Language Testing System
GTM
Grammar Translation Method
GDA
Google Drive Application
LAD
Language Acquisition Device
L2
Second Language
LAD
Language Acquisition Device
AR
Agreement Rate
ELT
English Language Teaching
n
Number
EFL
English as a Foreign Language
ESL
English as a Second Language
XXII
Chapter 1
GENERAL INTRODUCTION
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
1.0
2
Introduction People usually communicate with others purposefully. Light sets up four
functions of communication: Initially, we talk to express our wants and needs. Then, we talk to achieve social closeness. Moreover, people talk to express their changeable goals and share information. Finally, we talk to achieve social etiquette (Light 62). Notwithstanding how efficient people are in achieving the four purposes listed above, they just talk. Efficiency and appropriacy differ from an individual to another. The more that an individual is competent in communication, the more likely that such purposes will be achieved. However, Light and Mcnaughton state that an individual’s competence in communication may differ from one setting to another “depending on the partners, environments, and communication goals” (3). Communicative competence revolves around many areas of social life. It brings up understanding and coexistence amongst people of different language backgrounds. Being a competent in communication according to Zaščerinska participates in gaining others’ respect, making peace and even getting job opportunities to work, study and appointing higher positions in society (1). Moreover, it reminds us about the fundamentality of human life (Light 61). A competent communicator centralizes and correlates to social intelligence (Wilkinson 305). Communicative competence not only achieves individual’s interpersonal relations, but also strengthens social adjustment (Morreale, Osborn, and Pearson 2). Many countries offer scholarships for students all over the globe for the sake of getting in touch with their cultures and acquiring competence in their languages (Jackson). Therefore, such students would come back to their countries as ambassadors of the host countries they lived in for some times. Moreover, communicative competence establishes bridges of understanding with remote nations, different religious belongings, cultural diversity (Bin-Hady and Kanade; Chen) and participating in resolving political, economic, humanitarian and environmental obstacles. For EFL/ESL students, communicative competence in English might provide them with chances to express themselves fully (Al-magid 17) and boost them to pursue their study in whatsoever fields they are interested in whether in their countries or abroad. Many universities set tests for students to ensure that such students could
Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
3
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
pursue their lectures (Avineri et al. 254) when joining high study programs like Master’s and PhD’s. Such universities recommend students to pass tests like: Test of English as a Foreign Language (TOEFL) or International English Language Testing System (IELTS) (NUS). Even doing the Master or Ph.D. in any fields of study in many Arabian countries requires passing the Proficiency Test in English or the TOEFL test. The TOEFL/ IELTS/ or the proficiency test is aimed to test individuals’ repertoire in communication. Passing such tests requires; therefore, competence in linguistics, sociolinguistics, discourse and communicative strategies that are responsible for keeping communicative channel open when facing any problems or misunderstandings. So, how important is it to build such competencies in our students from earlier stages of education! By doing so, we guarantee their dreams to be fulfilled and accomplish their higher education in various fields of sciences, arts, economics, medicine, politics, education, etc. Therefore, the current research is an attempt to investigate the implication of communicative competence sub/components in English language classrooms at Yaff'ea secondary school districts of Yemen. Some of the reasons urged the researcher to conduct such a study are based on the apparent backward level of secondary school graduates in English. The researcher thought that learners might acquire
considerable
repertoire
whenever
English
language
teachers
set
communicative competence as the main goal of teaching English to their students. In addition, it is required that all components of communicative competence should be presented in classrooms and students should be motivated to participate in classroom communicative tasks or activities too. The purpose of learning and teaching English is to develop students’ communicative competence (Jidong; Choi; Demo; Gilmore; Zaščerinska; Littlewood). English is taught in Yemen as a school subject for six years. It starts from the seventh grade of the preparatory school to the third year of the secondary school. “Crescent English Course for Yemen” (Henceafter CECY) is the English curriculum set by the Ministry of Education for Yemeni schools. CCFY is designed to meet the Communicative Approach “theoretical and pedagogical principles” (O’Neill, Snow, and Peacock 4). The CCFY according to O'Neill, Snow, and Peacock is a mixed syllabus which integrates both functional and structural approaches. Because the Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
4
Crescent course for Yemen is based on the Communicative Approach, the present study is aiming to investigate secondary school teachers’ applicability and focuses on developing students’ communicative competence. More specifically, the present study orients secondary school teachers.
1.1
English Language Teaching in Yemen English language is taught in Yemen as a foreign language. It was firstly
taught in South Yemen in the 19th century (Al-Hammadi and Sidek 167). During the period of British colonization to South Yemen, English became the official language by which the British and the people in South Yemen communicate. Later on, English over spread to cover all the government offices, law, and regulations which more later internationally received higher attentions to be used in private sectors too (qtd, in AlTamimi, “Reading Comprehension” 10). Teaching English in Yemen before 1990 was a structural oriented approach (Bataineh, Bataineh, and Thabet 859). Two Educational systems emerged before 1990 in Yemen primary and secondary schools: one of them in the south and another in the north. Both South Arabian and North Yemen were under domination. South Arabian or what is called later People’s Democratic Republic of Yemen (PDRY) (South Yemen) was colonized by the British Empire for more than a century, while North Yemen which was under the Othmani empire control and later became monarchy by Imamate or what is called (the kingdom of Motwakily Hashmy) then (Yemeni Arab Republic) in 1962 (Al-Tamimi, “Reading Comprehension” 5). The researcher discusses them briefly below.
1.1.1 South Yemen South Yemen or (South Arabian) during the British regime, which later got its independency form the British colonization in (1967) under the name of the People’s Democratic Republic of Yemen, offered English as a second language, specifically in Aden. Davis stated that even nowadays many of the Adeni people he met spoke English (55). AL-Ahdal mentioned that southerners received formal education during the British colonization and English was taught for them to work at the British offices in Aden whether as clerks or interpreters (“Enhancing Competence” 7). After the independence, South Yemen adapted a learning system where English was taught at early grades. Abdullah and Patil classified the pre-university education system in Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
5
South Yemen into: unity schools and secondary school. The former includes eight years of schooling, where English is taught as a compulsory subject in this phase from grade five. Grammar and vocabulary were the basis of the instructional syllabus they offered, and the latter includes four grades. It starts directly after the eight unity schools. Students were studying a syllabus of English language called “The Yemeni Readers for Secondary Schools” (“Importance and Challenges” 2).
1.1.2 North Yemen It was not before the (1962) till Northerners got some basic education, English was just taught as a school subject afterward (AL-Ahdal, “Enhancing Competence” 7). North Yemen offered three phases for pre-university education. Primary education which included six grades. English was not taught in the primary level. The second level was called preparatory education. It had three years of schooling, from seven to nine. English was taught in this level. The third level was the secondary school, where students had to spend three years of schooling. The first grade of secondary education was general for all students. Later on, students were given the opportunities to select whether to join the literary or the science sections from the second year of secondary school (Abdullah and Patil,“Importance and Challenges” 3).
1.1.3 Education System in Yemen after (1990) As it has been noticed from the two classifications for the educational systems in the two countries before 1990, the new education system adopted for the Republic of Yemen follows the pre-unity system adopted in North Yemen. It has the same classification for the three level mentioned previously. It also offers English at the preparatory phase (7th grade). Furthermore, the secondary phase offers three years by which students study general subject in the first year and are given the chance to select between the literary or the science sections in the second year of secondary school.
1.1.4 English Language Curriculum in Yemen As mentioned earlier, English is taught from the 7th grade of preparatory school to the 9th grade where students are required to pass a ministerial examination in this phase to be allowed to study in secondary school. Al-Hammadi and Sidek mentioned that the Yemeni ministry of education offered a curriculum called “The
Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
6
English Course for Yemen” (ECFY). It started for two years (168). Bataineh, Thabet, and Bataineh stated that the “English Course for Yemen” (ECFY) which was a structural based syllabus had been substituted by another communicative/functional syllabus, i.e., “English Crescent Course for Yemen” (ECCFY) in 1993 (15). A modification has been done for the course book and a new syllabus has been offered from then up to the time of writing this dissertation that is “Crescent English Course for Yemen”.
1.1.5 Crescent English Course for Yemen Crescent English Course (CEC) is the syllabus offered for teaching English in the Arab world (O’Neill, Snow, and Peacock). Regarding to the limit of benefit that students received in English during the pre-unity phase, the ministry of education offered the “Crescent English Course for Yemen” (henceafter CECY) (Al-Tamimi, “Reading Comprehension” 16). However, the weakness of students’ repertoire in English still exists. As the present study concerns with secondary school, below is a brief description for the three course books taught in the Yemeni secondary schools: Crescent 4: It is required for the first year of secondary school. It has materials for teachers (Teacher’s Book and Cassette) and materials for pupils (Pupils’ book and Workbook). Crescent 5: It is designed for the second year of secondary school. It has the same materials as Crescent 4. In addition to that, it contains two sections (Art Reader and Science Reader). Students can choose at this year whether to select art section or science section. Crescent 6: It is the last course book for the Yemeni secondary school students. It has the same material as Crescent 5 and it aims to prepare students for the ministerial final examination for the secondary school certificate.
1.1.6 Techniques and Procedures Used for Teaching CECY Like any communicative curriculum, CECY adapts integrity amongst the four language skills. O’Neill, Snow, and Peacock state: Since real communication generally involves more than one language skill, Crescent adopts an integrated skills approach. The materials and
Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
7
methodology are essentially pupil-centered, aiming to promote learning through meaningful individual and interactive tasks (14). CECY not only pioneers integration amongst the language four skills, it also centralizes pupils in the learning/teaching process.
1.2.1 Challenges of Learning and Teaching in Yemen Many challenges affect the learning and teaching process in the Yemeni educational field in general and secondary education in particular. Muthanna criticized the interference of nepotism in selecting candidates for job opportunities or accepting students in colleges. Likewise, the lack of teachers is reported as a crucial challenge to the learning and teaching processes. Moreover, Muthanna and Karaman asserted that the education policy makers in Yemen did not pay sufficient attention to apply their planned strategies. However, the researcher analyzes some of the obstacles from his point of view under four main categories: the political conflict, dark future, cheating, and unemployment.
1.2.1.1 The Political Conflict Globally, conflict usually affects education directly, for example the deaths or injuries of teachers and students, and indirectly like forcing people to leave their homes and interrupting education (Jones and Naylor 18). It is worth mentioning that the current political instability in Yemen is amongst the severe challenges that affect education. According to the Unicef’s 2015 August report, about thousands of schools have been closed and nearly about 1.8 million of children are out of schools in Yemen (3). Before planning to improve the educational system, politicians and decisionmakers have to resolve all the hanged up problems and obstacles which encounter the country since its birth. It is very difficult to say whatsoever strategies or a five-years plan is effective to improve the education system, training teachers or writing the most efficient course books for students still be worthless, whenever students are living in a country overwhelmed by wars, corruption, marginalization and sometimes they are recruited in wars and their school buildings are usually used as shelters for homeless families. To conclude, students need to feel safe and observe a prospered future in front of them, therefore, they can be inspired positively towards curiosity.
Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
8
1.2.1.2 Dark Future Feeling safe and secure is important though, it cannot bring up motivation for students to study hard unless a promising future is seen in front of them. Many Yemeni secondary school students are just studying to get certificates and planning to travel abroad to work. Such perception is increasing as secondary school students see their friends, brothers, or relatives who got university certificates stayed at home jobless and some of them work in teams with illiterate people. According to Muthanna, “the unemployment rate is currently dramatically increasing and this rather demotivates secondary school and higher education students, who might seriously, based on the status of the higher education institutions’ jobless graduates they daily meet, consider leaving schools and looking for other work opportunities” (536). To summarize, secondary school students might work hard and study for the aim of sharpening their repertoires whenever they are reassured to find respected jobs after getting their university certificates.
1.2.1.3 Cheating Like the political instability and dark future, cheating affects the learning and teaching processes in Yemen in general and Yaff'ea districts in particular. Yemeni students depend on cheating to pass the primary and secondary final examinations. Such bad habits, according to Abdullah and Patil, “Importance and Challenges” 6; Abdullah 18, usually occur with the help of teachers. Such practices were reported within the public schools. Similarly, regarding to the private schools, AL-Ahdal mentioned some discrepancies that private schools in Yemen have as: [T]hey [private schools] are viewed by their owners only as money spinners, not as centres of educational excellence. They extract maximum amounts of money from the parents, but spend a bare minimum on teachers and modern educational equipment. There are even allegations that they encourage corruption in their bid to ensure good results in examinations (“Enhancing Competence” 4). Thus, students’ addiction of such bad habits to pass their examinations might move into practicing them in their higher studies, even with high and skillful techniques. Secondary school students, teachers, parents, academic supervisors and the ministry of education contribute in overspreading the cheating habits. Srikanth and Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
9
Asmatulu write “[w]ith the education system going more high-tech, cheating methods are also going high-tech” (138). However, in Yemen, just cheating goes high-tech. At the outset of emersion the cheating habits, which according to many people, started after the Yemeni unity by permitting students to use their books to answer the examination questions. Later on, students used to bring their academic professional friends to schools to help them with the tests. Unfortunately, teachers themselves get involved in such habits by coming to the examination halls and writing all the answers on the board to the students. Nowadays, with the overspreading of technology, students often take photos to the exam papers using their Cell-phone cameras and send the scanned photos to their friends wherever they are by WhatsApp application or Facebook. Moreover, the ministry of education encourages such phenomena by bestowing the professional cheaters scholarships to study abroad. In order to quit cheating in secondary school examinations, it is suggested for the ministry of education to delete the final examinations. Therefore, students will depend on themselves as they usually do in the first and second year of secondary schools. It is then more legitimate to offer scholarships for the brilliant students who got the highest percentages in every schools.
1.2.1.4 Unemployment As the political instabilities increase in Yemen many sources of incomes which were providing the country with foreign currency like tourism and exporting social goods have stopped, therefore the level of unemployment increases in the country. Moreover, the corrupted system which ruled the country for a long time accumulated the wealth for itself and its coalitions. AL-Ahdal stated that, Yemeni university graduates have to wait some years to find job opportunities. For English language teachers, waiting some years without practicing English decreases their repertoire, unless they continuously read (“Enhancing Competence” 120). In additional to the unemployment high rate, new job opportunities in Yemen if found are affected by “corruption and nepotism” (Abdullah and Patil, “Rural Education” 155). For improving the secondary school educational system in Yemen, the ministry of education should provide enough job opportunities every year to every secondary school. The shortage of teachers in the Yemeni secondary schools has been
Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
10
reported in the literatures of many authors like, (Bataineh, Thabet, and Bataineh; Abdullah and Patil, “Importance and Challenges”; Al-Abbadi; Alnakeeb; Zuheer). Moreover, the ministry of education should also take into account the transparent measurements and justice in selecting the candidates from the applicants. Whenever the above mentioned requirements are fulfilled, the unemployment rate surely decreases and the learning system definitely be developed as the fresh graduateteachers have better energies and knowledge. Moreover, it is required to minimize the retirements from 35 years to 25 years. Therefore, there is no need to train early teachers and instead depending on fresh teachers totally.
1.2.2 Challenges of Teaching English in Yemen Amongst the crucial obstacles that affect teaching English language in all the Arabian countries in general and in the Yemeni field in particular is the obstacle of the English culture. Based on that, Arabic/Islamic culture is different from the western cultures. Mahmoud asserted that as soon as Arabic learners of English set in their English classes, they encounter “cultural shock” (67). Another challenge for English language teaching in Yemen is that students may not be exposed to real situational communications (Al-sohbani, “An Investigation” 43). Furthermore, other challenges of teaching English in Yemen are the traditional approach predomination at different stages where English is taught. According to Al-Joufi, English is taught at the Yemeni universities using traditional methods of reciting lectures and taking notes (29). Similarly, Abdullah and Patil criticized the ways in which English is taught in Yemen and mentioned that English teachers did not only neglect the application of teaching English to enhance learners social and cognitive factors, but also lost the main goal of teaching English too (“Importance and Challenges” 5).
1.2.3 Challenges of Teaching English at Yemeni Secondary Schools The previous section deals with the challenges that face teaching English in Yemen in general. In this section some of the problems investigated in earlier literature will be mentioned. Abdullah; AL-Ahdal, “Enhancing Competence” criticized the unsuitability of the English teaching materials at the Yemeni secondary schools to their real life situations. Furthermore, Al-Sohbani asserted that there are no relationship between students’ attitudes towards their English language teachers as well as their motivation to learn English (“The Role of Attitudes” 33). Likewise, Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
11
Bataineh, Thabet, and Bataineh revealed that large classes, shortage of teachers, funding, and supervisors as well as the cultural diversity all affect the teaching English in the Yemeni secondary schools (14). Similarly, Al-Sohbani mentioned that teaching English at the Yemeni secondary schools is still traditionally oriented with teachers-centered (“Exploration” 52). Additionally, it is also found that English secondary school teachers could not apply the theoretical knowledge they possess whenever they instruct their students (AL-Ahdal, “Enhancing Competence” vi). Based on observing teachers during their classroom teaching, the researcher can summarize the following obstacles of teaching English in the Yaff'ea setting:
Teachers teach English traditionally by translating the new vocabulary and grammar rules are taught deductively by using Arabic language.
Teachers seem unprepared and have no goals to achieve during their classes.
Students are passively neglected and even sometimes offended.
Language skills: speaking, listening and writing are neglected totally.
English is never used as a means of instruction.
No real assessments or feedbacks are given to students.
1.3.1 Communicative Competence in Yemen The term ‘communicative competency’ is extremely new in the field of Yemeni academic research. Very few studies to my knowledge have been conducted in Yemen. The first study has been conducted in the Yemen Arab Republic (North Yemen) to investigate three course books taught in the preparatory stage. The study focused on the availability of communicative competence activities and behaviors in the three books prepared for the preparatory stage. The study found that the three course books focused totally on the form and very few emphases were given to communicative activities. It also revealed that the three course books did not focus on discourse or sociolinguistic communicative activities. Finally, the study also showed that similar focuses were given to listening, speaking and reading activities; however, writing activities were neglected totally (Abbad). Another study has also been conducted for investigating the oral communicative competence obstacles that Yemeni learners of English faced at tertiary levels while trying to communicate with native speakers of the target language. The study related students’ failure in oral communication to the: traditional pedagogy used for teaching English, lack of Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
12
learning and communicative strategies as well as students’ isolation from the English culture (Al-Shamiry ii). A third study has been aimed to explore the importance of inservice training program for developing English language secondary school teachers’ communicative competence in Al-Hodeida governorate of Yemen. The study recommended the necessity of an in-service program to be held for enhancing teachers’ competences and skills in teaching English (AL-Ahdal, “Enhancing Competence” vi). The fourth study has been aimed to explore the effects of public speaking to enhance students’ communicative competence and minimizing their apprehension. The study targeted tertiary students at Hadhramout university of Yemen. The study revealed that learners’ public speaking maximizes their communicative competence and minimizes their communicative apprehension after one term of study (Al-Tamimi 45). Therefore, the current study aims to explore the implications of English language teachers to communicative competence elements in Yaff'ea secondary schools of Yemen.
1.3.2 Communicative Language Teaching in Yemen Few studies have been conducted in the Yemeni setting on Communicative Language Teaching (henceforth CLT). Bataineh, Bataineh, and Thabet studied Yemeni teachers’ understanding of CLT principles as well as their practice to such principles in their classroom. They found that teachers could not reflect CLT principles in their classroom actual practice; despite their understanding of CLT theoretical principles. Furthermore, Bataineh, Thabet, and Bataineh explored the obstacles that face Yemeni teachers to apply communicative techniques in Taiz public schools. Their study related some of the obstacles to apply such techniques to the: crowded classes, shortage of funding as well as lackage of teachers-training supervisors. Al-Sohbani also conducted a study to investigate the Yemeni secondary school teachers’ practices at classroom, their awareness of CLT principles as well as the obstacles that prevent the implications of CLT in classroom. He found that teachers use grammar translation method in their classes. Furthermore, his study revealed that teachers are not aware about CLT principles. Finally, he reported that large classes, lackage of teaching aids, as well as parents’ carelessness prevent CLT implication in teaching English at Yemeni secondary schools (“Exploration” 51).
Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
13
1.4.1 Statement of the Problem Secondary school graduates in Yaff'ea districts of Yemen face difficulties to register in the Bachelor programs due to their weak knowledge in English. It is reported that just three students in all Abyain governorate have passed the entrance examination held by the faculty of Medicine, Aden University for the academic year 2015-2016. The majority of Yaff'ea graduate students even those who are good in other school subjects, still complain from English. Al-Sohbani states that most Yemeni graduate students could not use English purposefully (“Exploration”45). Similarly, AL-Ahdal also admits that Yemeni secondary school graduates studied English for six years like their peers in other countries where English is studied as a foreign language; however, Yemeni secondary school graduates could not use English outside classrooms (“Integration” 41). Al-Hammadi and Sidek relate such weakness of Yemeni graduate students’ repertoire in English, despite the fact that they have studied English for six years, because the majority of them just wish to pass the exams, not to use English for communication purposes (171). It is also claimed that the reasons behind students poor proficiency in English related not only to the teaching pedagogies used by teachers but also to the unsuitability of the learning settings (Al-Tamimi 47). Moreover, the students’ weakness is also seen as a result of the unavailability of oral tests as well as to teachers ignorance to encourage them to participate in pair or group discussions (AL-Ahdal, “Enhancing Competence” 16-17). With reference to teaching English at Yaff'ea, a study found that English language teachers in Yaff'ea districts did not understand the theoretical view as well as the practical principles of Communicative Approach (Alnakeeb 187). Hence, teachers’ lack of knowledge of the theoretical and practical principles of teaching English communicatively affects the outcome of their students. Even curious students who want to pursue their academic study have to enroll in English course programs held in big cities private institutions like Aden or Sana’a to develop their level of English. Therefore, they can do well in the entrance examination prerequisite for accepting students in several colleges. As a volunteer teacher in two secondary schools at Yaff'ea for three years, the researcher got in touch with secondary school students and had also been visited by graduate students to his home for revising some lessons in their course books. Furthermore, even students who passed the entrance examination required by their colleges, still have problems in their first year at the Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
14
college programs. They usually score low in first-year examinations, despite the hard work they spent in front of their dictionaries to translate most vocabularies that construct their syllabuses. It is worth mentioning that learning a second or a foreign language does not occur by learning the vocabularies and structures of the target language. A learner needs to learn how people interact with each other socially and culturally. Not only that, a learner must also know how to express him/herself naturally wherever being integrated into a natural language setting. Furthermore, a learner sometimes forgets the suitable vocabulary or structure in a certain conversation; he/she needs to invent strategies for compensation and undertakes his/ her role in that situation. Teachers therefore need to understand the four components of communicative competence to teach the language precisely and also use the techniques which help learners to learn the language fully. Such incidents urge the researcher to study this phenomenon from communicative competence perspectives and investigate secondary school teachers’ opinions and attitudes about which components of communicative competence students need to develop their repertoires in English from one hand, and observing teachers’ implication to communicative competence elements during their classroom instruction from the other.
1. 4. 2
Significance of the Study Problems of teaching English in the Yemeni secondary schools are of
significant importance (Al-Hammadi and Sidek). Thus, the current study significance spreads over the following incidents. Initially, this study may be considered as an adventure to the field of communicative competence. It opens new horizons in front of so many previous studies, theories and beliefs which considered communicative competence to be acquired not taught, therefore, the study explores the possibility of setting communicative competence as the goal of English language instruction. Furthermore, the study significance stems from the multi-facets that it explores. Particularly, it investigates the English language teachers’ beliefs, attitudes, and knowledge about which skills students do need to sharpen a specific competence in communication; it also explicitly elicits from English language teachers their implications and focuses to the teaching of communicative competence; and it makes Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
15
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
a comparison between teachers’ beliefs and real classroom implications of teaching communicative competence to secondary school students. Based on the three facets discussed above, new considerations will be viewed, assessed and evaluated which could be set as assumptions to be studied in future researches. Additionally, the study provides the field of communicative competence with a contemporary literature which can be used by teachers, students, supervisors, and scholars to get a clear understanding about the concept (communicative competence). It also provides methodologies, techniques and procedures that can be used for the teaching of communicative competence (sub) elements and the four language skills communicatively. Likewise, the study reports some recommendations and suggestions for: (1) English language teachers, including how to create secondary school graduates with amazing repertoire in using English for communicative purposes; (2) the ministry of education, specifically with which in-service training programs do English language teachers need to sharpen their teaching skills and therefore can develop their secondary school students’ communicative competence; and with which teaching materials do teachers require for teaching communicative competence naturally; (3) the English language supervisors and the educational forum in Yaff'ea with some strategies about the blending and cooperative teachings amongst different districts; (4) the curricula designers with some activities and tasks that should be inserted in the secondary school English syllabus and; (5) the researchers in the fields of communicative competence and English language teaching to investigate some of the problems arisen while conducting the current study.
1.5.1 Objectives of the Study The main objectives of the present research are: 1. To focus on classroom activities regarding the components of communicative
competence
of
which
grammatical
or
linguistic
competence. 2. To concentrate on classroom activities regarding pragmatic, authentic, and functional use of language for meaningful purposes. 3. To make students conscious about the fluency and accuracy of second language learning classroom. Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
16
4. To explore the extent to which teachers motivate students to use communicative strategies. 5. To study English as a global language. 6. To create a friendly atmosphere while teaching English at secondary level. 7. To compare between teachers’ attitudes and practices regarding teaching communicative competence. 8. To study teachers’ role inside classroom.
1.5.2 Hypotheses of the Study It is hypothesized that: 1. Teachers encounter difficulties in teaching grammatical competence. 2. Teachers face difficulties in teaching discourse competence. 3. Teachers come across difficulties in teaching strategic competence. 4. Teachers encounter difficulties in teaching sociolinguistic competence.
1.5.3 Questions of the Study 1. How do teachers teach grammar? 2. How do teachers teach vocabulary? 3. To what extent do teachers focus on developing students’ discourse competence? 4. To what extent do teachers focus on developing students’ strategic competence? 5. To what extent do teachers pay attention to developing students’ pragmatic competence? 6. To what extent do teachers focus on students’ accuracy or fluency? 7. What are the roles of the teachers inside the classes?
1.6
Research Methods
1.6.1
Sample This study orients Yemeni English language teachers at Yaff'ea secondary
schools. Several strategies have been applied by the researcher to select the sample Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
17
from the population of the study. First and foremost, the researcher takes into account the true representation of the total population during selecting the sample. As mentioned, seven districts in Yaff'ea out of eight districts are the geographical place for the study. The researcher focuses on the demographical spares for selecting the quota of sampling (see 3.2.1.2). Districts with too many secondary schools and English language teachers are given higher proportions than districts with few secondary schools and teachers. Three sample designs are used in this study. Firstly, snowballing sampling is used to get acquaintance with teachers that the researcher did not know (see 3.2.1.1). Secondly, the researcher uses quota sampling to get true representation for each district (see 3.2.1.2). These sample designs (snowballing and quota sampling) are participated in responding to the questionnaire items. Finally, the researcher uses convenience sampling to be observed in their classroom. Thus, this sampling is designed for the observation tool (see 3.2.1.3).
1.6.2 Design and Procedures Used The researcher uses the multi-methods research design. Multimethods or Multi-methods is a research design in which more than a single tool of data collection is used in a single study. According to Hesse-Biber, a multimethods research “refers to the mixing of methods by combining two or more qualitative methods in a single research study ... or by using two or more quantitative methods ... in a single research study” (3).
1.6.3 Description of Data Gathering Instruments As mentioned previously, a multimethods research design is used in this study. Therefore, two methods are used for data collection from participants. These methods are: survey questionnaire and observation.
1. 6.3.1 Questionnaire Questionnaire is a data collection instrument which is used variously in research. In this study, a closed ended questionnaire is used as well as some open ended questions are attached after the closed ones. The questionnaire is used to collect data about teachers’ opinions and attitudes regarding their focuses on elements of communicative competence as well as students’ needs to become competent in communication. Twenty head items are used in this questionnaire. Some head items
Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
18
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
have sub-items. Such sub-items are open ended. The questionnaire used includes three scales: Likert scale; Yes/no; and multiple choices. It is used to collect quantitative data from 70 participants in Yaff'ea districts of Yemen. (For more information about the questionnaire, see Appendix A).
1.6.3.2 Observation Observation is one of the data collection instruments. It is used to collect data about participants’ practices in their institutions. In this study, a structured observation checklist is designed and used by the researcher to collect data about English
language
teachers’
implementation
of
communicative
competence
components at two districts of Yaff'ea secondary schools. The observation design is focused on elements of communicative competence as well as teachers’ roles in their classroom in addition to the techniques that teachers used to teach grammar rules as well new vocabulary to their students (see Appendix E).
1.6.3.3 Tools and Techniques of Data Collection The researcher used the following techniques during tools designing and data collections: 1.
Writing the questionnaire items
2.
Refereeing the questionnaire items
3.
Piloting the questionnaire items
4.
Modifying the difficult items
5.
Creating online version of the questionnaire using Google Drive Application
6.
Administrating the questionnaire using both printed version as well as the internet version.
7.
Designing the observation checklists
8.
Contacting with secondary schools managers as well as English language teachers at Russed and Sarar secondary schools to allow the researcher to attend their classrooms and make arrangements about time and date.
9.
Piloting the observation checklist during a complete week with three teachers.
Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
19
10. Refereeing the observation checklist by another university professor who observed the same classes and ticked the list as the teacher explains a lesson to his students. 11. Visiting the majority of secondary schools in the two districts and observing the teachers during their classroom practice. 12. Transferring the hard copy of the participants’ responses of the questionnaire items into the internet version and downloading all responses into Microsoft Excel Documents.
1.7
Scope and Limitation of the Study
1.7.1
Scope The scope of this study can be summarized as: This study is a unique one in the Yemeni educational field. So its significance
lies in the fact that it analyzes the problems that affect the learning process in Yemen. It also explores the teachers’abilities whether they are still living in the medieval era, or they update themselves to pursue the newest methodologies of English language teaching.
1.7.2 Limitation This study will be delimited into Yaff'ea districts secondary school teachers of English. This research takes seven districts secondary school teachers, including: Russed, Sarar and Sabbah (all these districts are situated in Abyain governorate). Other four districts are situated in Lahj governorate, including: Laboos, Almoflehi, Alhadand and Yaher. The researcher excludes Khanfar district from the study because people there were evacuated to other districts due to the civil war. Yaff'ea is a mountainous rural area situated in South Yemen. It is located to the north of Aden (Colburn). Yaff'ea spreads between Albida’a governorate to the northern direction and Addale’a to the western direction. It is also located by Lawder from the eastern direction; while Abyan and the Arabian Sea from the southern direction. It is situated between the longitudinal lines of (45-46) and the latitudinal lines of (13-14). Yaff'ea comprises from eight districts, overspread in two
Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
20
governorates i.e., Russed, Sabbah, Sarar, and Khanfar are situated in Abyan governorate; and Laboos, Alhad, Almoflehi and Yaher in Lahj governorate. Traditionally, Yaff'ea is administratively classified into ten districts makatib; five makatib in Upper Yaff'ea and five in Lower Yaff'ea. Both Upper and Lower parts of Yaff'ea were ruled by Sultans in which the former was ruled by the “Harhara” family and “Afifi” family ruled the latter till the time before the South Arabia Sultanates got independence from Great Britain in 1967 and which constructed later on the South Arabian country, or what became the People’s Democratic Republic of Yemen. Each of the ten makatib which headed by a Shaikh was subdivided into submaktab called (asdas, akhmas, arba'a) and ruled by aqil (Miller 54).
1.8 Chapters Scheme: The present study will be comprised into five chapters.
1.8.1 Chapter One The first chapter provides a general introduction to the statement of the problem, the significance of the problem and definition of terms used in this research. The chapter also focuses on some headings, including: the learning system in Yemen, the course book used in Yemen, and the challenges of learning and teaching English at the Yemeni context, and finally the chapter presents the previous studies about communicative competence as well as communicative language teaching in Yemen.
1.8.2 Chapter Two In this chapter, the researcher intensively reviews seven points in relating to communicative competence. Firstly, definition of the term ‘communicative competence’ has been reviewed thoroughly. The second title in this literature focuses on four theories concerning communicative competence (Chomsky, Hymes, Widdowson and Halliday’s theories). In the third title, the researcher discusses five theoretical frameworks of communicative competence (Canale and Swain, Bachman and Palmer, Celce-Murcia, Dornyei, and Thurrell, the Common European framework of Reference and finally Usó-Juan and Martínez-Flor’ models). The fourth element focuses on the literature of some previous studies concerning the term communicative competence. Elements of communicative competence with their sub elements are discussed in the fifth section. The sixth section deals with the teaching of
Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
21
communicative competence and finally the seventh section provides an insight into the Communicative Language Teaching Approach.
1.8.3 Chapter Three This chapter outlines the research design and methodical approach as well as the instrumentations that the researcher used in this study for collecting the data from the sample. The context of this study is Yaff'ea, where the sample was drawn from English secondary school teachers in the Yaff'ea context. The researcher used the non-probability sample. For the questionnaire, 70 English language teachers participated by giving their opinions and attitudes about their understanding of communicative competence as well as on which areas of communicative competence they focus on during their classroom instructions. The sample includes about 70% of the total population (of all English secondary school teachers in all Yaff'ea secondary schools). The second sample assigned in this study was 14 English secondary school teachers, who welcomed the researcher to observe them in their classrooms. These individuals live in both Russed and Sarar districts. They constitute nearly about 70% of the total secondary school teachers in those two districts. The researcher followed the multi-method quantitative designs. Both questionnaire and observation are used to collect data from the samples. The researcher constructs two versions of the questionnaire. The hard (printed) version was sent to those teachers who did not have an access to the internet. The researcher also constructed an electronic version using Google Drive Application (GDA). The online version of the questionnaire was shared with those participants who access the internet by sharing link of the questionnaire with the sample whether on Facebook or by using the WhatsApp application. Raw data were automatically recorded in Google Drive file for the internet-based administration. The researcher also adds the participants’ responses of the printed questionnaire to the Google Drive file. Finally, the researcher transfers raw data into numerical values and inputs them into SPSS software, (17th version).
1.8.4 Chapter Four In chapter four, the researcher displays the findings and symbolizes them in pipes and tubes for both the questionnaire items as well as the observation checklist and compares between similarities and differences for both teachers’ beliefs and practices in actual classroom. Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
22
The classroom observation services on two purposes, the first one is to draw a comparison between teachers’ beliefs and their practices. However, the main purpose of observation is to triangulate the questionnaire findings, it also services to provide information and details about sub-elements of the communicative competence components which would not be displayed by the questionnaire. The reason why the researcher did not reflect such sub-components in the questionnaire directly is that such components are difficult to be asked in theoretical dimensions as well as whenever being reflected in the questionnaire, the researcher is not sure about the true reflection that the respondents will report.
1.8.5 Chapter Five The fifth chapter includes three sections. It discusses the main findings with specific focus to the research questions and hypotheses. It also presents a conclusion for the major findings in general and finally provides recommendations and suggestions for implementing the study findings.
1.9
Definition of the Terms Communicative Competence is defined briefly in this chapter. Such
components and subcomponents are discussed fully in chapter two. Suggested techniques and activities are set also for the teaching of communicative competence elements.
1.9.1 Communicative Competence Communicative Competence (CC) refers to an individual ability to communicate appropriately and effectively with others.
1.9.2 Linguistic (Grammatical) Competence Linguistic competence associates with one’ repertoire to produce and comprehend isolated sentences. It covers knowledge in phonology, syntax, lexemes and orthography.
1.9.3 Sociolinguistic (Pragmatic) Competence Sociolinguistic competence covers learners’ understandability of native speakers’ intentions in talks and the ability to respond appropriately to them taking into account culture diversity, norms, dialects, and appropriacy. Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
23
1.9.4 Discourse Competence Learners of English will be considered competent in discourse whenever they are being able to figure up cohesive and coherent talks and being organized to well produce conversation or texts both cohesively and coherently. In addition, to be coherent and cohesive when participating with others’ interlocutors.
1.9.5 Strategic Competence Strategic competence is perceived as the learners’ ability to come up with any difficulties encountering them when talking with others and their ability to create strategies compensating their lack of knowledge and make the communication channel opens.
1.10 Conclusion This chapter outlined general introduction about communicative competence and its connection to society and the important roles that communicative competence achieves in benefiting individual, making peace and coexistence. Moreover, brief historical background about Yemen was included, in addition to English language in Yemen and the challenges that affect learning English in Yemen. Statement and the significance of the proposed problems of the current study were mentioned. The chapter also defined the terms that will be used in the study. Furthermore, the objectives of the study and the questions that the current research is hoping to answer are organized in this chapter. Finally, the research design, instruments, sample, limitation of the study and chapterizations were included.
1.11 Works Cited: Abbad, Aziza Taleb. “An Analysis of Communicative Competence Features in English
Language Texts in Yemen Arab Republic.” Diss. University of
Illinois, 1988. Web. Abdullah, Nabil Khadher Muhsen. “A Study of the Factors behind Students’ Weakness in Reading Comprehension Skills in English at the Colleges of Education, Yemen, as Perceived by Students and Teachers.” Diss. S.R.T.M. University, 2015. Web.
Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
24
Abdullah, Nabil, and Vaijayanta Patil. “A Review of Rural Education Status in Yemen: A Brief Survey.” The International Journal of Pedagogy and Curriculum 19.2 (2013): 151–162. Print. ---, “English Language Teaching in Yemen: Importance and Challenges.” International Journal of Social Science Tomorrow 1.5 (2012): 1–8. Print. Al-Abbadi, Khaled M. “Improving Teacher Quality in Yemen A Policy Analysis and Recommendation.” 1–33. Print. AL-Ahdal, Arif Ahmed Mohammed Hassan. “Enhancing Competence of Secondary School English Teachers in Yemen: A Need-Based Syllabus for INSET Programmes.” Diss. Panjab University, 2011. Print. ---, “Integration of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) into the Education System of Yemen: The Need of the Hour.” International Journal of Social Sciences & Education 3.1 (2013): 40–47. Print. Al-Hammadi, Fatima, and H.M Sidek. “Academic Writing in the Yemeni EFL Context: History, Challenges and Future Research.” The effects of brief mindfulness intervention on acute pain experience: An examination of individual difference 1 (2015): 167–174. Web. Al-Joufi, Abdulsalam Mohammed. Education Development in the Republic of Yemen [The National Report]. Geneva: Ministry of Education, 2008. Print. Al-Magid, Abd, and Mohammed Al-Mamun. “The Effect of Teachers’ Attitudes on the Effective of the Communicative Approach in ESL Classrooms.” Diss. University of South Africa, 2006. Print. Alnakeeb, Abdulnasser Mohammed Ali. “A Study of Yemeni English Teachers’ Classrooom Practices and Approches with Special Reference to Secondary Schools in Laboos.” Diss. University of Pune, 2012. Print. Al-Shamiry, Rafiq. “Yemeni Learners’ Oral Communicative Competence in English: A Study at the Tertairy Level.” Diss. CIEFL, India, 2000. Print. Al-Sohbani, Yehia Ahmed Y. “An Exploration of English Language Teaching Pedagogy in Secondary Yemeni Education: A Case Study.” International Journal of English Language & Translation Studies 1.3 (2013): 41–57. Web.
Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
25
---, “An Investigation of the Reasons Behind the Weaknesses in English Among Public Secondary School Leavers.” Journal of Teaching and Teacher Education4.2 (2016): 41–51. Print. ---, “The Role of Attitudes and Motivation in Learning English as a Foreign Language Among Yemeni Rural Secondary School Students.” Journal of Teaching and Teacher Education 1.1 (2015): 33–42. Print. Al-Tamimi, Nasser Omer M. “The Effect of Direct Reading Strategy Instruction on Students’ Reading Comprehension, Metacognitive Strategy Awareness, and Reading Attitudes Among Eleventh Grade Students in Yemen.” Diss. Universiti Sains Malaysia, 2006. Print. ---, “Public Speaking Instruction: Abridge to Improve English Speaking Competence and Reducing Communication Apprehension.” International Journal of Linguistics and Communication 2.4 (2014): 45–68. Web. Avineri, Netta et al. “Language Assessment as a System: Best Practices, Stakeholders, Models, and Testimonials.” Issues in Applied Linguistics 18.2 (2010): 251– 265. Print. Bataineh, Ruba Fahmi, Samiha Saif Thabet, and Rula Fahmi Bataineh. “Obstacles of Using Communicative Techniques in Yemeni EFL Classes.” Lagos Papers in English Studies 3 (2008): 14–27. Print. Bataineh, Rula Fahmi, Ruba Fahmi Bataineh, and Samiha Saif Thabet. “Communicative Language Teaching in the Yemeni EFL Classroom: Embraced or Merely Lip-Serviced?” Journal of Language Teaching and Research 2.4 (2011): 859–866. Web. Bin-Hady, Wagdi Rashad Ali, and S.S. Kanade. “A Change in Views: From Seeking Like Native Speakers Repertoire to Become Intercultural Speaker of the Target Language.” Thematics 7.1 (2016): 49–61. Print. Chen, Guo-ming. “A Model of Global Communication Competence.” China Media Research 1.1 (2005): 3–11. Print. Choi, Tae Hee. “Curriculum Innovation through Teacher Certification: Evaluation of a Government Intervention and its Effects on Teacher Development and English Language Pedagogy in South Korea.” Diss. King’s College London, Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
26
2013. Print. Colburn, Marta. From the Queen of Sheba to the Republic of Yemen K-12 Resource Guide and Classroom Ideas. American Institure for Yemeni Studies, 2006. Print. Demo, Douglas A. “Discourse Analysis for Language Teachers.” ERIC DIGEST4 (2001): n.p. Web. Gilmore, Alexander. “Getting Real in the Language Classroom: Developing Japanese Students’ Communicative Competence with Authentic Materials.” Diss. University of Nottingham, 2007. Print. Hesse-Biber, S Nagy. Mixed Methods Research: Merging Theory with Practice. New York: The Guilford Press, 2010. Print. Jackson, Jane. “Host Language Proficiency, Intercultural Sensitivity, and Study Abroad.” Frontiers: The Interdisciplinary Journal of Study Abroad (2009): 167–188. Print. Jidong, Guo. “Empirical Studies on L2 Communication Strategies over Four Decades: Looking Back and Ahead.” Chinese Journal of Applied Linguistics 34.4 (2011): 89–106. Web. Jones, Amir, and Ruth Naylor. The Quantitative Impact of Armed Conflict on Education: Counting the Human and Financial Costs. Doha, Qatar: CFBT Educaztion Trust, 2014. Web. Kevin Alexander Davis, B.A. “From Collective Memory to Nationalism: Historical Remembranc in Aden.” Diss: Georgetown Univeristy, 2014. Web. Light, Janice. “Communication Is the Essence of Human Life: Reflections on Communicative Competence.” Augmentative and Alternative Communication 13.2 (1997): 61–70. Web. Light, Janice, and David Mcnaughton. “Communicative Competence for Individuals Who Require Augmentative and Alternative Communication: A New Definition for a New Era of Communication?” Augmentative and Alternative Communication 30 (2014): 1–18. Web.
Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
27
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
Littlewood, William. “Developing a Context-Sensitive Pedagogy for CommunicationOriented Language Teaching.” English Teaching 86.3 (2013): 1–22. Web. Mahmoud, Montasser Mohamed Abdelwahab. “Culture and English Language Teaching in the Arab World.” Adult Learning 26.2 (2015): 66–72. Web. Miller, W. Flagg. “Metaphors of Commerce: Trans-Valuing Tribalism in Yemeni Audiocassette Poetry.” International Journal of Middle East Studies 34.1 (2002): 29–57. Web. Morreale, Sherwyn P., Michael M. Osborn, and Judy C. Pearson. “Why Communication is Important: A Rationale for the Centrality of the Study of Communication.”
Journal
of
the
Association
for
Communication
Administration 29 (2000): 1–25. Web. Muthanna, Abdulghani. “A Tragic Educational Experience : Academic Injustice in Higher Education Institutions in Yemen.” Policy Futures in Education 11.5 (2013): 532–537. Print. Muthanna, Abdulghani, and A. Cendel Karaman. “The Need for Change in Teacher Education in Yemen: The Beliefs of Prospective Language Teachers.” Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences 12 (2011): 224–232. Web. NUS. “A Leading Global University Centred in Asia, Influencing the Future.” 2012. Web. O’Neill, Terry, Peter Snow, and Richard Peacock. English Course For Yemen: Teacher’s Book 4. Beirut: Oxford University Press, 2011. Print. Srikanth, M, and R Asmatulu. “Modern Cheating Techniques, Their Adverse Effects on Engineering Education and Preventions.” International Journal of Mechanical Engineering Education 42.2 (2014): 129–140. Web. UNICEF. How Conflict is Driving Children out of School Across the Middle East. Education UnderFire, 2015. Print. Wilkinson, Louise Cherry. “Social Intelligence and the Development of Communicative Competence.” Origins of Intelligence: Infancy and Early Childhood. Ed. Michael Lewis. Springer US, 1983. 305–326. Print.
Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
28
Zaščerinska, Jeļena. “Organisation of English for Academic Purposes Activity for Developing Communicative Competence.” Humanities & Social Sciences. International Scientific Publications 2.September (2009): 1–31. Print. Zuheer, Khaled Mohsen Mohammed. “Developing EFL Teachers’ Performance at Sana’a Secondary Schools in the Light of Their Professional and Specialist Needs” Diss. Cairo University, 2013. Print.
Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
Chapter 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
2.0
29
Introduction A second or foreign language learner needs to gain knowledge in and about
the target language. In order to do that, one needs to know how to build morphemes into words and words into sentences (linguistic or grammatical competence). Yet, this knowledge is not the end of learning a language. While grammatical competence may be the essence of learning a new language; on its own, it is not enough. A learner also needs to know how to use that knowledge appropriately in a social context. One needs to know about speech acts (e.g., requesting, suggesting, arguing, etc.) and politeness (sociolinguistic or pragmatic competence). In addition to these competencies, other components are also required. A learner needs to know how to produce a largely cohesive and coherent text, either in writing or in speaking (discourse competence). As a learner might not understand the total underlying system of a language, s/he needs to know how to repair any breakdown in conversations (strategic competence). In this chapter, the researcher defines the term “communicative competence”, explains the difference between competence and performance, and sheds light on four theories of communicative competence, i.e., Chomsky’s theory, Hymes’s theory, Widdowson’s theory, and Halliday’s theory. In the second section, five frameworks of communicative competence will be focused on, i.e., Canale and Swain’s model, Bachman and Palmer’s model, Celce-Murcia’s framework, the Common European Framework of Reference, (CEFR) and finally Usó-Juan and Martinez-Flor’s framework of integrated skills. The third section focuses on communicative competence coverage. An overview of the consensus on components will be analyzed. Four components will be explained, that is, linguistic competence, sociolinguistic competence (pragmatic competence), discourse competence, strategic competence and. The fourth section covers the teachability of communicative competence. Finally, communicative language teaching will be the focus of in the fifth section of this chapter.
2.1
Communicative Competence
2.1.1
Definition Communicative competence can be defined as the repertoire that a language
user possesses in linguistics, sociolinguistics, discourse, and other communicative strategies that enable one to participate skillfully in any social context. It demonstrates Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
30
the capability of a person to send and receive messages appropriately to a specific setting. Communicative competence therefore, refers to the way in which a person understands a discursive message, whether in spoken or written language, and the capability of a communicator to participate with an interlocutor in an accepted way to both the rules of grammar, as well as the rules of use. The term competence has been used widely for about four decades in Applied Linguistics. It was firstly used by the famous American linguist Noam Chomsky to stand for the knowledge of the underlying system and other linguistic elements that native speakers possess in their language. Chomsky defines competence as “the speaker-hearer knowledge of his language” (4). While the ability of using the underlying system with interlocutors is relating to what Chomsky called performance. Chomsky excludes other elements needed for appropriate communication, for example, the rule of use. While Chomsky built the cornerstone of the term, flourishing of the terminology has come about by Dell Hymes to become communicative competence. Hymes, the first sociolinguist who coins the term communicative competence, focuses his definition on both knowledge and ability for use. Hymes defines competence as “the most general term for the capabilities of a person ... Competence is dependent upon both (tacit) knowledge and (ability for) use” (“On Communicative Competence” 64). Unlike, Chomsky, Hymes associates competence to include the capability of a language user to apply the underlying system knowledge and other aspects of speech events in real situations. Competence in the Chomskyan perspective is a static or absolute notion whereas it is a dynamic or relative in the Hymesian view. Savignon (qtd. in, Taylor) states: Communicative competence is a dynamic rather than a static concept. It depends on the negotiation of meaning between two or more persons who share to some degree the same symbolic system. In this sense, then, communicative competence can be said to be an interpersonal rather than an intrapersonal trait (163). On the other hand, Taylor views competence as a static and absolute notion. Therefore, he considers proficiency as a dynamic or relative (166).
Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
31
Some linguists prefer to use other terminologies to refer for the repertoire that a person has in languages. Stern concerns with the outcome of the learning process. Therefore, he introduces the concept proficiency measuring the language learners’ competence in four categories: 1) the intuitive mastery of the forms of the language, 2) the mastery of the linguistic, cognitive, affective and sociocultural meanings, expressed by the language forms, 3) the capacity to use the language with maximum attention to communication and minimum attention to form, and 4) the creativity of language use (346). On the contrary, Halliday rejects the term competence and considers language as meaning potential (Language as Social Semiotic 38-39). Along with Hymes’ definition of communicative competence, the majority of linguists in the field of second language teaching and acquisition accept that communicative competence means more than just grasping the underlying system of the target language. For example, Savignon uses the term communicative competence to demonstrate the language user’s meaningful interaction with other participants in a specific situation (“State of the Art” 264). Similarly, Canale and Swain integrate sociolinguistic rules with rules of grammar in their definition of communicative competence. Also, Saville-Troike asserts the role of the social setting to be determined whenever a person wants to communicate. Likely, Usó-juan and Martínez-flor pay a lot of attention in their definition to both the culture and the underlying system; and Widdowson refers to usage and use as components which form a competent communicator in using the language (Teaching Language 4). Communicative competence is viewed not only from the perspective of the learner’s knowledge in grammar but also to what Hymes refers to as the ability for use. Both of basic components are mentioned in this definition of communicative competence: It is a linguistic term which refers to a learner’s ability in using language. It not only refers to a learner’s ability to apply and use grammatical rules, but also to negotiate meaning with other language speakers, to express one’s views regarding certain issues, and to know
Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
32
what and how to use certain utterances appropriately according to certain situations (Radzi et al. 5). Communicative competence is also defined as “a threshold concept with a focus on the attainment of sufficient knowledge, judgment, and skills to meet communication goals and participate within key environments” (Light and Mcnaughton 3) Scarcella, Andersen, and Krashen (qtd. in, Mustadi 14) state that along with the foremost scholars is Hymes who coins and uses the concept of communicative competence, where he asserted that the Chomskyan theory of linguistic competence lacks the reflection that most linguistic capability is to create and figure out messages in suitable social contexts. Communicative competence, according to Mustadi is the capability to verbalize one’s message proficiently and appropriately paying attention to both the linguistic system and the social context (14). Canale and Swain define competence as the knowledge of grammar and other language use. In their definition of competence, they have deviated from the limitation that Chomsky made as he considered competence to be a set of grammatical rules that one has in one’s first or second language. In sum, the definitions above agree that communicative competence includes the ability of a language user to interact with others accurately and appropriately.
2.1.2 Background With reference to the conceptualization of the term “communicative competence”, Hymes acknowledges that: “the notion of communicative competence arises mainly from the convergence of two independent developments: that of transformational generative grammar on the one hand, and that of the ethnography of communication on the other. The common element has been concerned with the abilities of users of language” (“Toward Linguistic Competence” 12). Linguistic theory according to Chomsky relies on “ideal speaker-listener”. Hymes on the other hand, views that Chomsky limited the world of linguistic theory into two elements: competence and performance, in which the former refers to unconscious ‘tacit’ knowledge of the underlying language system and the latter stands
Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
33
for what Hymes refers to as “encoding and decoding” (“On Communicative Competence” 55). Oweis refers to Widdowson’s distinction between usage and use for aspects of communicative ability. It is not necessary for Widdowson that a good grammatical sentence, correct (usage) will be an appropriate (use) in specific social context (251). Keeping these distinctions in mind moves the researcher to analyze both competence and performance. It is not necessary for all linguists to use the term competence, in the same way. The term has been conceptualized from different angles and perspectives. However, all views help develop the concept and determine its parameters. Taylor summarizes that: The basic difficulty seems to be that some writers use the term [communicative competence] to refer to something absolute whereas others appear to mean by it something relative. This latter group seem to include the idea of 'ability' within competence, thus equating it with ‘proficiency’, which clearly admits of degrees. They consequently misinterpret Chomsky and his followers who use the term in a strictly absolute sense. This has caused great confusion, and indeed much of the criticism of Chomsky turns out to be invalid because it is based on this fundamental misunderstanding. The source of this difficulty is the widespread interpretation of competence (148). It can be induced that two schools emerged in building the term of competence. The Chomskyan school as followed by Taylor views competence as a static or abstract knowledge that a person has, therefore a distinction between competence and performance is made, while the Hymesian school as followed by Stern, Savignon and Widdowson views competence as dynamic and includes not only knowledge but also ability of using that knowledge in appropriate situations.
2.1.3 Competence and Performance The distinction between competence and performance is one of the debatable issues in applied linguistics. Chomsky associates competence with the repertoire of an idealized native speaker of the underlying system, whereas performance reflects the actual use of that linguistic system in real situation. The Chomskyan perspective of Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
34
competence–performance distinction has been attacked by many linguists. Hymes, “On Communicative Competence” believes that competence is not only the knowledge in a language underlying system but also knowledge in sociolinguistics (rules of use) and the ability of using that knowledge in real situations. Hymes also criticizes the Chomskyan association of performance to imperfection. Hymes argues that false beginning in any conversation is due to a fault in the underlying competence or rule of use that a person has. On the other hand, Widdowson, Teaching Language combines both usage and use as elements of performance. Widdowson agrees with Hymes that, for a good communication, language’s users need not only to know about rules of grammar (usage) for building a well-form sentence but also the ability to select from the grammar rules to suit the appropriate situation (use) (3). Brown, Principles of Language also criticizes the Chomskyan idealized native speaker. He verbalizes that competence manifests a language-user knowledge in language system and in fitting together the language system while performance is the comprehension and production of the system in the four language skills (35-36). Brown’s perspective does not seem different from the Chomskyan. He does not include the rules of use under competence. Though, the criticisms that the Chomskyan linguistic theory meets, it has shifted the theoretical knowledge to a great development.
2.2
Theories on Communicative Competence In the following sections, four theories will be demonstrated beginning with
the Chomskyan theory of universal grammar, following by Hymes’ theory of communicative competence, then transferring into Widdowson’s theory of use and usage and concluding by Halliday’s theory of meaning potential.
2.2.1 Chomsky’s Theory of Universal Grammar As children acquire their mother’s tongues before the age of school, Chomsky believes that language is just a system of (generative) rules and children are born with an endowed-apparatus that is responsible for the acquisition mechanism. So far, considering language as a system, Chomsky coined the term “linguistic competence” which relies on the native speaker/listener’s underlying system repertoire of one language. The Chomskyan linguistic theory limits the acquisition mechanism of children for their mother tongue, to just mastering the grammatical rules of that language. He states:
Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
35
Linguistic theory is concerned primarily with an ideal speaker-listener, in a completely homogeneous speech-community, who knows its language perfectly and is unaffected by such grammatically irrelevant conditions as memory limitations, distractions, shifts of attention and interest, and errors (random or characteristic) in applying his knowledge of the language in actual performance (3). Habermas comments that, the speaker’s creativity and the grammaticality of language are the perspectives that Chomsky dealt with in his analysis of linguistic theory. As it is known that every natural language consists of fixed numbers of fundamental, a competent speaker (in second or foreign language) can comprehend and produce an unlimited number of sentences, and some of these may be new. This leads Chomsky to explain the irregularity between knowledge and experience (an abstract linguistic system with generative rules). Depending on the above asymmetries, Chomsky directly produces his three assumptions: “that an adult speaker knows more than how much he can have learned” is similar to the infant child while acquires the mother tongue. This similarity leads Chomsky to assume that, the relations between “phase-specific stimulus conveyance and organics maturation process” occurs as a result of, innateness, the abstract system of linguistic rules. The inborn language device, which preset the structure of all possible ordinary language, “consists of linguistic universals” on which Chomsky built on his third assumption (361). Chomsky’s linguistic theory divides language between competence and performance.
Chomsky’s distinction between the
concepts of competence and
performance as (Widdowson, Teaching Language 3; Hymes, “On Communicative Competence” 56) comment is, in fact, an extension of Saussure’s distinctions between Langue and parole. Chomsky relates competence to the idealized speaker-listener repertoire of language system whereas performance to the actual use of language in real situations. Linguistic theory in the Chomskyan perspective is just an exclusive to a totally perfect community. Chomsky applies competence to an ideal “homogenous” community as he mentioned. Kumaravadivelu argues that Chomsky’s linguistic theory concerns with artificial language users and neglects the real users of language (6). Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
36
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
Chomsky’s linguistic theory views language as a mental activity. In fact, it does not explain the role of society whether in the acquisition mechanism or everyday interaction among people. Kumaravadivelu questions the Chomskyan idea which views language as just a mental phenomenon not as a vehicle of communication. Some of the Chomskyan perspectives have been criticized by many linguists who viewed language more than just mastering underlying system of language in abstraction (e.g. Hymes; Widdowson; Halliday).
2.2.2 Hymes’ Theory of Communicative Competence Hymes demonstrates some faults in the transformational generative grammar theory as: the exclusion of sociolinguistic factors from the notion of competence; relating competence to a homogenous society; and describing performance with imperfection. Hymes argues the insufficiency of underlying system for appropriate communication. He demonstrates that children not only acquire the structures of language; but also they do acquire the ability of using that knowledge appropriately according to the rules of cultures (“Toward Linguistic Competence”). With reference to the second fault of the Chomskyan linguistic theory, Hymes criticizes the homogenous society that the theory focuses on. It is difficult to find an idealized society that language users interact with. Instead, Hymes relates competence to a ‘heterogeneous’ society (“Toward Linguistic Competence”). The third defect that the theory of linguistics has is its description of performance as imperfect. Hymes argues the ambiguity in the Chomskyan performance.
Hymes,
“Toward
Linguistic Competence”
asks
whether the
performance means the verbal behavior data or the repertoire of grammar? Or both? So far, Hymes clarifies the term performance by conceptualizing the term “ability for use”. Johnson writes that Hymes relates performance to noncognitive factors such as motivation (89). Unlike other linguists, (e.g., Halliday) who argues to substitute the Chomskyan theory, Hymes expanded it. Hymes views that the linguistic theory consists of linguistic competence as well as sociolinguistic competence. Hymes gives more focus on the sociolinguistic rules over the rules of grammar. He writes: There are rules of use without which the rules of grammar would be useless. Just as rules of syntax can control aspects of phonology, and Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
37
just as rules of semantics perhaps control aspects of syntax, so rules of speech acts enter as just as rules of syntax can control aspects of phonology, and just as rules of semantics perhaps control aspects of syntax, so rules of speech acts enter as a controlling factor for linguistic form as a whole (Hymes, “On Communicative Competence” 60). Hymes’ communicative competence focuses on both acceptable language system and appropriate language use. Hymes mentions in his own words about his aim in producing a theory on communicative competence: The intention of the theory is not to distinguish between models of competence for reception and models of competence for production. And insofar as the theory intends to deal with the ''creative'' aspect of language, that is, with the ability of a user to devise novel sentences appropriate to situations (“On Communicative Competence” 58). Hymes acknowledges that communicative competence takes place as a result of four-parameters’ interactions. 1. Whether (and to what degree) something is formally possible; 2. Whether (and to what degree) something is feasible in virtue of the means of implementation available; 3. Whether (and to what degree) something is appropriate (adequate, happy, successful) in relation to a context in which it is used and evaluated; 4. Whether (and to what degree) something is in fact done, actually performed and what its doing entails (“On Communicative Competence” 63). Possible is the first element of Hymes’ perception on communicative competence. For him, any utterance or written sentence must be correct according to the rule of grammar. So whenever our production is grammatically correct, it could be possible to be accepted by others. Not only an utterance or a written sentence must be correct in grammar to be accepted, furthermore, it must be feasible. According to Mustadi by feasibility Hymes means the “psycholinguistic of competence”. Mustadi adds that the sentence “the cheese the rat the cat the dog saw chased ate was green” is Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
38
not feasible, however it is possible. This sentence is not accepted in English because it does not follow the rule of sentence-embedding structures. To make it feasible, Mustadi offers the following “the dog saw the cat that chased the rat that ate the cheese that was green” (15). The third element is that an utterance or written sentence should be culturally accepted with the rule of community. For instance, as Mustadi views that greeting somebody by saying “goodbye” so goodbye is a grammatically correct and feasibility accepted, however, it does not suit the situation of greeting (15). The last element that Hymes talks about in his theory is the probability rule of occurrence. It means that whenever the utterance verbalized in a particular situation must suit the rule of grammar and rule of appropriateness. To make it in other words, if we want to express any language function to express our goal, we must use common rules of grammar that people usually do, and select rules of appropriateness according to the status of our interlocutor, which must also be common to the language community. These four elements of possible, feasible, appropriate, and how often something is done have been explained by Canale and Swain that “communicative competence is viewed by Hymes as the interaction of grammatical (what is formally possible), psycholinguistic (what is feasible in terms of human information processing), socio-cultural (what is the social meaning or value of a given utterances), and probabilistic (what actually occurs)” (16). Hymes’ perspective of communicative competence is taken as a basis in the field of second/foreign language teaching and acquisition. Bagari and Mihaljevi note that after Chomsky had introduced the definitions and explanations of competence and performance from the view of communication, many applied linguists criticized the idealized competence as a base of theoretical background in language testing and methodology. Those linguists, on the other hand, (e.g. Savignon, 1984; Widdowson, 1987, 1984 and others) found the alternative concept of the Chomskyan competence in Hymes’ communicative competence, where they considered it to be more realistic and broader (95).
2.2.3 Widdowson’s Theory of Use and Usage The importance of teaching both the underlying system and the way we use that competence appropriately in real situations lead to fluency in the target language. Widdowson states that learning a language depends on both usage and use; where the Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
39
first refers to the knowledge of the language system and the latter stands for the manifestation of that knowledge to produce instance of language use. He also asserts that “the distinction between usage and use is related to de Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole and Chomsky’s similar distinction between competence and performance” (Teaching Language 3). Widdowson claims that the notion of competence is related to the language user’s knowledge of linguistic rules. Though that knowledge has to be put into effect as behavior, and later it has to be revealed by performance. Thus, for him, usage which is one aspect of performance is “the extent to which the language user demonstrates his knowledge of linguistic rulesˮ (3), another aspect is use. Richards define use as the extent to which a language user demonstrates his ability and his knowledge of linguistic rules for effective communication (4). Widdowson proposes two kinds of meanings: the first is signification, which belongs to sentences usage, i.e., sentences express propositions by combining words into structures in according to the grammatical rules. The second kind of meaning is value, which concerns with a sentence as part of sentences when they are put into communicative purposes. With reference to the concept of competence, Widdowson, Knowledge of Language comments that Chomsky associated competence to knowledge while Hymes relates it not only to knowledge, but also to ability. Furthermore, Widdowson, demonstrated that knowledge concerns with the language users’ “analyzability” to the grammar rules (grammatical competence) while ability stands for users’ “accessibility” to deploy the remaining components of competence. Widdowson argues that if competence is just learners’ repertoire in analyzing the rules of grammar, then the structural approach should have helped learners to get competence in using language perfectly. He writes: if the ability to use linguistic knowledge effectively for communication depends on the extent to which that knowledge is analysed, then the structural approach would seem to provide the basis for the development of communicative competence in a way which the communicative approach, at least in some of its manifestations, does not (Widdowson, Knowledge of Language 131).
Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
40
Finally, Widdowson claims that grammatical rules are stored regularly in brains. Therefore, participating in a conversation with an interlocutor requires a language user to recall for the stored chunks of language and adjust them to suit the social context (153).
2.2.4 Halliday’s Theory of Potentiality Halliday’s view of language learning corresponds with Hymes as well as Widdoson’s. Halliday states that “learning ones mother tongue is learning the uses of language, and the meanings, or rather the meaning potential associated with them” (Explorations 24). So, in this respect, Halliday’s meaning potential reflects Hymes’ communicative competence. Moreover, the meaning potential that Halliday coins matches with Widdowson’s concept of use. However the similarity between what the concept of meaning potential and competence connate, Halliday’s meaning potential associates with the objective characteristic of language rather than its subjectivity. Halliday defines the meaning potential as “what the speaker/hearer can mean not what one knows”. So the meaning potential in this regard is a contradictive concept to the Chomskyan concept of “competence” (25). Halliday talks about social functions of language. Those functions associate with the context where language is used. Moreover, Halliday illustrates that children at their native age apply the instrumental function of language. It covers children’s use of language to satisfy their material needs, “I want/ I don't want”. Halliday confirms that whenever children utter the “I don't/want”, they build the meaning potential as requesting good or services (Halliday, Explorations). Halliday’ theory of language as meaning potential states: The language system of the very young child is, effectively, a set of restricted language varieties; and it is characteristic of young children’s language that its internal form reflects rather directly that function that is being used to serve. What the child does with language tends to determine its structure (Explorations 27). One can induce that the grammatical rules that children acquire during their interaction with others are organized in their mind functionally. Furthermore, such organizations can be called back whenever children are required to use language. Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
41
More specifically, it is not just the rules of grammar that children acquire, but also the functions of using the underlying systems according to the situation they are emerged in. The importance of social context in interpreting the meaning of utterances has been also focused on by Halliday who views language as meaning potential. Halliday talks about three meta-functional components of language potentially. He states: Thus our functional picture of the adult linguistic system is of a culturally specific and situationally sensitive range of meaning potential. Language is the ability to 'mean' in the situation types, or social contexts, that are generated by the culture. When we talk about ‘uses of language’, we are concerned with the meaning potential that is associated with particular situation types; and we are likely to be especially interested in those which are of some social and cultural significance in the light of a sociological theory of language such as Bernstein’s. This last point is perhaps worth stressing. The way that we have envisaged the study of language and social man, through the concept of 'meaning potential’ might be referred to as a kind of "sociosemantics" in the sense that it is the study of meaning in a social or sociological framework (Language as Social Semiotic 34). Halliday differentiates between the following functions of language: 1. Instrumental ('I want'): satisfying material needs 2. Regulatory ('do as I tell you'): controlling the behaviour of others 3. Interactional ('me and you'): getting along with other people 4. Personal ('here I come'): identifying and expressing the self 5. Heuristic ('tell me why'): exploring the world around and inside one 6. Imaginative ('let’s pretend')：creating a world of one’s own 7. Informative ('I've got something to tell you'): communicating new information ( Language as Social Semiotic 19-20). In this section, the definitions of communicative competence have been focused on, and four theories have been investigated, starting with Chomsky’s theory where he views that linguistic theory is divided between competence and performance. Whereas the former is ideal, the second is real. Limitations in relating Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
42
the term competence to the underlying system of native speaker-listener knowledge in one’s language, as well as introducing a perfect society (homogenous) where competence can be reflected by performance leads to the emerge of a new theory by the sociolinguist Dell Hymes, who expands the first theory of Chomsky. Hymes acknowledges that communicative competence consists of both linguistic competence and sociolinguistic competence.
2.3
Models of Communicative Competence Since the coining of the term communicative competence by the
anthropologist, Dell Hymes, in 1972 theoretical models are needed to the application of communicative competence in second/foreign language teaching and testing. In fact, the term competence has been developed under different categories and terminologies. Starting with Chomsky’s production of the term competence, as the ideal native speaker/listener. Then Dell Hymes updates the term by adding the word communicative to become communicative competence, which deals with the knowledge and ability and focusing on the rules of use. Communicative language ability is a similar term produced by Bachman in 1990 where he dealt with two components of competence: linguistic and pragmatic competencies. The fourth terminology was produced by The European Council as communicative language competence. Finally, Usó-Juan and Martínez-Flor produce their framework of communicative competence which integrates the four language skills. There will be discussions for the five frameworks which have greatly influenced the development of the term communicative competence in the field of language learning and teaching.
2.3.1 Canale and Swain’s Theoretical Model Canale and Swain introduce their model of communicative competence for the aim of applying communicative competence in both language teaching and testing. In fact, they wish to examine the feasibility and practicality of measuring the term communicative competence for Ontario students enrolled in a core program in French as a second language in both elementary and secondary school. Generally speaking, the model of Canale and Swain is considered as one of the first and most influential models on communicative competence. Linguists interested in the field of second/foreign language teaching and assessing like, Savignon; CelceMurcia; Ellis acknowledge that Canale and Swain’s model to be among the most Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
43
excellent framework in language teaching and testing that tries to contextualize Hymes’ perception of communicative competence. In the beginning of its production, Canale and Swain’s 1980 model consists of three elements, i.e., grammatical competence; sociolinguistic competence; and strategic competence. Furthermore, in 1983, Canale develops the previous model by adding a fourth component (discourse competence). Depending on these components, Canale and Swain assume that there will be subcomponents of probability rules of occurrence. These rules will attempt to characterize the “redundancy aspect of language” (31).
The purpose of this model is to serve both instructional and
assessment purposes. So far, the four elements compiled in Canale and Swain’s 1980 and Canale’s 1983 framework will be discussed: Grammatical competence for Canale and Swain covers “knowledge of lexical items and rules of morphology, syntax, sentence-grammar semantic, and phonology” (Canale and Swain 29). The second competency in Canale and Swain’s (1980) theoretical model is sociolinguistic competence. Canale and Swain assert that sociolinguistic competence comprises two sets of rules: “sociocultural rules of use and rules of discourse” (30). On the other hand, Canale observes sociolinguistic competence to include just the rule of use. While the rules of discourse are categorized under the component, discourse competence, sociolinguistic competence thus, refers to the extent to which an utterance is being produced and comprehended appropriately with reference to the participants’ statuses, purpose of the interaction as well as norms and conventions of the speech community (7). Canale and Swain divide strategic competence into two categories: The first element related to grammatical competence, and the second for sociolinguistic competence. Their strategic competence comprises both verbal and non-verbal tactic which can be used as compensatory skills to keep communication going on (30). Discourse competence demonstrates using language above the level of sentences. This competency relies on both cohesive and coherent production of language. Canale demonstrates that cohesion is concerned with the use of cohesive devices responsible for logically or chronologically comprehending of written or spoken texts. These devices are including the use of pronouns, synonyms, ellipsis, conjunctions and parallel structures. On the other hand, coherence to Canale is associated with how meaning Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
44
(whether literal, communicative functional or attitudes) is being correlated within a text (9). In addition to the four components of communicative competence proposed by Canale and Swain, and later on by Canale, they also confirm the successfulness of mastering such competencies with acquiring what they named “probabilistic rules of occurrence” (31). These rules concerning with how often a grammatical form is used in a certain language function. Similarly, how appropriate a language function is verbalized with reference to the status of the interlocutor. As it has been aforementioned that the present framework has been proposed for the aim of teaching and assessing communicative competence. The first aim relates directly to the thesis statement of this dissertation as the researcher aims to observe the possibility of teaching communicative competence at secondary school level in Yemen. So far, with reference to the teaching purpose, Canale and Swain adapt the components of communicative competence in proposing the communicative approach for second/foreign language teaching. They determine the applicability of teaching such components of communicative competence with a unified complementary mechanism to be realized by syllabus designers, teaching pedagogies, teacher training and material developments. Thus, the proposed communicative approach is characterized according to Canale by: 1. Integratively coverage for the four elements of CC. 2. Fostering learners' communicative needs. 3. Helping learners to interact meaningfully and realistically. 4. Encouraging learners to activate their L1 similar skills in L2. 5. Exhibiting second language cultures, norms and conventions (1819). The proposed model of Canale and Swain seems to exclude the ability for use suggested by Hymes in his theory of communicative competence. Such neglection is considered by McNamara as a defect in the model. On the other hand, Canale and Swain may differ in their views of competence to Hymes’. So that, they neglected the ability for use. According to Ellis, Canale and Swain’s exclusion for the ability for use, illustrates their consideration of its relation to performance not to competence
Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
45
(106). In addition to the exclusion of the ability for use, another limitation of Canale and Swain’s framework is its inability to explain the relationship among its elements. Communicative competence elements cannot be developed separately. The improvement in any component reflects on the other remaining elements. Any proposed model which aims to develop or teach communicative competence should explain the interrelation of its components. As Usó-Juan and Martínez-Flor confirm that Canale and Swain’s framework did not explain the interaction between its competencies (“Approaches to Language” 12). Furthermore, Schachter critically analyzes and questions the validity of the constituents component of this model, especially the separation of the sociolinguistic and discourse competencies (qtd. in, Judit 19). Although the criticisms that the model of Canale and Swain receive, this model has provided with many facets to the determination of communicative language use. It significantly leads to the existence of new models (Judit).The figure below shows the categories that Canale and Swain’s framework combines in their model as:
Figure 2.1 Canale and Swain’s theoretical models as appeared in (Johnson 91).
2.3.2 Bachman and Palmer’s Framework of Communicative Language Ability However, the model of Bachman’s 1990 and later on developed by Bachman and Palmer in 1996 has been designed for the purpose of language assessment (cf. Canale and Swain, 1980; Canale, 1983; Celce-Murcia, Dornyei, and Thurrell 1995; Celce-Murcia, 2007), the model depends highly on the previous models and theories of communicative competence (e.g., Hymes, 1972; Chomsky, 1965; Canale and Swain, 1980; and Canale, 1983) in determining the components of Communicative Language Ability (CLA). To summarize the advantages of this theoretical model, Usó-Juan and Martínez-Flor acknowledge that Bachman was the first linguist to list pragmatic Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
46
competence as a main component of communicative competence (“Teaching Intercultural” 159). Depending on the Hymesian perspective that communicative competence includes knowledge and ability of using that competence in appropriate situations. (cf. Canale and Swain, 1980, as they associated the ability of use to performance). Bachman describes his theoretical model of CLA to include not only competence but also the capability of using such competence in social contexts (84). So, for the achievement of such competence in language ability, Bachman talks about three categories: Language competence, strategic competence and psychophysio-logical mechanisms. The first component includes two sub-elements: (1) organizational competence which includes grammatical competence and textual competence. (2) Pragmatic competence which combines both illocutionary competence as well as sociolinguistic competence. Strategic competence, which is the second element of Bachman’s model of CLA, comprises three categories which are planning, assessment, and execution. Whereas the last component is the psychophysio-logical mechanism which Bachman relates to performance. The researcher has not already explained such components of CLA here above, because the model has been updated by Bachman and Palmer in 1996 and they have changed some terminologies of the previous components. The chart below shows the elements of communicative language ability used by Bachman in 1990. The chart is quoted from the (Centre for Canadian Language Benchmarks 18).
Chart 2.1 Bachman’s (1990) theoretical model. Bachman and Palmer view language knowledge as a field of inner information in the mind which can be used -by metacognitive strategies- in creating
Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
47
and interpreting discourses in language use (67). For them, language knowledge broadly contains two categories: organizational knowledge and pragmatic knowledge 2.3.2.1 Organizational Knowledge Bachman and Palmer assert that organizational knowledge is responsible for forming or grasping well-formed sentences and organizing these sentences to form oral or written texts. For them, organization knowledge is sub-categoried into grammatical knowledge and textual knowledge (67-68). (a) Grammatical knowledge is
“similar
to Canale & Swain’s grammatical
competence” (Celce-Murcia, Dornyei, and Thurrell 8). Grammatical knowledge consists of knowledge of vocabulary, syntax, phonology, and graphology. These knowledges are the basis of forming or grasping well-formed sentences or utterances (Bachman and Palmer 68). (b) Textual knowledge is
“similar to but more elaborate than Canale and Swain’s
discourse competence” (Celce-Murcia, Dornyei, and Thurrell 8). Bachman and Palmer explain that textual knowledge is the “spoken or written” elements of language. Knowledge of cohesion and knowledge of rhetorical or conversational organization are the components of textual knowledge. On the other hand, knowledge of cohesion is the dynamic or inclusive association of clearly noticeable relationships among written sentences or spoken utterances. Whereas the productive or comprehensive involvement of organizational development whether in written texts or in conversation are the core knowledge of rhetorical or conversation organization (68-69). 2.3.2.2 Pragmatic Knowledge It concerns with the awareness of language users to force utterances or sentences in order to receive the intended meaning shared by interlocutor(s) and responding to interlocutors in ways that suit both setting and social context (Bachman and Palmer 69). Pragmatic knowledge to Bachman and Palmer covers two areas, i.e., functional knowledge and sociolinguistic knowledge. (a) Functional knowledge represents Bachman’s 1990 “Illocutionary competence”. Functional competence allows the language user to interpret the relationships between utterances or sentences from one hand, and the intention meaning of the interlocutor, (a person who participates in a conversation). Furthermore, functional knowledge Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
48
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
composes four categories: ideational, manipulative, instrumental, and imaginative (Bachman and Palmer). These functions are explained by Bachman and Palmer as: i.
Knowledge of ideational functions expresses the speaker’s ideas in term of descriptions, classifications, explanations, and expression of sorrow or anger.
ii.
Knowledge of manipulative functions allows the speaker to affect the world around him. It includes the following: (1) instrumental functions which performed by speaker to get interlocutors to do things as requests, suggestions, commands and warnings; (2) regulatory functions which are usually used by language user to control what other interlocutors do including rules, regulations and laws; and (3) interpersonal functions, which allow the language users to maintain, establish and change interpersonal relationships with interlocutors including
greetings,
leave-takings,
compliments,
insults,
and
apologies. iii.
Knowledge of heuristic functions allows the language user to extend the knowledge of the world, such as using language for teaching and learning, for problem-solving, and for the retention of information.
iv.
Knowledge of imaginative functions allows the language users to create imaginary world for humorous or esthetic purposes; for instance, including jokes, use of figurative language and poetry (6970).
(b) Sociolinguistic knowledge is the second subcomponent of pragmatic knowledge. It is “similar to Canale & Swain’s sociolinguistic competence” (Celce-Murcia, Dornyei, and Thurrell 8). According to Bachman and Palmer, sociolinguistic knowledge involves knowledge of culture and norms which suitably decide the “use of dialects or varieties, registers, natural or idiomatic expressions, cultural references and figures of speech”. Consequently, this knowledge motivates the language user not only to produce messages but also to understand language that is suitable for a specific social setting (70). However, the interestingly additions and explanations of communicative competence elements that have not been set up clearly in the previous model of Canale and Swain’s 1980, and Canale’s 1983, some criticisms face the model of Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
49
Bachman and Palmer. McNamara claims that Bachman’s 1990 model lacks some general cognitive factors. He also refers to Bachman’s strategic competence to symbolize the ability for use used by Hymes. Similarly, Usó-Juan and Martínez-Flor state that the model does not show any interaction among its components despite the fact the Bachman’s 1990 theoretical model includes the “psycho physiological mechanisms” -which are responsible for performing utterances- as an important component of communicative competence (“Approaches to Language” 12). The chart below compares between Bachman’s 1990 and Bachman and Palmer’s 1996 as organized by the (Centre for Canadian Language Benchmarks 19).
Chart 2.2 comparison between Bachman’s 1990 and Bachman and Palmer’s 1996
2.3.3 Celce-Murcia, Dornyei, and Thurrell’s Model Celce-Murcia, Dornyei, and Thurrell produce their own theoretical model of communicative competence for the purpose of language teaching. It differs from the previous frameworks of Canale and Swain; Canale; and Bachman and Palmer in that it has been just designed for the purpose of language teaching whereas, the first model of Canale and Swain has double concerns with both teaching and assessing purposes and the second framework of Bachman and Palmer’s of communicative language ability which is an assessment model rather than an instructional model. In addition to the advantages that this model has been just designed for instructional purposes, Usó-
Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
50
Juan and Martínez-Flor acknowledge that this model shows interaction among its components (“Approaches to Language” 13). The Model of Celce-Murcia, Dornyei, and Thurrell depends largely on Canale and Swain and Canale’s model in its categorization of communicative competence elements. They have added just one more component in its first production (actional competence) and made some alternations in the terminologies to the model of Canale and Swain. However, they have extended the sub-components of the Canale and Swain’s model for the aim of embedding such sub-elements in any language course contents designed for enhancing learners’ communicative competence. Celce-Murcia, Dornyei, and Thurrell state: Our current effort has been motivated by our belief in the potential of a direct, explicit approach to the teaching of communicative skills, which would require a detailed description of what communicative competence entails in order to use the sub-components as a content base in syllabus design. However, we believe, an informed approach concerning the objectives of CLT will be conducive to the teaching of communicative language abilities (6). Celce-Murcia and her co-authors differ from Canale and Swain’s who undertake a communicative approach for the aim of teaching communicative competence; they adopt an informed approach mixed with CLT principles for teaching communicative competence. Celce-Murcia, Dornyei, and Thurrell talk about five competencies in their model of communicative competence, i.e., discourse competence, linguistic competence, actional competence, sociolinguistic competence and strategic competence. Celce-Murcia, Dornyei, and Thurrell proposed their model of communicative competence as a pyramid enclosing a circle and surrounded by another circle. They make discourse competence at the center of the triangle within the circle, and at the angles of the triangle, they posit socio-cultural competence, linguistic competence and actional competence. The big circle which included within the Pyramid, the triangle and the small circle presents the strategic competence (13). The figure below shows the elements of CC in Celce-Murcia, Dornyei, and Thurrell’s theoretical model.
Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
51
Figure 2.2, Celce-Murcia, Dornyei, and Thurrell’s (1995) theoretical model The 1995 model of Celce-Murcia, Dornyei, and Thurrell has been developed in 2007 by Celce-Murcia to have one else more component (formulaic competence) and change the actional competence to become interactional competence. The purpose of developing the previous framework is demonstrated by Celce-Murica in 2007 to suit the context of language teaching activities. Celce-Murcia also criticizes the 1995 framework saying that there are certain perceived gaps. She therefore as Sarwade observes, provides an elaborated model of competency where she gives the central role to formulaic language and to the paralinguistic aspects of face to face oral communication. This updated model has six components: 2.3.3.1 Socio-cultural Competence Celce-Murcia gives this competency in her new framework, the top-down role. This competency refers to the pragmatic knowledge of the language users. It focuses on the appropriateness of language usage with reference to context both socially and culturally; it also pays attentions to the varieties of language. In this competency, Celce-Murcia discusses three crucial socio-cultural variables: (a) social contextual factors: include the participants' (age, gender, status, social distance and their relation to each other); (b) stylistic appropriateness: politeness strategies, a sense of genres and registers. (C) Cultural factors: background knowledge of the target language
Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
52
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
group, major dialects/regional differences, and cross-cultural awareness (Sarwade 76). Socio-cultural competence is similar to Canale and Swain’s sociolinguistic competence. 2.3.3.2 Discourse Competence Though this competency has been given the top-down position in the previous model, Celce-Murcia, Dornyei, and Thurrell, assert that “discourse competence concerns the selection, sequencing, and arrangement of words, structures, sentences and utterances to achieve a unified spoken or written text” (13). There are four subareas relating to this competency which the modern model focuses on: (a) Cohesion: this sub-element for Celce-Murica lies on “conventions regarding use of reference (anaphora/cataphora), substitution/ ellipsis, conjunction, and lexical chains” (CelceMurcia 64). (b) Deixis: situational grounding achieved through use of personal pronouns,
spatial
terms
(here/there;
this/that),
temporal
terms
(now/then;
before/after), and textual reference (e.g. the following table, the figure above),(CelceMurcia, Dornyei, and Thurrell). (c) Coherence: covert link in the content of the discourse. (d) Generic Structure: formal schemata that allow the user to identify an oral discourse segment as a conversation, narrative, interview, service encounter, report, lecture, sermon, etc. (Celce-Murcia 47). 2.3.3.3 Linguistic Competence Linguistic competence “comprise the basic elements of communication: the sentence patterns and types, the constituent structure, the morphological inflections, and the lexical resources, as well as the phonological and orthographic systems needed to realize communication as speech or writing”(Celce-Murcia, Dornyei, and Thurrell 16-17). The updated model of Celce-Murica defines linguistic competence by four elements as: i.
phonological: includes both segmentals (vowels, consonants, syllable types) and suprasegmentals (prominence/stress, intonation, and rhythm).
ii.
lexical: knowledge of both content words (nouns, verbs, adjectives)
-and
unction
words
(pronouns,
determiners,
grammatical
inflections,
prepositions, verbal auxiliaries, etc.). iii.
morphological:
parts
of
speech,
productive derivational processes.
Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
iv.
53
syntactic: constituent/phrase structure, word order (both canonical and -marked), basic sentence types, modification, coordination, subordination, embedding (Celce-Murcia 48).
2.3.3.4 Formulaic Competence This component of communicative competence according to Celce-Murica refers to “those fixed and prefabricated chunks of language that speakers use heavily in everyday interactions” (47). In the new model, Celce-Murica counterbalances formulaic competence to linguistic competence (Celce-Murcia). This component has the following manifestations: (a) Routines: fixed phrases like of course, all of a sudden and formulaic chunks like How do you do? I'm fine, thanks; how are you? (b) Collocations: verb-object spend money, play the piano adverb-adjective statistically significant, mutually intelligible adjective-noun: tall building, legible handwriting. (c) Idioms: e.g., to kick the bucket= to die; to get the ax = to be fired/terminated. (D) Lexical frames: e.g., I'm looking ---------. See you (later/tomorrow/ next week, etc.) (Celce-Murcia 48). 2.3.3.5 Interactional Competence Celce-Murica in the new model of CC matches the bottom-up interactional competence to the top-down socoi-culutral competence (Celce-Murcia 48). According to Celce-Murica, the interactional competence is very important as the performance of speech acts differ from a language to another. This component covers the three following sub areas: (a) Actional Competence knowledge of performing common Speech Acts and Speech Acts Sets in the target language involving interactions such as information exchanges, expression of opinions and feeling, etc. (b) Conversational competence: it consists of skills like opening and closing conversation, changing topics, etc. (c) Non-verbal/paralinguistic Competence: includes the kinesics behavior, proxemics, haptic behavior and non-linguistic utterances with interactional import (Celce-Murcia 49). 2.3.3.6 Strategic Competence Celce-Murica, in her new model discusses three types of strategic competence: (a) Cognitive Strategies; (b) Meta-cognitive Strategies, and (c) Memory-related
Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
54
Strategies (Sarwade). The following definitions of the mentioned three elements are quoted from Celce-Murcia’s updated model:
cognitive: these are strategies making use of logic and analysis to help oneself learn a new language through outlining, summarizing, note taking, organizing and reviewing material, etc.
metacognitive: these strategies involve planning one’s learning by making time for homework or for preparation, and engaging in selfevaluation of one’s success on a given task or on one’s overall progress. This is achieved in part by monitoring and noting one’s errors, learning from teacher and peer feedback, etc. Compensating for missing or partial knowledge by guessing the meanings of words from context or the grammatical function of words from formal clues are also aspect of metacognition.
memory-related: these are strategies that help learners recall or retrieve words through the use of acronyms, images, sounds (rhymes), or other clues (Celce-Murcia 50). Strategic competence, which is an essential component of Celce-Murcia’s
model has been criticized by Esther Usó-Juan and Martínez-Flor because
such
competency has not been received similar attention in its interaction with other components that the model comprises (13). The figure below shows the components of CC in the updated model of Celce-Murcia (54).
Figure 2.3, Celce-Murcia’s (2007) theoretical model Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
55
Having observing the components of Celce-Murcia, Dornyei, and Thurrell’s framework, it seems that this model has demonstrated the sub-components of communicative competence broadly. Therefore, the present research can depend upon them while contextualizing the content of classroom teaching.
2.3.4 The Common European Framework of Reference (CEFR) The CEFR is a theoretical model for the purpose of teaching, assessment, curriculum design, and teachers-training all over the continent of Europe. As we have seen, the first model, discussed in this literature proposed by Canale and Swain, is based on the communicative approach for teaching languages with respect to the features of such approach offered by Canale and Swain. Furthermore, the CelceMurcia, Dornyei, and Thurrell’s model is based on informed approach mixed with CLT objectives for the teaching of communicative competence. The CEFR suggests a different approach from both Canale and Swain and Celce-Murcia in teaching communicative language competence. This approach is an action oriented one which views learners, according to the Council of Europe, as social agents in which they are “members of society who have tasks (not exclusively language-related) to accomplish in a given set of circumstances, in a specific environment and within a particular field of action” (9). Accordingly, the action oriented approach, as it has been mentioned above considers learners as social agents, pays attentions to their emotions, interests and their individual cognitive abilities. For the purpose of achieving competency in communication, the CEFR proposes the following components of communicative competence to be enhanced and developed: 2.3.4.1 Linguistic Competence Linguistic competence is the ability of a language user to comprehend and produce correct sentences. It is one of the main components that communicative competence combines. Furthermore, the CEFR includes some sub-categories in this competency. The Council of Europe relates the ability of being a linguistically competent to mastering the underlying system of language including lexical, grammatical, semantic, phonological, orthographic, and orthoepic competencies. (For more details see the next sections under the title of communicative competence coverage). There are similarities between the CEFR; Canale and Swain; and CelceMurcia, Dornyei, and Thurrell, in their sub-categorization of linguistic competence.
Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
56
Both frameworks talk about lexical, phonological, morphological elements. Such subcomponents are also mentioned in Bachman and Palmer framework under the organizational knowledge specifically in grammatical knowledge. 2.3.4.2 Sociolinguistic Competence The CEFR follows the Canale and Swain’s 1980 framework in choosing the terminology of sociolinguistic competence (cf. Bachman; Bachman and Palmer; Celce-Murcia, Dornyei, and Thurrell; Celce-Murcia). Sociolinguistic competence is the ability of a language user to use language not only in accurate ways in respect to the rules of grammar, but also in appropriate way to the rules of language use. As we have noticed that Canale and Swain subdivided sociolinguistic competence into two sub-categories concerning with socioculture rules and rules of discourse, the Council of Europe associates sociolinguistic competence to the following sub-components: “linguistic markers of social relations; politeness conventions; expressions of folkwisdom; register differences; and dialect and accent” (118). (Such elements will be discussed in details in the following sections). 2.3.4.3 Pragmatic Competence Pragmatic competence is the ability of a language user to comprehend the intended meaning sent by an interlocutor and the capability to response appropriately to that message. The Council of Europe broadens the concept to include three competencies, i.e., discourse competence, functional competence, and design competence (123). There seems to be much difference between the CEFR and Bachman and Palmer with regarding sub-categorizing pragmatic competence. However, both frameworks make pragmatic competence as a main component of communicative competence. The framework of Bachman and Palmer subdivides pragmatic competence to include sociolinguistic knowledge and functional knowledge whereas discourse competence or what Bachman and Palmer name (textual knowledge) is listed under the organizational knowledge.
Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
57
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
2.3.5 Usó-Juan and Martínez-Flor’s Framework of Integrating the Four Skills Similarly to Canale and Swain’s theoretical model of communicative competence, Usó-Juan and Martínez-Flor adopt the communicative approach for teaching communicative competence with little differences from Canale and Swain’s communicative approach. Usó-Juan and Martínez-Flor focus on the four language skills and pay much attention to the intercultural competence which is neglected in the previous theoretical models. Furthermore, this new model focuses importantly on the integration of communicative competence elements within the discourse competence. So far, successful communication or language teaching would happen in line with discourse. This model not only focuses on the interrelation among its categories but also provides English teachers and curricula designers with witty tasks on the possibility of teaching such competencies based on the four language skills. Beltrán-Palanques acknowledges that Usó-Juan and Martínez-Flor’s framework shows the interactions among the competencies of discourse, linguistic, pragmatic, intercultural and strategic in addition to the integration of the four language skills for production and comprehending discourse (“Teaching” 522). Usó-Juan and Martínez-Flor state that their model consists of five components appearing inside rectangular boxes of the same size, i.e., discourse, linguistic, pragmatic, intercultural and strategic competencies. These boxes are also put inside a circle and centered by the discourse competence box and this central box organizes the four language skills, one in each corner (“Approaches to Language” 15). The explanations of Usó-Juan and Martínez-Flor’s model components will be given as: 2.3.5.1 Discourse Competence is the core competency in Usó-Juan and MartínezFlor’s model. It encapsulates knowledge of both producing and comprehending texts and utterances which are not only cohesive but also coherent. Discourse competence as defined by the authors concerns with “the selection and sequencing of utterances or sentences to achieve a cohesive and coherent spoken or written text given a particular purpose and situational context” (Usó-Juan and Martínez-Flor, “Teaching Intercultural” 161). 2.3.5.2 Linguistic
Competence
includes
the
rules
of
morpheme,
syntax,
pronunciation, vocabulary. It stands for “all the elements of the linguistic system, Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
58
such as aspects concerning phonology, grammar and vocabulary which are needed to interpret or produce a spoken or written text” (Usó-Juan and Martínez-Flor, “Teaching Intercultural” 161). 2.3.5.3 Pragmatic Competence is similar to Bachman’s. It consists of both illocutionary force and sociopragmatic aspects of language. Consequently, illocutionary force concerns with language functions and speech acts whereas sociopragmatic demonstrates the role of appropriateness as well as politeness (UsóJuan and Martínez-Flor, “Approaches to Language” 17). 2.3.5.4 Intercultural Competence consists of both sociocultural norms, as well as non-verbal interaction. The authors define intercultural competence as “the knowledge of how to interpret and produce a spoken or written piece of discourse within a particular sociocultural context” (Usó-Juan and Martínez-Flor, “Teaching Intercultural” 161). 2.3.5.5 Strategic Competence focuses on using communicative strategies to keep communication going on whenever any breakdown occurs. The figure below shows the elements of CC in Usó-juan and Martínez-Flor’s theoretical model with reference to the four language skills.
Figure 2.4, Usó-juan and Martínez-Flor’s theoretical model The importance of this theoretical model is its possible applicability to classroom instructions. As it associates the teaching of communicative competence elements to the four language skills, this model strongly relates to the present research as it suggests some activities and tasks which can be used in classroom for the aim of fostering communicative competence. (For more discussion see 2.6). Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
59
In this section, the researcher has discussed five theoretical frameworks which explain the constructs of communicative competence. However, there are some different categorizations of the communicative competence components and subcomponents. In the next section, the researcher makes a compromise on the subcategories that the four main components of communicative competence include.
2.4
Communicative Competence Coverage In this section, the researcher is going to talk about the four components of
communicative competence as they are categorized by Canale’s 1983 in his updating of the 1980 model proposed by Canale and Swain. However, these components are linguistic competence, sociolinguistic competence (pragmatic competence), discourse competence, and strategic competence, the sub-categories of these four elements will be sub-divided according to the common views of the five frameworks discussed in the previous section. The aim of this section is to determine the sub-components of the four main components of communicative competence and to explain each subcomponent to give a clear perspective of the knowledge and skills that each subcomponent includes. Furthermore, based on this categorization, the researcher explains how such sub-components can be acquired by learners and how to teach these components as well as which activities and tasks can be used to enhance the components of communicative competence in the following sections.
2.4.1 Linguistic Competence Different terminologies are used by each theoretical model to refer for the knowledge that a speaker has in the language underlying system. For example, Canale and Swain’s and Bachman use the term grammatical competence. Similarly Bachman and Palmer prefer to use the concept grammatical knowledge. They have just substituted the word knowledge instead of competence used by Canale and swain and by Bachman. On the other hand, Celce-Murcia, Dornyei, and Thurrell; Celce-Murcia; Council of Europe; and Esther Usó-Juan and Martínez-Flor used the term “linguistic competence” as they assumed to avoid ambiguity that the concept grammatical competence may donate. Linguistic competence demonstrates the mastery of the language user for the underlying system. Chomsky relates the term linguistic competence to the native speaker-listener’s repertoire of grammatical rules in one’s mother tongue. In fact, Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
60
Chomsky associates such competence of grammar to the language acquisition device (LAD) that all new-born endowed with. Habermas states that “linguistic competence for Chomsky means the mastery of an abstract systems of rules based on an innate language apparatus” (360). Linguistic competence has been dealt with many similarities among linguists whether with reference to its definition or its coverage. Canale and Swain associate grammatical competence with the following knowledge and skills: “knowledge of lexical items and rules of morphology, syntax, sentence-grammar semantic, and phonology” (29). Similarily, Bachman and Palmer used the term knowledge instead of competence. Their grammatical knowledge includes, knowledge of vocabulary, syntax, phonology, and graphology. Also, Celce-Murcia talks about four basic elements relating to linguistic competence. These elements are phonology, lexeme, morphology and syntax. Along with the previous classifications, the CEFR shapes linguistic competence from the following categories, “lexical, phonological, syntactical knowledge and skills and other dimensions of language as system” (Council of Europe 31). The last theoretical model discussed previously which coined by Usó-juan and Martínez-flor includes three elements in linguistic competence (phonology, grammar and vocabulary). Linguistic competence is the basic component of communicative competence that all theories and models of communicative competence include. It concerns with the learner’s repertoire of the underlying system of the language whether in first language as Chomsky and Hymes’ theories focus on or knowledge in the second or the target language. Generally speaking, linguistic or grammatical competence includes rules of morphemes, phonology, syntax, vocabulary and semantic. 2.4.1.1 Graphology: including knowledge of the language letters. It associates with mastering the writing system of the language. Celce-Murcia, Dornyei, and Thurrell talk about: 1)
Letters (if writing system is alphabetic)
2)
Phoneme-grapheme correspondences
3)
Rules of spelling
4)
Conventions for mechanics and punctuation (18).
Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
61
2.4.1.2 Phonology: is the capability of getting knowledge in the pronunciation of the language. Celce-Murcia, Dornyei, and Thurrell divide knowledge in phonology into: Segmentals includes: vowels, consonants, syllable types, sandhi variation (changes and reductions between adjacent sounds in the stream of speech) Suprasegmentals consists of: prominence, stress, intonation, rhythm (18). 2.4.1.3 Morphology: associates with the form of words and the affixes that attach words to form a new lexicon. Celce-Murcia, Dornyei, and Thurrell talk about: 1)
Inflections (e.g., agreement and concord)
2)
Derivational processes (productive ones)
3)
Compounding, affixation, conversion/incorporation, (18).
2.4.1.4 Syntax: focuses on the rules of sentences formations. 1)
Constituent/phrase structure
2)
Word order (canonical and marked)
3)
Sentence types statements, negatives, questions, imperatives, exclamations
4)
Special constructions existentials (there +Be...) clefts (It’s X that f who...; What + sub. + verb + BE) question tags, etc.
5)
Modifiers/intensifiers quantifiers, comparing and equating
6)
Coordination (and, or, etc.) and correlation (both X and Y; either X or Y)
7)
Subordination (e.g., adverbial clauses, conditionals)
8)
Embedding noun clauses, relative clauses (e.g., restrictive and non-restrictive) reported speech (18).
2.4.2 Sociolinguistic Competence To acknowledge that the term sociolinguistic competence has been firstly added by Dell Hymes to the theory of competence as an expansion to Chomsky’s linguistic competence. Hymes demonstrates the limitation of linguistic competence in
Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
62
comprehending and producing utterances. He views the importance of the rule of use in any interaction. Sociolinguistic competence can be defined as the repertoire of language users in cultures, norms, and traditions of any particular speech community. Sociolinguistic competence has been defined and classified with ambiguous terminologies. Linguists not only differ in their definitions but also have suggested different subcategories regarding to sociolinguistic competence. Bachman defines sociolinguistic competence as “the sensitivity to, or control of the conventions of language use that determined by the features of the specific language use context; it enables us to perform language functions in ways that are appropriate to the context” (94). Sociocultural competence, (sociolinguistic competence), focuses on the social context where language is used, including role of participants, information they share, and the function of interaction. In multicultural settings, participants should take into account not only the cultural meaning of the language itself but also the convention of language use, i.e., appropriateness of content, nonverbal language, and tone. Cultural sensitivity is also of great importance in this competency. Savignon asserts that “[s]ocio-cultural competence includes a willingness to engage in the active negotiation of meaning along with a willingness to suspend judgment and take into consideration the possibility of cultural differences in conventions of use” (Savignon, “Linguistic Theory and Classroom Practice” 10). To observe what the sub-categories of sociolinguistic competence are, the researcher briefly discusses how the five theoretical models use the terminology, next explains the components of sociolinguistic competence. Sociolinguistic competence is used by Canale and swain; Bachman; Bachman and Palmer; Celce-Murcia, Dornyei, and Thurrell; Council of Europe; and Usó-Juan and Martínez-Flor to refer for the language user’s capability in using the rules of language use (see Widdowson, Teaching Language). However, little modification for the term has been proposed by Celce-Murcia to become socio-cultural competence. To summarize, a high degree of agreement is found amongst the modelers with reference to the definition. Let’s now discuss what the sub-components of sociolinguistic competence are. To do so, we have to explore the five frameworks discussed in the previous sections Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
63
and take the common sub-components used in all the frameworks. Beginning with Canale and Swain who associate sociolinguistic competence to include both rules of use (cf. usage suggested by Widdowson) and rule of discourse. Later on, in the Canale’s (updated model), sociolinguistic competence just covers the rules of language use. On the contrary, Bachman and Palmer differ a little bit in the terminology than Canale and Swain’s. They refine it as sociolinguistic knowledge, under the main heading pragmatic competence. It includes the “use of dialects or varieties, registers, natural or idiomatic expressions, cultural references and figures of speech” (70). Differently from Bachman and Palmer, who subdivide pragmatic knowledge into sociolinguistic knowledge and functional knowledge (illocutionary competence), Celce-Murica redefines sociolinguistic competence as socio-cultural competence. It refers to both the pragmatic knowledge of the language users as well as to the varieties of language. She includes three elements relating to socio-cultural competence: social contextual factors, stylistic appropriateness, and Cultural factors. Whereas the CEFR includes the sociocultural rules and their interaction according to the rules of conventions to a particular social context (Council of Europe 13). All the previous discussed models have common similarities, however, the last framework of Usó-juan and Martínez-flor do not clearly spot out this competency. They share sociolinguistic competence between pragmatic and intercultural competencies. To sum up, one can say that such dichotomy in the distinction of the term suggests the integration and interrelation that occur among the elements of communicative competence. Pragmatic competence is symbolized in Canale and Swain model as sociolinguistic competence, which includes both appropriateness of form and appropriateness of meaning (Yuan). According to Kasper and Rover, “Pragmatic competence is the ability to act and interact by means of language” (qtd. in, Yuan 67). Knowing how to use the rule of a language in different sociolinguistic contexts refers to sociolinguistic competence. It depends upon various contextual factors such as the status of the participants and the purpose of the interaction. It includes both appropriate in meaning and form (Ellis 105). For more clarity, the researcher talks about pragmatic competence separately from sociolinguistic competence. Pragmatic competence is the capability of a language user to comprehend the intended meaning of interlocutors and response appropriately. Some of the theoretical Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
64
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
frameworks discussed previously embedded pragmatic competence whether in sociolinguistic competence as Canale and Swain and Canale while other frameworks as Bachman; Bachman and Palmer; Celce-Murcia, Dornyei, and Thurrell CelceMurcia; Council of Europe, and Usó-Juan and Martínez-Flor give
pragmatic
competence a main heading in their models. However, the overlapping of communicative competence components with themselves, the classification of sub-components are just for the aim to simplify them for study. With reference to pragmatic competence, Bachman, and Bachman and Palmer
divide
pragmatic
sociolinguistic competence.
competence
into
illocutionary
competence
and
Celce-Murcia, Dornyei, and Thurrell use the term
actional competence which they thought to stand for “interlanguage pragmatics”. Though they subdivide actional competence into knowledge of language functions and knowledge of speech acts set (20). Celce-Murcia broadens the term of the previous model to become interactional competence. Celce-Murcia latter on, subdivide interactional competence into actional competence used by (Celce-Murcia, Dornyei, and Thurrell); conversational competence (which focuses on how to open and close a conversation) and nonverbal/ paralinguistic competence (48-49). Differently, the CEFR has a different classification of pragmatic competence than in the previous theoretical framework (as in Bachman; Bachman and Palmer). CEFR in the Council of Europe divides pragmatic competence into discourse competence, functional competence and design competence (123). Finally, the last theoretical model discussed in the previous section proposed by Usó-Juan and Martínez-Flor subdivides pragmatic competence similarly to Bachman’s into illocutionary competence and sociolinguistic competence. The first part of pragmatic competence is what Bachman calls illocutionary competence or what Bachman and Palmer name as functional knowledge. The researcher subdivides pragmatic competence according to Bachman and Palmer into: Knowledge of ideational functions Knowledge of manipulative functions Knowledge of instrumental functions Knowledge of imaginative functions.
Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
65
Sociolinguistic competence concerns with the knowledge and skills needed in social dimension of language context. The subcomponents which are related to sociolinguistic competence are as follows: 2.4.2.1 Rule of Politeness Rule of politeness or politeness conventions has been considered as an aspect of sociolinguistic competence. The CEFR divides politeness into four categories: positive politeness is the first element which deals with showing our interest, affections, admiration, gratitude as well as offering gifts or hospitability. The second element is negative politeness which concerns with avoiding face-threading, expressing regret and apology. The third type involves with using “please” and finally, impoliteness which combines being frank or dislike something (Council of Europe 119). 2.4.2.2 Knowledge of Genre Genre includes any discursive production which has its own structures according to the situations. Examples of genre are professional letter, novel, memo, advertisement, meeting, broadcasting, etc. 2.4.2.3 Sensitivity to Difference in Dialects or Variety This subcomponent of sociolinguistic competence (knowledge) is similar to the CEFR dialect and accent. It involves knowledge of different dialects within the same language. To explain what sensitivity to different dialects or variety means, Bachman demonstrates that “Black” American regional dialect of English would not be appropriate where standard American English is used. On the other hand, the standard American English would not be appropriate to be used by the same person in informal conversation with peers in the same region (95). 2.4.2.4 Sensitivity to Difference in Registers Registers are defined by Saville-Troike as “verities of a language that are used in particular situation” (193). Depending on the definition, it seems that every discourse has different registers. Furthermore, the difference in registers may occur as a result of what Halliday et al. call “field of discourse”, “mode of discourse”, and “style of discourse” (qtd. in, Bachman 95). The difference of registers that occurs as a result of the field of discourse refers to in which social context a discourse is used, whether in lectures, discussions, etc. Whereas the mode of discourse includes difference in register as a result of whether the discourse is being written or spoken. Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
66
Finally, style of discourse concerns with the relationships between the participants (Bachman 95). The style of discourse includes five elements which concern with the type of style we use with our interlocutors. The Council of Europe exemplifies the five styles of discourse as:
frozen, e.g. Pray silence for His Worship the Mayor!
formal, e.g. May we now come to order, please.
neutral, e.g. Shall we begin?
informal, e.g. Right. What about making a start?
familiar, e.g. O.K. Let’s get going.
intimate, e.g. Ready dear? (120).
2.4.2.5 Sensitivity to Naturalness Knowledge of sociolinguistics involves the capability of language users to be aware of comprehending utterances which are not only linguistically correct but also naturally unsuitable. Bachman explains that being naturally sensitive requires to interpret utterances which are not naturally appropriate. He gives example of such unnaturalness as in “I wish you wouldn't do that”, instead of being natural as in “I would feel better by your not doing that” (97). Both examples are linguistically correct, but the first is not natural according to the English culture. 2.4.2.6 Ability to Interrupt Cultural References and Figures of Speech Being sociolingistically competent requires the language users to have repertoire of the referential and figurative meaning of the target language culture. Referential meaning according to Bachman requires “knowledge of the extended meanings given by a specific culture to particular events, places, institutions, or people is required whenever these meanings are referred to in language use” (97). To understand the above quotation clearly, Bachman gives the following example: A: I hear John didn’t do too well on his final exam. B: Yeah, it turned out to be his Waterloo. One could not understand the second half of the above example unless one knows what the word “Waterloo” connotes. It signifies a final horrible defeat with bad consequences (Bachman 97). Similarly, for the language user to be sociolingistically competent involves knowledge of the figurative meaning (cf. referential meaning) including similes, hyperbole, metaphor, etc. (Bachman). Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
67
2.4.3 Discourse Competence Discourse competence is the capability of a language user to produce coherent and cohesive texts or utterances. Discourse competence requires communication ability above the sentence level. This competency has been mentioned as an essential component in the theoretical frameworks discussed in the previous section except in the first model of Canale and Swain and the CEFR. However, the refinement that Canale adds to the model, he talks about coherence and cohesion as the elements of discourse competence. These elements of coherence and cohesion are mentioned in the CEFR under the pragmatic competence. This grouping of coherence and cohesion under different components of communicative competence reflects the interactions between the components of communicative competence. Bachman uses the subtitle textual competence whereas Bachman and Palmer coin the term knowledge instead of competence to become textual knowledge. It comprises three levels of knowledge in cohesion, rhetorical, and conversational organization. While Celce-Murica includes four subcategories of discourse competence as Cohesion, Deixis, Coherence and Generic structure. Usó-Juan and Martínez-Flor relate discourse competence to both the producation and comprhention of utterances both cohesively and coherently. All linguists agree that discourse competence covers the capability of language users in comprehending and producing texts or utterances both coherently and cohesively (cf. linguistic competence). Cravotta associates effective communication with the ability of language users to understand and share knowledge with others (34). Accordingly, comprehending and producing larger units of language both cohesively and coherently are the goals of language users. Discourse competence according to Savignon
focuses on “the
interconnectedness of a series of utterances or written words or phrases to form a text, meaningful whole”. Savignon deals with the following discursive features which are important and essential to communicative competence: bottom-up process, (identification of isolated sounds or words which contribute to the interpretation of the overall meaning of the text); top-down processing, (involves understanding of the theme or purpose of the text, which in turn helps in the interpretation of isolated sounds or words); text coherence (the relation of all sentences or utterances in a text to a single global proposition); finally, text cohesion, (local connections or structural links between individual sentences provide cohesion), (“Linguistic Theory and Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
68
Classroom Practice” 9). The common agreement about discourse competence subcategories will be listed below with definitions and exemplifications. 2.4.3.1 Cohesion Cohesion associates with how a written paragraph or spoken utterance being structurally organized. In order to achieve such organization, Canale talks about the following cohesive devices: pronouns, synonyms, ellipsis, conjunctions, parallel structures (9). Significantly, cohesion associates with what Celce-Murcia, Dornyei, and Thurrell call bottom-up categories which are responsible for creating organized texts or utterances. These cohesive elements are: 2.4.3.1.1 Reference: (anaphora, cataphora) Anaphor is the pronoun which is usually mentioned after antecedent. The Centre for Canadian Language Benchmarks explains that “John came in yesterday. I smiled at him”. (John = antecedent, him = anaphor). Cataphor is a pronoun which is used to introduce another antecedent, for example, “it slowly emerged from behind the hill. A beautiful city was lying in front of us in a peaceful valley”. (it = cataphora, a beautiful city = antecedent) (63). Thus, competency in cohesion requires knowledge in using both anaphora and cataphora appropriately whether in wiring or in speaking. 2.4.3.1.2 Substitution/ellipsis Substitution is a discursive feature by which people avoid redundant repetition. In fact, people use certain discursive markers to substitute some words mention previously, for instance: A: the oil prices will about to decrease. B: I hope so. (Hope so, substitute the first sentence). Similarly ellipsis according to Centre for Canadian Language Benchmarks is used to avoid unnecessary repetition as the omission of some words will be understood depending on the words given previously. E.g., A: “where are you going? B: to town”. So, there is no need say, I am going to town (63). 2.4.3.1.3 Conjunctions Conjunctions are words (e.g., and, but, however) used to connect proposition with other cohesive devices (Celce-Murcia, Dornyei, and Thurrell). These
Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
69
conjunctions are coordinate conjunctions (e.g., and, but, or), subordinate conjunctions (e.g., although, despite, etc.) and adverbial conjunctions (e.g., however, nevertheless) which link simple, compound and complex sentences. 2.4.3.1.4 Lexical Chains/ Parallel Structures Lexical chains are discursive devices which relate to derivational morphology and semantics. Whereas parallel structures are used to make text or utterance easier for both listener or reader to process a structure like “I like swimming and hiking” (Celce-Murcia, Dornyei, and Thurrell 14-15). 2.4.3.2 Coherence It concerns with how a written paragraph or a spoken utterance is being semantically linked. To produce or comprehend a coherent discourse, Celce-Murcia, Dornyei, and Thurrell talk about the following cohesive devices:
Organized expression and interpretation of content and purpose (content schemata)
Thematization and staging (theme-rheme development)
Management of old and new information
Propositional structures and their organizational sequences temporal, spatial, cause-effect, condition-result, etc.
Temporal continuity/shift (sequence of tenses) (14).
2.4.3.3 Conversational Structure The third subcomponent of discourse competence, is the capability to appropriately participate in any conversation and how well one starts or closes the talk. Celce-Murcia, Dornyei, and Thurrell examine the following step of participating in any oral conversation in different genres:
How to perform openings & reopenings
Topic establishment & change
How to hold & relinquish the floor
How to interrupt
Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
How to collaborate & back channel
How to do preclosings and closings
Adjacency pairs (related to actional competence) first and second
70
pair parts (knowing preferred and dispreferred responses) (14). 2.4.3.4 Deixis Deixis is defined as a discursive reference used to link text with its situational context (Citizenship and Immigration Canada 64). Deixis are pronouns which refer for:
Personal reference (I, he, they, we, etc.)
Spatial reference (this, that, there, here, etc.)
Temporal reference (now, then, before, after, etc.)
Textual reference (in the chart below, in the following picture, in the next page, etc.) (Celce-Murcia, Dornyei, and Thurrell 14).
2.4.4 Strategic Competence Strategic competence is the ability of language users to keep themselves up with any problem emerges whenever one encounters any shortage of knowledge in any conversation. Therefore, being competent in communicative strategies requires keeping the communication stream going on. To summarize the embedding of strategic competence in the theoretical frameworks discussed in the previous section, Canale and Swain divide strategic competence into two sub-categories, one relates to the grammatical competence and the other associates with sociolinguistic competence. Similarly, Bachman talks about three elements of strategic competence which associate with language knowledge for achieving the communication goal in the form of planning, assessment and execution (107). Furthermore, Celce-Murcia talks about three kinds of strategic competence: (a) Cognitive Strategies; (b) Meta-cognitive Strategies, and (c) Memory-related Strategies. Finally, Usó-Juan and Martínez-Flor relate strategic competence to both knowledge of learning and communication strategies (“Teaching Learners” 161).
Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
71
2.4.4.1 Types of Communicative Strategies According to Varadi, communicative strategies is “a conscious attempt to communicate the learner’s thought when the interlanguage structures are inadequate to convey that thought” (qtd. in, Oweis 246). Though scholars on this field do not reach to a conscience definition or classification of communicative strategies, some relate such strategies to overcoming the breakdown in any conversation that emerges as a result of insufficient knowledge of the speakers (Canale and Swain). Others focus on the technique that the speaker systematically uses when encountering problems (Corder). Enhancing efficiencies in conversation are taken by Canale as the basis of communicative strategies. Dornyei classified communicative strategies as follow: 2.4.4.2 Avoidance or Reduction Strategies Avoidance or Reduction strategies are those strategies which involve the speaker to alter, reduce, or even abandon the message intended (Dornyei 75). Avoidance or Reduction Strategies can be subdivided into: 1-Message abandonment: leaving a message unfinished because of language difficulties. 2-Topic avoidance: avoiding topic areas which pose language difficulties (Dornyei 75). 2.4.4.3 Achievement or Compensatory Strategies Strategies which offer the speaker a new plan to carry out the intended goal of the basic communication by manipulating the available language and compensating the speaker linguistic deficiency are usually referred to as achievement or compensatory strategies (Dornyei). Achievement or Compensatory strategies can be subdivided into: A-Circumlocution: describing or exemplifying the target object or action (e.g. the thing you open bottles with for corkscrew). B-Approximation: using an alternative term which expresses the meaning of the target lexical item as closely as possible (e.g., ship for sail boat(. C-Use of all-purpose words: extending a general, empty lexical item to contexts where specific words are lacking (e.g., the over use of thing, Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
72
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
stuff, make, do, as well as using words like thingie, what-do-you-callit(. D-Word-coinage: creating a nonexistent L2 word based on a supposed rule (e.g., vegtarianist for vegetarian). E-Use of nonlinguistic means: mime, gesture, facial expression, or sound imitation. F-Literal translation: translating literally a lexical item, an idiom, a compound word or structure from L1 to L2 G-Foreignizing: using an L1 word by adjusting it to L2 phonologically (i.e., with an L2 pronunciation) and/or morphologically (e.g., adding to it an L2 suffix). H-Code switching: using an L1 word with L1 pronunciation or an L3 word with L3 pronunciation in L2. [e.g. I am seven Ta'ash. Ta'ash is an Arabic word which means Teen.] This example is mine. I-Appeal for help: turning to the conversation partner for help either directly (e.g., What do you call) (Dornyei 75). 2.4.4.4 Stalling or Time-gaining Strategies Stalling or Time-gaining Strategies are those strategies which do not aim to repair any breakdown nor do they compensate any linguistic deficiency. Instead, those strategies aim to gain time for keeping the openness of communication channel at time of difficulties (Dornyei). These strategies are suggested by the Nijmegen university group as: 1) Conceptual strategies: manipulating the target concept to make it expressible through available linguistic resources. They include: (a) Analytic strategies: specifying characteristic features of the concept (e.g., circumlocution). (b) Holistic strategies: using a different concept which shares characteristics with the target item (e.g., approximation). 2)
Linguistic/code
strategies:
manipulating
knowledge. They include: Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
the
speaker’s
linguistic
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
73
(a) Morphological creativity: creating a new word by applying L2 morphological rules to an L2 word (e.g., grammatical word coinage). (b) Transfer from another language (Dornyei 58).
2.5 Previous Studies on Communicative Competence Studies on communicative competence have been conducting in different social settings all over the globe. Some studies are theoretically oriented for understanding the term and determining its coverage. Other studies practically investigate the importance of enhancing students’ communicative competence in the teaching or learning environment. Furthermore, the importance of enhancing students as well as teachers’ intercultural communicative competence is also focused on. Communicative competence as it has been argued of to be the aim of any teaching or learning process. Researchers interested in the field try to understand the possibilities of providing some theoretical or practical models or even conducting quantitative or qualitative studies for enhancing students’ CC. It could clearly be noticed, that such studies can be classified into: 2.5.1 Pedagogical Focus for Developing Students’ Communicative Competence Significantly, the field of language teaching has strongly rejected the traditional approaches which dominate the learning process to be teachers-centralized and passively students oriented. With the emerge of the communicative approach which centralizes the learners and gives them genuine roles in the classroom activities, several studies have been conducted in different settings about its implication. So far, a study conducted by Dekdouk in the Algerian context for “investigating the importance of oral presentation in developing students’ CC at college level”. The samples of the research were second year students in Ouargla University, Algeria, and their teacher. The tool for collecting data from the students was the questionnaire, and interview was used by the researcher to elicit data from the teacher. The results of the study showed that both students and their teacher are aware of the importance of oral presentation in developing students’ communicative competence in term of linguistic, sociolinguist, discourse, strategic competences and fluency. Some limitations of Dekkouk’s study can be summarized in the instrument as well as in the sample. In interview, the participants may tell differently than s/he actually does in the classroom. It might be better if the observation has been used. Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
74
Secondly, the study just assigned one teacher. It might be more reliable if more teachers have been interviewed. Students’ communicative competence can be developed whenever they got chances to participate in classroom activities. Such activities must be designed to suit students’ interests as well as their communicative needs for example reflecting others’ social life, norms, and convictions. Bringing authentic materials to classroom greatly motivates students to take part in any task or activity. Gilmore investigated the importance of using authentic material in the Japanese setting for enhancing students’ CC. In the study, a group of students at Kansai Gaidai University was taught using authentic materials for ten months while their peers were taught using text books. Both groups were tested using interview in (listening, pronunciations, C-test, grammar, and vocabulary), and their answers were recorded. The results showed that the first group (which was taught using experimental program) got better knowledge in discourse than their peers who were taught using control instructions. Furthermore, the task based authentic materials had highly met their communicative need. Another study explored the effect of developing students’ CC by using group work. Xue conducted a study for fourteen Chinese students studying the master or doctorate degrees in the USA. The sample for the study spent at least one year in USA. The data were collected by using interview. The results showed that students who previously rejected the group work, they finally accepted it. Interestingly, the study pointed out that group work had developed students’ linguistic competence, sociolinguistic competence, discourse competence as well as strategic competence. On comments about Xue’s findings, the researcher views that there is no doubt in the importance of group work in enhancing students’ CC, however, the development of the abovementioned competencies seems to be happened not only as a result of group work, but also as the social setting where the sample lived in, as well as the genuine use of language being indulged with as a result of the interpersonal need for the sample to express themselves in daily life with native speakers. Such real interaction with native speakers allows the foreign students to have knowledge about the culture of the English native speakers. The raising of communicative competence theories and their relationship to pedagogies are examined by Dlekan. Dlekan’s study also aimed to investigate the relationship between culture and language teaching in the Syrian context. The study Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
75
revealed that however, communicative competence being accepted to be the aim of language teaching, little attentions were paid to the teaching of culture communicatively. Furthermore, the study reported that teaching culture should be embedding in the teaching of foreign language curricula and instructions. The importance of culture teaching as well as the necessary refection of teachers’ awareness about ICC will be discussed below. 2.5.2 Studies Relating to the Importance of Intercultural Communicative Competence (ICC) Culture is the greater savior of language as the latter reflects the former. Nowadays with the development in the theoretical and practical knowledge in second/foreign language acquisition and teaching, several studies focus on the importance of embedding culture whether in curricula designing or in classroom instructions. In many social contexts, researchers pay attentions to intercultural communicative competence (ICC) in the learning and teaching settings. Their focuses include the awareness of teachers about the foreign language culture. In the Arabic setting, Al-Mawoda investigated the Bahraini secondary school teachers’ perceptions about culture as well as intercultural communicative competence. The samples of her study were 17 English language senior teachers and 197 English language teachers. The instruments for collecting the data were semi-structural interview for the first group and questionnaire for the second. The study showed that the majority of the samples were unsure about how to teach intercultural communicative competence appropriately and in up to date methods. She relates the findings to the lack of pre training courses as well as the unavailability of courses aiming for raising the importance of culture in language teaching classrooms in the Kingdom of Bahrain. Similarly, another study for exploring the importance of ICC in language teaching is conducted by Zhou at the Chinese setting. The study aimed to check out the Chinese university teachers’ perceptions about the role of ICC in language teaching as well as its acquisition by Students. The data were quantitatively collected by using survey of 201 Chinese university teachers. The result showed that most teachers were aware of the importance of teaching ICC, however, they did not list ICC as an important elements of their teachings. This study corresponded with the previous study conducted in the Bahraini setting. They showed that teachers were
Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
76
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
aware of the importance of teaching ICC, though they did not know how to do that. Furthermore, whenever culture being taught, it is teacher oriented.
2.5.3 Communicative Competence and Language Skills Some studies focus on the integration of CC components with the four language skills. An example is a study conducted by Bayraktar to investigate the integration
of
linguistic
competence,
sociolinguistic
competence,
strategic
competence and discourse competence in the construction of the reading skill for students attending foreign language education at Middle East Technical University. Data were collected by using reading comprehension quizzes for the sample. The study concluded that students face difficulties in reading comprehension with regard to the CC elements. The difficulty rates from discourse competence, followed by sociolinguistic competence, then strategic competence and finally linguistic competence.
2.5.4 Communicative Competence and Input Notwithstanding, communicative competence can be developed as a result of comprehensive inputs (see Krashen). Fraser observed the relation between classroom input and communicative competence. He compared two course books (international and traditional) in the Japanese setting. Fraser used a mixed method approach for collecting the data including questionnaire, interview and observation. The findings of the study reflected the great enhancement of students’ communicative competence that appeared in the international course book as well as the higher score they got in the proficiency test in addition to the motivation they received by comparison with the other group taught by the traditional course book. Motivation which plays a higher role in the development of students’ CC will be discussed in the following study.
2.5.5 Communicative Competence and Motivation So far, the researcher discussed some studies that focused on the development of CC conducted in several social settings as well as the topic enriched from different perspectives. However, the importance of the previous studies’ findings to the present study in particular and for the field in general, the real development of students’ CC has to take into account students’ motivation. High motivated students will therefore participate and take roles in classroom activities and tasks. With reference to
Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
77
motivation, Alnatheer conducted a study on the influence of motivation and motivation strategies on Saudi students’ CC. The sample of the study included two groups of Saudi students. The first group was Saudi students studying in Australia and the second was Saudi students graduated from secondary school and enrolled in Saudi institutes of English. Data were collected using interview for 16 students from both groups and questionnaire for 279 students. The findings showed that the first group (Saudi students studying in Australia) reported higher level than the second group in communicative competence. The results also indicated that motivation enhances students’ for the two groups. Finally the results revealed that teaching motivation strategies enhance students’ motivation not their CC. In comments about Alnatheer’s findings, it is naturally for the first group to report higher levels on CC than the second because they are living in the native English context. So, the higher score that the first group got is due to the integration of the group with the native speakers. If motivation is the cause, both groups must score the same.
2.5.6 Assessing Students’ Communicative Competence Assessing communicative competence requires how fluently a speaker is in all the four components of communicative competence in relation to the four language skills. It is not an easy task to measure the ability of students in the four mentioned elements. Very limited empirical studies have been conducted on this area of research. Lasala performed a study to assess the CC of secondary senior students in Mandaue city. The sample of the study was 12 secondary school students chosen from all part of the city. Both quantitative and qualitative approaches were used in the study. Data were collected using interview with a native speaker for the sample as well as test. The interview was recorded, transcribed and handed to three respectable raters. The results showed that students’ CC in oral and writing skills were acceptable. With reference to grammatical competence, discourse competence, sociolinguistic competence and strategic competence in oral and written skills, students’ rates were as fellow (3.10; 2.91); (3.10; 2.86); (3.92; 3.01); (3.12; 2.73) respectively. In conclusion, the study showed that students’ speaking and writing skills are acceptable and rated averagely as (3.15; 284) respectively while their communicative competence and sociolinguistic competence are still developing. Note, (5: 1) is the highest and lowest level used in the rating.
Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
78
Studies concerned with communicative competence are various in the field. However, no empirical studies to my knowledge focus on investigating teachers’ implication of the components of communicative competence in their classroom teaching, nor are there any empirical studies associated with teachers’ understanding of the elements of communicative competence that should be taught to help students develop their communicative competence. Such crucial need, lead the researcher to conduct the present research.
2.6 Teaching Communicative Competence As many applied linguists confirm that teaching a second or foreign language is for the purpose of using that language in communication. Very few studies show the possibilities of teaching communicative competence. However, such studies focus whether on one component of communicative competence or integrate the teaching of competence with tasks and activities (Mustadi), or paying attention for teaching competencies within the four language skills (Usó-Juan and Martínez-Flor, “Teaching Intercultural”). Teaching communicative competence is basically associated with the communicative approach to language teaching (e.g., Canale and Swain; Canale; Celce-Murcia; Usó-juan and Martínez-flor, etc.). Widdowson questions the involvement needed for teaching language for communication. Communication for Widdowson is a function of discourse process. He states that, “unless a discourse is enacted by the simple expedient of expressing individual notions and functions. It is done by the extension of utterance by negotiation. This negotiations carried out by means of two kinds of devices in complementary relationship” (236). Widdowson refers to these devices with routines and procedures. Widdowson considers procedures as “a tactical moves in discourse”; whereas routines as “strategic” or “predictability patterns of language use” which vary in their predictability. Consequently, a correlation is relatively emerged between routines and procedures as the improvement of procedures certainty requires the declining of routines predictability, that is what meant by the “complementary relationship” that Widdowson describes (Widdowson, Explorations 242). It is acknowledgeable that sometimes the learners know about the linguistic system of the target language, however, they could not apply their repertoire of the
Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
79
bottom-up knowledge in the top-down processing. Without any development to employ what one knows in what he wants to know, that knowledge is worthless. Paulston acknowledges two basic classes of communicative interaction activities depending on the teaching point. The first set is, (exercises in communicative performance) which focuses on getting meaning across or to communicate referential meaning in the target language. On the other hand, if the teaching point is getting meaning across in a socially acceptable way. These exercises usually contain culturally relevant information, and socially interactional rules. The second type is meant for the development of communicative competence (51). Demo talks about the monumental tasks that learners encounter for acquiring second language competence. Because learners not only acquire vocabulary, syntactic patterns, and phonology, nevertheless, they are in need to acquire discourse, sociolinguistic, strategic and interactional competencies. For achieving this competency, learners need opportunities to investigate language at the highest level. Otherwise, without the knowledge of discourse and sociocultural patterns of the target language, second language learners may depend on strategies and expectations acquired as patterns of their first language development which may lead to in inappropriate second language setting and may lead to communicative difficulties or misunderstanding. Demo concludes that “teachers can use discourse analysis not only as a research method for investigating their own teaching practices but also as a tool for studying interactions agony language learners. Learners can benefit from using discourse analysis to explore what language is and how it is used to achieve communicative goals in different contexts” (4). Lee proposes an alternative consideration of communicative competence not in its relation to actions and activities but its importance being in what he says, “the usefulness of communicative competence not in its adequacy as a conceptual tool but in its relevance to the action and activities as the members experiences them” (369). Erton asserts that for developing the language learner, a variety of tasks which put learners in practice could be chosen. Open observation might help learners to observe a particular pragmatic features whether in spoken or written sources. Such task gives learners the opportunity to experience different contexts and discourse factors in the target language. On the contrary, sociopragmatic and pragmalinguistic
Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
80
aspects of the target language could be presented to the learners through studying contexts where language functions are used (67). On the contrary, some linguists wonder about the possibility of teaching communicative competence as they consider it as an outcome from the learning and teaching process. Dekdouk acknowledges the powerfulness of communicative competence in both language teaching and many areas of inquiry. Communicative competence was viewed to be learned not taught as it is a kind of knowledge directed to be acquired, develop and or to be bereaved of. So it is necessarily for the teachers to focus on learners’ communicative needs and provide models which can tackle learners’ needs and enhance their competence (26). Other linguists relate the mastering of communicative competence to the learners themselves. As they know what areas they need to work on, practice and develop. Widdowson concludes that: Competence …… is not something that is directly taught but something that learners fashion for themselves by recognizing the need for conventional controls over their creative efforts in the interest of better communication. In this way, competence comes as a corollary to effective communicative use. And correctness is what the learner moves towards, not what he begins with; something he achieves and not something that is thrust upon him (Explorations 268-269). In order to develop learners sociopragmatic competence, teachers might concentrate on giving learners the tools they need to comprehend behavior which they may come to and also learners need to be aware of reasons that affect their communications (Gilmore 39). To shift from the above general discussions, there will be a demonstration for each element of communicative competence. The researcher tries to give some suggestions about how teachers may teach such elements of communicative competence.
2.6.1 Linguistic Competence Linguistic competence is the core knowledge that a learner begins to work on during the learning process. Generally speaking, in the field of applied linguistics,
Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
81
traditional approaches and teaching methodologies focus on linguistic competence. Chomsky, the father of modern linguistics, talked a lot in his writings about this competency. So far, teaching linguistic competence lies in teaching phonology, syntax, or the underlying system of the language. As it has been listed in the previous section, the focus of teaching linguistic competence should cover the areas the students want to develop to become linguistically competent. Accordingly, the teaching of linguistic competence should serve for the overall development of students’ communicative competence. Such goals according to Paulston are the basic for determining the techniques and procedures of teaching. So far, the teaching of linguistic competence depends on the needs of learners. Therefore, the teaching points can be subcategorized to focus on, “specific sounds, grammar patterns and vocabulary items in the traditional skills of listening, speaking, reading, and writingˮ (50). Significantly different from Paulson on the importance of teaching specific sound, Nikbakht asserts that teaching pronunciation must be viewed more than teaching isolated sounds or words, so far he calls teachers to incorporate pronunciation with their oral skill and focus on both segmental and supar-segmental features (169). However, linguistic competence as it has been classified previously, teachers have to focus on all its subcategories including grammar, lexicon, morphology, phonology and graphology. The first element listed here is grammar which deals with the building of sentences structures. Grammar according to Celce-Murcia, Dornyei, and Thurrell includes constituent (phrase structure), words order (canonical or marked), sentence type (affirmative, negative, question, imperative, exclamation); special construction (e.g., existential, "there + be .."; cleft," it is John who wins"; question tag, "she dances beautifully, doesn't she?); modifiers; coordination (and, or, but); subordination (adverbial close, conditional) and embedding (relative close, reported speech), (18). However the elements have been listed over there, latter on, the researcher suggests techniques for teaching them. In addition to the elements of grammar that teachers have to focus on during the teaching process, they have to train their students on the productivity and receptivity of vocabulary. The term lexicon according to Celce-Murcia, Dornyei, and Thurrell includes four sub elements: words (contents and functional); routine (associates with fix expression, e.g., "of course, all of sudden", and chunks like "how Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
82
do you do?"; collocations, which combines: (verb-object, e.g., "pay a visit", adverb + adjective, e.g., "mutually intelligible"; adjective + noun, e.g., "tall building"); and finally idioms (words with fixed meaning, e.g., it rains cat and dog), (18). Whenever teachers are likely to help their students in mastering lexicon of English, they have to take into their considerations the four elements discussed above when they are teaching their students in secondary schools. Grammar and lexicon are discussed above as two main subcomponents of linguistic competence, a third component that combines with the previous two elements discussed is morphology. Morphology which deals with the formations of words, according to Celce-Murcia, Dornyei, and Thurrell includes: part of speech (noun, verb, adjective, adverb, etc.) inflections (agreement, concord) derivational process (compounding, e.g., taxi-driver; affixation, e.g., teach + er, conversion/ incorporation) (18). These elements of morphology have to be included in classroom teaching. The last element of linguistic competence that students need to be trained on is phonology. It is one of the basic elements that deals with the pronunciation of the language sounds, words, and sentences. Good pronunciation reflects the good education that one receives. There are sub-elements categorized under the term phonology. These elements according to Celce-Murcia, Dornyei, and Thurrell are of two kinds: segmental and suprasegmental. The first category deals with the “vowels, consonants, syllable types, sandhi variation (changes and reductions between adjacent sounds in the stream of speech)” and the second category deals with “prominence, stress, intonation, rhythm” (18). These categories need to be worked on to enhance students’ pronunciation. For better enhancing students’ linguistic competence, teachers should work on the four elements of linguistic competence. The negligence of any element of linguistic components leads to the incompetency of learners in linguistics. To conclude, teachers can develop their students’ pronunciation in English language by many interesting and motivating ways. One way is that teachers can download native speakers videos (which are used for the teaching of English vowels or consonant sounds) and share them with their students. Furthermore, if students downloaded these materials, they would practice these sounds as many times as they need. In other words, students should be exposed to videos dealing with the sound Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
83
system of English prepared by native speakers of English as to compensate for the lack of the real exposure to the target language in real life situations. In sum, language teachers should focus on teaching elements of language system in communicative environment. Grammar should be taught in context, and it is better for learners to focus on using the grammatical rules in social setting for communicating with competent speakers of English rather than focusing on accuracy. Teachers should bring native speaker’s scripts, videos whenever they are training speech sounds, rhythms, stress pattern, or intonation. It is a nice idea for the teachers to advise their learners to listen for some news channels, or to encourage them to watch some You Tube recordings by giving them some websites links.
2.6.2 Sociolinguistic Competence Sociolinguistic competence has been added to the theory of communicative competence by Hymes (1972) who views the importance of the rules of language use in appropriate communication. To help students participate in conversations in any natural situation, there must be a necessity to equip them with the rules of using the language they are learning appropriately and accurately. Teachers can transfer the foreign language culture into the classroom. To do so, teachers may tell learners about some traditions of the target language community, and urge learners to know how people in the target language culture greet one another, how they talk with elder, or high ranked people. Lee and McChesney propose discourse rating task (DRT) for teaching sociolinguistic norms, traditions, etc. According to them, such tasks will not only enhance learners’ awareness on second language use, but also transfer such knowledge into performance. They assert that such approach goes beyond speech acts. It implicitly directs learners to consider the collections of socio-cultural factors by selecting appropriate linguistic system. Meier asserts the necessity of teaching culture as it parts and parcels of teaching appropriate speech act behavior. He proposes a re-adjustment focus of teaching such elements of culture ‘under politeness phenomena’, as it leads according to him to precise comprehension of linguistic behavior which creates and is created by society (26). A study suggests a learner-based method for teaching request mitigating devices. This method consists of three stages:
Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
1.
84
Learners’ exploration Opportunities are given to learners for exploring pragmalinguistic forms and
sociopragmatic factors with affect appropriate request. This stage provides learners the awareness of: “(a) cross-linguistic and cross-culture differences between their native language and the English language, and (b) the crucial role that pragmatic issues play in communicative situations” (Usó-Juan and Martínez-Flor, “Teaching Learners” 352). 2.
Learners’ production Both written and oral opportunities are given, learners are usually asked to
produce request head acts and their mitigating devices. 3.
Learners’ feedback Usó-Juan and Martínez-Flor assert that “learners are provided with feedback
from their peers about their performance in the communicative practice activities in terms of the pragmalinguistic forms selected to express their request head acts and their mitigating devices, as well as the sociopragmatic factors” (“Teaching Learners” 355). This method can also be used for the teaching of others speech acts elements as apologize, compliment, advice, etc. To enhance students’ knowledge in sociolinguistic competence, teachers should focus on what Bachman includes as components of sociolinguistic competence. However, the five models discussed previously talk about sociolinguistic competence, the researcher is interested in Bachman’s classification and adding some components to it, as it seems more natural to English teaching and it can be achieved whenever teachers focus on these elements. The first element listed by Bachman is sensitivity to difference in dialects and variety. Accordingly, it is more naturally to expose our students to verities of English (e.g., British, American, Canadian, Australian, etc.) and within dialects of the same variety (e.g., British English dialects and American English dialects, etc.), if we want them to be competent in English. In addition to activating students’ knowledge of the dialects and variety of English, teachers should focus on the different registers.
Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
85
2.6.3 Discourse Competence Discourse competence is the most important category by which all other competencies take place, integrate in and relate to. To put that in a more clarifying way, linguistic competence should be applied in longer utterances or paragraphs. Whenever a language user employs that knowledge of the underlying system within a discourse, one can say that such user is mastering one element of communicative competence which will lead for developing other competencies within a discourse. Sociolinguistic knowledge of a language user is also interacting within discourse level as well as pragmatic competence does so. Therefore, the researcher reviews some of the literature on the teaching of discourse competence and finally suggests some strategies of teaching discourse competence. Discourse can be defined as the spoken or written language above the sentence level. Widdowson suggests that the teaching of discourse and other conventions which determine coherence by relating the teaching of foreign language to the teaching of other subjects like history, physics, philosophy, etc. On the other hand, Widdowson confirms that teaching texts recognition and production occur in cultural isolation without any reference to language use. He asserts that: Discourse can only be taught in relation to actual areas of use. Those areas of use which are immediately accessible to the language teacher and familiar to the language learner are those of other school subjects which of their nature, must provide a systematic presentation of those conventions needed to convey the basic concepts and procedures of the subjects concerned (Widdowson, Teaching Language 54). Gilmore confirms that there is a need to focus on developing learners spoken discourse competence than written discourse as the textbooks provide that competency to great extent. The absence of three spoken discursive elements in textbooks needs to be developed by teachers. These three elements are: Managing conversation, spoken genres and discourse intonation. Widdowson relates the interpretation of discourses whether written or spoken to other nonverbal elements like graphs, charts, tables, drawings, etc. These nonverbal elements according to Widdowson help with the recognition of their relationship to verbal text. Widdowson states that, “we cannot say that we have understood a piece of Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
86
spoken discourse by listening if we have only paid attention to what is spoken and we cannot say that we have understood a piece of written discourse by reading if we have only paid attention to what is verbally composed when the discourse contain nonverbal elements as wellˮ (Widdowson, Teaching Language 73). Widdowson criticizes the traditionally language teaching methods as they concentrate on the linguistic skills and neglect the non-verbal aspects of discourse. Widdowson suggests that in order to give an extract to a communicative reality is that by contextualizing the discourse both in the foreign language and in the mother tongue. The purpose of doing so is to engage the learner’s attention and proceed the text into authenticity. Widdowson supposes that if there is a passage consisting of ten paragraphs. The first two paragraphs must be read and introduced in the learner’s mother tongue and then reading the rest of the passage in the foreign language. Widdowson suggests this strategy to engage the learner in the reading process as the theme of the text is established and the expectations of the next paragraphs are projected (Widdowson, Teaching Language 81). Based on the previous discussion of the importance of teaching discourse, Widdowson concerns with the important relationship between teaching discourse and teaching other school subjects like history and geography. Teaching discourse might enhance learners to better comprehend spoken or written texts. Significantly important about teaching discourse should be focused on the elements suggested earlier by Celce-Murcia, Dornyei, and Thurrell including cataphora and anaphora reference, as well as to diexis. Cohesive and coherent elements which play important roles in organizing and connecting discourse grammatically and semantically. Finally, teachers should focus on training students how to start and finish conversations as well as the parallel structures. The researcher suggests that whenever teachers teach any reading text, they should focus on and train learners on how sentences are connected cohesively and coherently. Furthermore, teachers should train learners about using the transitional words as well as how to open a conversation and close it appropriately to suit the setting. Moreover, teacher should also urge learners about the importance of using informal dialogues when they interact with their peers. In the case of listening activity training, teachers should bring some audio materials recorded by native speakers of
Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
87
English and play them several times. They may play the recordings to train learners how native speakers open their conversations, and to train them how native speakers shift form one idea to another; and to make them aware of native speakers’ acceptance or refusal of an invitation or request.
2.6.4 Strategic Competence Some researchers (e.g. Bialystok; Kellerman) assume that learners use communicative strategies competently in their native language. Therefore, these strategies will be transferred into the target language automatically. Thus, it is the language that needs to be taught not the strategies. On the other hand, other researchers like, Sukirlan finds that “teaching communication strategies promote students’ communication skills” (2033); Gilmore summarized that (Brown 1979; Canale 1983; Faerch and Kasper 1987; Dornyei 1987) asserted the need for awareness-raising tasks for the teaching of L2 realizations and practice activities (4141). Swiat also believed that there must be classes for communicative language ability to develop communicative strategies. Conversation classes should concern with practical techniques of coping with stimulus like asking for directions and feedback, paraphrasing instructions and reading instructions loudly (178). A direct approach for teaching CSs is suggested. Such approach might involve the following procedures: 1) Raising learner awareness about the nature and communicative potential of CSs 2) Encouraging students to be willing to take risks and use CSs 3) Providing L2 models of the use of certain CSs 4) Highlighting cross-cultural differences in CS use 5) Teaching CSs directly by presenting linguistic devices to verbalize them. 6) Providing opportunities for practice in strategy use (Dornyei, “On the Teachability of 63-64”). Dornyei asserts the possibility of developing efficient communicative strategy training activities. However, he summarizes the theoretical argumentation that many researchers question the teachability of communicative strategies as:
Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
88
(a) the arguments concerning the systematic training of CSs have been typically based on indirect evidence, and some of this evidence actually supports the teachability of strategic competence; (b) there is variation with CSs with respect to their teachability and, therefore, no straightforward answer can be given to the question whether CSs in general are teachable or not. (c) part of the contradiction stems from different interpretations of one’s notion of teaching (78-79). Walter confirms that communicative strategies can be taught. He states that, “they are also skills that can be taught, practiced, and improved over time” (2).
2.6.5 Teaching Communicative Competence through the Four Skills Amongst the major goals of second language instructional program is to develop learners’ communicative competence. Accordingly, it has been noticed that there is no readymade pedagogy for teaching competence components directly. For that, researchers assert the role of the four language skills in fostering learners’ communicative competence (Usó-Juan and Martínez-Flor, “Teaching Intercultural”). So, the development of learners’ communicative competence is associated whenever language teachers focus not only on the underlying system of the target language, but also integrate all the elements of communicative competence. To be competent in the target language, learners should be engaged in different activities which motivate them to take their roles in any social context (Beltrán-Palanques, “Fostering”). Similarly, in learning L2, there is no doubt about the necessity for learners to acquire in additions to phonological and lexico-grammatical knowledge (linguistic/ grammatical competence) ways of interactions with others using the target language (Kamiya). Significantly, some suggested activities are designed for the aim of helping learners to achieve communicative competence with the four language skills. The purpose of designing such activities aiming for supporting learners with authentic input which can help them to interact in purposeful and meaningful communication (Beltrán-Palanques, “Teaching”). Those activities will be discussed under each language skill below. On the other hand, the importance of integration the four language skills with culture has been concerned in teaching languages. As the four language skills also include associated skills like knowledge of vocabulary, spelling, pronunciation, syntax, meaning and usage. Thus, assertion for the importance of teaching instructions is to interweave the language skills with culture. Whenever that Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
89
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
interwoven takes place, learners are likely to become communicatively competent (Vernier, Silvia, et al). Generally, studies show the relationships between communicative competence components and the four skills, e.g., (Usó-Juan and Martínez-Flor, “Approaches to Language”; Centre for Canadian Language Benchmarks; Beltrán-Palanques, “Teaching”) . The fifth model of competence in this search is an instance in which the four language skills are placed in the discourse competence box, one skill in each corner. Particularly, a study on the relationships between reading comprehension and communicative competence components shows that discourse competence was the most difficult component for learners followed by sociolinguistic competence, strategic competence and linguistic competence. Accordingly, the study suggests that learners should be trained on “how to benefit from discourse and contextual clues, logical thinking skills and providing them with an introductory target language culture course would help them to become better readers (Bayraktar 136). Furthermore, the study recommends that teachers should teach reading from communicative competence perspective, which means that teachers should focus on greater numbers of components that develop learners’ communicative competence as well (163). Whenever the purpose of second language teaching is to develop learners’ communicative competence in the target language, Cruz realizes that learners might be trained to become both good speakers and listeners. Frequently, being a competent hearer requires processing utterances, stretches of discourse, and also grasping interpretations of the interlocutor’s intention in particular context. So far, teachers, syllabi and classes should not neglect learners’ role as hearers. Cruz concludes that: [I]t is extremely important that teachers invest some effort and work to enhance learners' interpretive skills. Certainly, this may increase their
awareness
of
the
many
risks
hovering
over
human
communication and help them overcome some communication problems. By doing so, teachers will obviously contribute to bring up more communicatively competent L2 learners. (3) Also, the task of foreign language teacher according to Byram is to equip learners with attitudes, knowledge, and skills to enable them becoming intercultural competent whenever they decide to travel and reside in the foreign country where
Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
90
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
language is spoken or whenever they want to interact with someone from another country living in their own society (39). 2.6.5.1 Teaching
Listening
Skill
to
Develop
Learners’
Communicative
Competence For the teaching of listening skill, activities are suggested to develop learners’ communicative competence. With reference to the input the learners need to listen to, it has been acknowledged that on-line resources provide variety of aural input which can be employed by teachers for the aim of developing learners’ listening competence. Some activities are suggested to expose learners into. Such activities represent the genuine use of language (Beltrán-Palanques, “Teaching” 523). On the other hand, activities like video-taped cultural dialogues, tap-recorded interviews with native speakers might play a crucial role in the development of learners’ listening skill (Usó-Juan and Martínez-Flor, “Teaching Intercultural” 163). a)
Video-taped Cultural Dialogues Teachers plan questions for pre, while and post listening. In this activity
learners watch a video for two persons discussing about culture trends in which one of the participants belongs to learners’ culture and the other to the target language culture. Pre-listening questions may ask learners’ opinions about the two persons who will talk in the conversation. While-listening questions might ask learners to confirm or reject their prediction set in the previous step. Post-listening questions aim to ask learners to give their opinions about the foreign person culture being in the conversation, sometimes learners are asked to discuss the difference in culture if there seem to be any (Usó-Juan and Martínez-Flor, “Teaching Intercultural” 163). b)
Videos from Video-sharing Websites Exposing learners to videos can be beneficial for developing their awareness
on the language. As videos exhibit not only aural language but also visualize the information being used in the context. For a great awareness of the language used in the video and facilitate comprehension, teachers should motivate and activate learners background knowledge about the forthcoming spoken utterances. In addition to motivation, teachers may ask learners about some specific information being uttered in the video. This step enables teachers to check whether learners understand the input or not. Next, learners may be asked to identify the situations, the participants and not Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
91
verbal language used in the videos. Finally, whole class discussion may be called for about the topic of the video being watched (Beltrán-Palanques, “Teaching” 523). Though teaching listening is one of the most important skills that language teachers should focus on, teachers can use online resources for teaching listening skills. The traditional claims that viewed teachers as the unique source of knowledges had gone over. Native speakers’ conversations or audio recording for varieties of the language can help learners a lot to be exposed into different dialects or accent for the target language. For teachers, to effectively develop learners’ competence in listening, they can plan their class for enhancing learners’ comprehension, as well as developing them to cope with details information mentioned. Teachers should select materials which interest learners and motivate them to grasp general ideas as well as specific details. The researcher agrees fully with Krashen’s theory of input in selecting the material. Teacher should select resources which are a little bit above the learners’ existed knowledge (i +1). 2.6.5.2 Teaching Speaking Skill to Develop Learners’ Communicative Competence Speaking is a productive language skill in which at least two participants are interacting. It has been assumed that training learners to speak in the foreign language in different social context is the aim of any learner, method, and approach. So far, to be a good speaker, one must be also a good listener as these two skills are interrelated. In this step, light must be shed to the best ways of training learners to be component speakers and the techniques that should be applied by teachers to develop learners’ speaking skill, which on the same time leads to the development of learners’ communicative competence. Examining audiovisual scripts is an activity suggested for the teaching of speaking. Using video along with script aims to develop learners of pragmatic and discourse features. For teachers to apply this activity, Beltran-Palanques provides teachers with the following steps: Teachers select the audiovisual materials which carefully suit the goals of lesson. Next, the features of discourse and pragmatics which needed to be examined should be introduced, explained by the teachers before showing learners the video. After that, learners watch the video scenes to identify the context, situation and the features being explained. Finally, teachers give learners the
Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
92
chance to examine and contextualize role-play on the basis of the discourse and pragmatic features being studied (“Teaching” 521). Teaching or training speaking is not different from teaching other language skills. Teachers usually need to focus on the four steps, (setting objectivespresentation- practice- transfer). There must be a determination for the goals or objectives for any teaching class. In the second step, the teachers should operate the language appropriately to suit the situation. Repetitions of the language elements like syntax and phonology are important in this practice phase. Finally, teachers should transfer the role to learners. Activities in this phase need to be set like information gap, role-play, feedback, etc. (Glebova). Teachers should slightly control learners’ speech productions at first stages of training. On the other hand, at progressive stages there should be less rigorous guidance. At early stages, teachers should focus on controlled and guided practice and more freedom at advanced stage (Broughton et al.). Efirzal conducts a study regarding implementing the CLT in teaching speaking at the Indonesian setting. The study shows that CLT can be applied in teaching speaking effectively. He adds that CLT can improve learners’ speaking achievements. In the study, he notes that CLT could motivate learners to speak and minimize learners’ problems (Efrizal 133). Brown sets out six categories of oral productions that are expected to perform in the classroom. These categories are: imitative, intensive, responsive, transactional, interpersonal, and extensive.
Imitation Brown suggests a very little short time may be given for learners to imitate human tape recorder. The purpose of this step is to focus on particular elements of language form.
Intensive Brown confirms that intensive speaking is designed to practice some phonological or grammatical aspect of language. This step can be whether self-initiated or part of pair work activity.
Responsive Brown states that learners’ speech should be responsive. Learners may give short replies to teacher or one-initiated questions or comments which are still sufficient, meaningful and authentic.
Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
93
Transactional Transactional or dialogic language directed for exchanging specific information. Teacher may ask for example: What is the main idea in this essay?
Interpersonal Brown asserts that the purpose of interpersonal dialogue is to attain social relationships which are more than just transmission of facts or information. Interpersonal activities as suggested by Brown contain some or all the following factors: (a casual register, colloquial language, emotionally charged language, slang, ellipsis, sarcasm, and a covert ''agenda'').
Extensive Extensive speaking or monologue to Brown pertained at advanced level in which learners are asked to perform extended monologues forming oral report, summaries, or perhaps short speech (Brown, Teaching by Principles 273-74).
There are seven principles that teachers should address whenever they teach speaking. These principles are as follows: 1) Use techniques that cover the spectrum of learner needs, from language-based focus on accuracy to message-based focus on interaction, meaning, and fluency. 2) Provide motivating techniques. 3) Encourage the use of authentic language in meaningful contexts. 4) Provide appropriate feedback and correction. 5) Capitalize on the natural link between speaking and listening. 6) Give learners opportunities to initiate oral communication. 7) Encourage the development of speaking strategies. (Brown, Teaching by Principles 275-276). As explained above, the teaching of speaking skills needs the awareness of teachers to focus on the needs of the learners. Teachers should highly motivate learners to use the target language communicatively. The selecting of content is of much important. Learners should be trained to take a role of any role play, or information gap. Teachers should advise learners to benefit from the online programs to develop their speaking skill. Whenever learners integrate with other nationalities
Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
94
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
speakers of English, they could be aware of different variety of the same language. There are benefitable programs for developing speaking skills. One can use Skype to get friends from all over the globe and practice English with. Another program is, Italki, where many participants using this program and some of them seek for partners for language exchanges. For example, Arabic learners of English can get benefit from this program by searching for English native speakers who want to learn Arabic language. To conclude, teachers can motivate learners to use such programs which can enhance their competence in the target language. 2.6.5.3 Teaching
Reading
Skill
to
Develop
Learners’
Communicative
Competence Variety of activities for developing learners reading skill has been suggested. Such activities are critical reading, cultural bump activities, activities that focus on written genres and cultural extensive reading (Usó-Juan and Martínez-Flor, “Teaching Intercultural” 165). Bringing off-line or on-line resources for exposing learners with authentic language is very important in any reading activity. The most important thing is that reading texts should relate to learners’ interest. For that, they can feel comfortable while participating in the reading activity. Beltran-Palanques proposes an activity based on learners’ selection of the reading text. He calls this activity Learners take over: Giving learners the chance to take their part actively in elaboration of the reading material is the purpose of this activity. Teachers can divide class into different groups in which each group members search and select different texts for the elaboration in the reading activity to other learners in the same group. As soon as learners select certain reading texts based on their interest and bring them to language classroom to work on them. The teachers should supervise the appropriateness of activities being chosen by learners and provide them with feedback whenever they need during the activity. This activity is expected to be highly motivating for learners so that they can search for texts that might have great interest for them and topics which suit their level of knowledge (Beltrán-Palanques, Teaching 521). Rustipa calls for the integration of reading skill with other skills if the aim is to teach reading communicatively. Some classroom activities are suggested as: read to act, read to debate, read to interview. Such classroom activities make the reading task interesting and give learners chance to practice all the skill simultaneously (130). The teaching of reading can be planned by teachers depending on the interest of the learners. Teachers can give a brief summary about the text before letting the Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
95
learners going on reading its paragraphs. Teachers should demonstrate the difficult or new words or structures. All types of readings are of great importance to the learners. They need to learn intensive as well as extensive reading. They should be trained on how to comprehend a text and how to search for specific information. Teachers may also train learners to choose some texts about the target language cultures. 2.6.5.4 Teaching Writing Skill to Develop Learners’ Communicative Competence For the development of learners’ communicative competence through the writing skill, Usó-Juan and Martínez-Flor mention some activities like tandem e-mail learning, designing stories and story continuation among others (“Teaching Intercultural” 167). Beltrán-Palanques also proposes an activity with the aim of teaching the writing skill. This activity pays attention to encouraging learners in taking part in the task. He also focuses on the importance of motivation and providing learners with purposefully communicative activities. The proposed activity for teaching writing involves the elaboration of either an off-line or on-line magazine (“Teaching” 525). Create a Magazine - Give Roles to Learners According to Beltrán-Palanques, creating a magazine is the aim of this activity. Different roles of the learners should be assigned by the teacher (e.g., editor, associate editor, advertising manager, design editor, etc.). Along with the roles that teacher gives to learners in the magazine, teacher should also discusses with learners the different sections that must be included in the magazine. Learners can write or type the magazine. This type of activity according to Beltran-Palanques is very motivating for learners as they select topics which they are interested in (“Teaching” 525). The development of communicative competence expands on the conceptual basis to include second/foreign language curriculum and pedagogy. Leung states that the framework proposed by Canale and Swain on communicative competence became the basis of theoretical and curriculum for the emerge of communicative language teaching approach in the same decade (5). Richards, Communicative Language asserts that the goal of communicative language teaching is to teach communicative competence. Hiep, “Communicative”
traces CLT back to the anthropologist Dell
Hymes as he acknowledges that knowing a language needs more than to know about its underlying system. For learners to use language effectively, they should gain knowledge of how to use language appropriately in any given social context. Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
2.7
96
Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) Communicative language teaching (CLT) is one of the up-to-date approaches
for teaching English as a second/foreign language. CLT is the outcome of theoretical and applicable researches in the field of applied linguistics, pedagogical development and curriculum designation. The rise of CLT comes against the failures of traditional methods and approaches in fostering learners’ communicative competence or fluency in the target language. CLT can be defined as an approach which aims to create fluency in the target language by developing learners’ competencies and centralizing students’ roles in the learning or teaching processes. Communicative language teaching is also defined by Savignon as: “an approach, or theory of intercultural communicative competence to be used in developing materials and methods appropriate to a given contest of learning” (“Beyond Communicative Language Teaching” 7). It seems that Savignon’s definition focuses on intercultural competence, which is far away from the previous considerations set by Chomsky (1965) and Hymes (1972) of native speakers’ competence. This intercultural communicative competence (ICC) has been added as a main component of communicative competence in many models as in Byram (2007) and the model of Usó-Juan and Martínez-flor (2006). Some scholars in the field of English language teaching (ELT) state that (CLT) is an approach to teaching rather than a teaching method (for more detail, see Richards and Rogers, 1986). We have come to an agreement about considering CLT as an approach not merely a teaching method. Broadly, it seems that CLT depends on the advantages of previous approaches and methods. Therefore, it might be defined as: “an eclectic blend of the contributions of previous methods into the best of what a teacher can provide in authentic uses of the second language in the classroom” (Brown, Principles of Language 18). Below is a diagram which summarizes how communicative competence components integrate in the teaching context.
Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
97
Figure 2.5 Savignon’s communicative language teaching model.
2.7.1 Theoretical Basis of CLT The theoretical characteristics of CLT depend on both communicative tasks (CTs) and real life situations. With reference to CTs, Hiep theorizes that CLT theory focuses on learning which is claimed to be happened in classroom whenever communicative activities oriented. The goal of learning is to develop learners on how to use language in meaningful situation (“Communicative” 196). It is recommended for teachers to associate their CTs in matching students’ communicative need. They can do that suitability by following what Galloway and Berns call inventing situations which students may encounter in real life. Teachers therefore have to pay attention to both learners’ motivation as well as desires to participate in meaningful ways when they create the situations (1). Traditionally, approaches or methods for teaching and learning attain whether form or function as the core of the teaching or learning program. Neither the combinations of both form and function nor do those methods give concentration to communication in natural situations. However, a shift for combination is required by Widdowson who focuses on both form and function for teaching languages. So far,
Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
98
the teacher of language must pay attention to both kind of knowledge, i.e., usage and use. Language learners also need to know the significance of sentences as instance of usage; and the value of sentences as an instance of use. Widdowson, on the other hand, criticizes the traditional assumption that a learner needs to get knowledge of usage and he will pick up the necessary knowledge to use them on their own. Widdowson concludes that neither the teaching of use, nor do the teaching of usage can be guarantee to create a competent speaker, but the guarantee implies in teaching both usage and use (Teaching Language 19). In addition to Widdowson’s call for combination both use and usage in CLT, Littlewood states that the combination of both structures and functions is one of the most characteristic features of communicative language teaching as it pays systematic attention to both aspects into a more fully communicative view (1). To sum up, CLT focuses on both form and function of language. In the above paragraphs, the researcher discusses the theoretical consideration of CLT. In the following section, some of the characteristics of CLT will be viewed.
2.7.2 Principles of CLT The features of Communicative Language Teaching and the theory of language learning focus on systematic attention to the functional as well as structural aspects of language. Some of the characteristics of CLT are mentioned as follow: 1) An emphasis on learning to communicate through interaction in the target language 2) The introduction of authentic texts into the learning situation 3) The provision of opportunities for learners to focus, not only on language, but also on the learning process itself 4) An enhancement of the learner’s own personal experiences as important contributing elements to classroom learning 5) An attempt to link classroom language learning with language activation outside the classroom (Nunan 279). Nunan determines the process of language learning according to CLT, and assigns the importance of bringing authentic materials to the students. Furthermore, the importance of concentration on both language and learning process, also the
Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
99
necessity for encouraging learners’ experience. Lastly, a call for correlation the knowledge of classroom into real world context. CLT focuses on two scopes in teaching English as a second or foreign language. It makes communicative competence as its goal of teaching and develops procedures for the teaching of the four skills, i.e., (Listening, speaking, reading and writing) (Daisy 259). Communicative language teaching is developing and attaining as the result of interactions on multidisciplinary perspective including, linguistics, psychology, philosophy, sociology and educational research (Savignon, “State of the Art”). Depending on the basis of communicative competence Farrell and Jacobs summarize the areas and focuses on CLT by eight principles: 1.
Encourage learner autonomy;
2.
emphasize social nature of learning;
3.
develop curricular integration;
4.
focus on meaning;
5.
celebrate diversity;
6.
expand thinking skills;
7.
utilize alternative assessment methods;
8.
promote English language teacher as co-learners.
The above eight principles are what Farrell and Jacobs call for whenever teachers obtain CLT in their classrooms. Such principles are of importance in developing learners’ CC as they give independency to learners and encourage the differences between them. Moreover, they amend the role of teachers from dominancy into cooperation in the learning process. Furthermore, they call for creativity and focus on the social setting in comprehending the meaning. The figure below shows the correlation of the principles that CLT depends on.
Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
100
Figure, 2.6, Farrell and Jacobs’ principle of communicative language teaching However, eight principles for CLT are set up by Farrell and Jacobs, Richards summarizes them into four principles. These principles are: goals of CLT, how learner learns a language, kinds of classroom activities, and role of learner and teacher. He asserts that, “communicative language teaching can be understood as a set of principles about the goals of language teaching, how learners learn a language, the kinds of classroom activities that best facilitate learning, and the roles of teachers and learners in the classroom” (Communicative Language 2). Brief explanations for Richards’ principle are as follows: 2.7.2.1 The Goals of Language Teaching According to Richards, the goal of language teaching is to teach communicative competence. He concludes that communicative competence focuses on four aspects of language knowledge, they are:
Knowing how to use language for a range of different purposes and functions;
knowing how to vary our use of language according to the setting and participants (e.g., knowing when to use formal and informal speech or when to use language appropriately for written as opposed to spoken communication);
knowing how to produce and understand different types of texts (e.g., narratives, reports, interviews, conversations); and
knowing how to maintain communication despite having limitations in one’s language knowledge (e.g., through using different kinds of communication strategies),(Richards, Communicative Language 3).
Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
101
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
The four steps that Richards sets up are an analysis for the four components of CC set up by Canale and Swain (1980) and Swain (1983). The first element corresponds with grammatical competence, while the second associates with sociolinguistic competence, the third relates to discourse competence and the fourth symbolizes strategic competence. 2.7.2.2 How Learners Learn a Language Richards asserts that learning a language is a result of the following process:
Interaction between the learners and users of the language;
collaborative creation of meaning;
creating meaningful and purposeful interaction through language;
negotiation of meaning as the learner and his or her interlocutor arrive at understanding;
learning through attending to the feedback learners get when they use the language; paying attention to the language one hears (the input);
trying
to
incorporate
new
forms
into
one’s
developing
communicative competence; trying out and experimenting with different ways of saying things. (Richards, Communicative Language 4). Richards believes that the learners usually learn the language through interaction with interlocutors. Such interaction for Richards must be meaningful and purposeful. So far, Richards calls for deleting any interaction which is mechanical or drilling. For successful interaction, Richards talks about feedback. That means, whenever teachers give instruction or being co-learners in any task or activity, they must check learners’ feedback, which guarantees their understanding for what they heard. Lastly, Richards asserts that it is necessary for teachers to develop learners’ CC by enhancing their ability to express functional meaning by different forms. 2.7.2.3 The kinds of Classroom Activities that Best Facilitate Learning Richards states that communicative language teaching activities reflect the principles of a communicative methodology. A genuine communicative for Hiep should be the goal of classroom activities. According to him, communicative activities are the core of developing learners’ communicative competence
Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
102
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
(“Communicative” 194). For achieving successful communication in classroom, Marrow suggested five principles:
Classroom
activities
should
be
designed
to
suit
students’
communicative needs.
Classroom activities should encourage learners to use language above the sentence level.
Classroom activities should be purposeful, for example letting students to ask for information that they don’t really know about their pairs. For doing that, they should learn how to ask in mean of choosing appropriate form to express certain function. Finally, students should get feedback from one interlocutor to assess whether being understood or not.
Students should be given chances to apply what they have learnt in term of presentation, practice and production.
Teachers should not focus exaggeratedly on students errors, because over criticism may lead to avoidance in later participation (qtd. in, Ellisafni 213-214). Classroom activities are of two types: some activities are aiming to the
developments of learners’ fluency while the others focus on students’ accuracy. a)
Activities Focusing on Fluency Learners’ fluency can be “developed by creating classroom activities in which
the students must negotiate meaning, use communication strategies, correct misunderstandings and work to avoid communication breakdowns” (Mohanlal et al. 260). Richards states that fluency activities should:
Reflect natural use of language
Focus on achieving communication
Require meaningful use of language
Require the use of communication strategies
Produce language that may not be predictable
Seek to link language use to context (Richards, Communicative Language 14).
Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
b)
103
Activities Focusing on Accuracy Accuracy activities concern with enhancing learners to produce a correct
language. Richards focuses on the following criteria that accuracy activities should:
Reflect classroom use of language;
Focus on the formation of correct examples of language;
Practice language out of context; practice small samples of language;
Do not require meaningful communication; control choice of language (Richards, Communicative Language 14).
c)
Accuracy Versus Fluency Activities: Savignon claims that the dichotomy between fluency and accuracy is
misleading, as the form of a message is unrelated to its meaning; so far both are important for learners. She differentiates between accuracy and fluency as: Accuracy in this instance is measured in terms of discrete features of phonology, morphology, and syntax, and thus fails to take into account the context-relevant, collaborative nature of self-expression. Fluency, on the other hand, suggests speed or ease of self-expression, which may or may not enhance communicative effectiveness (Savignon, “State of the Art” 269). 2.7.3
The Roles of Teachers and Learners in the Classroom Traditional approaches and methods neglect learners and dominate the
learning and teaching process to be a teacher-centered and consider them as the unique source of knowledge. On the other hand, CLT orients the learners in the teaching or learning process and gives teachers different role to apply during their classroom teaching. Learners in CLT according to Richards should take part in classroom activities as CLT activities focus on cooperative learning rather than individualism. Learners have to participate with their peers in pair or group works. In brief, learners should be responsible for their own learning (Communicative Language 5). The role of the learners also consider as a negotiator. Breen and Candlin set: [T]he role of learner as negotiator—between the self, the learning process, and the object of learning—emerges from and interacts with the role of joint negotiator within the group and within the classroom
Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
104
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
procedures and activities which the group undertakes. The implication for the learner is that he should contribute as much as he gains, and thereby learn in an interdependent way (100). On the other hand, flexibility of teachers is important in CLT. So far, Richards views that teachers should take different roles according the type of activity one is presenting in. They are expected to facilitate, monitor, help, develop and motivate learners in the learning process (5). For applying CLT effectively in foreign settings, Paulston confirms that CLT requires “teachers with near native competence in English (104). Some of the competencies that teachers must have in English for applying CLT are suggested by Richards as follow: 1. To comprehend texts accurately 2. To provide good language models 3. To maintain use of the target language in the classroom 4. To maintain fluent use of the target 5. To give explanations and instructions in the target language 6. To provide examples of words and grammatical structures and give accurate explanations (e.g., of vocabulary and language points) 7. To use appropriate classroom language 8. To select target-language resources (e.g., newspapers, magazines, the internet) 9. To monitor his or her own speech and writing for accuracy 10. To give correct feedback on learner language 11. To provide input at an appropriate level of difficulty 12. To
provide
language-enrichment
experiences
for
learners
(Richards, Competence and Performance 3).
2.7.3 Curriculum Components of CLT For a successful communicative curriculum, designers and policy makers should pay attention to CC components. If they aim to foster learners’ CC, the content “should be drawn from linguistics, cultural, anthropology, sociolinguistics, and other relevant areas of the social sciences and humanities” (Celce-Murcia 55). Similarly, Savignon proposed five elements for designing communicative curriculum. Her five components of CLT curriculum are: “1. Language Arts 2. Language for a Purpose 3. My Language is Me: Personal English Language Use 4. You Be…, I’ll Be…: Theater Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
105
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
Arts 5. Beyond the Classroom Language” (Savignon, “Communicative Curriculum” 4). To sum up, any communicative curriculum should be built to suit learners’ communicative needs in the areas of communicative competence.
2.7.4 Implication
of
Communicative
Language
Teaching
in
Classroom Teachers have different attitudes towards CLT implication inside classrooms. Savignon points out that some teachers understand the difficulty of teaching communicative ability, negotiation of meaning as well as the lack of assessment and scales for individuals. However, other teachers seem to agree and welcome to adopt themselves on handling the CLT as well as providing learners with communicative tasks (“State of the Art” 266). Studies on the possibility of applying communicative language teaching have been conducted in many social contexts. However, some focus on the teachers’ attitudes and perspectives on CLT, others take into account the problems or difficulties which may stand as barriers from applying the approach. For the purpose of applying CLT, a study performed in the Pakistani context at intermediate levels of educations. Ten secondary school teachers were chosen as a sample to response for the semi-structure interview. The respondents reveal four difficulties on CLT implication. These difficulties related to: teachers, students, the education system in Pakistan and the theory and practice of CLT itself (Ahmad and Rao 188). Another study on teachers’ perceptions of communicative language teaching has been conducted in the Bangles context. Eighteen secondary school teachers were chosen for the interviews. The findings reveal that about 70% of the interviewees do not have any ideas about CLT nor do they give a clear definitions (Hossen). Hiep questions the suitability of CLT as an approach within non-native settings. He stresses that, “local teachers in many EFL settings may also need to reexamine some of their traditional beliefs and assumptions about language teaching and learning” (“Imported” 8). Lastly, a study has been conducted in the Gulf Arabian Countries for the implication of communicative approach shows that despite the positive indications of using communicative language teaching in the Arab Gulf Countries, there are still some pitfall limitations which can be summarized as the feasibility of setting for teaching communicative objective, and the inappropriate text and lacks of competence Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
106
of Arab teachers (Bahumaid 448). Some studies have also been conducted at the Yemeni secondary school settings, Al-Sohbani found that Yemeni secondary school teachers of English not only were unfamiliar with CLT principles, but also were not sure what to do in the classrooms (40). On the contrary, Bataineh, Bataineh, and Thabet found that, despite Yemeni teachers of English familiarity with CLT principles (at primary and secondary school), their actual classroom practices didn’t reflect their perceptions (859). 2.8
Conclusion In this chapter, the researcher intensively investigated seven points in relating
to communicative competence. Firstly, definitions of the term (communicative competence) had been reviewed thoroughly. The second section in this literature focused on four theories concerning communicative competence (Chomsky, Hymes, Widdowson and Halliday’s theories). In the third title, the researcher discussed five theoretical frameworks of communicative competence (Canale and Swain, Bachman and Palmer, Celce-Murcia et. al., the Common European Framework of Reference and finally Usó-Juan and Martínez-Flor’ models). The fourth element focused on the literature of some previous studies concerning the term communicative competence. Elements of communicative competence with their sub elements were discussed in the fifth section. The sixth section dealt with the teaching of communicative competence and finally, the seventh section provided an insight into the communicative language teaching approach.
2.9
Works Cited:
Ahmad, Saeed, and Congman Rao. “Applying Communicative Approach in Teaching English as a Foreign Language: A Case Study of Pakistaner.” Porta Linguarum: revista internacional de didáctica de las lenguas extranjeras 20 (2013): 187–203. Web. 12 Sept. 2014. Ali Mustadi, M. Pd. Communicative Competence Based Language Teaching: An English Course Design for PGSD. TAHUN: UNIVERSITAS NEGERI YOGYAKARTA, 2012. Print.
Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
107
Al-Mawoda, Kawther Rashed Abdulla. “Exploring Secondary Teachers’ Perception towards Teaching Intercultural Competence in English Language Classrooms in Bahrain.” Diss. University of Exter, 2011. Print. Alnatheer, Amal A. “The Role of Motivation and Motivational Strategies in Saudi Students’ Communicative Competence in English.” Queensland University of Technology, 2013. Print. Al-Sohbani, Yehia Ahmed Y. “An Exploration of English Language Teaching Pedagogy in Secondary Yemeni Education: A Case Study.” International Journal of English Language & Translation Studies 1.3 (2013): 41–57. Web. Bachman, Lyle F. Fundamental Considerations in Language Testing. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1990. Print. Bachman, Lyle F., and Adrian S. Palmer. Language Testing in Practice: Designing and Developing Useful Language Tests. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996. Print. Bagari, Vesna, and Jelena Mihaljevi. “Defining Communicative Competence.” Metodika 8.1 (2007): 94–103. Print. Bahumaid, Showqi A. “The Communicative Approach in EFL Contexts Revisited.” International Journal of Social Science and Humanity 2.6 (2012): 446–448. Web. Bataineh, Rula Fahmi, Ruba Fahmi Bataineh, and Samiha Saif Thabet. “Communicative Language Teaching in the Yemeni EFL Classroom: Embraced or Merely Lip-Serviced?” Journal of Language Teaching and Research 2.4 (2011): 859–866. Web. Bayraktar, Hasan. “A Communicative Competence Perspective on Difficulities in L2 Reading.” Diss. Middle East Teachnical University, 2005. Print. Beltrán-Palanques, Vicente. “Fostering Intercultural Communicative Competence in the Foreign Language Classroom: Pedagogical Implications.” International Journal of English Language & Translation Studies 2.2 (2014): 59–70. Print. ---,“Teaching the Four Language Skills from a Communicative Perspective: Some Pedagogical Implications.” FÒRUM DE RECERCA 16 (2011): 519–527.Web. Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
108
Breen, Michael P., and Christopher N. Candlin. “The Essentials of a Communicative Curriculum in Language Teaching.” Applied Linguistics 1.2 (1980): 89–112. Web. Broughton, Geoffrey et al. Teaching English as a Foreign Language.(2nd ed). London and New York: Routledge, 2013. Print. Brown, H. Douglas. Principles of Language Learning and Teaching. (5th ed). Pearson: Longman, 2007. Print. ---, Teaching by Principles: An Interactive Approach to Language Pedagogy. (2nd ed). Longman, 2001. Print. Byram, Micael. Teaching and Assessing Intercultural Communicative Competence. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters Ltd, 1997. Print. Canale, Michael, and Merrill Swain. “Theoretical Bases of Communicative Approaches to Second Language Teaching and Testing.” Applied Linguistics I.1 (1980): 1–47. Web. Canale, Michael. “From Communicative Competence to Communicative Language Pedagogy.” Language and Communication. Ed. R. W. Richards, J. C., and Schmidt. London: Longman, 1983. 3–27. Print. Celce-Murcia, Marianne, Zoltan Dörnyei, and Sarah Thurrell. “Communicative Competence: A Pedagogically Motivated Model with Content Specifications.” Issues in Applied Linguistics 6.2 (1995): 5–35. Print. Celce-Murcia, Marianne. “Rethinking the Role of Communicative Competence in Language Teaching.” Intercultural Language Use and Language Learning. Ed. Eva Alcón Soler and Maria Pilar Safont Jordà. Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Springer, 2007. 41–57. Print. Centre for Canadian Language Benchmarks. Canadian Language Benchmarks: English as a Second Language for Adults. Ottawa: Centre for Canadian Language Benchmarks, 2013. Print. Chomsky, Noam. Aspects of the Theory of Syntax. Cambridge: Multilingual Matters: MIT Press., 1965. Print.
Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
109
Council of Europe. Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: Learning, Teaching, Assessment. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001. Web. Cravotta, Joseph S. “Communicative Competence, Intercultural Understanding, and International Tourism.” The Asian EFL Journal Quarterly 7 (2007): 33-39. Print. Cruz, Manuel Padilla. “Cautious Optimism in Second Language Learning, or How to Make L2 Learners More Competent Hearers.” 1997: 1–13. Web. Daisy, P. “Communicative Language Teaching: A Comperhensive Approach to English Language Teaching.” Language in India: Strength for Today and Bright Hope for Tomorrow 12.2 (2012): 249–265. Print. Dekdouk, Fatma. “The Effects of Oral Presentations on Developing EGAP Students’ Communicative Competence.” Diss. Kasdi Merbah University-Ouargla, 2013. Print. Demo, Douglas A. “Discourse Analysis for Language Teachers.” ERIC DIGEST 4 (2001): n.p. Web. Dornyei, Zoltan. “On the Teachability of Communication Strategies.” TESOL QUARTERLY 29.1 (1995): 55–85. Print. Efrizal, Dedi. “Improving Students’ Speaking through Communicative Language Teaching Method at Mts Ja-Alhaq, Sentot Ali Basa Islamic Boarding School of Bengkulu, Indonesia.” International Journal of Hhmanities and Social Science 2.20 (2012): 127–134. Print. Ellis, Rod. “Communicative Competence and the Japanese Learner.” JALT Jounral 13.2 (1991): 103–130. Print. Ellisafni, CAP. “Aspects of Communicative Competence in a Language Teaching.” HUMANIKA 1972 (2013): 208–217. Web. 21 Sept. 2014. Erton, İsmail. “Applied Pragmatics and Competence Relations in Language Learning and Teaching.” Journal of language and linguistic studies 3.1 (2007): 58–71. Web. 20 Aug. 2014.
Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
110
Farrell, Thomas SC, and George Jacobs. Essentials for Successful English Language Teaching. Bloomsbury Publishing, 2010. Web. 21 Sept. 2014. Galloway, Ann, and Margie S Berns. “Communicative Language Teaching : An Introduction And Sample Activities.” ERIC Digest (1993). Print. Gilmore, Alexander. “Getting Real in the Language Classroom: Developing Japanese Students’ Communicative Competence with Authentic Materials.” Diss. University of Nottingham, 2007. Print. Glebova, IA. “Communicative Approach, Strategies and Techniques Used in Training Speaking Skills of Students Non-Linguists.” National Technical University of Ukraine (2005):Web. http://novyn.kpi.ua/2005-3-2/03_Glebova.pdf Habermas, Jürgen. “Towards a Theory of Communicative Competence, Inquiry: An Interdisciplinary.” Journal of Philosophy 13.February 2014 (1970): 37–41. Print. Halliday, Michael Alexander Kirkwood. Explorations in the Functions of Language. London: Edward Arnold, 1973. Print. ---, Language as Social Semiotic. London: Edward Arnold, 1978. Print. Hiep, Pham Hoa. “‘Imported’ Communicative Language Teaching: Implications for Local Teachers.” English Teaching Forum 43.4 (2005): 2–9. Web. ---, “Communicative Language Teaching: Unity within Diversity.” ELT Journal 61.3 (2007): 193–201. Web. Hossen, Mohammad Tofzzal. “Communicative Language Teaching: Teachers’ Perception in Bangladesh (Secondary Level).” Diss. BRAC University, Dhaka, Banglasesh, 2008. Print. Hymes, Dell H. “Toward Linguistic Competence.” REVUE DE L’AILA AILA REVIEW. Ed. Albert Valdman. Indiana: Bloomington, Indiana, 1985. 9–23. Web. Hymes, Dell. “On Communicative Competence.” Linguistic Anthropology: A Reader. Ed. Alessandro Duraanti. Malden,USA: Blackwell Publishing, 2001. 53–73. Web.
Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
111
---, “On Communicative Competence.” Sociolinguistics 269293 (1972): 269–293. Print. Jidong, Guo. “Empirical Studies on L2 Communication Strategies over Four Decades: Looking Back and Ahead.” Chinese Journal of Applied Linguistics 34.4 (2011): 89–106. Web. Johnson, Marysia. A Philosophy of Second Language Acquisition. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2004. Web. 29 Sept. 2014. Kamiya, Masashito. “The Role of Communicative Competence in L2 Learning.” Sophia Junior College Faculty Bulletin 26 (2006): 63–88. Print. Krashen, Stephen. Principles and Practice in Second Language Acquisition. Oxford: Pergamon Press Inc., 1982. Print. Kumaravadivelu, B. Understanding Language Teaching: From Method to Postmethod. London: Lawrence Erlbaum, 2006. Print. Lasala, Charita B. “Communicative Competence of Secondary Senior Students: Language Instructional Pocket.” Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 134 (2014): 226–237. Web. 5 Jan. 2015. Lee, Jin Sook, and Beverley McChesney. “Discourse Rating Tasks: A Teaching Tool for Developing Sociocultural Competence.” ELT journal 54.2 (2000): 161– 168. Web. 27 Sept. 2014. Lee, Yo.-An. “Towards Respecification of Communicative Competence: Condition of L2 Instruction or Its Objective?” Applied Linguistics 27.3 (2006): 349–376. Web. 2 Sept. 2014. Leung, Constant. “Communicative Language Teaching and EAL: Principles and Interpretations.” English as an additional language: Approaches to teaching linguistic minority students (2010): 1–14. Web. 21 Sept. 2014. Light, Janice, and David Mcnaughton. “Communicative Competence for Individuals Who Require Augmentative and Alternative Communication: A New Definition for a New Era of Communication?” Augmentative and Alternative Communication 30 (2014): 1–18. Web.
Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
112
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
Littlewood, William. Communicative Language Teaching: An Introduction. Ed. Howard B. and Altman and Peter Strevens. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981. Print. McNamara, Timothy Francis. Measuring Second Language Performance. London: Longman, 1996. Web. 9 Oct. 2014. Meier, Ardith J. “Teaching the Universals of Politeness.” ELT journal 51.1 (1997): 22–28. Web. 27 Sept. 2014. Nikbakht, Hamid. “EFL Pronunciation Teaching : A Theoretical Review.” The Journal of Applied Linguistics 4.1 (2011): 164-176. Print. Nunan, David. “Communicative Tasks and the Language Curriculum.” TESOL Quarterly 25.2 (1991): 279–295. Web. Oweis, Thelal. “A Literature Review on Communication Strategies in Language Learning.” European Scientific Journal 9.26 (2013): 245–267. Print. Paulston, Christina Bratt. Linguistic and Commuicative Competence:Topics in ESL. Vol. 85. Clevedon: Multinlingual Matters, 1992. Print. Radzi, Amizura Handadi Mohd. et al. “Adopting Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) Approach to Enhance Oral Competencies Among Students: Teachers’ Attitudes and Beliefs.” 1–23. Web. 26 Sept. 2014. Richards, Jack C. Communicative Language Teaching Today. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006. Web. ---, Competence and Performance in Language Teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011. Web. 18 Sept. 2014. Rustipa,
Katharina.
“Teaching
Communicative
Reading.”
Ragam
Jurnal
Pengembangan Humaniora 10.3 (2010): 125–130. Print. Sarwade, A. M. “Communicative Competence and Communicative Performance: A Case Study of the Post-Graduate Students of Shivaji University.” Diss. Shivaji University, 2010. Web. Savignon, Sandra J. “Beyond Communicative Language Teaching: What’s Ahead?” Journal of Pragmatics 39.1 (2007): 207–220. Web. Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
113
---, “Communicative Curriculum Design for the 21st Century.” English Language Forum 40.1 (2002): 2–7. Print. ---, “Communicative Language Teaching: Linguistic Theory and Classroom Practice.” Interpreting Communicative Language Teaching: Contexts and Concerns in Teacher Education. Ed. Sandra J. Savignon. New Haven & London: Yale University Press, 2002. 1–27. Web. ---, “Communicative Language Teaching: State of the Art.” TESOL Quarterly 25.2 (1991): 261–277. Web. Saville-Troike, Muriel. Introducing Second Language Acquisition. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006. Print. Sukirlan, Muhammad. “Teaching Communication Strategies in an EFL Class of Tertiary Level.” Theory and Practice in Language Studies 4.10 (2014): 2033– 2041. Web. Swiat, Agnieszka Slezak. “Components of Strategic Competence in Advanced Foreign Language Users.” Diss. University of Silesia, 2008. Print. Usó-Juan, Ester, and Alicia Martínez-Flor. “Approaches to Language Learning and Teaching: Towards Acquiring Communicative Competence through the Four Skills.” Current Trends in the Development and Teaching of the Four Language Skills. Ed. Ester Usó Juan and Alicia Martínez Flor. Berlin, New York: Mouton de Gruyter, 2006. 3–28. Web. ---, “Teaching Intercultural Communicative Competence through the Four Skills.” Revista alicantina de estudios ingleses 21.21 (2008): 157–170. Web. ---, “Teaching Learners to Appropriately Mitigate Requests.” ELT Journal 62.4 (2008): 349–357. Web. 27 Sept. 2014. Vernier, Silvia, et al “The Five Language Skills in the EFL Classroom.” Nueva Revista de Lenguas Extranjeras 10 (2008): 263–291. Web. 21 Sept. 2014. Walter, Jeffrey. “Teaching Converssation Structure & Strategy.” Korea TEAOL International Conference 6. 2008. Print.
Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
114
Widdowson, Henry G. “Knowledge of Language and Ability for Use.” Applied Linguistics 10.2 (1989): 128–137. Web. ---, Explorations in Applied Linguistics 2. Vol. 2. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1984. Web. 15 Oct. 2014. ---, Teaching Language as Communication. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1978. Web. 18 Sept. 2014. Yuan, Yifeng. “Pragmatics, Perceptions and Strategies in Chinese College English Learning.” Diss. Queen University of Technology, 2012. Print. Zhou, Yi. “A Study of Chinese University EFL Teachers and their Intercultural Competence Teaching.” Diss. University of Windsor, 2011. Print.
Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
Chapter 3
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
3.0
116
Introduction In the previous chapter, the literature on communicative competence had been
discussed. The researcher began with defining the term communicative competence and briefly talked about four theories and five theoretical frameworks. Later on, the researcher talked about elements of communicative competence as well as its subelements and how to teach them with relations to the four language skills. Finally, the researcher discussed communicative language teaching (CLT) as it depends on communicative competence in its basis. So far, in this chapter, the researcher talks about the research design as well as the methodological tools that are used in collecting data.
3.1
Research Design and Methods
3.1.1 Research Design A research design provides the procedures by which the researcher can collect the required data for answering the research questions. According to Griffee, a research design is “an operating model or blueprint for a research project, which accounts for internal reasoning (causality) and external reasoning (generalizability)” (41). Similarly, it is also defined as “[t]he overall plan for addressing a research question, including specifications for enhancing the study’s integrity” (Polit and Beck 730). Thus, the design of any research must clearly schedule the types of data needed (quantitative, qualitative or mixed), and how to collect such data (tools e.g., questionnaire, interview, observation, test, experiment, etc.), in addition to the participants whom the data will be collected from (sample) and how to analyze and discuss the data to answer the research questions. Interestingly, the researcher thoroughly consulted the existing knowledge in the field of communicative competence so that he could get a clear and precise design to investigate the present research problem. Particularly to what extent secondary school teachers of English language focus on elements of communicative competence while they teach English as a school subject to their students at Yaff'ea districts, South Yemen. To reach his research goal, the researcher uses the Multi-Methods research design. The research project depends on the following phases: 1.
Sample design
2.
Questionnaire design
3.
Questionnaire refereeing
Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
117
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
4.
Piloting the questionnaire
5.
Administration of the questionnaire
6.
Designing the observation checklist
7.
Piloting the observation checklist
8.
Refereeing the observation checklist
9.
Examining ethical considerations
10. Data analyses 11. Questionnaire was designed to collect information about: a)
The sample attitudes, and opinions about which sub-components of communicative competence students need to become competent in the target language (English).
b)
The sample focuses on which elements
and sub-elements of
communicative competence teachers use in their classes at secondary school level. 12. What types of errors do teachers focus on in their classes? 13. What role(s) do the teachers play during the process of teaching students at the secondary school level? 14. The observation checklist was designed to serve the following twofold goals: a)
To triangulate the validity and reliability of the data being collected from the questionnaire, which in fact, expressed teachers’ beliefs and attitudes.
b)
To give a detailed information about sub-areas of communicative competence.
3.2
Sample Design A sample is a group of participants selected from the total population where
the study takes place. Several characteristics should be taken into consideration for the sample selection. Cohen, Manion, and Morrison mentioned that the sample should truly represent the society (2000: 98), and should relate to the field in which the researcher wants to study. In the present study, the researcher chose Yaff'ea as the environment for collection of the data. Yaff'ea, is a rural area situated in South Yemen. It consists of eight districts, four districts in Abyain governorate and four districts located in Lahj governorate.
Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
118
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
However, the further distances among the districts of Yaff'ea, the difficult mountainous roads and the impossibility of finding local or private transportation to move from one district to another urged the researcher to find solutions to these obstacles to travel. Keeping in mind, the necessity to include the majority of secondary school English language teachers in the districts of Yaff'ea. Among the ways that the researcher used was to create not only a hard version of the questionnaire but also to design an electronic version of the questions, with the electronic version available through Google Drive. Seventy (70) English language teachers were able to fill out the questionnaire items by using one or the other of the versions. Table (No.3.1) below demonstrates the distributions of the study sample who responded to the questionnaire items in the districts. District
Number of
Number of
secondary schools English teachers
Number of
Percentage %
cooperative teachers
Russed
12
20
15
21 .42%
Laboos
17
40
25
35.71%
ALmaflehi
11
20
15
21.42%
Alhad
5
7
5
7.14%
Yaher
2
6
4
5.71%
Sarar
2
4
3
4.28%
Sabah
2
4
3
4.28%
Total
51
101
70
99.96%
Table (No.3.1) demonstrates the representative of the sample to each district. In addition, the researcher observed fourteen (14) English language teachers in their actual classrooms. These individuals were recruited from two districts of Yaff'ea. Table (No.3.2) illustrates the observed teachers in two districts secondary schools.
Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
119
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
District
Number of
Number of
Observed
Volunteer
English
schools
schools
teachers
Percentage
teachers Russed
15
12
6
11
85.71%
Sarar
4
2
1
3
14.28%
Total
19
14
7
14
99.99%
Table (No.3.2) illustrates the observed teachers in two districts.
3.2.1 Nonprobability Sampling The selection of the sample in this study is a nonprobability one. Dornyei states that: “Most actual research in applied linguistics employs non-probability samples” (98). Nonprobability sampling according to Creswell is chosen by the researcher to participants who are available, convenient as well as possessing properties that the researcher wants to investigate in the study (Educational Research 624). Furthermore, Creswell investigates two approaches that can be followed under nonprobability sampling: snowball approach and conveniences approach. 3.2.1.1 Snowball Sampling or (Chain Sampling) It is chosen in this study to respond to the questionnaire items. Snowball sampling is a strategy for choosing a sample where the researcher is just familiar with some of the population who have the characteristics and interests to be studied. Those people are considered as informants to the researcher and may suggest other people to the researcher who have similar qualities to them (Cohen, Manion, and Morrison, 2000: 104; Creswell, Educational Research 146;
Griffee 58). In this study, the
researcher contacts with his friends at Yaff'ea secondary schools and each friend suggests some other teachers whether in his secondary school or in other secondary schools. The researcher follows this strategy until reaching his questionnaire to secondary school teachers at seven districts in Yaff'ea. Snowball sampling according to Cohen, Manion, and Morrison is used to engage hidden participants and not likely accessible by other sampling strategies (2000: 104). However, using snowball sampling is amazing for getting in touch with inaccessible population, the researcher takes into account the representativeness of the population in all districts with
Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
120
percentages that guarantee the number of schools and English language teachers in each district to be in inclusion. 3.2.1.2 Quota Sampling Quota sampling is a strategy for selecting a sample that truly represents the population where the study will be conducted. According to Dornyei, quota sampling determines the proportion of subgroups in the sample (98). In this study, firstly the researcher uses snowballing to familiarize himself with a large number of teachers in each district as well as in each school, then transfers to symbolize each district according to the numbers of secondary schools and teachers to get a true representation to the population. On the other hand, with reference to the sample chosen for the classroom observation, the researcher continues with the nonprobability sampling design, but differs from the questionnaire sample by following a convenience sampling. 3.2.1.3 Convenience Sampling Convenience Sampling, which is
also called opportunistic or accidental
sample, is a sample design strategy by which the researcher selects participants who are accessible and eager to be part of the study (Creswell, Educational Research 145). Those participants who are convenient may be chosen from nearest areas to the researcher till the size of the sample is acceptable (Cohen, Manion, and Morrison, 2000: 102). However, the ease and access in choosing such sample, participants should possess the characteristics that the researcher wants to investigate in the study (Dornyei 98-99). In this study, the researcher chooses the sample for classroom observation, English language teachers who are not only convenient but also, who teach in the researcher’s own district as well as in the nearest district to be part of the study. So the total number of participants who accepted to be observed in this study is fourteen secondary school English language teachers. They teach English in Russed as well as in Sarar secondary schools. Fourteen English language teachers are available and readily welcomed to be observed.
Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
121
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
3.3
Method Design
3.3.1 Multimethod Approach The researcher used the Multimethods approach design to collect data from the sample. Multimethod approach is a research design in which the researcher used more than a single method in a single study. The term Multimethod or (Multi-method) refers to using more than a single method in a quantitative or qualitative paradigm (Spratt, Walker, and Robinson; Hesse-Biber). Multimethod research differs from Mixed methods research by which the first deploys any one of the two world views (quantitative or qualitative) while the latter requires the combination of both (quantitative and qualitative) in a single study (Mark; Hunter and Brewer). In this study, both questionnaire and observation are used to collect quantitative data from sample. Multimethods as a research design is deployed to compensate the weakness of one data collection tool by another. Thus, the combination of two tools (for data collections) increases the finding credibility and decreases the incredulous questions of the research (Hunter and Brewer 185). Furthermore, Spratt, Walker, and Robinson also confirm that multi-methods designs are conducted
“to supplement one
information source with another, or ‘triangulate’ on an issue by using different data sources to approach a research problem from different points of view” (8). Depending on the quotation above, the researcher uses the observation to supplement the information collected with the questionnaire in a quantitative paradigm. This study follows the (Words and Deeds) typology for multimethod combination suggested by Hunter and Brewer in (2015). Words refer in this context to teachers’ attitudes and opinions through their responding to the questionnaire items. On the contrast, the term Deeds is used to refer for teachers’ real practices and implication to the subcomponents of communicative competence in their classrooms as they have been observed by the researcher. In sum, multimethod data are usually collected according to Words and Deeds typology as: Words as data can be gathered in a variety ways that often require direct interaction: they are “voiced” and may take the form of responses to questions on a survey instrument, recorded phone conversations, or written documents. By contrast, deeds as data ideally require direct observation of behavior and so often require different Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
122
methods than those used to gather “words.” Hence the multimethod approach is routinely found in such studies where two different data sets are compared. (Hunter and Brewer 190).
3.3.2 Triangulation Triangulation is “the combination of methodologies in the study of the same phenomena” (Denzin 291). Triangulation is also defined as “a process by which the researcher can guard against the accusation that a study's findings are simply an artifact of a single method, a single source, or a single investigator's biases” (Patton 1197). There are different types of triangulation. Patton differentiates between four types: a) methods triangulations; b) triangulation of sources; c) analyst triangulation; and d) perceptive triangulation (1993). Triangulation can be used not only in qualitative research, but also in quantitative research. Bamberger states that: “.. triangulation is also used in quantitative research, usually by comparing findings from different surveys, or by comparing survey findings with census data” (14). In this study, the researcher is using the first type of triangulation, i.e., methods triangulation.
3.3.3 Methods Triangulation While the majority of researchers relate methods triangulations to using more than one method for data collections (Thomas; Gilmore), others relate triangulation to qualitative research (Creswell, Educational Research). Still others relate triangulation to the mixed approach that combines both quantitative and qualitative instrumentations (Spratt, Walker, and Robinson; Hussein). Using multiple methods are usually conducted to decrease the deficiency of a single method. In this study, the researcher triangulates the questionnaire by the classroom observation. Methods triangulation is subdivided into “within-method” and “betweenmethod” or “cross-method” triangulation (Denzin 301). Within-method triangulation is utilized whenever multiple methods of data collection are used in one paradigm, whereas between method triangulation is deployed for using multiple methods in two paradigms in a single study (Hussein; Johnson, Onwuegbuzie, and Turner). This study deploys within-method triangulation as it uses two methods in quantitative paradigm.
Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
123
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
3.4
Quantitative Paradigm Quantitative research measures the quantity of a phenomenon in numerical
scores. Kothari states that “[q]uantitative research is based on the measurement of quantity or amount. It is applicable to phenomena that can be expressed in terms of quantity” (3). The data usually collected from quantitative methods are statistically and numerically displayed. In quantitative research design, the researcher investigates a phenomenon depending on the participants’ opinions and attitudes (Creswell, Research Design 20). These are the questionnaire and observation that were used in collecting the current study data. Firstly, the researcher talks about the survey questionnaire that he designed for collecting his data and the sample for whom the survey questionnaire is oriented. Next, the researcher explains about the referees who checked the questionnaire’s validity and reliability. The last point discusses the tool of the questionnaire and how the pilot study was conducted.
3.4.1 Questionnaire Questionnaires are the most widely used instruments for data collection used by researchers in the field of social studies. They are usually used to ask about respondents’ opinions and attitudes. Questionnaires are defined as “a formalized set of questions
for
obtaining
information
from
respondents”
(Malhotra
176).
Questionnaires are a common tool for collecting quantitative data. To design a questionnaire, several steps have to be taken into account. This will be discussed under the questionnaire design. 3.4.1.1 Questionnaire Design There are certain considerations that needed to be taken into account so as to design appropriate questionnaire items. Such considerations are: a) the clarity of the items and the simplicity of both wordings and structures. Brinkman states that an item should not be ambiguous (34). The researcher has to write a single question in each item, b) avoiding double-barreled questions and/or balanced duel statements, i.e., items which contain more than one verb or concepts (Lietz 253). c) The researcher has to avoid writing items which include negative words, as well as d) avoiding writing items which contain adverbs of frequency. Leading or biasing questions should also be excluded from the questionnaire. A leading question, according to Malhotra “is one that clues the respondent to what the answer should be” (192). Finally the order of questions should be organized in suitable ways.
Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
124
In this study all the above mentioned considerations have been applied into the questionnaire design which consists of three scales: Likert scale, (See Appendix A, items: 1.a, 15, 18, 19, and 20); yes/no questions, (See items (9.a, 10, and 17.a); and multiple choices items which comprise the remaining parts of the questionnaire items. See Appendix (A) for more clarification. 3.4.1.2 Questionnaire Referee For questionnaire validity and reliability, a researcher has to discuss the questionnaire items with expert scholars in the field. By involving referees, a research candidate can get a clear understanding about the items used as well as the validity of such items to the content of the research conducted. In this study, the researcher sent his questionnaire to some Ph.Ds-holders in the field of Applied Linguistics and English language teaching (ELT) to get highly valid and reliable data. At the first step, the researcher discussed the questionnaire items with some Ph. D. candidates in the field of ELT. Then, after that discussion, the researcher sent the questionnaire items to Dr. Paul John Kurf, Ph.D., Academic Specialist, Michigan State University, USA. Dr. Paul sent back the questionnaire with some comments and suggestions which the researcher took them into account and modified the draft of the questionnaire. The researcher then sent the questionnaire to Dr. Reza Mobashshernia, who holds Ph. D. in Applied Linguistics and is employed by English Department, at Islamic Azad University, in Chaloos, Iran). He is one of the Iranian Ph.D. experts in the field of Applied Linguistics. Dr. Mobashshernia was asked to check the content validity of the items as they related to the research questions. The researcher’s items designs got a high score of validity from Dr. Mobashshernia, that is, a score of 96%. The researcher also sent the questionnaire to Dr. Doris Molero of Universidad Dr. Rafael Belloso in Venezuala. Dr. Molero, also gave her opinions and proved many comments that benefited the researcher. The famous scholar in the field of Research Methodology, Dr. Janet Salmons, who serves on the graduate faculty of the online Capella University School of Business, also refereed the questionnaire. The researcher also completed these steps with native authors and researchers to get strong validity as well as to get strong content questionnaire and reliability of research items. The final step of refereeing the questionnaire is that it has been sent to four of the famous professors of English language lecturing at Aden University of Yemen. Those professors were asked to check the clarity and ease of using the terms Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
125
to be used by the researcher to the sample. All the professors are native speakers of Arabic and perfectly aware of the performance of the study sample. After that the questionnaire was sent to my supervisor, Dr. S.S. Kanade to check the validity and reliability of my items because he is the most familiar with my topic, as he is working with me from the beginning and got a good understanding of my topic. Finally, as soon as the researcher got the agreement from his supervisor to pilot the questionnaire item, the researcher tried out his questionnaire. 3.4.1.3 Questionnaire Piloting The pilot study is regarded as the main core to try out the validity and reliability of the questionnaire on the selected sample group of the study. Rattray and Jones demonstrated the necessity to try out the questionnaire by a small group drawn from the sample that was decided upon. Piloting a questionnaire gives the researcher confidence about the clarity of items used in the questionnaire (4). The researcher can select randomly an approximate percentage of individuals from the targeted sample and distribute the questionnaire to them. The purpose of this step according to Creswell is to get feedback from the sample as to whether they can clearly understand the questionnaire items or not and to modify the instrument accordingly (Educational Research 390). In this study, twenty secondary school teachers (the chosen population were selected randomly and belong to different schools and they assign different teaching experiences) participated in the pilot administration of the questionnaire, and at the end of that administrations were asked whether they found any difficulty with the questionnaire items, or if they face any difficulty relating to the use of vocabulary or to the structure of the items. At the end, the respondents were asked to identify the specific item number(s) they thought needed for modifications. The pilot study was conducted for eleven days from 13/2/2015 until 24/2/2015. The participants included in the pilot study have been excluded from the actual participants. The researcher monitored the responses and made the modifications the respondents suggested. The modification continued throughout the period of survey piloting. Two of the questionnaire items were amended by two means, the first one by giving Arabic alternative for the English version, and the second one by modifying the structures of the two items. The researcher discussed the two items participants complained about with some of the questionnaire referees. Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
126
They believed that the source of the difficulty in the two items was due to split infinitives. Number six was the first item that was modified. (See the questionnaire at the appendix A). It was “To structurally organize a written paragraph or spoken utterance, students need to get knowledge in …”. After working it out with some of the referees, the item was amended to “To organize a written paragraph or a spoken utterance in a logical structure, students need to get knowledge in ..”. That is, the modification took the form of rewriting the item to avoid the split infinitive. The researcher decided to modify this item after he saw that 18% of the fifteen respondents found it difficult. After modification, the researcher tested the questionnaire items with more five respondents, none of whom reported any item difficulty. So, the percentage of the item difficulty reduced from 18% to become 12%. One more item which the respondents also found difficult was item No. 7 which obtained a difficulty rating of 12% by the time that 15 participants had experienced it. After discussing the difficulty rating with some of the referees, it was seen that like item 6, the problem stemmed from a split infinitive. The item was in this format, “To meaningfully organize a written paragraph or spoken utterance, students need to get knowledge in..”. After discussing the suggested modifications, the item became, “To organize a written paragraph or spoken conversation in a meaningful way, students need to get knowledge in..”. To test the modification, the researcher kept continued the piloting of the survey with more five respondents, none of whom reported any difficulty. Therefore, the percentage of difficulty of this second item decreased from 12% to 6%. 3.4.1.4 Questionnaire Administration For the questionnaire administration, two versions of questionnaire were available to participants. The first one of these was the electronic version, which was disseminated to those with internet service via Google. The second one of these was the hard copy of the questionnaire. It was sent to those who were not likely to use the internet. The locations at which the questionnaire was administered were seven districts in Yaff'ea out of the eight districts. Yaff'ea is distributed between the governorates of Abyain and Lahj. These districts are Russed, Serar, Sabbah, Laboos, Yaher, Almoflihy and Alhad. On the contrary, Khanfer district was excluded from the study because people there were evacuated to the other seven districts to save themselves Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
127
from the invasion of Alhouthi militants to their homes. The procedures used in the secondary schools in each district were as follows: The researcher sent the link to the sample participants using either Facebook messages or by sharing the link with the WhatsApp Application. The process of questionnaire administration started immediately after the piloting study being finished and took more than four months due to several obstacles. Firstly, the researcher tried to contact with his B.A. classmates in different districts and ascertain from them the number of English secondary schools teachers in their schools as well as to obtain the targeted teachers’ contact numbers or Facebook IDs. That task took much time and effort as the majority of respondents were not experienced enough in using the internet to help and those who could were hampered by the slowness of the internet connections in their rural areas. Another difficult task that the researcher did was to send the printed questionnaire to those targeted teachers who did not use the internet. Nearly about twenty five copies were sent to different districts. As we live in a developing country, all of the essential services found globally are not available in the districts of Yaff'ea, Yemen. By this, the researcher meant that when the post office service was not available in all districts, he had to try to send the questionnaire with friends or by taking them to the prospective participants himself. But the most difficult problem the researcher faced was that after sending the printed questionnaire to the teachers, and asking them to fill them up and send them back to the researcher after a period of two weeks, a civil war erupted in Yemen. As a result of the war, all the transportation vehicles are stopped due to the shortage of oil. Consequently, the researcher has waited more than two months to get some of his questionnaires back. As pointed out previously, because the researcher planned to use the observation method in addition to the questionnaire, he asked for the respondents’ consent to attend their classes. Out of the larger sample taken for the questionnaire, there were only 14 participants who accepted to be observed.
3.4.2 Classroom Observation Checklist Because observation is considered amongst the strongest instrumentations for data collection, experts have advised that it is important to use more than one instrument to triangulate the data (Cohen, Manion, and Morrison, 2000; Griffee). Following this advice, the researcher decided, besides questionnaire administration, to Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
128
use the observation to make sure about the accuracy of data being collected. As the main focus of the questionnaire is to get knowledge about the respondents’ opinions about the sub elements of communicative competence that students need to get knowledge in, the researcher designed the survey questionnaire items to query about which of the elicited elements teachers focus on during their classroom instructions. To make sure that the teachers’ estimates of their own behavior were accurate, thereby avoiding bias, the researcher tried to observe teachers in Russed and Sarar (part of the selected area). With this observation the researcher attempted to discover to what extent teachers apply the sub elements of communicative competence in their teaching practice. (See Appendix E). 3.4.2.1 Piloting the Observation Checklist The researcher designed a structured observation checklist to collect data from teachers in the selected area. He met with the manager of Russed Secondary School and explained to him about the aim of the research. The manager was appreciative of study goals and gave the researcher an agreement that allow him to come whenever he wants to observe the teachers of English language there. Teachers were also asked for their permissions to allow the researcher attending their classes to get benefit from their teaching experience. All teachers agreed and were highly welcoming. During the pilot of the observation checklist, the researcher attended classes for more than one week and quietly observed the teachers, writing down the information related to his search, that is, to what extent do teachers focus on the applications of sub-components of communicative competence. 3.4.2.2 Administrating the Classroom Observation Checklist After completing the observation checklist piloting for more than a week in Russed secondary school and observing four teachers there by confirming the ease of using it, the researcher approached to other secondary school managers as well as teachers of English language at their secondary schools to schedule the time for the observations. Among the secondary schools that the researcher visited were: Alsh'ab secondary school, which is situated on the Northern side of the centre of Russed capital district four kilometers away. The researcher had already paid a visit to Alsh'ab secondary school to get permissions from both the secondary school manager as well as English language teachers there. The first visit occurred because the school
Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
129
is out of the cell phone coverage service and such arrangements could not be made by phoning. While getting the permissions and scheduling the times for observation, the researcher returned to visit on (25/2/2015). In Alsh'ab secondary school, the researcher observed two secondary school teachers there. One of them was teaching the first year students of the secondary school a lesson entitled, “The early days” where the researcher spent nearly about 40 minutes observing the teacher, and finally requested to leave as the school bell rang announcing the end of the period. Then the researcher attended another class with another teacher who was teaching the third year students of the secondary school a lesson entitled “changing into passive”. The observation finished after 40 minutes. Alrobat secondary school was the third secondary school that the researcher visited. Alrobat is located about 10 kilometers away from the centre of Russed district. After considering the ethical issues (including getting permissions from both secondary school manager and English language teachers there), the researcher visited Alrobat secondary school on (20/3/2015) attending the classes of two teachers there. The first one was instructing the first year students in the morning with a lesson entitled: “Ahmed flies to London”. Once the researcher had spent enough time observing the teacher, he expressed his thanks and left the classroom. At the same school, the researcher also observed another teacher who was teaching second year students. The teacher taught a lesson in grammar about “Adjective Order”. Rakhama was the fourth school which was visited by the researcher. It is situated nearly about 6 kilometers to the South-East of Russed district center. Like the previous secondary schools where the researcher visited, just two English language teachers were found there. The first class that the researcher attended was with first year secondary school teacher included a lesson entitled “Shopping at Exeter”. Spending enough time with the teacher, and observing him, the teacher announced the finish of the lesson. The researcher thanked him and expressed his gratitude for his time. Finally, the researcher attended the class of the second teacher, who was teaching a lesson for second year students (Science Reader) entitled “The Human Skelton”. When the bell rang announced finishing the time, the researcher expressed his gratitude and left. Finally, the researcher visited Alsafa’ secondary school after scheduling time with the manager as well as the teachers there. As usual, there are two secondary Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
130
schools there, one for boys and the second for girls. The researcher observed the teacher who taught at the girls’ secondary school accompanied by another Ph.D. holder in ELT who completed a checklist independently so that the researcher could check the instrument reliability. That teacher was instructing the first year of secondary school giving a lesson about description for people working at airlines “What do they do?”. After the class finished, the researcher thanked the teacher as well as the independent rater and went to the boy’s secondary school where the teacher did not come to class, and the researcher finally had to leave. That was during the researcher’s visits to Russed secondary schools where he was able to observe in 80% of the total secondary schools in the district. The researcher then scheduled a visit to another district named Sarar, which is situated nearly about 17 kilometers to the south of Russed district. In Sarar district, there are two secondary schools, one near the district centre and the other is in the mountainous area that is too far away for the researcher to observe. In the district secondary school, the researcher paid a visit on (24/3/2015) where four teachers are instructing there. Unfortunately, the third year teacher of the secondary did not attend his class. But as soon as the researcher reached there, he attended a class with the first year teacher who was instructing his students with a lesson entitled “Headlines”. Whenever the class over, the researcher left and then attended another class with another teacher who was instructing the (Literary Section) second year students a grammar lesson “passive voice”. As the researcher observed him for a considerable time, the researcher left to attend the third class with a third teacher who was teaching a lesson in the second year (Science Section) about being a “Road user”. That teacher was very amazing and used English for classroom instruction. The researcher observed him until he finished his lesson and then thanked him for his time and left. Furthermore, to check the suitability of the observation checklist, the researcher gave a copy from the observation checklist to a doctorate candidate in the field of ELT, explaining for him the terms used in the checklist, and asked him to attend a class along with the researcher, observing the same teacher at the same time. The other Ph.D. candidate and the researcher separately observed a teacher and ticked the sub-elements of communicative competence that the teacher focused on during his class.
Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
131
3.4.3 Validity and Reliability One of the important steps in conducting empirical studies is the validity of items that are supposed to answer the research questions set for the research topic. Validity is checked through the correlation of the test items to the main research questions. Validity according to Field is defined as “measuring what you think you’re measuring” (2). So, if the questionnaire items are successfully eliciting information from the respondents, it can be said that the items are valid. Reliability according to Griffee is the consistent duplication of raw data over time (131). The validity and reliability of the current study is also achieved through triangulation. Golafshani confirms that “[t]riangulation is typically a strategy (test) for improving the validity and reliability of research or evaluation of findings” (603). 3.4.3.1 Reliability in Quantitative Research Reliability in quantitative research according to Cohen, Manion, and Morrison is “essentially a synonym for dependability, consistency and replicability over time, over instruments and over groups of respondents” (2007: 146). Reliability in a quantitative research also “means that the numerical results produced by an indicator do not vary because of characteristics of the measurement process or measurement instrument itself” (Neuman 116). Both definitions agreed that an instrument can be a reliable if it produces the same results over time. For improving an instrument reliability, the following steps are suggested: (1) clearly conceptualize constructs, (2) use a precise level of measurement, (3) use multiple indicators, and (4) use pilot-tests. (Neuman 116). The reliability of the current study is achieved through using two of the above measures. Neuman states that “to increase reliability is to use multiple indicators, because two (or more) indicators of the same construct are better than one” (116). Thus, the current study is reliable because it used multiple indicators to check the constructs. The researcher used items in the questionnaire to check the respondents’ beliefs and attitudes about one construct regarding to communicative competence elements, and then the researcher asked the participant explicitly about which subelements of communicative competence components they teach to their classes and
Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
132
how they teach them. Finally, the researchers observed the participants during their actual classroom instructions. On the other hand, the study reliability is also achieved via the participants’ understandability of the questionnaire items in the same way. This can be established through the pilot study. Neuman says that “[r]eliability can be improved by using a pretest or pilot version of a measure first” (117). Thus, the current study is reliable because it tried both instruments before administrations to check the understandability of the questionnaire items to the sample participants and check the ease and applicability of the observation checklist in real classroom. (See questionnaire pilot, 3.4.1.3, observation pilot 3.4.2.1). 3.4.3.2 Validity in Quantitative Research Validity in quantitative researches is concerned with “whether the means of measurement are accurate and whether they are actually measuring what they are intended to measure” (Golafshani 599). Validity is subdivided into internal validity and external validity. The former concerns with whether the instruments is measuring what is supposed to measure, whereas external validity concerns with the possibility of generalizing the instrument findings beyond the setting and sample of the study. There are several measures for checking the internal validity of an instrument like: content validity, criterion validity and construct validity (Heale and Twycross). To establish an internal validity of an instrument, Ellis and Levy recommend that one or more of the following measures should be achieved: face validity, criterion validity, construct validity, content validity, or statistical conclusion validity (334). 3.4.3.2.1 Face validity Face validity is “an intuitive process and is established by asking other people whether the measure seems to capture the concept that is the focus of attention” (Singh 79). Face validity assigns with whether “the instrument or process seem to pass the test for reasonableness” (Ellis and Levy 334). Face validity can be established by asking expert people in the field to check whether the test or survey includes all the areas in the field (Heale and Twycross 66). Both instruments of the current study achieved face validity because the researcher consulted experts in the field to check the instruments inclusion to the components of communicative competence.
Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
133
3.4.3.2.2 Content Validity Content validity can be achieved by reviewing the existed literature in the field as well as by consulting some knowledgeable people in the field (Singh 79). In the current study, the researcher thoroughly consulted the existed literatures in the field of communicative competence including four theories, five theoretical models as well as some empirical studies conducted in the field before designing the instruments for the data collection. Moreover, the researcher sent the questionnaire to four external referees and four internal experts to check the items validity. It can be said that the questionnaire of this study has a content validity accordingly. 3.4.3.2.3 Criterion (related) Validity Criterion (related) validity is “based upon the premise that processes and instruments used in a study are valid if they parallel similar those used previous, validated research” (Ellis and Levy 334). The current study has a criterion validity because so many previous studies in the field of communicative competence used both the questionnaire and observation checklist to gather data from respondent like (AL-Ahdal; Farooq; Bataineh, Thabet, and Bataineh; Dibakanaka and Hiranburana; Jidong). 3.4.3.3 Validity and Reliability of the Questionnaire In addition to the above mentioned measures discussed previously for the validity and reliability, the researcher discusses more specifically the validity and reliability of the questionnaire. Validity of the questionnaire items expresses the relationship between the "construct" and the questionnaire items designed to measure the construct. Thus, the questionnaire is valid because it succeeded to gather the data about the communicative competence elements and sub-elements set in the study. On the other hand, reliability is concerned with the “ability of a questionnaire to produce fairly stable results” (Griffee 143). The questionnaire used in this study consisted of twenty main items and ten supplementary sub-items. The length of items in an instrument increases the level of its reliability. Tamara van Gog, Fred Paas et al. have considered the “length of test” as an essential factor for high reliability (769). Moreover, the researcher uses test retest method to measure the questionnaire reliability. 3.4.3.3.1 Test-Retest An instrument can be considered reliable if it is repeated another time for the same sample and produced similar or near similar results (Page et al. 81). In this Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
134
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
study, the research administrated the questionnaire twice within interval time of two weeks between the first administration and the second. Next, the researcher calculated the correlation coefficient between the first test results got in the piloting study and the retest conducted on the same participants using Pearson correlation coefficient. The sample scores correlated between 0.81 and 0.99. (See Appendix C). 3.4.3.4 Validity and Reliability of the Observation Checklist As discussed previously about the validity and reliability of the instruments including face validity, content validity and criterion validity, it is also stated that to ensure the validity of an observation checklist, some authors like Cohen, Manion, and Morrison have confirmed the importance of piloting the observational categories to check whether they are “appropriate, exhaustive, discrete, unambiguous and effectively operationalize the purposes of the research” (2000: 129). In this research, piloting the observation checklist has been done several times and the categories of the items have been edited until they become easy to understand and check. The reliability of the observation is also checked via the inter-rater reliability. (See Appendix E) 3.4.3.2.1 Inter-rater Reliability Inter-rater reliability is a procedure for measuring the reliability of data collection instrument. According to Creswell inter-rater reliability is concerned with observing the behavior of individual(s) by which two or more raters observe the behaviors of the observed individuals and record what they see (Educational Research 161). Stemler categorized three types of inter-rater reliability, i.e., consensus estimate, consistency estimate and measurement estimate. The researcher used the formula to measure the observation checklist-reliability. According to Harris, Hedges, and Valentine (178) Agreement Rate:
AR = number of observations agreed upon *100 total number of observations Number of items agree upon*100 Number of items
= 52*100 55
Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
=
94.55 %
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
135
3.5 Ethical Consideration Ethical consideration expresses the ways in which the researcher stays ethically by logically pursuing the data collections from the samples. Creswell lists some considerations that researchers should follow to guarantee ethical treatments of the participants, including obtaining respondents’ permissions. Creswell emphasizes the necessity for preserving respondents’ anonymity as well as keeping their attitudes secret (Educational Research 169-170). Ethics has been considered in this study by assuring the sample respondents that their responses would stay confidential and would not be used in other researches, as well as making sure that they were not required to write their names on the questionnaire. Ethics was also highly considered in the case of observing the teachers. The researcher wrote to the sample participants in the questionnaire introduction that those teachers who did not mind allowing him to attend their classes to get benefit from their experience in the field of teaching, could let him know their willingness by writing a note to the researcher at the end of the questionnaire or by messaging or emailing him inviting him to come. Finally, the researcher also contacted with the secondary school manager before visiting any classrooms in their schools.
3.6
Analysis of Data Data that were collected from the sample whether by the questionnaire or by
the classroom observation needed to be coded for analysis. However, because some of the questionnaire items were open, the researcher chose to analyze all the items quantitatively for both the questionnaire as well as for the classroom observation checklist.
3.6.1 Quantitative Analysis The following are the steps the researcher took for analyzing the quantitative data. 3.6.1.1 Preparing the Data for Analysis This step involves converting the data into numerical values by coding them up, determining which program one uses for analysis, then inputting them up into the computer as well as cleaning them up (Creswell, Educational Research 200-201). In this study, the researcher downloaded the data being collected using Google Drive Application into a Microsoft Excel file, 2007 version, and coded the data using numbers. (See Appendices D & F). For the open items where respondents wrote Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
136
their replies freely, the researcher related their answers to the previous questions as such items are dependent on the other items that come before them. For such items, the researcher had to take all the respondents’ choices of each item into account. Data analysis was completed using the Statistical Package for the Social Science (SPSS), 17th edition. 3.6.1.2 Analyzing the Data There are two statistical tendencies for data analyses, the first is descriptive and the second is inferential. Descriptive analyses “are used to summarize sets of numerical data in order to conserve time and space” (Dornyei 209). Moreover, for conducting a descriptive analysis three categories are necessary for a researcher to work with, such categories according to Creswell are: a) tendencies in the data (mean, mode, median); b) the spread of scores (variance, standard deviations, and range); c) comparison between two groups scores (z scores, percentile rank) (Educational Research 182). In this study, the researcher used descriptive analysis to describe the variables for both the questionnaire results as well as the results of the classroom observation checklist. As the descriptive analyses did not allow the researcher to draw any conclusions between two groups of variables, thus, the researcher also conducted inferential analyses. Inferential analysis “is concerned with the various tests of significance for testing hypotheses in order to determine with what validity data can be said to indicate some conclusion or conclusions. It is also concerned with the estimation of population values” (Kothari 131).
3.7
Conclusion This chapter outlines the research design and methodical approach as well as
the instruments that are used in this study for collecting the data from the sample. The context of this study is Yaff'ea, where the sample was drawn from English secondary school teachers in Yaff'ea context. The researcher used a non-probability sampling. For the questionnaire, 70 English language teachers participated by giving their opinions and attitudes about their understanding of communicative competence as well as on which areas of communicative competence they focus on during their classroom instructions. The sample includes about 70% of the total population (of all English secondary school teachers in all Yaff'ea secondary schools). The second sample assigned in this study was 14 English secondary school teachers, who
Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
137
welcomed the researcher to observe them in their classrooms. These individuals live in both Russed and Sarar districts. They constitute nearly about 70% of the total secondary school teachers in those two districts. The researcher followed a multi method quantitative designs. Both questionnaire and observation were used to collect data from the samples. Google Drive Application (GDA) was used for constructing the questionnaire and for sharing the questionnaire link with the sample whether on Facebook or by using the WhatsApp application. Raw data were automatically recorded in Google Drive file for the internet-based administration. Finally, the researcher transfers raw data into numerical values and inputs them into SPSS software, (17th version).
3.8 Works Cited: AL-Ahdal, Arif Ahmed Mohammed Hassan. “Enhancing Competence of Secondary School English Teachers in Yemen: A Need-Based Syllabus for INSET Programmes.” Diss. Panjab University, 2011. Print. Bamberger, Michael. “Opportunities and Challenges for Integrating Quantitative and Qualitative Research.” Integration Quantitative and Qualitative Research in Development Projects. Ed. Michael Bamberger. Washington: The World Bank, 2000. 2–26. Print. Bataineh, Rula Fahmi, Ruba Fahmi Bataineh, and Samiha Saif Thabet. “Communicative Language Teaching in the Yemeni EFL Classroom: Embraced or Merely Lip-Serviced?” Journal of Language Teaching and Research 2.4 (2011): 859–866. Web. Brinkman, Willem-Paul. “Design of a Questionnaire Instrument.” Handbook of Mobile Technology Research Methods (2009): 31–57. Print. Cohen, Louis, Lawrence Manion, and Keith Morrison. Research Methods in Education. (5th ed). London: Routledge, 2000. Print. Cohen, Louis, Lawrence Manion, and Keith Morrison. Research Methods in Education. (6th ed). New York: Routledge, 2007. Print. Creswell, John W. Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Research. (4th ed). Boston: Pearson Education, 2012. Print.
Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
138
Creswell, John W. Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Approach. (2nd ed). Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications, 2003. Print. Denzin, Norman K. The Research Act: A Theoretical Introduction to Sociological Methods. (2nd ed). New York: McGraw-Hill, 1978. Web. Dibakanaka, Anothai, and Kulaporn Hiranburana. “Developing an E-Learning Competency-Based English.” International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications 2.8 (2012): 1–14. Print. Dörnyei, Zoltán. Research methods in applied linguistics: Quantitative, Qualitative, and Mixed Methodologies. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007. Print. Ellis, Timothy J, and Yair Levy. “Towards a Guide for Novice Researchers on Research Methodology: Review and Proposed Methods.” Informing Science and Information Technology 6 (2009): 324–337. Print. Farooq, Muhammad U. “Creating a Communicative Language Teaching Environment for Improving Students’ Communicative Competence at EFL/EAP University Level.” International Education Studies 8.4 (2015): 179–192. Web. Field, Andy. “Designing a Questionnaire.” Questionnaire Design (2003): 6. Print. Gilmore, Alexander. “Getting Real in the Language Classroom: Developing Japanese Students’ Communicative Competence with Authentic Materials.” Diss. University of Nottingham, 2007. Print. Golafshani, Nahid. “Understanding Reliability and Validity in Qualitative Research.” The Qualitative Report 8.4 (2003): 597–607. Web. Griffee, Dale T. An Introducation to Second Langauge Research Methods: Design and Data. (1st ed). Berkeley, California: TESL-EJ Publications, 2012. Print. Harris, C., L. V. Hedges, and J. C. Valentine. “Handbook of Research Synthesis and Meta-analysis. (2nd ed). New York: Russell Sage Foundation, (2009). Print. Heale, Roberta, and Alison Twycross. “Validity and Reliability in Quantitative Studies.” Evidence-Based Nursing 18.3 (2015): 66–67. Web. Hesse-Biber, S Nagy. Mixed Methods Research: Merging Theory with Practice. New York: The Guilford Press, 2010. Print. Hunter, Albert, and John Brewer. “Designing Multimethod Research.” The Oxford Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
139
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
Handbook of Multimethod and Mixed Methods Research Inquiry. Ed. Sharlene Hesse-Biber and R. Burke Johnson. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2015. 185–205. Web. Hussein, Ashatu. “The Use of Triangulation in Social Sciences Research : Can Qualitative and
Quantitative Methods
Be
Combined ?”
Journal
of
Comparative Social Work 1 (2009): 1–12. Print. Jidong, Guo. “Empirical Studies on L2 Communication Strategies over Four Decades: Looking Back and Ahead.” Chinese Journal of Applied Linguistics 34.4 (2011): 89–106. Web. Johnson, R. Burke, Anthony J. Onwuegbuzie, and Lisa A. Turner. “Toward a Definition of Mixed Methods Research.” Journal of Mixed Methods Research 1.2 (2007): 112–133. Web. Kothari, C.R. Research Methodology: Method and Techniques. 2nd ed. New Delhi: New Age International, 2011. Print. Lietz, Petra. “Research into Questionnaire Design: A Summary of the Literature.” International Journal of Market Research 52.2 (2010): 249. Web. Malhotra, Naresh K. “Questionnaire Design and Scale Development.” The Handbook of Marketing Research (2006): 176–202. Web. Mark, Melvin M. “Mixed and Multimethods in Predominantly Quantitative Studies, Especially Experiments and Quasi-Experiments.” The Oxford Handbook of Multimethod and Mixed Methods Research Inquiry. Ed. Sharlene Hesse-Biber and R. Burke Johnson. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2015. 21–41. Print. Neuman, W. Lawrence. Basics of Social Research: Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches. (2nd ed). Boston: Pearson Education, 2007. Print. Page, Piers et al. Success in Medicine Series: An Introducation to Clinical Research. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012. Print. Patton, Michael Quinn. “Enhancing the Quality and Credibility of Qualitative Analysis.” HRS: Health Srvices Research 34.5 (1999): 1189–1208. Print. Polit, Denise F., and Cheryl Tatano Beck. Nursing Research: Principles and Methods. (7th ed). Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2004. Print.
Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
140
Rattray, Janice, and Martyn C. Jones. “Essential Elements of Questionnaire Design and Development.” Journal of Clinical Nursing 16 (2007): 234–243. Web. Singh, Kultar. Quantitative Social Research Methods. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications, 2007. Web. Spratt, C., R. Walker, and B Robinson. “Module A5-Mixed Research Methods.” PREST: Practitioner Research and Evaluation Skills Training in Open and Distance Learning. Vancouver: Commonwealth of Learning, 2004. 1–14. Print. Stemler, Steven E. “A Comparison of Consensus, Consistency, and Measurement Approaches to Estimating Interrater Reliability.” Practical Assessment, Research & Evaluation 9.4 (2004): 1–17. Web. Tamara Van Gog, Fred Paas et al. “Data Collection and Analysis. Handbook of Research on Educational Communications and Technology. Ed. J. Michael Spector M. David Merrill and Jeroen van Merriënboer Marcy P. Driscoll. (3rd ed). New York: Lawrence Erlbaum, 2008. Print Thomas, Pelleth Yohannan. “Towards Developing a Web-Based Blended Learning Environment at the University of Botswana.” Diss. University of South Africa, 2010. Web. Available at: http://uir.unisa.ac.za/handle/10500/4245?show=full
Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
Chapter 4
DATA ANALYSES AND INTERPRETATIONS
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
4.0
142
Introduction In chapter three, the researcher discussed the research design, research
methods, questionnaire design, referee, administration, and observation checklist design, pilot of the questionnaire and observation and administration. Sample designs for both the questionnaire and the observation checklist were also explained. Furthermore, the researcher also discussed the reliability and validity of the questionnaire and the observation checklist. In this chapter, the researcher displays the findings and symbolizes the questionnaire items as well as the observation checklist and compares the similarities and difference between both teachers’ beliefs and practice in actual classroom.
4.1
Presentation of the Questionnaire Findings The items of the questionnaire were designed to elicit information from the
respondents about their knowledge of the aspects of communicative competence and how they believe such aspects be presented in the classroom. That is, the data were collected from the sample respondents of high school teachers in the targeted districts reflect teachers’ theoretical knowledge and beliefs about the communicative competence areas. Therefore, this section deals with the results of the questionnaire items in terms of teachers’ perceptions about communicative competence theory and practice as explained below.
Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
143
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
4.1.1 Teachers’ Responses to/ or Teachers’ Perceptions about Linguistic Competence Items 4.1.1.1 a) Teaching English grammar rules is necessary to secondary school students.
54.3
60 50
40
40 30 20 4.3
10 0 1.4 0
Strongly disagree
Disagree
Neither agree nor disagree
Agree
Strongly agree
Figure (4.1) Teachers’ beliefs about teaching grammar. Figure (4.1) shows that more than a half of the respondents (54.3%) reported their “strongly agreement” to the necessity of teaching grammar at secondary school level. Similarly, 40% of them also agreed to the importance of teaching grammar. On the other hand, very low percentage of the respondents chose a neutral response (neither agree nor disagree), just about 4.3% of them. Finally, very low percentage (1.4%) of the respondents gave a negative attitude to the importance of teaching grammar. To conclude, the overwhelmingly of the teachers reported their strongly/agreements which support the communicative approach ideas about the importance of teaching grammar. Гумилев calls for the necessity of teaching English grammar for the purpose of enhancing students’ overall communicative competence and their fluency in English (176).
Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
144
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
4.1.1.1 b) If you selected a positive answer, what is the best way to teach grammar? 45 43.9
40 35 30 25
25.3
25.3
20 15 10 5
5.3
0
Other
Using the rule in a context Giving examples and asking students to discover the rule Explaining the rule
Figure (4.2) Teachers’ approach to teaching grammar. Figure (4.2) shows that about 43.9% of the teachers reported their deductive orientation to teach English grammar, that is, they set up the grammar rules and explain them to their students. On the other hand, the figure above also indicates that 25.3% of teachers taught grammar rules inductively to their students. Similarly, 25.3% of teachers declared that they teach grammar rules communicatively by using the rules in classroom talks. Finally, just about 5.3% of the teachers showed that they used other ways for teaching grammar to their students. The teaching of grammar whether deductively or inductively remains far away from the communicative approach principles. Al-Humaidi states that grammar rules are best acquired by learners through meaningful situation, because the communicative approach focuses on the semantic dimension of language.
Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
145
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
4.1.1.2 a) Teaching new English words is best through:
28.60%
30.00% 24.30%
25.00%
20%
21.40%
20.00% 15.00% 10.00% 5.00%
2.90% 2.90%
0.00%
Other Ways
Guessing the meaning through the context
Using real objects
Explaining the meaning in English
Definition
Translation
Figure (4.3) Teachers’ perceptions about teaching new words. Figure (4.3) shows that 28.6% of teachers reported their preference to introduce or demonstrate new vocabulary to their students using English. About a quarter of the respondents, 24.30% thought that using the linguistic or social context and motivating their students to guess up the meaning of new words facing them is the best way to teach new words. The figure also shows that 21.40% of the respondents are likely interested in using real objects to teach new words for their class. On the other hand, one-fifth of the teachers (20%) reported that they use students’ first language to teach them the new words. Finally, few teachers (2.90%) responded that they used definitions to demonstrate new words for students. Similarly 2.90% of them stated that they use other ways including synonyms, antonyms, and words sets.
Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
146
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
4.1.1.2 b)Which of the above list do you usually use to introduce new words to your students?
18.1 0
37.5
8.3 8.3 2.8 1.4
5.6
2.8
8.3
3
2.8
Translation Definition Explaining the meaning in English Using real objects Guessing the meaning through context Other ways All choices Translation and definition Translation, definition, and explaining the meaning in English Explaining the meaning in English and using real objects Using real objects, using context,or Explaining the meaning through English Omission
Figure (4.4) Teachers’ reflections to teaching new words. Figure (4.4) shows that 38% of the respondents avoided to respond to the question, while 18% of them reported that they translate new words into students’ mother tongue. The figure also indicates that 8.3% of teachers responded similarly to the three methods of using English to demonstrate new words for their students, using real objects to explain new word, and a mix of the two methods mentioned above in addition to definition, translation, and guessing the meaning through context. Moreover, the figure displays that teachers combined more than a single method for teaching new words for example, 5.6% of them reported that they use translation, definition and explaining the meaning in English. Furthermore, 2.8% of the teachers Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
147
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
responded similarly for three methods of “translation and definition”, “guessing the meaning through context”, and “using real objects, using contexts or explaining the meaning through English”. Finally, explaining the meaning in English and using real objects was focused by 1.4% of teachers, while 3% of them reported that they use other ways for teaching new words. 4.1.1.3 To understand and produce isolated sentences in English, students need to get knowledge in:
50 50 40 25.7
30 20 10 Other
2.9
1.4 0
Vocabulary
5.7
10 2.9
All of the above
None of the above
Pronunciation
Grammar
Word formation
Figure (4.5) Teachers’ perception about linguistic competence. Figure (4.5) shows that just about a half of the respondents (50%) was aware of the sub-components that are necessary for understanding and producing isolated sentences in English by selecting all the above choice. The figure also indicates that 26% of the respondents asserted the importance of vocabulary in understanding and producing new isolated sentences in English. Ten percent of the respondents viewed that grammar is the most important element to become linguistically competent while 6% of them perceived the importance of wordformation. The figure also displays that 2.9% of the respondents reported the importance of pronunciation for becoming competent in linguistics. Finally, 2.9% of them reported that none of the mentioned choices was important for becoming linguistically competent while just 1.4% of them related that becoming component in linguistics to other things.
Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
148
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
4.1.1.4 Which areas of English phonology do you focus on? 45 41.4
40
41.4
35 30 25 20 15 10 5
7.1
2.9
5.7 1.4
0
Other
All of the above
None of the above
Stress Pattern
Intonation
Consonant and vowel sounds
Figure (4.6) teachers’ areas of focus in teaching English phonology. Figure (4.6) demonstrates that 41% of the respondents claimed that they focused on all the listed areas of phonology, i.e., sound systems, stress patterns and intonation. Similarly, 41% of them declared that they focused on sound systems. The figure also shows that 7% of teachers reported they never focused on any areas of phonology. Six percent of the respondents said that they focused on intonation. Finally, 3% of respondents stated that they focused on other areas of phonology, while just 1.4% of them revealed that they focus on stress patterns.
Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
149
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
4.1.2 Teachers’ Responses to/ or Teachers’ Perceptions about Discourse Competence Items 4.1.2.1 a) To understand and produce English texts in writing or speaking, students need to get knowledge in: 51.4
60 40
24.3
20
20 0
1.4
2.9
Other All of the Above How a conversation is formed How sentences are linked according to their meanings How sentences are grammatically linked
Figure (4.7) Teachers’ perceptions about aspects of discourse competence. Figure (4.7) shows that nearly about a half (51%) of the respondents was aware of all the components of discourse competence. On the other hand, about a quarter (24%) of them perceived the importance of coherence in understanding texts and producing utterances. Next to the importance of coherence, the figure also displays that 20% of respondents reported the importance of cohesion in comprehending or producing discursive texts or talks. Finally, 3% of the respondents showed the importance of conversational structure, while 1.4% of them revealed that others components were required to become competent in discourse.
Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
150
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
4.1.2.1. b) Please specify which of the above choices do you explain to your students?
18.6 30
15.7 1.4 8.6 2.9 1.4 2.9
10 8.6
How sentences are grammatically linked How sentences are linked according to their meanings How a conversation is formed All the above
None of the above Other How sentences are grammatically linked and how a conversation is formed How sentences are grammatically linked and how sentences are linked according to their meanings How sentences are linked according to their meaning and how a conversation is formed Omission
Figure (4.8) Teachers’ focuses on discourse competence aspects.
Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
151
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
Figure (4.8) displays that 30% of the respondents avoided to give their attitudes and opinions, while about 19% of them reported their focus on discourse cohesion, that is the grammatical link among sentences to make a whole paragraph or text. Similarly, 16% of them said that they focused on coherence, that is the semantic link among sentences to make a meaningful paragraph or text. The figure also shows that 10% of the teachers focused on conversational structures, while 9% reported their focus on the three elements of discourse (cohesion, coherence, and conversational structures). Similarly, about 9% of the respondents stated that they focused on both coherence and cohesion, whereas 3% focused on cohesion and conversational structures. Just only 1% of the respondents showed they focused on both conversational structures and sentence coherence. Finally the remaining percentages showed whether the respondents did not focus on any element of discourse or other components (3%, 1%) respectively. 4.1.2.2 a) To organize a written paragraph or a spoken utterance in a logical structure, students need to get knowledge in: 40.0
37.5 34.4
35.0 30.0 25.0
20.0 14.1
15.0
10.9
10.0 5.0
3.1
.0 All of the above
Parallel structures
Substitution/ellipsis
Reference
Conjunctions
Figure (4.9) Teachers’ perception about cohesion Figure (4.9) shows that 37.5% of the respondents reported the importance of reference in organizing and comprehending a logically structured texts or a conversation. Nearly about 34.4% of them perceived the importance of conjunctions in discourse cohesion. The figure also shows that 14.1% of the respondents reported the importance of substitution/ellipses. Parallel structures were received the lowest percentage among the four areas of discourse cohesion in just about 10.9. The last Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
152
group stated the importance of all choices, (i.e., reference, substitution/ellipses, conjunctions and parallel structures) in just 3.1% of the total sample. Finally, about 9% of the respondent avoid to answer this item. 4.1.2.2 b) Which element(s) of the above choices do you make your students familiar with?
Reference and Parallel structures Conjuctions and Parallel structures
1.41.41.4 1.4
Reference, Conjunctions, and Parallel structures
5.7
Reference and Substitution/ellipsis
1.4 30.0 10.0
2.9
Reference and Conjuctions Reference, Substitution/ellipsis, and Conjunctions All the choices
12.9
Parallel structures Conjunctions
22.9
8.6
Substitution/ellipsis Reference
Missing
Figure (4.10) teachers’ perception about their focus of teaching cohesion. The majority of the respondents (30%) avoided to respond to which areas of discourse they teach their class. The second higher percentage shows that nearly about 22.9% of the respondents focus on reference while 12.9% of the respondents reported that they teach conjunctions. Nearly about 10% of the respondents stated their focus on all areas of cohesion. The respondents gave 8.6% of their focuses to substitutions and ellipses and 2.9% to parallel structures. The figure also shows combinations for more than one sub-elements of discourse cohesion, about 5.7% of the respondents stated that they focused on both reference and conjunctions, while 1.4% of them Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
153
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
reported to focus on reference, conjunctions and parallel structures; conjunctions and parallel structures; and finally reference and substitutions ellipses. 4.1.2.3 To organize a written paragraph or spoken conversation in a meaningful way, students need to get knowledge in: missiing 1.4 1.4 All the above
Sequences of tenses
18.6 34.3
15.7 28.6
Relating previous knowledge to the present topic Themes of topics
Figure (4.11) teachers’ perceptions about coherence Figure (4.11) shows that 34% of the respondents reported for the significance of comprehending the theme of the topic to understand the meaning of a discourse coherence, while 29% of them valued the importance of relating the previous knowledge to the present discourse for understanding its meaning. The figure also shows that 19% of the respondents thought of the importance of paragraph unity in comprehending or producing discourse, while 16% of them related the importance of understanding discourse coherence to sequences of tenses. Finally, about 1.4% of the respondents selected all choices (themes of topic, relating previous knowledge to the present topic, sequence of tense and paragraph unity) for understanding the meaning of discourse coherence, while the same percentage avoid to respond to this item.
Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
154
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
4.1.2.4 To participate effectively in a conversation, students need to get knowledge in:
1.4 18.6 50 30
00
Others
All the above
How to close the a conversation
How to interrupt
How to develop the ideas
How to open a dialogue
Figure (4.12) teachers’ perceptions about conversational structures. Figure (4.12) shows that a half of the respondents (50%) reported the importance of all choices for participating effectively in a conversation, while 30% of them selected "how to develop the ideas" whenever participating effectively in a conversation. The figure also shows that nearly about 19% of the respondents stated the importance of how to open a conversation. Finally just low percentage of (1%) of them chose the choice "Others" for participating effectively in a talk.
Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
155
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
4.1.3 Teachers’ Responses to/ or Teachers’ Perceptions about Strategic Competence Items 4.1.3.1 a) English language learners usually lack specific vocabulary or structures when they talk with others using English. Students need to discover ways to help them compensate any lack of their knowledge in English. Do you motivate your students to use communicative strategies?
5.7
7.1
No 87.1
Cannot tell Yes
Figure (4.13) Teachers’ perceptions about strategic competence. Figure (4.13) demonstrates that 87% of teachers said that they motivate their students to create up strategies enabling them to keep communication channel going on, while 7% of them remained neutral or did not decide whether they motivate their students or not. The figure also shows 6% of the teachers indicated that they never motivate their students to use communicative strategies for keeping the communication channel open. Lewis confirms that teachers should tell students about the fact that even native speakers make errors when they speak, so it is teachers’ duty to accustom students on some communicative strategies that students could take the risk and apply them in using L2 (48).
Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
156
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
4.1.3.1 b) If you selected yes, how often do you motivate your students to use communicative strategies?
35 31.3 29.7
30 25
25
20 15
10.9
10 3.1
5 0
Never
Rarely
Occasionally
Frequently
Most of the Time
Figure (4.14) Teachers’ frequency in motivating students to use communicative strategies. Figure (4.14) shows that about 31% of respondents said that they occasionally motivate their students to use communicative strategies, while
nearly a similar
amount of 30% stated that they frequently motivate students to create and make use for what they have learnt to keep their channel of communication going on. The figure also demonstrates that 25% of respondents mentioned that most of the time they motivate students to use communicative strategies. That was in the positive dimension of teachers’ perceptions about motivating their students to use communicative strategies. On the other hand, the negative side was that about 11% of the respondents said that the rarely motivate students while 3% of them never motivate students to use communicative strategies at all.
Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
157
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
4.1.3.2 Sometimes our students cannot find the suitable words they need when they are speaking in English. Which of the following strategies can help them keep the communicative channel open?
34.3
40 30
15.7
20 10 0
12.9
12.9
15.7
5.6
2.9 0
Other
None of the above
All of the above
paraphrasing
Asking for help
Using Arabic words
Miming or gesturing
Stopping or changing the topic
Figure (4.15) teachers’ perception about using communicative strategies. Figure (4.15) shows that nearly about 34% of the respondents showed the importance of ask for help strategy for their students whenever they meet any difficulty during participating in a conversation. Meanwhile, 15.7% of respondents reported the fantasy of using Arabic words or phrases for their students when they come up with any difficulty. Similarly, the same percentage 15.7% of respondents perceived the importance of earning time using miming or gesturing by which students can think of suitable words or phrases and continuing the talks. The figure above also shows that 12.9% of respondents viewed the significance of using paraphrasing strategy for their students in case of encountering with difficulty. Furthermore, the same percentage 12.9% of respondents valued all mentioned achievements strategies, (Stopping or changing the topic, miming or gesturing, using Arabic words, asking for help and paraphrasing) to be applied by their students for genuine overcoming any shortage of knowledge while participating in any talks. Finally, (5.6%) of respondents appreciated avoidance strategies specifically stop or change the topic, while 2.9% of them weighed the using other than the mentioned strategies for their students. Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
158
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
4.1.4 Teachers’ Responses to/ or teachers’ Perceptions about Sociolinguistic Competence Items 4.1.4.1 a)To understand the intention of native speakers in their talks or writings, students need to get knowledge in:
40.0
Language functions
35.7
Culture of English people
25.7
30.0
Registers of English
21.4
Varieties of English
20.0 10.0 10.0
4.3 1.4
1.4
.0
All the above None of the above Omission
Figure (4.16) teachers’ perceptions about pragmatic competence. Figure (4.16) shows that 35.7% of the respondents perceived that students need to get knowledge in language functions for understanding the intentions of native speakers, while 25.7% of the them reported that in order to understand the intention of native speakers, students need to acquire knowledge in language functions, culture of English people, registers of English as well as varieties of English. The figure also shows that 21.4% of the respondents valued the importance of culture for understanding the pragmatic of native speakers, whereas 10% of them reported that students need to get knowledge in registers of English to comprehend the native speakers’ pragmatics. It is also shown that 1.4% of the respondents revealed the importance of getting knowledge in varieties of English for understanding native speakers pragmatics, while 4.3% of them stated that understanding the native speakers pragmatics do not require any of the given choices. Finally, 1.4% avoided to respond to the item.
Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
159
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
4.1.4.1 b) Which elements of the above choices do you focus during your classroom teaching? Language functions Culture of English people Registers of English 35
34.7 Varieties of English
30 22.2 25 20
None of the above
15 10 5
All the above
9.7
9.7
6.9 5.6 4.2 2.8
2.8 1.4
0
Language functions and Culture of English people Language functions, Culture of English people, and Registers of English Language functions and Registers of English Omission
Figure (4.17) teachers’ focuses on teaching pragmatic competence. Figure (4.17) shows that 34.7% of the respondents stated that they focus on teaching language functions, while about 22.2% of them avoided to respond to this item. Furthermore, 9.7% of the respondents reported that they focus on the culture of English people in their classroom instructions. Similarly, 9.7% of the respondents said that they did not teach their students any components of pragmatic competence. The figure also shows that 4.2% of the respondents revealed that they focus on registers of English, while 2.8% of them reported their focus on varieties of English during their classroom instructions. Furthermore, nearly about 5.6% of respondents stated that they focus on all areas of pragmatic competence. The combinations of more than one component of pragmatic competence elements are also shown. Language functions and culture of English people received the focus by nearly about 7% of the respondents, while language functions, culture of English as well as register
Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
160
of English were received the focus of (2.8%) of them. Finally, language functions and registers of English were just focused by (1.4%) of the respondents. 4.1.5 Teachers’ Responses to/ or Teachers’ Perceptions about Fluency/Accuracy Items 4.1.5.1 When students participate in classroom activities, teachers focus on: 0 17
3 3
77
Omission
Neither
Both
Students' pronunciation
Students' grammar
Figure (4.18) Teachers’ focuses on students’ fluency/accuracy. Figure (4.18) shows that the majority of respondents about (77%) stated that teachers should focus on both students’ fluency in pronunciation and accuracy in grammar. Nearly about 17% of them reported on the importance for teachers to focus on students’ pronunciations while they talk. Finally, 3% of the respondents viewed that it is important that teachers should focus on students’ grammar during their participations while 3% of them avoided to give their perceptions to the item. Teachers’ perceptions about the importance of developing students’ fluency as well as accuracy reflected their understanding about the communicative language teaching approach, (Richards).
Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
161
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
4.1.5.2 When students make mistakes in grammar during their talk in English:
3 32
28
37
Omission Teacher should interrupt them and suggest correction Teacher should ignore that mistake Teacher should correct them directly
Figure (4.19) teachers’ focuses on students’ errors. Figure (4.19) shows that 37% of the respondents said that teachers should ignore students’ grammatical errors, while 32% of them expressed strictly that teachers should correct students’ grammatical errors directly. The figure also shows that 28% of the respondents reported that teachers should interrupt students whenever they make errors in grammar and suggest them some corrections. Finally, just about 3% of the respondents did not respond to this item.
Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
162
4.1.5.3 Which types of students’ errors should teachers correct directly? %1
%3
%16
%4
%12
%64
Omission
I don't know
Word choices
Language use
Pronunciation errors
Grammar errors
Figure (4.20) teachers’ perceptions on direct correction on error-types. Figure (4.20) shows that the majority of participants (64%) viewed that teachers should directly correct students’ pronunciations errors, while 16% of them declared that students’ grammatical errors should be directly corrected. The figure also displays that 12% of the respondents perceived that teachers should directly correct students’ language use errors. Finally, 4% of teachers reported for the necessity to correct students’ word choices errors, while 3% of them frankly indicated that they did not know which kind of errors to be directly corrected, and just 1% of them avoid to respond to this item.
Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
163
4.1.6 Teachers’ Responses to/ or Teachers’ Perceptions about their Roles inside Class Items 4.1.6.1 The roles of teacher change depending on the tasks or activity s/he is teaching to class. 0
0 6 38
56
Strongly disagree
Disagree
Neither agree nor disagree
Agree
Strongly agree
Figure (4.21) Teachers’ perceptions about changing their roles in classes. Figure (4.21) shows teachers’ opinions and perceptions about changing the roles according to the kind of tasks or activities they give to their students. The great majority of the respondents in a percentage about (56%) agree with importance of changing their roles in classes. On the same perception, 38% of the respondents reported their strongly agreement to the view of changing teachers’ roles inside classes. Finally, only about 6% of the respondents did not respond to this item.
Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
164
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
4.1.6.2 Which role do you play mostly in your classroom? 45.0 Counselor 41.4
40.0
Demonstrator 35.0
34.3
Helper
30.0
Dominator 25.0
Advisor
20.0
other
15.0 10.0
10.0 7.1
5.0
4.3 2.9
.0
Figure (4.22) teachers’ role inside class. Figure (4.22) shows that about 41% of the respondents stated that they mostly play a role as demonstrators in their classes, while 34% of them said that their favorite role is to help their students. Furthermore, the figure shows that 10% of the respondents reported that they play the role of counselors and 7% claimed that they play other than the listed roles. The domination of teachers to their class is just indicated by 4% of the respondents. Finally, 3% of them are advisors to students in the learning and teaching process.
Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
165
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
4.1.7 Teachers’ Responses to/ or Teachers’ Perceptions about Communicative Competence/Communicative Language Teaching Items. 4.1.7.1 a) Are you familiar with the term “Communicative Competence? Cannot tell
No
Yes
12
11
77
Figure (4.23) teachers’ familiarity with communicative competence. Figure (4.23) shows that the great majority of the teachers (77%) said that they are familiar with the term communicative competence in the field of English language acquisition, learning and teaching. While 12% of them did not respond. They did not say whether they are familiar or unfamiliar with the term. Finally, among the total respondents just 11% showed their unfamiliarity with the term of communicative competence.
Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
166
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
4.1.7.1 b) If your answer was yes, where have you got that familiarity?
5
25
40
30
Other
During my reading about ELT
During a course for teachers-training
During my study
Figure (4.24) teachers’ source of familiarity with communicative competence. Amongst the respondents who claimed that they are familiar with the term “communicative competence”, figure (4.24) shows that 40% of the participants said that they got familiar with the term during their studies at colleges. While 30% of them demonstrated that courses for teachers-trainers enlightened them with the term of communicative competence. The figure also displays that 25% of the respondents stated that they became familiar with communicative competence as a result of their reading and updating themselves about English language teaching. Finally just about 5% of the respondents related their familiarity with the term communicative competence to others sources.
Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
167
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
4.1.7.2 The purpose of English Language Teaching is to enhance students’ communicative competence? Strongly agree Agree
60.0
60.0 50.0
Niether agree nor disagree
40.0 30.0
31.4
Disagree
20.0 10.0
4.3
2.9
1.4
Strongly disagree
.0
Figure (2.25) teachers’ perceptions about communicative competence. Figure (4.25) views teachers’ perceptions about making the aim of English language teaching is to develop students’ communicative competence. Among the respondents, the highest percentage, that is about (60%) agree with this view. Similarly, 31% of the respondents expressed their strongly agreements about making the aim of English language teaching is to enhance students’ communicative competence. On the other hand, just a few percentage (4.3%) of the respondents did not express their agreement or disagreement about this views. Just 3% of them expressed their disagreement about this theory. Finally, 1% expressed their strongly disagreements.
Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
168
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
4.1.7.3 Communicative Language Teaching is the best Teaching method for developing students’ communicative competence
Strongly agree
55.7
60.0
Agree
50.0 40.0
Niether agree nor disagree
38.6
30.0
Disagree
20.0
Strongly disagree
10.0 .0
5.7 .0
.0
Figure (2.26) teachers’ perceptions about communicative language teaching. As the overspread towards the orientation of modern methods in the field of English language teaching, the respondents were asked about their views in considering communicative language teaching as the best method in teaching English as a foreign or second language. The majority of the respondents (56%) support their agreement to the theory of communicative approach. Similarly, nearly about 38% of them expressed their strongly agreements to communicative approach theory. Finally just about 6% of the respondents stayed neutral to communicative approach theory. They did not agree whether the communicative approach is the best method for teaching English nor did that disagree with this belief.
Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
169
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
4.1.7.4 Using technology in teaching English can motivate students to learn language better.
Strongly disagree 1.4 0 Disagree Neither agree nor disagree
2.9 34.3
61.4
Agree Strongly agree
Figure (4.27) teachers’ perceptions about integration technology in ELT. Finally, the last item in the questionnaire asks the respondents about their opinions towards the great importance that technology may positively associate in developing students communicative competence. Figure (4.27) shows that the majority of the respondents (61.4%) expressed their strongly agreements towards the positive role that technology plays in developing students communicative competence. The second higher percentage also shows that the respondents stated their agreements to the magnificent role that technology may participate in producing competent speakers in a percentage of about 34%. Contradictively, just about 3% of the respondent stayed neutral and 1% of them disagreed with the role of technology in enhancing learners communication abilities.
4.2
Presentation of the Observation Checklist Results In the previous section, the researcher has displayed the data that he got from
the first sample (teachers respond to the questionnaire items) by answering to the questionnaire items given to them. In the following section of this chapter, the researcher demonstrates the data obtained during his observation of 14 secondary school teachers in Yaff'ea district of Yemen. The checklist focused on the following steps:
Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
170
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
4.2.1
Teaching Grammar
35.7 Deductive
50.0 50.0
Inductive
40.0
30.0
Communicative
7.1 7.1
20.0
No focused at all by the teacher
10.0 .0
1
Figure (4.28) teachers’ actual focus on teaching grammar. Figure (4.28) shows that 50% of the observed teachers taught grammar rules deductively to their students. On the other hand, 36% of them neglected grammatical rules from their lessons’ aims. The figure also shows that 7% of the observed teachers taught grammatical rule inductively. Similarly, 7% of them taught grammar rules communicatively. 4.2.2
Teaching Vocabulary
Translation
70.0
Demonstration in English 64.3
60.0
Translation and Demonstration in English
50.0
Demonstration and and using context
40.0 30.0 20.0 10.0 .0
14.3 7.1
7.1
Demonstration and using real objects
7.1
Definition .0
.0 Using context to guess the meaning
Figure (4.29) teachers’ focuses for teaching vocabulary. Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
171
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
Figure (4.29) displays that the majority of the observed teachers (64%) translated the new vocabulary in the lesson into the students’ mother tongue (Arabic). On the other hand, 14% of them demonstrated the new vocabularies for students by using English. The figure also shows that 7% of the observed teachers combined more than one strategy. Firstly, they used translation as well as demonstration the meaning of new words in English; secondly, they demonstrated the meaning of new words in English, as well as using real objects; finally they taught new words by demonstrating the meaning in English as well as by using context to encourage students to guess the meaning of new words. 4.2.3
Teaching Areas of Phonology Stress patterns 78.6
80.0
Other
60.0 Not focused at all by the teacher
40.0 14.3
20.0
Intonation
7.1 .0
.0
.0 Sound systems
Figure (4.30) teachers’ focuses on teaching areas of phonology. Figure (4.30) shows that the majority of the observed teachers (79%) did not focus on any area of phonology during their classroom activities at all. The figure also displays that some 14% of the observed teachers focused on other than the given choices in the observation checklist. Their focus was on word pronunciation. Seven percent of the observed teachers focused on 'stress patterns'. Finally, the figure shows that none of the observed teachers focused on sound systems or intonation.
Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
172
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
4.2.4
Teaching Cohesion Elements 60.0
Reference
57.1
Conjuncations
40.0
35.7 Not focused at all by the teacher Substitution/ellipsis
20.0 7.1 .0
.0
.0
Parallel structures
Figure (4.31) teachers focus on areas of cohesion. Figure (4.31) shows that more than half of the observed teachers (57%) did not focus on any cohesive elements at all; while 35.7% of them were found to focus on reference during their classroom instructions. The figure also shows that 7.1% of the observed teachers focused on conjunctions in their lessons. Finally, none of the observed teachers focused on substitution/ellipses or paid any attention to parallel structures. 4.2.5
Teaching Coherence Elements
Theme topic 28.6
30.0
25.0
21.4
Sequence of tenses 21.4
Not mentioned at all by the teacher
20.0 15.0
14.3
Paragraph unity and previous knowledge
14.3
10.0
Paragraph unity and theme topic
5.0 .0
.0
.0
Paragraph unity
Previous knowledge
Figure (4.32) teachers focus on elements of coherence.
Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
173
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
Figure (4.32) shows that 28.6% of the observed teachers focused on the combination between paragraph unity and relating the previous knowledge to the present topic. Similarly, 21.4% of the observed teachers focused on paragraph unity and theme of topic. On the contrary, 21.4% of them did not focus on any areas of coherence during their class instructions. The figure also shows 14.3% of the observed teachers focused on theme of topic and the same percentage of teachers focused on sequence of tenses in a same percentage of about (14%) for both. 4.2.6
Teaching Conversation Structures How to open a dialogue Not at all mentioed by the teacher All choices
57.1
60.0
How to open and close a dialogue How to interrupt
50.0 40.0 30.0 20.0 10.0
14.3
21.4
How to develop the ideas
7.1 .0
.0
.0
Figure (4.33) teachers’ focus on conversation structures. Figure (4.33) shows that the majority of the observed teachers (57.1%) did not focus on any elements of conversation structures at all, while 21.4% of them was found to focus on how to open a dialogue in their classroom instructions. The figure also shows that 7.1% of the observed teachers paid more attention to the four elements of conversation structures. Finally, 14.3% of the observed teachers were found to focus on how to open and close a dialogue in their classroom teachings.
Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
4.2.7
174
Focusing on Strategic Competence
Not at all focused by the teacher Asking for help 80.0
78.6
Using Arabic words Miming or gesturing
60.0
Paraphrasing
40.0 20.0 .0
Stopping or changing the topic
21.4 0
0
0
0
Figure (4.34) teachers’ focus on strategic competence elements. Figure (4.34) showed that the overwhelmingly (79%) of the observed teachers did not motivate their students to use any communicative strategies in their classes at all. However, the figure also shows that just 21% of the observed teachers urged their students to use Arabic words to express their ideas, others strategies like paraphrasing, asking for help, miming or gesturing and stopping or changing the topic have not been given any attention by the observed teachers. The great overwhelmingly of the observed teachers’ neglection to motivate their students on using communicative strategies can be explained in Paribakth’s (qtd. in, Furkó and Mónos 135) that learners develop communicative strategies in their mother tongue and they can transfer them into the target language.
Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
175
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
4.2.8
Teaching Language Functions
70.0 64.3 60.0 50.0
Description Request
40.0
Descritpion and Request Not at all
30.0 20.0
Invitation Suggestion
21.4
Advice
10.0
7.1
7.1 .0
.0
.0
.0
Figure (4.35) teachers’ focus on language functions. Figure (4.35) shows that 64% of the observed teachers did not focus on any functions of language at all. Description received a slightly focus by 21.4% of the observed teachers, while 7.1% of the respondents focused on request. Similarly, 7.1% of them was observed to combine between description and request. 4.2.9 Teaching Culture
Hollidays
0
Dress Traditions
0 7.1 92.9
Norms Not at all mentioned by the teachers
Figure (4.36) teachers’ focus on culture of English people.
Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
176
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
Figure (4.36) displays that 92.9% of the observed teachers did not focus on areas of culture at all, while 7.1% of them was found to be focusing on norms. Other elements of culture, like holidays, dressing and traditions were neglected by all the observed teachers at all. The reason why such neglection seems to be obvious by the majority of teachers because teachers’ knowledge is insufficient about which areas of culture they should introduce to their students as well as which techniques they could use to teach culture (Beltrán-Palanques 60). 4.2.10 Teaching Registers of English
0 Formal
100
Neutral Informal
Figure (4.37) teachers focus on registers of English. All the observed teachers were found to just focus on the formal use of English. None of them was found to be focusing on neutral or informal. The finding demonstrates that teachers in Yaff'ea districts (Yemen) are not aware of the importance of English registers for the learners to be equipped with for the aim of the overall developments of their communicative competence. Even the majority of the observed teachers who have been found to be focusing on formal register, did not know that it is incorrect to use formal registers with friends or classmates. The importance of setting is focused by Hymes’, On Communicative Competence words when he greatly shows “[t]here are rules of use without which the rules of grammar would be useless (278).
Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
177
4.2.11 Teaching Varieties of English
British English
American English
Australian English
Figure (4.38) teachers focus on varieties of English. All the observed teachers were found to be focusing on British English. There was no focus on American English or Australian English. 4.2.12 Fluency versa Accuracy Students' fluency
Students' accuracy
Neither
36
57 7
Figure (4.39) teachers’ focus on fluency/accuracy. As the figure displays, the majority of the teachers (57%) were found to neither focus on any types of communicative activities nor focus on students’ fluency or accuracy, due to the fact that students did not participate in any task or activity. Furthermore, 36% of the observed teachers paid more attention on students’ fluency while just 7% Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
178
of them focused on students’ accuracy. Savignon states that accuracy activities are measured in term of phonology, morphology and syntax while fluency is measured by the learner’s ability to express oneself with easiness and speed (269).
40.0
40.0
40.0
Grammatical errors Pronunciation errors
30.0
Pronunciation errors and language use
20.0 10.0
6.6
6.7
6.7
.0
Not focused by the teachers word choice
Figure (4.40) Teachers’ focus on students’ error. Figure (4.40) shows that 40% of the observed teachers was found to be greatly focused on students’ pronunciation errors, similarly 40% of teachers did not focus on any errors. The figure also displays that 6.6% of the observed teachers was found to pay attention to students’ word choices error, similarly 6.7% of them focused on students’ grammar errors. Finally, 6.7% of the observed focused on both students’ pronunciation errors as well as language use errors. 4.2.13 Teachers’ Role inside classroom Counselor 33.3
6
Demonstrator
26.7 4 2
13.3
13.3
6.7
0
Dominator Demonstrator and Dominator Helper and Dominator
Figure (4.41) teachers’ roles in the classroom
Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
179
Figure (4.41) shows that 26.7% of the observed teachers actually dominated their classroom and 13.3%) of them was observed to play the role of a demonstrator when they instructed their students. Similarly, 33.3% of the observed teachers was found to play double roles as demonstrators and dominators. The figure also shows that 13.3% of the observed teachers viewed to mix between the roles of helper and dominator. Finally, just 6.7% of them played the role of Counselor.
4.3
Summary of the Findings The previous sections in this chapter have presented the findings of each item
of the questionnaire which reflects teachers’ attitudes and opinions about communicative competence. Some items checked the participants’ understanding about communicative competence components, whereas other items involve knowing how teachers presented certain elements to their class or which sub-elements of a certain component they focused on. Moreover, the classroom observation checklist gathered information about the actual focus that teachers paid on components and sub-components of communicative competence. This section is intended to mix and compare the findings of both questionnaire and observation together.
4.3.1 Linguistic Competence 4.3.1.1 Grammar The majority of teachers (94%) in Yaff'ea districts of Yemen reported for the importance of teaching grammar rules to secondary school students (see Fig. 4.1) however, 35.7% of the observed teachers neglected grammar rules in their classroom instructions (see Fig. 4.28). According to teachers’ responses to the questionnaire, 43% of them reported their deductive orientation to teach English grammar (see Fig. 4.2). This finding strongly matches with the practical fact that teachers applied during teaching grammar (see Fig. 4.28) in which 50% of the observed teachers taught grammar deductively to their students. A high contradiction is found between teachers’ attitudes and real practices regarding their application of the inductive approach for teaching grammar. To put it simply, 24.3% of teachers reported their preference to teach grammar rules inductively to their students (Fig.4.2); while just 7.1% of the observed teachers was found to use the inductive approach for teaching grammar (Fig.4.28).
Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
180
Similarly, the contradiction is reflected in teaching grammar communicatively, in which 24.3% of the teachers reported that they use communicative approach for teaching grammar (Fig. 4.2), while just 7.1% of them was actually followed the communicative approach for teaching grammar rules (Fig.4.28). 4.3.1.2 Vocabulary With reference to teaching vocabulary, 28.6% of teachers in Yaff'ea secondary schools perceived that new vocabulary is best taught by demonstrating the meaning in English (Fig. 4.3), while just 8.3% of them reported that they use this technique (demonstration) for teaching new words (Fig. 4.4). Furthermore, 14.3% of the observed teachers explained new words using English (Fig. 4.29). Nearly a quarter (24.30%) of the teachers thought that the linguistic or social context is benefitable for teaching new words, while just 2.3% reported to use this technique (context) for teaching new words. Similarly, out of the observed teachers, no one was found to use context for teaching new words. Teachers in Yaff'ea secondary schools (21.4%) thought that using real objects is the best way for teaching new words, while 8.3% of them reported that they apply this technique (real object) for teaching new words. Finally, just 7.1% of the observed was found to use real objects and demonstration in English for teaching new words. About 20% of the teachers thought that using translation is a good method for teaching new words. Similarly 18.1% of them reported to use translation for teaching new words. In contrast, about 64.3% of the observed teachers was found to use translation. To conclude, the majority of teachers in Yaff'ea secondary schools have good perceptions about teaching new words. However, about one third of them did not reveal how to teach new words to their students. Amongst those who responded to the questionnaire, 18% of them reported to use translation whereas the majority of the observed teachers (64.3%) used translation in teaching vocabulary. 4.3.1.3 Phonology Nearly about 41% of teachers at Yaff'ea secondary schools reported that they focus on all areas of phonology. Similarly, 41% of them said that they taught the sound systems to their students. On the contrary, the majority of the observed teachers (78.6%) neglected all the areas of phonology.
Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
181
In conclusion, a half of teachers in Yaff'ea secondary schools was aware of which knowledge students need to acquire to become competent in linguistics, while a quarter of them reported that linguistic competence is limited by learning vocabulary. Out of the teachers, 10% reported the importance of grammar while five percent for morphology.
4.3.2 Discourse Competence A half of the teachers (51.4%) in Yaff'ea secondary schools was aware of discourse sub-elements, however, just 9% of them said that they focused on all areas of discourse on their classroom instruction. Nearly about a quarter (24.3%) of them limited discourse competence into just getting knowledge in coherence while 20% of them viewed getting knowledge in discourse to just cohesion. Furthermore, nearly about 30% of the respondents did not give their opinions about which elements of discourse they focus on during their instruction, whereas 19% of them reported their focus on discourse cohesion and 16% of them said that they focus on discourse coherence. Ten percent (10%) of the respondents stated that they pay attention to conversational structures, while (9%) of them reported their focus on both discourse coherence and cohesion. Just about (3%) of teachers in Yaff'ea secondary schools was aware of discourse cohesion sub-elements, however, (9.7%) of them reported to focus on all sub-elements of discourse cohesion during their classroom. Furthermore, the majority of respondents related the knowledge of discourse cohesion to just sub-elements as reference, conjunctions, substitutions/ellipses and parallel structures in (34.3%, 31.4%, 21.9%, 10%), respectively. Moreover, 31% of them did not respond to which sub-elements of discourse cohesion they present in their classroom, while 13.9% of them said that they focus on conjunctions, 8.3% to substitutions/ellipsis, and 2.8% reported their focuses to parallel structures. In contrary, 57.1% of the observed teachers neglected all sub-elements of discourse, while 35.7% of them focused on reference and 7.1% of them focused on conjunctions. Very low percent just (1.4%) of teachers in Yaff'ea secondary schools was aware of the sub-elements of discourse coherence whereas, 15.7% of them avoided to respond. However, the remaining respondents related understanding and producing coherent texts or utterances to themes of topic, relating the previous knowledge to the present topic, sequences of tenses, and paragraph unity in (34.3%, 28.6%, 18.6%),
Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
182
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
respectively. Furthermore, out of the observed teachers, 28.6 focused on both paragraph unity and relating the previous knowledge into the present topic whereas, 21.4% of them focused on paragraph unity and themes of topic. Similarly, 21.4% of teachers neglected all the sub-elements of discourse coherence, while 14.3% of them focused on themes of topic and the same percentage seems to focus on sequence of tenses. A half of the teachers (50%) in Yaff'ea secondary schools was aware of conversational
structures
sub-elements
and
their
roles
in
producing
and
comprehending talks. However, just 7.1% of the observed teachers focused on all the conversational structures sub-elements. Furthermore, 30% of the respondents thought that how to develop the ideas in a talk plays an important role in participating with others, whereas 18% of them reported the importance of how to open a conversation. Similarly, 21.4% of the observed teachers paid attention to how to open a dialogue. On the contrary, 57% of the observed teachers neglected all sub-elements of conversational structures, while 14.3% of them focused on how to open and close a conversation.
4.3.3 Strategic Competence The majority of teachers (87%) in Yaff'ea districts of Yemen positively reported that they motivate their students to use communicative strategies; however, 79% of the observed teachers neglected all strategies. Moreover, those participants who responded positively to the questionnaire said that they occasionally, frequently, and most of the time motivate their students to use communicative strategies in (31%, 30%, 25%), respectively. Furthermore, the participants stated that they motivate their students to use the following communicative strategies: asking for help; using Arabic words or phrases; using miming or gesturing; paraphrasing, all mentioned strategies in (34%, 15.7%, 15.7%, 12.9%, 12.9%), respectively. To conclude, a very high contradiction is seen between teachers’ perceptions and their actual practices regarding motivating their students’ strategic competence.
4.3.4 Sociolinguistic Competence Nearly about a quarter (25.7%) of the teachers at Yaff'ea secondary schools was aware of sociolinguistic competence, and 5.6% of them reported that they focus on all areas of sociolinguistic competence while teaching their students. Nearly about 35.7% of the participants reported that getting knowledge in language functions
Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
183
enables students to successfully comprehend native speakers' intentions. Similarly, 34.7% of the participants reported that they focus on language functions during their classroom instruction. Moreover, the majority of the observed teachers were found to neglect all language functions, while just 35.8% of them focused on description and request. Amongst the participants, 21.4% valued the importance of getting knowledge in native speakers’ culture to understand them, while just 9.7% of them said that they focus on the culture of native speakers while they teach their students. Similarly, just 7.1% of the observed teachers focused on one area of culture, i.e. norms. Finally, 10% of the teachers perceived the importance of getting knowledge in registers to understand native speakers’ talks and just 1.4% of them viewed the importance of varieties. Similarly, teachers said that they focus on teaching registers and varieties in their classroom in (4.2%, 2.8%), respectively. Furthermore, all the observed teachers were found to focus just on formal register and British English.
4.3.5 Fluency versus Accuracy The majority of teachers (77%) in Yaff'ea secondary schools said that they focus on both students’ grammar and pronunciation whenever they participate in classroom activities. However, 57% of the observed teachers was found to focus on neither pronunciation nor grammar. Furthermore, 37% of the participants reported that teachers should neglect students’ errors whenever they made during their participations. Similarly, 32% of them reported that they should correct students’ errors directly, while (28%) of them stated that the teachers should interrupt their students and suggest corrections directly. Nearly about 64% of the participants reported that teachers should correct students’ pronunciation directly whereas, 40% of the observed teachers focused on students’ pronunciations errors.
4.3.6 Teachers’ Roles inside Classroom The majority of teachers (94%) in Yaff'ea secondary schools perceived the importance of changing teachers’ roles in their classroom according to the activity or task s/he set. Nearly about 41.4% of them said that they play the role of demonstrator while the role of helper and counselor was played by (34.3%, 10%), respectively. On the contrary, 26.7% of the observed teachers was found to dominate their classroom while 13.3% of them was found to be demonstrators. Similarly, 33.3% of the teachers
Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
184
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
played the role of both dominators and demonstrators, whereas 13.3% played as demonstrators and helpers. To conclude, the majority of teachers have good perceptions to change their roles according to the tasks or activity they set. A slightly contradiction emerges between teachers’ perceptions in which they preferred to be demonstrators and helpers while the majority of them were found to be demonstrators and dominators.
4.3.7 Communicative Language Teaching The majority of teachers (77%) in Yaff'ea secondary schools reported their familiarity with the term communicative competence while the remaining respondents whether avoided giving their responses in 12% or they are not familiar in 11%. Furthermore, amongst those who reported their familiarity with the term, 40% of them said that they became familiar with the term during their study at colleges while 30% reported that they acquainted with the term while presenting at teacher-training courses. Finally, 25% of them stated that they read about the term. The majority of teachers (91%) strongly/agreed that developing students’ communicative competence must be the goal of any teaching/learning process. Similarly, 93.3% of the respondents expressed their strongly/agreement that communicative language teaching is the best method/approach for developing students’
communicative
competence.
Finally,
95.7%
of
the
respondents
strongly/agreed that using technology in classroom would definitely develop students’ mentalities to learn English language better.
4.4 Works Cited: Al-Humaidi, Majid. “Communicative Language Teaching.” (2000). Print. Alnakeeb, Abdulnasser Mohammed Ali. “A Study of Yemeni English Teachers’ Classrooom Practices and Approches with Special Reference to Secondary Schools in Laboos.” Diss. University of Pune, 2012. Print. Beltrán-Palanques, Vicente. “Fostering Intercultural Communicative Competence in the Foreign Language Classroom: Pedagogical Implications.” International Journal of English Language & Translation Studies 2.2 (2014): 59–70. Print.
Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
185
Furkó, Bálint Péter, and Katalin Mónos: “The Teachability of Communicative Competence and the Acquisition of Pragmatic Markers – a Case Study of Some Widely-Used Business English Coursebooks.” Argumentum 9 (2013): 132–148. Print. Hymes, Dell. “On Communicative Competence.” Sociolinguistics 269293 (1972): 269–293. Print. Lewis, Samantha. “Are Communicative Strategies Teachable?” Encuentro XX.1 (2011): 46–54. Print. Richards, Jack C., and Theodore S. Rodgers. Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984. Print. Savignon, Sandra J. “Communicative Language Teaching: State of the Art.” TESOL Quarterly 25.2 (1991): 261–277. Web. Гумилев, Л Н. “Effectiveness of Communicative Approach in Teaching Grammar.” (2013): 175–177. Print.
Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
Chapter 5
DISCUSSIONS, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
5.0
187
Introduction Chapter four displayed the data gathered from the sample participants in three
sections. The first section focused on the respondents’ responses to the questionnaire items, whereas the second section presented the participants’ real implementations of the components and sub-components of communicative competence. Finally, the third section combined the first two sections results together by comparing the similarities and differences between the results obtained by the two research instruments (survey and observation) which actually expressed teachers’ attitudes, knowledge as well as their actual instruction in their classrooms. Similarly, chapter five includes three sections too. It discusses the main findings with specific focus to the research questions and hypotheses; it also presents a conclusion for the major findings in general and finally provides some recommendations and suggestions for implementing the findings of the study This study, as mentioned previously in chapter one, focused on communicative competence in teaching English at secondary schools: A critical investigation in Yaff'ea districts of Yemen. Specifically, the study aims at finding out why the majority of secondary school graduates in Yaff'ea districts of Yemen are unable to use English communicatively to achieve their communicative goals and fail to pursue their higher education unless they take some prerequisite courses in English language. In the first part of this chapter, the researcher displays the research questions and hypotheses set in chapter one, and comments on them depending on the findings of this study.
5.1
Discussion In the discussion section, the seven research questions will be discussed
accordingly. Furthermore, as the study focuses on the four components of communicative competence, the researcher also discusses them in general to approve or refute the hypotheses set at chapter one.
5.1.1 How do Teachers Teach Grammar? The first research question was set to find out how English language teachers in Yaff'ea districts’ secondary schools teach grammar. To answer this question, the researcher used percentages of agreements on each item relating to this aspect in the questionnaire (Figs. 4.1 & 4.2), and the observation checklist results (Fig. 4.28).
Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
188
The result of the study reveals that nearly about a half of the teachers in Yaff'ea districts used the deductive traditional method for teaching grammar despite the fact that the curricula they are using to teach English is based on the Communicative Approach. The result of the study indicates that secondary school English teachers in the districts targeted are not sufficiently qualified to use the communicative method of teaching grammar which reveals some expectations: firstly, they are predominated with Grammar Translation Method and did not receive any inservice training to teach English according to the recent Communicative Approach trends. Richards confirms that traditional approaches limit learning a language to the mastering of its grammatical competence. Thus, grammar rules are taught deductively to students (62). Secondly, students were not equipped with the basic knowledge of grammar rules through the three years of studying English at the preparatory stage. Thus they prefer, according to David, to be taught grammar rules explicitly. Finally, teachers use the deductive approach for teaching grammar for the purpose of helping students to respond correctly to the grammar exercises set at the final ministerial examinations as well as the entrance-examinations required by some colleges to accept students in their departments. Al-Sohbani criticized the traditional Yemeni ministerial examinations and their effects on teaching English at the Yemeni secondary schools; as such exams just focus on grammar (47). Whatever the reasons that make teachers use the deductive approach for teaching grammar, the finding suggests the need for a teacher training program to boost their teaching skills and equip them with modern teaching methods. This result is in line with Alnakeeb’s study in which he found out that 47.5% of English secondary school teachers in Yaff'ea districts of Yemen taught grammar rules deductively (186). The finding also supports Sato’s ideas that amongst the challenges of applying communicative language teaching is teaching grammar rules in context (45). The findings also indicate that even though students acquired the given grammar rules, such acquisition remains useless. Widodo argues for the importance of integrating grammar rules with other language activities, (speaking or writing) and prompts teachers to learn other approaches for teaching grammar, which could help them overcoming the challenges of teaching grammar in real and genuine communicative task (123). To help teachers getting rid of this obstacle, it is recommended therefore that teachers should plan for each lesson and focus on the grammatical structures provided
Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
189
in the teacher’s guide or at the end of each chapter in pupils’ textbook, so that, grammar can be taught in context or communicatively, for more details (see chapter two 2.6.1), as the “Crescent English course for Yemen” does not list separate lessons for grammar. For teaching grammar, it is suggested to be integrated with the four language skills (listening, speaking, reading and writing). If a lesson focuses on listening, teachers should play the recorded materials in the class several times and motivate students to listen to the grammar structure being focused on in that lesson and how native speakers pronounce content and structure words. In a reading lesson, teachers should help students to identify the new grammar rule being used in the reading text and how the new rule is formed in addition to paying more attention to its pronunciations including the stress and unstressed syllables, consonant clusters, rhythm and intonation. The grammar rules could be used in speaking classes to motivate students to apply the new rules being taught focusing on fluency. Finally, in writing classes, it is recommended that teachers should motivate students to use the new rule focusing on accuracy. Focusing on the above mentioned strategies for teaching English grammar, and applying them in teaching English at secondary schools will lead to the development of students not only in two of the basic areas of linguistic competence “grammar and phonology”, but also boost them up in the four language skills too. However, the implications of such strategies will play a great role in the development of students’ overall communicative competence. Teachers need to be motivated and trained to make a better change in the learning and teaching process.
5.1.2 How do Teachers Teach Vocabulary? The second research question attempts to explore how English language teachers in Yaff'ea secondary schools teach new words to their students. To answer this question, the researcher used percentages of agreement on each item relating to this aspect in the questionnaire (Figs. 4.3 & 4.4), and the observation checklist results in which the researcher used percentages to organize teachers’ actual focuses on teaching vocabulary (Fig. 4.29). The results of the study show that most teachers of English in Yaff'ea secondary schools used the method of ‘translation’ to teach the new vocabulary in
Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
190
their classes despite the good impressions that teachers showed, like demonstrating the meaning in English, using the contexts or using real objects. Teachers’ incline to teach new English words by using students’ mother tongue (Arabic) indicates that secondary school English teachers in the districts targeted are not qualified enough to use the communicative method for teaching new words or even to apply the techniques recommended by teacher’s guide, for example guessing the meaning of words using context, synonyms, antonyms, paraphrasing, etc. (O’Neill, Snow, and Peacock17). The findings also indicate that there is an urgent need for in-service training program to raise their teaching skills and equip them with modern teaching methods for teaching vocabulary. Moreover, the finding shows that teacher’s guide book is not available at schools for helping teachers. Thus, it is suggested for the ministry of education to support secondary school teachers with teacher’s books as well as listening materials (Cassettes). Furthermore, teachers’ use of translation to demonstrate new words might be a necessity when students’ knowledge is very low or poor. The finding of this study supports Rahman’s opinion that using translation to teach new words or grammar rules save class time (220). To conclude, using translation to teach new vocabulary reveals that teachers are traditionally oriented. As students learn new vocabulary by translation, they just temporarily memorize them and realize their meanings when they read them in the reading texts. Due to the lack of practice inside and outside the classroom, students forget the new vocabulary they have learnt so quickly. For resolving this problem, it is recommended that teachers should read each lesson several times before class, and put more emphasis on the new words as listed in Students’ Workbook at the end of each chapter or at the top of the teacher’s guide. Pronunciation also should be given a great deal of attention. This means that teachers should pay more attention to the stressed and unstressed syllables, and its grammatical category (e.g., verb, noun, adjective, or adverb). Furthermore, teachers should be creative and think of some ways on how to demonstrate such words for their students. If the lesson focuses on the listening skill, it is recommended that teachers should bring a tape recorder and play the listening material in their class many times. Moreover, it is highly recommended that teachers should give students time to practice the newly learnt words first chorally and then individually. After students had enough practice of the new vocabulary, teachers could explain the meanings by using Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
191
the target language (English). Implementing such techniques will help to build a wide repertoire of the learners’ English words as well as their pronunciations. This will lead to the desired development of the learners’ communicative competence (see also chapter two 2.6.1). 5.1.2.1The First Hypothesis Teachers Encounter Difficulties in Teaching Grammatical Competence. Half of the teachers (50%) have good perceptions about linguistic competence sub-components, see (Fig. 4.5) as they reported that students need to get knowledge in all the listed sub-components (grammar, vocabulary and phonology) to build their linguistic competence. Therefore, to prove or refute the first hypothesis, it is necessary to explore how the three sub-components of linguistic competence, i.e., grammar, vocabulary and phonology have been dealt with by teachers. For grammar, it has been discussed under the first research question at (5.1.1); vocabulary at (5.1.2) and earlier in chapter four for both grammar and vocabulary at (4.3.1.1 & 4.3.1.2) and as demonstrated in (Figs. 4.2 & 4.28) that teachers taught grammar rules deductively and in (Figs. 4.3 & 4.29) that teachers used students’ mother tongue to teach new vocabulary. Teaching grammar deductively and using translation for teaching new vocabulary is related to the traditional approaches particularly to the ‘Grammar Translation Method’. According to the communicative language teaching trends, grammar rules and vocabulary should be taught in context. Therefore, the findings obtained from the questionnaire as well as the observation indicate that the researcher’s hypothesis is reliable. The third and final sub-component of linguistic competence listed in this study is phonology. Four areas of phonology were focused on in this study, i.e., sounds, stress, rhythm and intonation. Forty-one percent (41%) of teachers reported that they focused on all the listed areas and 41% of them said that they pay more attention to sound systems (Fig. 4.5). However, 79% of the observed teachers neglected all areas of phonology (Fig. 4.30). Therefore, it can be induced that the majority of teachers have good perceptions of the importance of phonology but they neglect it in their teaching. As a matter of fact, teaching phonology is usually associated with teaching new vocabulary as well as grammar rules in context. However, as discussed above, Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
192
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
using ‘Grammar Translation Method’ for teaching new words and grammar rules did not give any opportunities for phonology because of its basis to make students able to read and understand the target language texts. Thus, grammar and vocabulary are taught traditionally, phonology is totally neglected as well as that 50% of teachers are just aware about linguistic competence role in building the overall communicative competence, and the obvious contradiction that appears between teachers’ perceptions and real practices proves the first hypothesis,
i.e.,
“teachers
encounter
difficulties
in
teaching
grammatical
competence.”
5.1.3 To What Extent do Teachers Focus on Developing Students’ Discourse Competence? The third research question has been designed to check to what extent secondary school teachers of English language in Yaff'ea districts focus on developing students’ discourse competence. To answer this question, the researcher used the percentages of agreements collected via the questionnaire and the observation. The results of the study reveal that just about a half of high school English teachers in Yaff'ea districts was aware of discourse competence (Fig. 4.7) however, the overwhelming majority of them neglected the sub-components of discourse in their classes (Fig. 4.8). The result of the study indicates that high school English teachers in the districts targeted neglected one of the basic components of communicative competence, i.e., discourse competence, which suggests the need for a teacher-training program in discourse to raise teachers’ knowledge about the importance of discourse for producing efficient language users. Brown stated that all components of communicative competence, including discourse must be set as the goal of each lesson (43). This result supports the notion of Widdowson that “language teachers have paid little attention to the way sentences are used in combination to form stretches of connected discourse” (Widdowson 87). To explain the reasons why teachers in Yaff'ea secondary schools did not train their students on elements of discourse competence, it can be said that most teachers in the prescribed secondary schools followed the Grammar Translation Method, which does not pay any attention
Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
193
to areas of discourse. Bataineh, Thabet, and Bataineh found that Yemeni English secondary school teachers lack knowledge on the CLT principles. To answer the research question, (to what extents do teachers focus on developing students’ discourse competence?), it can be induced that nearly about 40% of both participants did not train students on elements of discourse competence, while 50% of participants focused on only one element of discourse competence. Finally, just about 10% of both participants focused on the three elements of discourse competence, i.e., cohesion, coherence and conversational structures. To conclude, teachers focus on developing students discourse competence to a very low level or to an unaccepted way. To help teachers reconsidering and rethinking about their teaching strategies, the researcher suggests that English language teachers should bear in mind that language is usually practiced above the sentence-level. It is also recommended that teachers should assess their teaching techniques, planning and practices to go over the bridge of sentence, see also chapter two (2.6.3) and (2.6.6). When teaching a reading text, teachers should focus on all the elements of coherence and cohesion. Thus, they should explain to their students that sentences are not only connected cohesively to form a paragraph, but also coherently. They should also demonstrate to their students the use of conjunctions, references, parallel structures, and ellipsis in the reading texts and their roles in making the text wellbuilt. Moreover, it is required to show students how the meaning across sentences is organized to support the topic sentence (thesis sentence) and how each paragraph discusses one idea. Furthermore, it is recommended to motivate students by activating their background knowledge and apply what they knew to the text being studied. Finally, it will be of a great benefit if teachers read the text focusing on elements of phonology discussed earlier in (5.1.1 & 5.1.2) including consonants clusters, stress, rhythm and intonations. With more focuses on the above elements and in many lessons, students then can be motivated to pay more attention to such elements when they will be prepared to listen for a conversation or small talks recorded by native speakers. Whenever focusing on cohesion and coherence in listening lessons, and successfully
Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
194
comprehending them, students can apply such elements when they produce utterances or written paragraphs. Finally, teachers should also explain to their students how native speakers: open a conversation, develop the ideas, interrupt and end up a talk. Giving students time to participate in a talk and motivate them to comprehend such strategies when they listen to native talk will amazingly develop their competence in discourse, particularly in coherence and cohesion elements. 5.1.3.1 The Second Hypothesis Teachers Face Difficulties in Teaching Discourse Competence. As mentioned earlier under (5.1.3) that just a half of the respondents perceived the importance of discourse competence to build the overall communicative competence of students, however, the majority of respondents whether they avoided to give answers or just selected one element of discourse to teach, showed negative attitudes about fostering their students’ competence in discourse. In addition, to prove or refute the hypothesis mentioned here above, the researcher briefly discusses the three areas of discourse listed in this study. The majority of participants are not aware about discourse cohesion (Fig. 4.9), nor did they have even positive impressions about teaching cohesive sub-elements (Fig. 4.10). These negative attitudes are confirmed through the classroom observation in which 57% of the observed teachers was found to neglect all sub-elements of discourse cohesion (Fig. 4.31). Thus, the hypothesis is proved regarding to the first sub-element of discourse, i.e., (discourse cohesion). Furthermore, just 1.4% of the participants was aware of discourse coherence sub-elements while the majority of them related the knowledge of discourse coherence to one sub-elements or other (Fig. 4.11). Similarly, the observed teachers were found to pay attention to some of the listed sub-elements of discourse coherence (Fig. 4.32). Therefore, it can be induced that teachers focused partially on discourse coherence which means that they encountered difficulties in teaching all the coherence sub-elements. Thus, the second sub-component of discourse, i.e., (coherence) also proves the hypothesis. Finally, a half of the respondents reported that students need to be equipped with knowledge in conversational structures sub-elements to successfully participate Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
195
in English conversations (Fig. 4.12), however, 57% of the observed teachers did not focus on such elements during their classroom instruction (Fig. 4.33). Therefore, just a half of teachers was aware of conversational structures and just 7% of the observed teachers focused on all elements of conversational structures prove the third part of the hypothesis, i.e., teachers face difficulties in teaching conversation structures. In conclusion, as teachers neglected cohesion, partially coherence and conversational structures in their classroom instruction prove the hypothesis that, ‘Teachers face difficulties in teaching the discourses competence’.
5.1.4 To What Extent do Teachers Focus on Developing Students’ Strategic Competence? The fourth research question was developed to discover to what extent secondary schools teachers in Yaff'ea districts of Yemen develop their students’ communicative strategies. To answer this question, the researcher used rates of agreements between the questionnaire items (Figs. 4.13, 4.14 & 4.15) and the classroom observation checklist (Fig. 4.34). The results reveal a high contradiction between teachers’ beliefs and their real classroom practices as the overwhelming majority of them reported that they motivated their students to use communicative strategies whenever they encounter any difficulties (Fig. 4.13), however, the majority of teachers were found to neglect communicative strategies at all in their classroom instruction (Fig. 4.34). Regardless of the high contradiction listed above, teachers were found to contradict themselves, as they later reported in a very low percentage to train their students on all the listed strategies (see Fig, 4.15). The results also indicate that slightly agreements seem to be found about motivating students to use their mother’s tongue whenever they face any difficulties (Figs. 4.15 & 4.34). With reference to the research question set in chapter one, (To what extent do teachers focus on developing students strategic competence?), it can be induced that, however, teachers have positive perceptions about motivating their students to use communicative strategies; they actually did not apply their beliefs as they trained their students. Furthermore, students were found to use Arabic words or phrases whenever teachers’ permitted them to do so. As the results revealed a high contradiction between teachers’ perception as well as their actual practice, it is suggested to conduct further studies about
Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
196
communicative strategies to deeply analyze this vague phenomenon. Nunan called for conducting “classroom-based research” to find out whether a theory or belief being applied in classroom or not. He states: “There is growing evidence that, in communicative classes, interactions may, in fact, not be very communicative after all” (144). This finding is in consistence with Alnakeeb’s study in which he stated that teachers did not reflect their beliefs about the Communicative Approach in their real classroom practice (125). Similarly, Abdullah; Bataineh, Bataineh, and Thabet reported that Yemeni teachers have good beliefs about CLT however, they clearly contradict themselves in their actual classroom practices. The finding suggests the necessity for training teachers on communicative strategies; therefore, they could develop their students’ strategic competence. AlAshri recommended for training secondary school teachers to integrate direct and indirect approach and applying them in actual classrooms (34). Furthermore, Alibakhshi and Padiz conducted an empirical study on the effect of teaching communicative strategies on the Iranian learners of English. They found that the experimental group used seven out of the nine communicative strategies significantly in comparison with control group who did not (941). Finally, Rabab’ah’s study showed that teaching communicative strategies not only helps students to solve any problem that encounters them, but also allows them to “test their hypotheses ˮ. Therefore, Rabab’ah’s findings recommended teachers to encourage their students to use such strategies and syllabus designers to integrate the communicative strategies in their curricula (23). For more information, see also chapter two (2.6.4). The teachers still use GTM approach for teaching English in Yemen generally due to its easiness for implications as well as
does not require qualified and
experienced teachers (Al-Sohbani 48). Therefore, Yaff'ea secondary school English language teachers prefer to do so. GMT approach centralizes teachers in the learning process and does not give any opportunities for students to talk using English which definitely make students in difficult situations for being unable to recall suitable words or structures, which encourage them to use communicative strategies to keep their communication going on. In sum, the finding shows that burgeoning students’ communicative strategies require a revolution to be erupted against GMT approach and training teachers to
Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
197
apply CLT approach instead, as Al-Tamimi and Attamimi found that CLT could be applicable in the Yemeni teaching context. 5.1.4.1 The Third Hypothesis Teachers Come across Difficulties in Teaching Strategic Competence To go across the findings obtained from both teachers’ respondents to the questionnaire items as well as their real practices as the researcher’s observation of their classrooms, the researcher briefly exhibits such findings to prove or refute the hypothesis. Firstly, a high contradiction is found between teachers’ perceptions, as they responded to the questionnaire in which 87% of them positively reported that they motivate their students to use communicative strategies (Fig. 4.13) and their real instruction in their classroom as 79% out of the observed teachers did not focus on any elements of strategic competence at all (Fig. 4.34). Therefore, such contradictions between teachers’ perceptions and their actual practices prove the hypothesis in one part. Secondly, teachers reported that they motivate their students to use, in case of facing difficulties, the following communicative strategies: Asking for help 34%, using Arabic words 16%, using miming or gesturing 16%, paraphrasing, all the choices, stopping or changing the topic and other were reported as follows (12.9%, 12.9%, 5.7% & 2.9%), respectively (Fig. 4.14), while just 21% of the observed teachers was found to motivate their students to use Arabic words to compensate their lack of English words (Fig. 4.34). Therefore, using Arabic words or phrases is the only communicative strategy which reflects an agreement between teachers’ perceptions and actual practice; students do not need any training to use it. Thus, this premise proves the hypothesis from the second part. Finally, teachers reported that the frequency of motivating their students to use communicative strategies as follow: most of the time (25%), frequently (30%), sometimes (31%), (Fig. 4.14). However, this perception is refuted as just one communicative strategy was used by students i.e., using Arabic words or phrases when they face any difficulties (Fig. 4.34). To conclude, depending on the above mentioned discussions, it can be said that there is a high contradiction between teachers’ perceptions about communicative strategies, and their real actual classroom practice. Moreover, just one communicative Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
198
strategy was observed to be used by students, which refutes teachers’ perceptions about the frequency they reported to motivate their students on such strategies, because using Arabic words or structures do not need any kind of training to students. Thus, the hypothesis, ‘teachers come across difficulties in teaching strategic competence’ is proved.
5.1.5 To What Extent do Teachers Pay Attention to Develop Students’ Pragmatic Competence? The fifth research question was designed to analyze to what extent secondary school teachers in Yaff'ea districts develop their students’ pragmatic competence. Two items were set in the questionnaire to elicit teachers’ opinions and attitudes concerning developing students’ pragmatic competence (Figs. 4. 16 & 4.17) as well as four items were designed in the observation checklist to get teachers’ focus on the four elements of pragmatic competence being studied (Figs. 4.35, 4.36, 4.37, & 4.38). The results reveal that the majority of teachers (three-quarters) in Yaff'ea secondary schools were not aware of the elements that students need to acquire to understand native speakers’ pragmatics. It can be said that the overwhelming majority of teachers did not focus on teaching pragmatic competence to their students in Yaff'ea districts secondary schools of Yemen. With reference to the research question set in chapter one, (to what extents do teachers focus on developing students’ pragmatic competence), it can be induced that the teachers rarely develop students’ pragmatic competence. Thus, the finding suggests the necessity for raising teachers’ awareness about sociolinguistic sub-components. Mizne asserts that teaching sociolinguistics can be done in classroom using “cultural models or speech acts ˮ (51). Similarly, Lenchuk and Ahmed state that language teachers should not only know what pragmatic competence includes, but also design activities that are both “theoretically sound and pedagogically engaging ˮ (83). Teachers should focus on the four sub-components of sociolinguistic competence listed earlier, see also chapter two for more details about how to teach such sub-components of sociolinguistic competence (2.6.2). Moreover, sociolinguistic competence should be presented whenever teaching the four language skills, see also (2.6.6). For language functions, teachers should not only explain how to use grammar Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
199
rules correctly to express a certain speech act, but should also familiarize students with using grammar rules to suit the social situations. Similarly, teachers themselves should be aware of the registers of English and apply them in their classes, therefore, students can use formal registers in formal situations, and informal with their colleagues and peers. Teachers should also motivate students to comprehend which English registers are used in certain activities. Finally, in addition to familiarizing students with language functions and registers of English, it is necessary to raise the learners’ knowledge of the culture of English. 5.1.5.1 The Fourth Hypothesis Teachers Encounter Difficulties in Teaching Sociolinguistic Competence. In order to check whether the above hypothesis is proved or refuted, the researcher briefly discusses the four elements of sociolinguistic competence listed in this study, i.e., language functions, culture of English, registers of English as well as varieties of English. Firstly, according to the respondents’ attitudes to the questionnaire, nearly about (36%) reported their focuses on presenting language functions to their students (Fig. 4.17). Similarly, just (35%) of the observed teachers was found to present only description and request, while the majority neglected language functions totally. Therefore, the statistical percentages prove the hypothesis in one part. Secondly, with reference to the second sub-component of sociolinguistic competence, 21% of the respondents said that they focus on the culture of English in their classes (Fig. 4.17), however, just 7% of the observed teachers was found to present one sub-elements of culture, i.e., norms (Fig. 4.36) while the majority of them neglected all the sub-elements of culture totally. Thus, the statistical percentages prove the second part of above hypothesis. Thirdly, just 10% of the participants' respondents reported that they focus on registers of English during their classes (Fig. 4.17), on the contrary, all the observed teachers (100%) used just formal register of English (Fig. 4.37) and neglected informal and neutral registers. Therefore, the obtained percentages prove the hypothesis form the third angle. Finally, just 1.4% of the participants reported their presentation of the varieties of English (Fig. 4.17). Similarly, all the observed teachers (100%) used British Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
200
English and neglected other varieties like American and Australian, (Fig. 4.38). Therefore, the percentages prove the hypothesis in the last part. To conclude, the hypothesis is proved in all the parts, i.e., "teachers encounter difficulties in teaching sociolinguistic competence".
5.1.6 To What Extant do Teachers Focus on Students’ Accuracy or Fluency? Regardless of the positive attitudes that teachers have towards focusing on both fluency and accuracy of their students (Fig. 4.18), they misunderstood such terms as they discouraged students and directly corrected their errors (Figs. 4.19 & 4.20). On the contrary, the majority of teachers were found to neglect both (Fig. 4.39). This negligence revealed that students are not given opportunities to participate in classroom activities. Based on the above discussions, and the high contradictions between teachers’ attitudes and real practices, it is necessary to sharpen teachers’ awareness to enlarge students’ roles inside classrooms and encourage them to participate effectively as follows: 1. Teachers should avoid interrupting students whenever they make errors, notwithstanding the errors types. Such beliefs of direct error-corrections associate with traditional methods, like the direct methods and audiolingual methods, which consider errors as a bad habit in the learning process. On the contrary, modern approaches, like communicative language teaching views the learning process to happen by trails and errors. 2. Furthermore, teachers should minimize their roles and maximizing their students’ roles, henceforth, fluency and accuracy will be measured by producing longer utterances which express more than producing intelligible words pronunciation and correct grammar in a sentence level. Therefore, errors should be corrected at the end of students’ talks; otherwise, students may be demoralized and become trustless, which leads them to avoid participating in any talks not only in further classes but also in real situation too. Fluency, according to teachers’ perceptions, is measured by reading some sentences and pronouncing words correctly. It is found that according to one of the Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
201
questionnaire items, teachers were asked about their focus to students’ fluency or accuracy whenever students participate in classroom activities. The majority of the respondents reported that they focus on both students’ grammar and pronunciation in an amount of (77%), students’ pronunciation received the focus of 17% while their grammar by just 3% of the total respondents. Next, teachers were asked about how they should treat students’ error. Nearly about 37% of the respondents reported that teachers should ignore students’ errors, while 32% of them suggested that teachers should correct students’ errors directly, finally 28% of the respondents recommended that teachers should interrupt whenever students made an error and suggest some corrections so that students could select the suitable alternative from them. Finally, the respondents were asked about which type of students’ errors they should correct directly. Pronunciation errors received the highest focus amongst the respondents in an amount of 64%, next grammar errors received 16%, while language use errors and word-choices received the focus of (12% & 4%) respectively. Out of the observed teachers, 64% dominated the class and did not give any role for students. It can be said that the majority of the observed teachers did not focus on students’ fluency or accuracy. One the other hand, 36% of the teachers focused on students’ fluency especially in reading activities, while just 7% of them focused on students’ accuracy. To conclude, students have not been given true/real participation in classrooms activities. Fluency is just measured by students’ recitations of some lines of reading texts, whereas accuracy is measured by students’ utterances of isolated sentences or just phrases for answering grammar tasks. Based on the limitation of students’ role inside classes as well as the domination that teachers play in classroom, it can be said that teachers focus on both students’ fluency and accuracy in accordance to the above mentioned borders of fluency and accuracy.
5.1.7 What are the Roles of the Teachers inside the classes? The majority of teachers play the roles of demonstrator, helper and dominator (Figs. 4.22 & 4.41). However, the role of being helper was just expressed by teachers’ attitudes and the role of being dominator was rated by the observation, whereas the role of teachers as demonstrators has been reflected in both attitudes and real practices. Thus, being a demonstrator in the classroom indicates that students stay
Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
202
passively silent or just receivers for what the teachers said, or stay absent-minded in their classes. Furthermore, these roles of teachers and students shed light on the fact that traditional approaches are still widely implemented in teaching English at Yaff'ea secondary schools of Yemen. Such approaches have negative impacts on students’ overall communicative competence. Thus, this phenomenon urges us to reconsider the obstacles that prevent teachers from playing more effective roles like facilitator, helper and counselor as determined by the communicative language teaching approach. Therefore, the researcher relates the teachers’ role majorly played at the targeted secondary schools to: 1) Teachers being taught during their colleges study on traditional approaches, therefore they applied such roles in their classroom instruction. It suggests a study to check college- instructors’ roles at Aden University while they instruct Bachelor students. 2) Teachers did not receive any training on how to play positive roles in their classrooms which definitely (in case of teachers-training) give chance for students to participate effectively and use English language naturally inside class. This prediction calls for the teachers’ training course to be held. 3) Fresh (English teachers) graduates who are supposed to be equipped with modern teaching approaches and methods have not been given any opportunities and they spend at least seven to ten years jobless. It is recommended that the Ministry of Education should quickly provide job opportunities in the field of English language teaching to fresh college graduates. See also chapter two (2.7. & 2.4) for more clarification about the role of teachers and students according to the communicative language teaching principles.
5.2
Conclusion It is not an easy task to conclude a research study about a large field like
communicative competence, nor is it easy to summarize the research findings too. However, the researcher tries to minimize the conclusion and displays what the current study finds about the four components of communicative competence as well as to explore the research questions as set at chapter one.
Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
203
The study found that linguistic competence is taught traditionally from one side and neglected from another. With reference to using the traditional approach, the study displayed that teachers in Yaff'ea secondary schools taught grammar rules deductively, while new words are taught by translating them into students’ mother tongue (Arabic). On the other hand, regarding the negligence of linguistic competence, it was found that phonology had not been presented in classroom instruction. Therefore, following traditional approach to teach two sub-components of linguistic competence and neglecting the third element might not lead to the development of students’ linguistic competence which is expected to be developed whenever teachers use the communicative approach and pay attention to all of its subcomponents. As the study showed that teachers are still using the traditional approaches to teach linguistic competence, such approaches have no any implications to the discourse level. The study found that teachers themselves in the targeted districts have poor knowledge about discourse competence, specifically in cohesion; therefore teachers are unable to participate in developing their students’ competence in discourse. Like linguistic competence, discourse competence is neglected from classroom instruction. Thus, students’ dreams of becoming competent in communication could not be fulfilled as they had not been given or exposed to language elements above the sentence level. Generally, communicative strategies are used in communicative classrooms, however, the study displayed contradictions between teachers’ positive perceptions towards developing their students’ communicative strategies and their negative implications in real classrooms. Hence, strategic competence could be developed by real practices not by good perceptions. Like the two earlier components of communicative competence, strategic competence is neglected because such strategies are useless in traditional classrooms. As communicative competence can be developed when the communicative language teaching approach is applied, thus, using traditional approaches could not develop students’ overall competence, it negatively may lead to worthless outcomes. Sociolinguistic (pragmatic) competence is more difficult to be presented in classroom than the previous discussed three competencies. Therefore, as teachers in the prescribed districts could not teach their students discursive, strategic, and Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
204
phonological elements; similarly, the study found that the prescribed teachers are not aware of sociolinguistic competence at all, therefore, it is difficult to imagine that such teachers could foster their students’ pragmatic competence while they lack such knowledge in pragmatic competence themselves. Earlier, the four components of communicative competence have been reported according to the study findings, henceafter, the researcher displays the remaining major findings. It is found that teachers in the prescribed districts measured students’ fluency and accuracy from traditional orientations. They considered students’ errors as something which lead to a bad learning or acquisition; therefore, they directly interrupted students when making errors. Such error-corrections strategies lead to discouraged and trustless learners. Finally, teachers in the targeted secondary schools, as the study found, played traditional roles in their classroom. Such roles neglect learners in the learning process. Therefore, depending on such traditional roles (teacher-center approach) might not lead to building students’ competence in communication. However, teachers have good attitudes and perceptions about the goal of English language teaching to be fostering students’ communicative competence. Moreover, teachers showed that communicative competence can be fostered by using the communicative language teaching approach and the amazing roles of technology in language learning and teaching.
5.3
Recommendations and Suggestions As the study showed that teachers in Yaff'ea secondary schools did not
participate in developing students’ communicative competence through three years of studying at the secondary school period, the researcher therefore, recommends and suggests the following: 1. Teachers need in-service training program to teach grammar rules in context. 2. Teachers should be trained on how to teach new vocabulary in context. 3. Providing teachers with teachers’ guide to teach the curricula efficiently. 4. Raising teachers’ awareness of teaching correct pronunciation to their classes. 5. Reconsidering the final examinations of the final year of secondary schools by covering all the four language skills.
Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
205
6. Raising teachers’ awareness of discourse competence and training them on how to pedagogically enhance their students’ discourse competence. 7. Raising teachers’ awareness of the roles that communicative strategies can do to develop learners’ ability to converse using English, as well as training teachers on how to teach communicative strategies. 8. Syllabus designers need to integrate communicative strategies explicitly in secondary schools courses. 9. Teachers need not only training to enhance their students’ sociolinguistic competence, but also they need training to boost their awareness of pragmatics. 10. Training teachers on playing efficient roles which give much of the classroom time to students’ participation whether in group, pair works or with their teachers. 11. Fluency and accuracy should be measured at discourse levels not on reading some lines or choosing the correct verb tense to be filled in a blank. 12. Teachers should avoid interrupting students whenever they make any errors. Thus errors can be corrected whenever students finish their talks. 13. It is recommended that the inspectors of English should intensify their visits to schools in order to follow up the teachers. 14. It is suggested to construct a forum in each district by teachers themselves, therefore, they could help each other and get benefit from other teachers’ experiences. In the previous section of this chapter, the researcher displayed the main findings and answered the research questions set at the beginning of this dissertation, specifically in chapter one. Here below, the researcher would like to report some topics that faced him and found the possibility to be searched on:
5.3.1 Further Researches 1. What are the dimensions or polarities that affect teachers’ practices to reflect the ideas and perceptions they have? 2. The abilities of teachers to plan for lessons. 3. The possibilities of teaching the four language skills from communicative orientations.
Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
206
4. To what extents communicative competence is set to be the aim of English language teaching at University of Aden. 5. Do classroom preparations and organizations affect teachers’ performance in teaching English? 6. The suitability of competency based course to be taught in the Yemeni Secondary School context. 7. Does the political system affect teaching English especially in South Yemen? 8. To what extent do the cheating habits in final years of primary and secondary schools affect students’ motivations to study as well as teachers to create competent English language learners? 9. Exploring Aden university colleges curricula and to what extents they contain materials to develop students’ communicative competence. 10. Exploring the reasons beyond teachers’ pronunciation errors in their classroom. 11. Exploring teachers’ satisfactions to the teaching of Crescent syllabus to secondary school students in Yemen. 12. Investigating the relationships between English primary school teachers and secondary school teachers in Yaff'ea. 13. Students’ perceptions about their teachers’ competence in teaching with reference to secondary and primary educations.
5.3.2. Implications of the Findings Yemeni curricula designers should take into considerations the findings of this study and develop teaching course books to match the areas of communicative competence whenever they are highly concerned about producing competent generation in using English to achieve their communicative needs and goals. Moreover, the implications of this study can be summarized to decision-makers as: 1. As the construction of Educational Forum in Yaff'ea, and the high financial supports that Yaff'ea businessmen spend in this field, it is recommended that English secondary school teachers in Yaff'ea should be trained to use the most recent trends in teaching English in order to develop themselves and be able to use the modern perceptions for teaching English from communicative orientation.
Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
207
2. As the findings reveal, Yaff'ea English secondary school teachers need special training about how they could develop students’ linguistic competence and get rid of their traditional beliefs about teaching grammar and vocabulary. Moreover, they should activate the role of teaching phonology which has been neglected in their classes. 3. Secondary school teachers in Yaff'ea are in crucial needs for a course concerning how to develop students’ discourse competence, especially how to produce coherent and cohesive texts. 4. Teachers should be aware of the necessity of integrating culture in their pedagogical practices and classroom techniques. 5. There is a call for activating the English forum in Yaff'ea, and developing it with the facilities such as inserting internet connection service as well as using media for developing students’ fluency in English. 6. There is a call for constructing a ‘Micro-teaching in pairs’ in which secondary school teachers learn from their colleagues in other secondary schools inside Yaff'ea districts. 7. A call for holding conferences by which a group of Yaff'ea professors of English should monitor secondary school teachers once a weak or twice. 8. A need for supporting secondary school teachers with Teachers’ books and cassette scripts. 9. Teachers in secondary schools need to rethink about and activate transparency and how they could reveal their opinions as well as attitudes frankly if they want to enhance the learning and teaching process. 10. Teachers need a training course about action research which is responsible for developing their ability to measure their teaching methods and techniques. 11. A training course is crucially needed for familiarizing teachers about using communicative activities. 12. Communicative language teaching or communicative approach principles must be introduced to secondary school teachers in Yaff'ea. The implementation of this study is also of great importance to English language teachers at Yaff'ea secondary schools in particular and to the Yemeni secondary school teachers of English in general. Some of the importance of this study can be applied to teachers as:
Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
1.
208
Teachers should focus on all components of communicative competence when they instruct their students.
2. Teachers should focus on the application of new words they teach students to be used in real communication. 3. Teachers should motivate their students to use the grammar rules in true communication. As soon as students are taught some grammatical rules about any language function (e.g. request, invitation, suggestion, etc.), it is necessary for students to apply such rules appropriately in different situations. Therefore, when teachers teach students about any language function, they should invent situations and urge students to apply the appropriate rules within the appropriate situation. 4. Teachers should make students feel more secure and motivate them to take part in classroom activities and apply some of the communicative strategies whenever they face difficulties whether missing words, or structures, etc. 5. Teachers should use authentic listening materials prepared by native speakers to make students aware of the various accents of English. 6. Teachers should motivate students to focus on the cohesive markers within a paragraph in reading or spoken text, as well as the coherence of meaning amongst sentences within a paragraph. Furthermore, students should be motivated to produce language above the sentence level. 7. Teachers should train students to guess the aim or purpose of any reading text or listening scripts. 8. Teaches should be well-prepared before the class. For example, they should check the pronunciation of new vocabulary as well as how to present them in the class. The objectives of the lesson should be set previously. Therefore, teachers should think of some ways to activate students’ previous knowledge to achieve the goals. 9. Teachers should be trained to use new approaches and trends in teaching the target language. Moreover, they need to exchange experience with old hand teachers either at their schools or online.
5.3.3 Limitations of the Study As the study was conducted on Yaff'ea districts of Yemen and specified to secondary school English language teachers, some of the limitations are listed below: Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
209
1. The study is limited to the rural districts in Yaff'ea, it is benefitable if similar further studies to be conducted on urban areas like, Aden, Sana'a, etc. 2. The study is delimited to secondary school level, it is suggested that similar studies to be held on preparatory and tertiary levels. 3. The study used the multi-methods research design; it is suggested that similar studies need to be conducted using the mixed methods research design.
5.4
Works Cited:
Abdullah Ayash Ezzi, Nemah. “Yemeni Teachers’ Beliefs of Grammar Teaching and Classroom Practices.” English Language Teaching 5.8 (2012): 170–184. Web. 5 Jan. 2015. Al-Ashrii, EA, and Ibrahim. “The Effectiveness of a Suggested Program Based on Combining the Direct and the Indirect Strategies on Developing the EFL AlAzhr Secondary School Students’.” Online Submission (2011): 1–50. Web. Alibakhshi, Goudarz, and Davood Padiz. “The Effect of Teaching Strategic Competence on Speaking Performance of EFL Learners.” Journal of Language Teaching and Research 2.4 (2011): 941–947. Print. Alnakeeb, Abdulnasser Mohammed Ali. “A Study of Yemeni English Teachers’ Classrooom Practices and Approches with Special Reference to Secondary Schools in Laboos.” Diss. University of Pune, 2012. Print. Al-Sohbani, Yehia Ahmed Y. “An Exploration of English Language Teaching Pedagogy in Secondary Yemeni Education: A Case Study.” International Journal of English Language & Translation Studies 1.3 (2013): 41–57. Web. Al-Tamimi, Nasser Omer M., and Rais Ahmed Attamimi. “Effectiveness of Cooperative Learning in Enhancing Speaking Skills and Attitudes towards Learning English.” International Journal of Linguistics 6.4 (2014): 27. Web. Bataineh, Ruba Fahmi, Samiha Saif Thabet, and Rula Fahmi Bataineh. “Obstacles of Using Communicative Techniques in Yemeni EFL Classes.” Lagos Papers in English Studies 3 (2008): 14–27. Print.
Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
210
Bataineh, Rula Fahmi, Ruba Fahmi Bataineh, and Samiha Saif Thabet. “Communicative Language Teaching in the Yemeni EFL Classroom: Embraced or Merely Lip-Serviced?” Journal of Language Teaching and Research 2.4 (2011): 859–866. Web. Brown, H. Douglas. Teaching by Principles: An Interactive Approach to Language Pedagogy. (2nd ed). Longman, 2001. Print. David, Tracy. “The Role of Grammaar Instruction in a Communicative Approach.” The Modern Language Journal 75.1 (2010): 52–63. Web. Lenchuk, Iryna, and Amer Ahmed. “Teaching Pragmatic Competence: A Journey from Teaching Cultural Facts to Teaching Cultural Awareness.” TESL Canada Journal 30. Special Issue 7 (2013): 82–97. Print. Mizne, Claire Ann. “Teaching Sociolinguistic Competence in the ESL Classroom.” Senior Thesis Projects (1997): 1993–2002. Print. Nunan, David. “Communcative Language Teaching: Making It Work.” ELF Journal 41.2 (1987): 136–145. Print. O’Neill, Terry, Peter Snow, and Richard Peacock. English Course for Yemen: Teacher’s Book 6. Douthern Court: Garnet Publishing Linited, 1999. Web. Rabab’ah, Ghaleb. “The Effect of Communication Strategy Training on the Development of EFL Learners’ Strategic Competence and Oral Communicative Ability.” Journal of Psycholinguistic Research 44.2 (2015): 625-651. Web. Rahman, Ataur. “Role of L1 (Assamese) in the Acquisition of English as L2: A Case of Secondary School Students of Assam.” English Language Teacher Education in a Diverse Environment: Selected Papers Form the Third International Teacher Educators Conference Hyderabad, India. Ed. Philip Powell-Davies and Paul Gunashekar. British Council, 2013. 214–222. Web. Richards, Jack C. Communicative Language Teaching Today. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006. Web. Sato, Kazuyoshi. “Practical Understandings of Communicative Language Teaching and Teacher Development.” Interpreting Communicative Language Teaching: Contexts and Concerns in Teacher Education. Ed. Sandra J. Savignon. New Haven & London: Yale University Press, 2002. 41–81. Web. 9 Oct. 2014. Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
211
Widdowson, Henry G. Explorations in Applied Linguistics. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1979. Print. Widodo, Handoyo Puji. “Approaches and Procedures for Teaching Grammar.” English Teaching: Practice and Critique 5.1 (2006): 122–141. Web.
Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
213
6.1 Primary Sources: Bachman, Lyle F. Fundamental Considerations in Language Testing. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1990. Print. Bachman, Lyle F., and Adrian S. Palmer. Language Testing in Practice: Designing and Developing Useful Language Tests. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996. Print. Canale, Michael, and Merrill Swain. “Theoretical Bases of Communicative Approaches to Second Language Teaching and Testing.” Applied Linguistics I.1 (1980): 1–47. Web. Canale, Michael. “From Communicative Competence to Communicative Language Pedagogy.” Language and Communication. Ed. R. W. Richards, J. C., and Schmidt. London: Longman, 1983. 3–27. Print. Celce-Murcia, Marianne, Zoltan Dörnyei, and Sarah Thurrell. “Communicative Competence: A Pedagogically Motivated Model with Content Specifications.” Issues in Applied Linguistics 6.2 (1995): 5–35. Print. Celce-Murcia, Marianne. “Rethinking the Role of Communicative Competence in Language Teaching.” Intercultural Language Use and Language Learning. Ed. Eva Alcón Soler and Maria Pilar Safont Jordà. Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Springer, 2007. 41–57. Print. Chomsky, Noam. Aspects of the Theory of Syntax. Cambridge: Multilingual Matters: MIT Press., 1965. Print. Council of Europe. Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: Learning, Teaching, Assessment. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001. Web. Halliday, Michael Alexander Kirkwood. Explorations in the Functions of Language. London: Edward Arnold, 1973. Print. Halliday, Michael Alexander Kirkwood. Language as Social Semiotic. London: Edward Arnold, 1978. Print. Hymes, Dell H. “Toward Linguistic Competence.” REVUE DE L’AILA AILA REVIEW. Ed. Albert Valdman. Indiana: Bloomington, Indiana, 1985. 9–23. Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
214
Web. Hymes, Dell. “On Communicative Competence.” Linguistic Anthropology: A Reader. Ed. Alessandro Duraanti. Malden,USA: Blackwell Publishing, 2001. 53–73. Web. Hymes, Dell. “On Communicative Competence.” Sociolinguistics 269293 (1972): 269–293. Print. Usó-Juan, Ester, and Alicia Martínez-Flor. “Approaches to Language Learning and Teaching: Towards Acquiring Communicative Competence through the Four Skills.” Current Trends in the Development and Teaching of the Four Language Skills. Ed. Ester Usó Juan and Alicia Martínez Flor. Berlin, New York: Mouton de Gruyter, 2006. 3–28. Web. Widdowson, Henry G. Explorations in Applied Linguistics 2. Vol. 2. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1984. Web. 15 Oct. 2014. Widdowson, Henry G. Explorations in Applied Linguistics. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1979. Print. Widdowson, Henry G. Teaching Language as Communication. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1978. Web. 18 Sept. 2014.
6.2 Secondary Sources 6.2.1 Books Bamberger, Michael. “Opportunities and Challenges for Integrating Quantitative and Qualitative Research.” Integration Quantitative and Qualitative Research in Development Projects. Ed. Michael Bamberger. Washington: The World Bank, 2000. 2–26. Print. Broughton, Geoffrey et al. Teaching English as a Foreign Language.(2nd ed). London and New York: Routledge, 2013. Print. Brown, H. Douglas. Principles of Language Learning and Teaching. (5th ed). Pearson: Longman, 2007. Print. ---, Teaching by Principles: An Interactive Approach to Language Pedagogy. (2nded). Longman, 2001. Print.
Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
215
Byram, Micael. Teaching and Assessing Intercultural Communicative Competence. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters Ltd, 1997. Print. Centre for Canadian Language Benchmarks. Canadian Language Benchmarks: English as a Second Language for Adults. Ottawa: Centre for Canadian Language Benchmarks, 2013. Print. ---, Research Methods in Education. (5th ed). London: Routledge, 2000. Print. Cohen, Louis, Lawrence Manion, and Keith Morrison. Research Methods in Education. (6thed). New York: Routledge, 2007. Print. Colburn, Marta. From the Queen of Sheba to the Republic of Yemen K-12 Resource Guide and Classroom Ideas. American Institure for Yemeni Studies, 2006. Print. Creswell, John W. Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Research. (4th ed). Boston: Pearson Education, 2012. Print. ---, Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Approach. (2nd ed). Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications, 2003. Print. Denzin, Norman K. The Research Act: A Theoretical Introduction to Sociological Methods. (2nd ed). New York: McGraw-Hill, 1978. Web. Dörnyei, Zoltán. Research methods in applied linguistics: Quantitative, Qualitative, and Mixed Methodologies.Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007. Print. Griffee, Dale T. An Introducation to Second Langauge Research Methods: Design and Data. (1st ed). Berkeley, California: TESL-EJ Publications, 2012. Print. Harris, C., L. V. Hedges, and J. C. Valentine. Handbook of Research Synthesis and Meta-Analysis. (2nd ed). New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 2009. Web. Hesse-Biber, S Nagy. Mixed Methods Research: Merging Theory with Practice. New York: The Guilford Press, 2010. Print. Hunter, Albert, and John Brewer. “Designing Multimethod Research.” The Oxford Handbook of Multimethod and Mixed Methods Research Inquiry. Ed. Sharlene Hesse-Biber and R. Burke Johnson. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2015. 185–205. Web.
Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
216
Johnson, Marysia. A Philosophy of Second Language Acquisition. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2004. Web. 29 Sept. 2014. Kothari, C.R. Research Methodology: Method and Techniques. (2nd ed). New Delhi: New Age International, 2011. Print. Krashen, Stephen. Principles and Practice in Second Language Acquisition. Oxford: Pergamon Press Inc., 1982. Print. Kumaravadivelu, B. Understanding Language Teaching: From Method to Postmethod. London: Lawrence Erlbaum, 2006. Print. Littlewood, William. Communicative Language Teaching: An Introduction. Ed. Howard B. and Altman and Peter Strevens. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981. Print. Mark, Melvin M. “Mixed and Multimethods in Predominantly Quantitative Studies, Especially Experiments and Quasi-Experiments.” The Oxford Handbook of Multimethod and Mixed Methods Research Inquiry. Ed. Sharlene Hesse-Biber and R. Burke Johnson. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2015. 21–41. Print. McNamara, Timothy Francis. Measuring Second Language Performance. London: Longman, 1996. Web. 9 Oct. 2014. Neuman, W. Lawrence. Basics of Social Research: Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches. (2nd ed). Boston: Pearson Education, 2007. Print. O’Neill, Terry, Peter Snow, and Richard Peacock. English Course For Yemen: Teacher’s Book 4. Beirut: Oxford University Press, 2011. Print. ---, English Course for Yemen: Teacher’s Book 6. Douthern Court: Garnet Publishing Linited, 1999. Web. Page, Piers et al. Success in Medicine Series: An Introducation to Clinical Research. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012. Print. Paulston, Christina Bratt. Linguistic and Commuicative Competence:Topics in ESL. Vol. 85. Clevedon: Multinlingual Matters, 1992. Print. Polit, Denise F., and Cheryl Tatano Beck. Nursing Research: Principles and Methods. (7th ed). Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2004. Print.
Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
217
Richards, Jack C. Communicative Language Teaching Today. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006. Web. ---, Competence and Performance in Language Teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011. Web. 18 Sept. 2014. Sato, Kazuyoshi. “Practical Understandings of Communicative Language Teaching and Teacher Development.” Interpreting Communicative Language Teaching: Contexts and Concerns in Teacher Education. Ed. Sandra J. Savignon. New Haven & London: Yale University Press, 2002. 41–81. Web. 9 Oct. 2014. Savignon, Sandra J. “Communicative Language Teaching: Linguistic Theory and Classroom Practice.” Interpreting Communicative Language Teaching: Contexts and Concerns in Teacher Education. Ed. Sandra J. Savignon. New Haven & London: Yale University Press, 2002. 1–27. Web. Saville-Troike, Muriel. Introducing Second Language Acquisition. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006. Print. Singh, Kultar. Quantitative Social Research Methods. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications, 2007. Web. Tamara van Gog, Fred Paas et al.“Data Collection and Analysis. Handbook of Research on Educational Communications and Technology. Ed. J. Michael Spector M. David Merrill and Jeroen van Merriënboer Marcy P. Driscoll. (3rd ed). New York:Lawrence Erlbaum, 2008. Print Wilkinson, Louise Cherry. “Social Intelligence and the Development of Communicative Competence.” Origins of Intelligence: Infancy and Early Childhood. Ed. Michael Lewis. Springer US, 1983. 305–326. Print.
6.2.2 Journals Abdullah Ayash Ezzi, Nemah. “Yemeni Teachers’ Beliefs of Grammar Teaching and Classroom Practices.” English Language Teaching 5.8 (2012): 170–184. Web. 5 Jan. 2015. Abdullah, Nabil, and Vaijayanta Patil. “A Review of Rural Education Status in Yemen: A Brief Survey.” The International Journal of Pedagogy and Curriculum 19.2 (2013): 151–162. Print.
Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
218
---, “English Language Teaching in Yemen: Importance and Challenges.” International Journal of Social Science Tomorrow 1.5 (2012): 1–8. Print. Ahmad, Saeed, and Congman Rao. “Applying Communicative Approach in Teaching English as a Foreign Language: A Case Study of Pakistaner.” Porta Linguarum: revista internacional de didáctica de las lenguas extranjeras 20(2013): 187–203. Web. 12 Sept. 2014. AL-Ahdal, Arif Ahmed Mohammed Hassan. “Integration of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) into the Education System of Yemen: The Need of the Hour.” International Journal of Social Sciences & Education 3.1 (2013): 40–47. Print. Al-Ashrii, EA, and Ibrahim. “The Effectiveness of a Suggested Program Based on Combining the Direct and the Indirect Strategies on Developing the EFL AlAzhr Secondary School Students’.” Online Submission (2011): 1–50. Web. Al-Hammadi, Fatima, and H.M Sidek. “79. Academic Writing in the Yemeni EFL Context: History, Challenges and Future Research.” The effects of brief mindfulness intervention on acute pain experience: An examination of individual difference 1 (2015): 167–174. Web. Alibakhshi, Goudarz, and Davood Padiz. “The Effect of Teaching Strategic Competence on Speaking Performance of EFL Learners.” Journal of Language Teaching and Research 2.4 (2011): 941–947. Print. Al-Sohbani, Yehia Ahmed Y. “An Exploration of English Language Teaching Pedagogy in Secondary Yemeni Education: A Case Study.” International Journal of English Language & Translation Studies 1.3 (2013): 41–57. Web. ---, “An Exploration of English Language Teaching Pedagogy in Secondary Yemeni Education: A Case Study.” International Journal of English Language & Translation Studies 1.3 (2013): 41–57. Web. ---, “An Investigation of the Reasons Behind the Weaknesses in English Among Public Secondary School Leavers.” Journal of Teaching and Teacher Education 4.2 (2016): 41–51. Print. ---, “The Role of Attitudes and Motivation in Learning English as a Foreign Language Among Yemeni Rural Secondary School Students.” Journal of Teaching and Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
219
Teacher Education 1.1 (2015): 33–42. Print. Al-Tamimi, Nasser Omer M. “Public Speaking Instruction: Abridge to Improve English Speaking Competence and Reducing Communication Apprehension.” International Journal of Linguistics and Communication 2.4 (2014): 45–68. Web. Al-Tamimi, Nasser Omer M., and Rais Ahmed Attamimi. “Effectiveness of Cooperative Learning in Enhancing Speaking Skills and Attitudes towards Learning English.” International Journal of Linguistics 6.4 (2014): 27. Web. Avineri, Netta et al. “Language Assessment as a System: Best Practices, Stakeholders, Models, and Testimonials.” Issues in Applied Linguistics 18.2 (2010): 251–265. Print. Bagari, Vesna, and Jelena Mihaljevi. “Defining Communicative Competence.” Metodika 8.1 (2007): 94–103. Print. Bahumaid, Showqi A. “The Communicative Approach in EFL Contexts Revisited.” International Journal of Social Science and Humanity 2.6 (2012): 446–448. Web. Bataineh, Ruba Fahmi, Samiha Saif Thabet, and Rula Fahmi Bataineh. “Obstacles of Using Communicative Techniques in Yemeni EFL Classes.” Lagos Papers in English Studies 3 (2008): 14–27. Print. Bataineh, Rula Fahmi, Ruba Fahmi Bataineh, and Samiha Saif Thabet. “Communicative Language Teaching in the Yemeni EFL Classroom: Embraced or Merely Lip-Serviced?” Journal of Language Teaching and Research 2.4 (2011): 859–866. Web. Beltrán-Palanques, Vicente. “Fostering Intercultural Communicative Competence in the Foreign Language Classroom: Pedagogical Implications.” International Journal of English Language & Translation Studies 2.2 (2014): 59–70. Print. ---, “Teaching the Four Language Skills from a Communicative Perspective: Some Pedagogical Implications.” FÒRUM DE RECERCA 16 (2011): 519–527. Web.
Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
220
Bin-Hady, Wagdi Rashad Ali, and S.S. Kanade. “A Change in Views: From Seeking Like Native Speakers Repertoire to Become Intercultural Speaker of the Target Language.” Thematics 7.1 (2016): 49–61. Print. Breen, Michael P., and Christopher N. Candlin. “The Essentials of a Communicative Curriculum in Language Teaching.” Applied Linguistics 1.2 (1980): 89–112. Web. Brinkman, Willem-Paul. “Design of a Questionnaire Instrument.” Handbook of Mobile Technology Research Methods (2009): 31–57. Print Chen, Guo-ming. “A Model of Global Communication Competence.” China Media Research 1.1 (2005): 3–11. Print. Cravotta, Joseph S. “Communicative Competence, Intercultural Understanding, and International Tourism.” The Asian EFL Journal Quarterly 7 (2007): 33-39. Print. Daisy, P. “Communicative Language Teaching: A Comperhensive Approach to English Language Teaching.” Language in India: Strength for Today and Bright Hope for Tomorrow 12.2 (2012): 249–265. Print. David, Tracy. “The Role of Grammaar Instruction in a Communicative Approach.” The Modern Language Journal 75.1 (2010): 52–63. Web. Dibakanaka, Anothai, and Kulaporn Hiranburana. “Developing an E-Learning Competency-Based English.” International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications 2.8 (2012): 1–14. Print. Dornyei, Zoltan. “On the Teachability of Communication Strategies.” TESOL QUARTERLY 29.1 (1995): 55–85. Print. Efrizal, Dedi. “Improving Students’ Speaking through Communicative Language Teaching Method at Mts Ja-Alhaq, Sentot Ali Basa Islamic Boarding School of Bengkulu, Indonesia.” International Journal of Hhmanities and Social Science 2.20 (2012): 127–134. Print. Ellis, Rod. “Communicative Competence and the Japanese Learner.” JALT Jounral 13.2 (1991): 103–130. Print.
Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
221
Ellis, Timothy J, and Yair Levy. “Towards a Guide for Novice Researchers on Research Methodology: Review and Proposed Methods.” Informing Science and Information Technology 6 (2009): 324–337. Print. Ellisafni, CAP. “Aspects of Communicative Competence in a Language Teaching.” HUMANIKA 1972 (2013): 208–217. Web. 21 Sept. 2014. Erton, İsmail. “Applied Pragmatics and Competence Relations in Language Learning and Teaching.” Journal of language and linguistic studies 3.1 (2007): 58–71. Web. 20 Aug. 2014. Farooq, Muhammad U. “Creating a Communicative Language Teaching Environment for Improving Students’ Communicative Competence at EFL/EAP University Level.” International Education Studies 8.4 (2015): 179–192. Web. Farrell, Thomas SC, and George Jacobs. Essentials for Successful English Language Teaching. Bloomsbury Publishing, 2010. Web. 21 Sept. 2014. Golafshani, Nahid. “Understanding Reliability and Validity in Qualitative Research.” The Qualitative Report 8.4 (2003): 597–607. Web. Habermas, Jürgen. “Towards a Theory of Communicative Competence, Inquiry: An Interdisciplinary.” Journal of Philosophy 13.February 2014 (1970): 37–41. Print. Halliday, Michael Alexander Kirkwood. “‘Imported Communicative Language Teaching: Implications for Local Teachers.” English Teaching Forum 43.4 (2005): 2–9. Web. Heale, Roberta, and Alison Twycross. “Validity and Reliability in Quantitative Studies.” Evidence-Based Nursing 18.3 (2015): 66–67. Web. Hiep, Pham Hoa. “‘Imported’ Communicative Language Teaching: Implications for Local Teachers.” English Teaching Forum 43.4 (2005): 2–9. Web. Hiep, Pham Hoa. “Communicative Language Teaching: Unity within Diversity.” ELT Journal 61.3 (2007): 193–201. Web. Hussein, Ashatu. “The Use of Triangulation in Social Sciences Research: Can Qualitative and Quantitative Methods Be Combined?” Journal of Comparative Social Work 1 (2009): 1–12. Print.
Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
222
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
Jackson, Jane. “Host Language Proficiency, Intercultural Sensitivity, and Study Abroad.” Frontiers: The Interdisciplinary Journal of Study Abroad (2009): 167– 188. Print. Jidong, Guo. “Empirical Studies on L2 Communication Strategies over Four Decades: Looking Back and Ahead.” Chinese Journal of Applied Linguistics 34.4 (2011): 89–106. Web. Johnson, R. Burke, Anthony J. Onwuegbuzie, and Lisa A. Turner. “Toward a Definition of Mixed Methods Research.” Journal of Mixed Methods Research 1.2 (2007): 112–133. Web. Kamiya, Masashito. “The Role of Communicative Competence in L2 Learning.” Sophia Junior College Faculty Bulletin 26 (2006): 63–88. Print. Lasala, Charita B. “Communicative Competence of Secondary Senior Students: Language Instructional Pocket.” Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 134 (2014): 226–237. Web. 5 Jan. 2015. Lee, Jin Sook, and Beverley McChesney. “Discourse Rating Tasks: A Teaching Tool for Developing Sociocultural Competence.” ELT journal 54.2 (2000): 161–168. Web. 27 Sept. 2014. Lee, Yo.-An. “Towards Respecification of Communicative Competence: Condition of L2 Instruction or Its Objective?” Applied Linguistics 27.3 (2006): 349–376. Web. 2 Sept. 2014. Lenchuk, Iryna, and Amer Ahmed. “Teaching Pragmatic Competence: A Journey from Teaching Cultural Facts to Teaching Cultural Awareness.” TESL Canada Journal 30.Special Issue 7 (2013): 82–97. Print. Leung, Constant. “Communicative Language Teaching and EAL: Principles and Interpretations.” Englishas an additional language: Approaches to teaching linguistic minority students (2010): 1–14. Web. 21 Sept. 2014. Lietz, Petra. “Research into Questionnaire Design: A Summary of the Literature.” International Journal of Market Research 52.2 (2010): 249. Web. Light, Janice, and David Mcnaughton. “Communicative Competence for Individuals Who Require Augmentative and Alternative Communication: A New Definition for
a
New
Era
of
Communication?”
Augmentative
Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
and
Alternative
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
223
Communication 30 (2014): 1–18. Web. Light, Janice. “Communication Is the Essence of Human Life: Reflections on Communicative Competence.” Augmentative and Alternative Communication 13.2 (1997): 61–70. Web. Littlewood, William. “Developing a Context-Sensitive Pedagogy for CommunicationOriented Language Teaching.” English Teaching 86.3 (2013): 1–22. Web. Mahmoud, Montasser Mohamed Abdelwahab. “Culture and English Language Teaching in the Arab World.” Adult Learning 26.2 (2015): 66–72. Web. Malhotra, Naresh K. “Questionnaire Design and Scale Development.” The Handbook of Marketing Research (2006): 176–202. Web. Meier, Ardith J. “Teaching the Universals of Politeness.” ELT journal 51.1 (1997): 22–28. Web. 27 Sept. 2014. Miller, W. Flagg. “Metaphors of Commerce: Trans-Valuing Tribalism in Yemeni Audiocassette Poetry.” International Journal of Middle East Studies 34.1 (2002): 29–57. Web. Mizne, Claire Ann. “Teaching Sociolinguistic Competence in the ESL Classroom.” Senior Thesis Projects (1997): 1993–2002. Print. Morreale, Sherwyn P., Michael M. Osborn, and Judy C. Pearson. “Why Communication Is Important: A Rationale for the Centrality of the Study of Communication.” Journal of the Association for Communication Administration 29 (2000): 1–25. Web. Muthanna, Abdulghani, and A. Cendel Karaman. “The Need for Change in Teacher Education in Yemen: The Beliefs of Prospective Language Teachers.” Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 12 (2011): 224–232. Web. Muthanna, Abdulghani. “A Tragic Educational Experience : Academic Injustice in Higher Education Institutions in Yemen.” Policy Futures in Education 11.5 (2013): 532–537. Print. Nikbakht, Hamid. “EFL Pronunciation Teaching: A Theoretical Review.” The Journal of Applied Linguistics 4.1 (2011): 164-176. Print.
Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
224
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
Nunan, David. “Communcative Language Teaching: Making It Work.” ELF Journal 41.2 (1987): 136–145. Print. ---, “Communicative Tasks and the Language Curriculum.” TESOL Quarterly 25.2 (1991): 279–295. Web. Oweis, Thelal. “A Literature Review on Communication Strategies in Language Learning.” European Scientific Journal 9.26 (2013): 245–267. Print. Patton, Michael Quinn. “Enhancing the Quality and Credibility of Qualitative Analysis.” HRS: Health Srvices Research 34.5 (1999): 1189–1208. Print. Rabab’ah, Ghaleb. “The Effect of Communication Strategy Training on the Development of EFL Learners’ Strategic Competence and Oral Communicative Ability.” Journal of
Psycholinguistic Research 44.2 (2015): 625-651. Web.
Rahman, Ataur. “Role of L1 (Assamese) in the Acquisition of English as L2: A Case of Secondary School Students of Assam.” English Language Teacher Education in a Diverse Environment: Selected Papers Form the Third International Teacher Educators Conference Hyderabad, India. Ed. Philip Powell-Davies and Paul Gunashekar. British Council, 2013. 214–222. Web. Rattray, Janice, and Martyn C. Jones. “Essential Elements of Questionnaire Design and Development.” Journal of Clinical Nursing 16 (2007): 234–243. Web. Rustipa,
Katharina.
“Teaching
Communicative
Reading.”
Ragam
Jurnal
Pengembangan Humaniora 10.3 (2010): 125–130. Print. Savignon, Sandra J. “Beyond Communicative Language Teaching: What’s Ahead?” Journal of Pragmatics 39.1 (2007): 207–220. Web. ---, “Communicative Curriculum Design for the 21st Century.” English Language Forum 40.1 (2002): 2–7. Print. ---, “Communicative Language Teaching: State of the Art.” TESOL Quarterly 25.2 (1991): 261–277. Web. Spratt, C., R. Walker, and B Robinson. “Module A5-Mixed Research Methods.” PREST: Practitioner Research and Evaluation Skills Training in Open and Distance Learning. Vancouver: Commonwealth of Learning, 2004. 1–14. Print.
Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
225
Srikanth, M, and R Asmatulu. “Modern Cheating Techniques, Their Adverse Effects on Engineering Education and Preventions.” International Journal of Mechanical Engineering Education 42.2 (2014): 129–140. Web. Stemler, Steven E. “A Comparison of Consensus, Consistency, and Measurement Approaches to Estimating Interrater Reliability.” Practical Assessment, Research & Evaluation 9.4 (2004): 1–17. Web. Sukirlan, Muhammad. “Teaching Communication Strategies in an EFL Class of Tertiary Level.” Theory and Practice in Language Studies 4.10 (2014): 2033– 2041. Web. Swiat, Agnieszka Slezak. “Components of Strategic Competence in Advanced Foreign Language Users.” Diss.University of Silesia, 2008. Print. Usó-Juan, Ester, and Alicia Martínez-Flor. “Teaching Intercultural Communicative Competence through the Four Skills.” Revista alicantina de estudios ingleses 21.21 (2008): 157–170. Web. ---, “Teaching Learners to Appropriately Mitigate Requests.” ELT Journal 62.4 (2008): 349–357. Web. 27 Sept. 2014. Vernier, Silvia, et al “The Five Language Skills in the EFL Classroom.” Nueva Revista de Lenguas Extranjeras 10 (2008): 263–291. Web. 21 Sept. 2014. Walter, Jeffrey. “Teaching Converssation Structure & Strategy.” Korea TEAOL International Conference 6. (2008). Print. Widdowson, Henry G. “Knowledge of Language and Ability for Use.” Applied Linguistics 10.2 (1989): 128–137. Web. Widodo, Handoyo Puji. “Approaches and Procedures for Teaching Grammar.” English Teaching: Practice and Critique 5.1 (2006): 122–141. Web Zaščerinska, Jeļena. “Organisation of English for Academic Purposes Activity for Developing Communicative Competence.” Humanities & Social Sciences. International Scientific Publications 2.September (2009): 1–31. Print.
Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
226
6.2.3 Dissertations Abbad, Aziza Taleb. “An Analysis of Communicative Competence Features in English Language Texts in Yemen Arab Republic.” Diss. University of Illinois, 1988. Web. Abdullah, Nabil Khadher Muhsen. “A Study of the Factors behind Students’ Weakness in
Reading Comprehension Skills in English at the Colleges of
Education, Yemen, as
Perceived by Students and Teachers.” Diss. S.R.T.M.
University, 2015. Web. AL-Ahdal, Arif Ahmed Mohammed Hassan. “Enhancing Competence of Secondary School English Teachers in Yemen: A Need-Based Syllabus for INSET Programmes.” Diss. Panjab University, 2011. Print. Al-Magid, Abd, and Mohammed Al-Mamun. “The Effect of Teachers’ Attitudes on the Effective of the Communicative Approach in ESL Classrooms.” Diss. University of South Africa, 2006. Print. Al-Mawoda, Kawther Rashed Abdulla. “Exploring Secondary Teachers’ Perception towards Teaching Intercultural Competence in English Language Classrooms in Bahrain.” Diss. University of Exter, 2011. Print. Alnakeeb, Abdulnasser Mohammed Ali. “A Study of Yemeni English Teachers’ Classrooom Practices and Approches with Special Reference to Secondary Schools in Laboos.” Diss. University of Pune, 2012. Print. Alnatheer, Amal A. “The Role of Motivation and Motivational Strategies in Saudi Students’ Communicative Competence in English.” Queensland University of Technology, 2013. Print. Al-Shamiry, Rafiq. “Yemeni Learners’ Oral Communicative Competence in English: A Study at the Tertairy Level.” Diss. CIEFL, India, 2000. Print. Al-Tamimi, Nasser Omer M. “The Effect of Direct Reading Strategy Instruction on Students’ Reading Comprehension, Metacognitive Strategy Awareness, and Reading Attitudes Among Eleventh Grade Students in Yemen.” Diss. Universiti Sains Malaysia, 2006. Print.
Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
227
Bayraktar, Hasan. “A Communicative Competence Perspective on Difficulities in L2 Reading.” Diss. Middle East Teachnical University, 2005. Print. Choi, Tae Hee. “Curriculum Innovation through Teacher Certification: Evaluation of a Government Intervention and Its Effects on Teacher Development and English Language Pedagogy in South Korea.” Diss. King’s College London, 2013. Print. Dekdouk, Fatma. “The Effects of Oral Presentations on Developing EGAP Students’ Communicative Competence.” Diss. Kasdi Merbah University- Ouargla, 2013. Print. Gilmore, Alexander. “Getting Real in the Language Classroom: Developing Japanese Students’ Communicative Competence with Authentic Materials.” Diss. University of Nottingham, 2007. Print. Glebova, IA. “Communicative Approach, Strategies and Techniques Used in Training Speaking Skills of Students Non-Linguists.” Diss. National Technical University of Ukraine (2005):Web.http://novyn.kpi.ua/2005-3-2/03_Glebova.pdf Hossen, Mohammad Tofzzal. “Communicative Language Teaching: Teachers’ Perception in Bangladesh (Secondary Level).” Diss. BRAC University, Dhaka, Banglasesh, 2008. Print. Judit, Dombi. “A Mixed-Method Study on English Majors’ Intercultural Communicative Competence.” Diss. University of Pece, 2013. Print. Kevin Alexander Davis, B.A. “From Collective Memory to Nationalism: Historical Remembranc in Aden.” Diss: Georgetown Univeristy, 2014. Web. Sarwade, A. M. “Communicative Competence and Communicative Performance: A Case Study of the Post-Graduate Students of Shivaji University.” Diss. Shivaji University, 2010. Web. Thomas, Pelleth Yohannan. “Towards Developing a Web-Based Blended Learning Environment at the University of Botswana.” Diss. University of South Africa, 2010. Web. Available at: http://uir.unisa.ac.za/handle/10500/4245?show=full Yuan, Yifeng. “Pragmatics, Perceptions and Strategies in Chinese College English Learning.” Diss.Queen University of Technology, 2012. Print.
Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
228
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
Zhou, Yi. “A Study of Chinese University EFL Teachers and their Intercultural Competence Teaching.” Diss. University of Windsor, 2011. Print. Zuheer, Khaled Mohsen Mohammed. “Developing EFL Teachers’ Performance at Sana’a Secondary Schools in the Light of Their Professional and Specialist Needs” Diss. Cairo University, 2013. Print.
6.2.4 Others Al-Abbadi, Khaled M. “Improving Teacher Quality in Yemen A Policy Analysis and Recommendation.” 1–33. Print. Al-Joufi, Abdulsalam Mohammed. Education Development in the Republic of Yemen [The National Report]. Geneva: Ministry of Education, 2008. Print. Cruz, Manuel Padilla. “Cautious Optimism in Second Language Learning , or How to Make L2 Learners More Competent Hearers.” 1997: 1–13. Web. Demo, Douglas A. “Discourse Analysis for Language Teachers.” ERIC DIGEST4 (2001): n.p. Web. Field, Andy. “Designing a Questionnaire.” Questionnaire Design (2003): 6. Print. Galloway, Ann, and Margie S Berns. “Communicative Language Teaching: An Introduction And Sample Activities.” ERIC Digest (1993). Print. Jones, Amir, and Ruth Naylor. The Quantitative Impact of Armed Conflict on Education: Counting the Human and Financial Costs. Doha, Qatar: CFBT Educaztion Trust, 2014. Web. Mustadi, Ali. Communicative Competence Based Language Teaching: An English Course
Design
for
PGSD.
TAHUN:
UNIVERSITAS
NEGERI
YOGYAKARTA, 2012. Print. NUS. “A Leading Global University Centred in Asia, Influencing the Future.” 2012. Web. Radzi, Amizura Handadi Mohd. et al. “Adopting Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) Approach to Enhance Oral Competencies Among Students: Teachers’ Attitudes and Beliefs.” 1–23. Web. 26 Sept. 2014. Unicef. How Conflict is Driving Children out of School Across the Middle East. Education UnderFire, 2015. Print. Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
229
6.2.5 Dictionaries Crystal, David. Dictionary of linguistics and phonetics. Vol. 30. John Wiley & Sons, 2011. Dictionary, Marriam-Webster. The Merriam-Webster Dictionary. Merriam-Webster, Incorporated, 2006. Dictionary, Merriam-Webster. “An Encyclopedia Britannica Company.” Available form http://www. merriam-webster. com/dictionary/pharmacogenomics (2013). Richards, Jack C., and Richard W. Schmidt. Longman dictionary of language teaching and applied linguistics. Routledge, 2013. Sharifian, Farzad, and Maryam Jamarani, eds. Language and intercultural communication in the new era. Routledge, 2013.
Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD (MS)
7. APPENDICES
Questionnaire for English Language Secondary School Teachers in Yaff'ea.
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
230
Dear respected teachers, responding to the questionnaire won't take more than half an hour from your valuable time. I am counting on your generosity to work with me in diagnosing the problems that our students face and how we can help them to become competent users of English language. Dear teachers, you are estimated to send me back the questionnaire in two weeks from the time you receive it, and you are also welcome to fill up my electronic questionnaire if you use the internet. The link for the web questionnaire will be privately sent to you on any device you prefer. Dear teachers, this study targeted the Secondary School English teachers in Yaff'ea and its purpose is just for education. So your truthful responses will confidently be used in this study.
Dear teachers, this study is entitled: Communicative Competence in Teaching English at Secondary Schools: A Critical Investigation in Yaff'ea District of Yemen. The researcher selects the questionnaire as a tool for collecting data from a large number of English language teachers in Yaff'ea, as well as observation for volunteer teachers. The researcher is definitely sure about your highconcern in building secondary school students' knowledge and also sure about your generosity in giving your opinions honestly because of your trustfulness and responsibility for creating well-educated secondary school students in Yaff'ea. I respectively also would like to get knowledge from your teaching practice experience for your lifelong in the field of teaching. I’d like to attend your class, please let me know if it’s ok by writing a permission note after you have completed the questionnaire or you can send me an SMS message or email me.
Dear English language teachers in Yafea's secondary schools, thank you for participating in giving your opinions and attitudes by responding to these questionnaire items undertaken By Wagdi Rashad Ali Bin Hady, a PhD candidate atDr. BAM, University, India, under the guidance of Dr. S.S. Kanade, working toward a doctorate degree in English philosophy. Dear teachers, please support me by responding honestly to the questionnaire's items. Your valuable opinions and attitudes help the researcher to investigate the problems why the majority of Yaffean secondary school graduates are incapable of using English language to achieve their communicative goals, nor are they able to pursue their higher Education unless they enroll in English courses for building their competence in English Language.
7.1 Appendix (A)
( ( ( (
Agree
Neither agree nor disagree
Disagree
Strongly disagree
)
)
)
)
)
(
Others
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
) ) ) )
(
Using the rule in a context
( ( ( (
(
Giving examples and asking students to discover the rule
2. Teaching new English words is best through: Translation Definition Explaining the meaning in English Using real objects
(
Explaining the rule
)
)
)
)
If you selected a positive answer, what is the best way to teach grammar?
(
Strongly agree
1. Teaching English grammar rules is necessary to secondary school students.
Please tick the best choice from the alternatives below:
231
For assurance, you are not required to write your name in the questionnaire. Furthermore, if you want to see the result of this study, you are welcome to contact me as soon as I complete my dissertation. You can find my phone number as well as my email address at the end of this questionnaire.
( (
) )
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
232
3. To understand and produce isolated sentences in English, students need to get knowledge in: Grammar ( ) Pronunciation ( ) Vocabulary ( ) Word formation ( ) None of the above ( ) All of the above ( ) Others. ( ) 4. Which areas of English phonology do you focus on ?((علم االصوات Consonant and vowel sounds ( ) Intonation ( طبقات الصوت:) الترنيم ( ) Stress Pattern() تنبير ( ) None of the above ( ) All of the above ( ) Other ( ) If other, what do you focus on? ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………..
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………….
Which of the above list do you usually use to introduce new words to your students?
Guessing the meaning through the context Other Ways
( ( ( (
Conjunctions (e.g. and, but, however, etc.)
Parallel structures (e.g., not only…but also, neither….nor)
All the above
None of the above
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
………………………………………………………………………………..
Which element(s) of the above choices do you teach your students?
(
Substitution/ellipsis (avoiding unnecessary words which mentioned previously).
)
)
)
)
)
Reference (e.g. a pronoun which refers back for a noun, or introduces a noun comes next). (
)
233
6. To organize a written paragraph or a spoken utterance in a logical structure, students need to get knowledge in: : يحتاج الطالب الى معرفة في،إلنتاج وفهم نص مكتوب اومنطوق متناسقا نحويا
………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
How sentences are grammatically linked ( ) How sentences are linked according to their meanings ( ) How a conversation is formed ( ) All of the Above ( ) None of the Above ( ) Other ( ). Which of the above choices do you teach your class? Please describe your focus.
5. To understand and produce English texts in writing or speaking, students need to get knowledge in:
( ( ( ( (
Relating the previous knowledge to the present topic
Sequences of tenses
Others
All of the above
None of the above
)
)
)
)
)
)
( ( ( (
How to interrupt
How to close the a conversation
All the above
Others
)
)
)
)
) )
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
234
9. English language learners usually lack specific vocabulary or structures when they talk with others using English. Students need to discover ways to help them compensate any lack of their knowledge in English. Do you motivate your students to use communicative strategies? )(مهارات تساعدهم على تعويض النقص في المعرفة ومواصلة الحديث Yes ( ) Cannot tell ( ) No ( ).
( (
How to open a dialogue How to develop the ideas
8. To participate effectively in a conversation, students need to get knowledge in:
(
Themes of topics
7. To organize a written paragraph or spoken conversation in a meaningful way, students need to get knowledge in: :يحتاج الطالب الى معرفة في،لفهم وإنتاج نص مكتوب اومنطوق متناسق المعنى Paragraph unity ( )
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
235
If you selected yes, how often do you motivate your students to use communicative strategies? Most of the Time ( ) Frequently ( ) Occasionally ( ) Rarely ( ) Never ( ) 10. Sometimes our students cannot find the suitable words they need when they are speaking in English. Which of the following strategies can help them keep the communicative channel open? Stopping or changing the topic ( ) Miming or gesturing ( ) Using Arabic words ( ) Asking for help ( ) Paraphrasing ( ) All of the above ( ) None of the above ( ) Other ( ) If you answered other, please describe the strategies you use.
( ( ( ( (
Culture of English people (e.g. holidays, literature, dress, meals, etc.)
Registers of English (e.g. formal, neutral, and informal)
Varieties of English (e.g. British English, American English, Australian English)
All the above
None of the above
)
)
)
)
)
)
( ( (
Students' pronunciation
Both
Neither
)
)
)
)
(
Teacher should interrupt them and suggest correction
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
(
Teacher should ignore that mistake
).
)
13. When students make mistakes in grammar during their talk in English: Teacher should correct them directly ( )
(
Students' grammar
12. When students participate in classroom activities, teachers focus on:
236
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………
Which elements of the above choices do you focus on during your classroom instruction?
(
Language functions (e.g. request, advice, invitation, etc.)
11. To understand the intention of native speakers in their talks or writings, students need to get knowledge in:
( ( ( (
Pronunciation errors
Word choices
Language use
I don’t know )
)
)
)
)
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
237
16. Which role do you play mostly in your classroom?:أي دور تقوم به غالبا في الصف Counselor ( (مستشار ( ) Demonstrator ))شارح ( ) Helper )(مساعد ( ) Dominator ))مسيطر ( ) Advisor ))ناصح ( ) Other ( ) If you checked other, what would you call the role you use mostly in your classroom? ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………
15. The roles of teacher change depending on the tasks or activity s/he is teaching to class. Strongly agree ( ) Agree ( ) Neither agree nor disagree ( ) Disagree ( ) Strongly disagree ( )
(
Grammar errors
14. Which types of students’ errors should teachers correct directly?
( ) ( ) ( )
During a course for teachers-training
During my reading about ELT
Other
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
Strongly agree ( ) Agree ( ) Neither agree nor disagree ( ) Disagree ( ) Strongly disagree ( ) 19. Communicative Language Teaching is the best Teaching method for developing Students' communicative competence. Strongly agree ( ) Agree ( ) Neither agree nor disagree ( ) Disagree ( ) Strongly disagree ( )
18. The purpose of English Language Teaching is to enhance students' communicative competence?
( )
During my study
If your answer was yes, where have you got that familiarity?
17. Are you familiar with the term "Communicative Competence"? Yes ( ) No ( ) Cannot tell ( )
238
( ( ( ( (
) ) ) ) )
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
Thank you for your participation in responding to my questionnaire items.
e-mail:
[email protected]
Phone no. 733516963.
Feel free to contact me for any clarifications or suggestions.
Strongly agree Agree Neither agree nor disagree Disagree Strongly disagree
20. Using technology in teaching English can motivate students to learn language better.
239
Teaching English grammar rules is necessary to secondary school students If you selected a positive answer, what is the best way to teach grammar? Teaching new English words is best through: Which of the above list do you usually use to introduce new words to your students? To understand and produce isolated sentences in English, students need to get knowledge in: Which areas of English phonology do you focus on? To understand and produce English texts in writing or speaking, students need to get knowledge in: Please specify which of the above choices do you explain to your students? To organize a written paragraph or a spoken utterance in a logical structure, students need to get knowledge in : Which element(s) of the above choices do you make your students familiar with? To organize a written paragraph or spoken conversation in a meaningful way, students need to get knowledge in To participate effectively in a conversation, students need to get knowledge in: English language learners usually lack specific vocabulary or structures when they talk with others using English. Students need to discover ways to help them
1.a
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
9.a
8
7
6.b
6.a
5.b
4 5.a
3
2.a 2.b
1.b
Questionnaire items
No
7.2 Appendix (B)
1.1857
3.3714
2.4638
3.4600
2.2813
3.4082
3.1000 2.9143
4.4638
4.6444
3.3571
1.8955
1.5286
Mean
.51900
1.75426
1.02297
2.62025
1.17472
2.48259
1.93481 1.30487
1.81966
1.47477 3.15620
.93961
Std. Deviatio n .65323
240
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
19
16 17. a 17. b 18
15
14
13
11. a 11. b 12
10
9.b
compensate for any lack of their knowledge in English. Do you motivate your students to use communicative strategies? If you selected yes, how often do you motivate your students to use communicative strategies? Sometimes our students cannot find the suitable words they need when they are speaking in English. Which of the following strategies can help them keep the communicative channel open? To understand the intention of native speakers in their talks or writings, students need to get knowledge in Which elements of the above choices do you focus during your classroom teaching? When students participate in classroom activities, teachers focus on: When students make mistakes in grammar during their talk in English: Which types of students' errors should teachers correct directly? The roles of teacher change depending on the tasks or activity s/he is teaching to class. Which role do you play mostly in your classroom? Are you familiar with the term "Communicative Competence"? If your answer was yes, where have you got that familiarity? The purpose of English Language Teaching is to enhance students' communicative competence? Communicative Language Teaching is the best Teaching method for developing Students' communicative .49226
2.7647
.76084
1.8286
.58288
.93391
1.9474
1.6714
1.24353 .67857
.62996
.95285
2.7000 1.3429
1.6812
2.2174
.78953
2.53059
3.1786
1.9412
1.75637
1.55373
2.7246
3.8571
2.3750 1.07644
241
Grammar
2
3
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
Translation Definition Explaining the meaning in English Using Real Object Guessing the meaning through the context Other ways
1.b
Sub-scales Strongly agree Agree Neither agree nor disagree Disagree Strongly disagree
7.3 Appendix (C)
Explaining the rule Giving example and asking students to guess the rule Using the rule in a context Other
1.a
Item No
20
7.1
21.4 0
24.3 2.9 10
16.7 0 38.1 23.8
25.8 22.6 6.5
24.3 24.3 4.3 20 2.9 28.6 21.4
45.2
42.9
.62868
0.956114
0.960535
0.99294
0.948112
Pearson Correlation
1.4429
Test% Retest% 54.3 42.9 40 47.6 3.4 0 1.4 9.5 0 0
Test-retest
competence Using technology in teaching English can motivate students to learn language better.
242
Sub-scales Substitution/ellipses Conjunctions
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
6
Item No
5
Test% Retest% 21.9 26.2 34.3 19
23.8 9.5 35.7 2.4 0
24.3 2.9 51.4 0 1.4
How sentences are grammatically linked How sentences are linked according to their meanings How a conversation is formed All of the above None of the above Other
4
42.9 7.1 2.4 7.1 38.1 2.4
28.6
41.4 5.7 1.4 7.1 41.4 2.9
Consonant and vowel sounds Intonation Stress Patterns None of the above All of the above Other
9.5 28.6 11.9 2.4 40 0
20
2.9 25.7 5.7 2.9 50 1.4
Pronunciation Vocabulary Word formation None of the above All of the above Other
Pearson Correlation 0.853814
0.917993
0.99601
243
18.6 30 0 0 50 1.4 87.1 7.1 5.7
29.7 31.3 10.9 3.1
How to open a dialogue How to develop the ideas How to interrupt How to close a conversation All of the above Other Yes Cannot tell No Most of the time Frequently Occasionally Rarely Never
8
9
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
10
43.2 24.3 8.1 0
88.1 4.8 7.1
19 33.3 0 2.4 45.2 0
31 21.4 2.4 2.4
28.6 15.7 1.4 1.4
7
19 23.8
4.8 2.4 0
18.6 34.3
10 2.9 0
Paragraph unity Themes of topics Relating the previous knowledge to the present topic Sequences of tenses All of the above None of the above
Parallel structures All of the above None of the above
0.894464
0.999229
0.991013
0.916309
244
19
28
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
13
21.4 59.5
32 37
Teacher should correct them directly Teacher should ignore that mistake Teacher should interrupt them and suggest correction
12
9.6 33.3 50 7.1
3 17 77 3
Students' grammar Students’ pronunciation Both Neither
Test% Retest%
11.b
14.3 7.1 14.3 33.3 0
Sub-scales
21.4 10 1.4 25.7 4.3
Language functions Culture of English people Registers of English Varieties of English All of the above None of the above
11.a
7.1 26.2 19 31 2.4 14.3 0 0
Item No
5.7 15.7 15.7 34.3 12.9 12.9 0 2.9
Stopping or changing the topic Miming or gesturing Using Arabic words Asking for help Paraphrasing All of the above None of the above Other
0.918432
0.909318
Pearson Correlation
0.816408
0.866242
245
Counselor Demonstrator Helper Dominator Advisor Other
15
16
77 11 12 40 30 25 5
Yes No Cannot tell During my study During a course for teachers-training During my reading about ELT Other
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
17b
17a
39 56 6 0 0
Strongly agree Agree Neither agree nor disagree Disagree Strongly disagree
14
10 41.4 34.3 4.3 2.9 7.1
16 64 4 12 3
Grammar errors Pronunciation errors Word Choice Language use I don’t know
40 25.7 31.3 2.9
16.7
76.2 7.1
14.3 50 21.4 4.8 7.1 2.4
31 57.1 7.1 2.4 2.4
4.8 76.2 9.5 4.8 4.8
0.958022
0.993353
0.901126
0.987019
0.967486
246
20
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
61.4 34.3 2.9 1.4 0
Strongly agree Agree Neither agree nor disagree Disagree Strongly disagree
19
1.4 38.6 55.7 5.7 0 0
Strongly disagree
31.4 60 4.3 2.9
Strongly agree Agree Neither agree nor disagree Disagree Strongly disagree
18
Strongly agree Agree Neither agree nor disagree Disagree
0.958593
0.982869
76.2 23.8 0 0.971971301 0 0
47.6 45.2 2.4 2.4 2.4
0
23.8 71.4 4.8 0
247
Coding Sheet Questionnaire
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
248
No. 1a 1b 2a 2b 3 4 5a 5b 6a 6b 7 8 9a 9b 10 11a 11b 12 13 14 15 16 17a 17b 18 19 20 1 2 1 3 6 5 2 3 2 3 5 1 3 3 5 6 3 2 4 1 3 1 3 2 2 2 2 1 2 3 6 6 1 4 3 1 1 2 5 1 2 4 3 1 3 2 2 2 6 1 2 2 1 2 3 2 3 5 6 2 1 3 4 2 2 2 1 2 2 2 5 1 1 2 2 1 4 2 3 5 1 5 4 5 2 5 1 1 6 5 3 1 1 1 2 1 2 2 2 2 5 2 2 3 6 1 4 3 3 5 5 1 3 1 4 1 3 1 2 2 6 1 4 2 2 3 6 1 1 2 7 6 4 1 1 1 1 2 2 1 2 3 2 2 3 1 2 2 2 1 1 2 1 2 7 2 3 4 3 1 2 2 2 5 1 2 2 1 3 3 4 1 3 1 2 1 2 1 8 2 3 3 7 5 4 5 1 5 3 5 5 1 3 2 5 1 2 1 1 1 2 1 9 2 3 5 1 5 4 5 2 5 1 1 6 5 5 3 1 1 2 2 1 2 2 2 2 10 1 5 7 1 2 2 1 3 4 1 1 3 2 3 1 3 2 3 1 3 1 2 1 1 1 11 2 3 5 6 1 4 1 5 1 3 6 2 2 1 2 2 3 1 1 2 2 2 12 1 4 1 6 1 6 6 1 2 1 3 3 1 9 3 1 2 1 6 1 3 2 2 1 13 1 1 1 1 6 1 2 3 2 1 1 1 3 1 5 1 2 2 1 1 2 2 14 2 1 6 1 3 5 1 3 2 5 3 3 6 6 3 2 2 3 1 4 2 2 1 15 1 4 4 7 3 4 4 4 1 5 3 5 1 2 4 1 7 3 1 4 1 2 3 2 1 3 1 16 2 3 1 6 1 4 3 4 2 1 3 4 2 2 3 2 2 2 2 3 3 2 17 2 1 3 7 6 1 4 2 6 3 5 1 4 6 6 5 2 2 2 2 6 1 3 2 2 1 18 3 3 9 6 5 2 5 1 2 1 1 2 2 6 2 3 3 4 1 3 3 2 1 1 19 2 1 4 3 1 2 4 3 3 2 2 1 1 5 2 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 3 2 1 1 20 3 2 3 3 3 6 2 2 3 2 3 2 1 1 8 2 2 2 2 2 2 6 1 1 1 1 1 21 1 2 4 7 6 1 4 2 1 1 2 5 1 3 6 5 1 3 1 2 1 3 1 1 2 3 2 22 2 1 3 3 6 5 1 2 5 2 5 1 3 3 5 5 3 2 1 2 1 3 3 3 1 23 1 3 4 1 6 1 4 1 1 1 3 5 1 4 4 2 2 1 2 2 1 2 1 3 1 1 1 24 1 1 3 3 3 1 4 3 2 3 3 5 1 2 4 5 1 3 3 2 2 2 1 1 2 2 2 25 1 1 5 4 6 5 1 1 1 1 3 1 1 4 6 5 1 3 3 2 2 3 1 2 2 2 1
7.4 Appendix (D)
3 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 1 1 2 1 1 1 2 2 2 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 4 1 1
3 1 1 2 1 1 2 3 2 1 1 1 1 2 3 1 3 3 3 1 1 2 1 2 1 1 2 1
5 11 3 5 3 11 3 1 3 3 3 1 3 9 6 5 3 1 6 1 1 1 6 4 3 3 2 5 1 8 3 2 4 7 4 1 4 4 6 5 4 1 6 5 5 1 3 1 5 5 2 1 5 1 6 1 2 6 1 3 4 1 3 1 4 6 6 4 4 5 1 1 3 3 4 1 1 8 4 5 3 9 6 5 3 1 1 1 6 4 6 1 3 4 3 5 5 1 6 5 1 1 3 2 4 1 3 5 3 10 6 5 1 6 1
4 4 1 4 2 4 4 3 1 2 4 4 1 4 4 4 4 2 4 4 4 1 2 4 4 2 3 4 2 7 8 2 4 2 2 2 3 2 8 1 8 1 1 1 9 2 4 3 3 4
4 3 1 1 1 1
3 3 3 5 3 1 4 5 3 3 2 2 3 11 1 2 1 1 2 2 1 3 5 1 1 4 1 1 7 1 2 3 7 1 5 1 8 2 1 1 5 1 2 4 9 3 2 3 3 1 2 2 5 3 2 3 2 1 1 1 1 5 3 7 1 5 4 2 4 2 4 4 4 5 1 1 2 1 1 1 2 5 2 2 2 5 4 4 3 5 4 2 3 5 1 2 1 5 3 1 2 5 1 1 3 1 2 3 2 1 3 4 6
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
1 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 3 2 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 2 1 2
2 3 3 3 1 1 4 3 3
4 4 3 3 2 2 3 1 1
2 1 3 3 4
5 4 4 3 4 4 4 2 6 3 2 4 5 6 3 4 5 4 5 4 2 5 3 3 8 4 4 4 4
1 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 5 1 5 5 2 5 1 1 5 5 1 1 5 1 2 1 1 2 5 3 2 6 8 1 1 1 6 1 6 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 7 1 8 1 5 3
7 7 1 4 1 6
3 3 3 4 3 2 3 3 3 4 3 3 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 3 3 2 3 3
2 3 2 2 1 2 1 2 2 3 3 1 1 3 1 1 3 3 3 1 2 3 3 2 3 2 2 1 1
4 2 2 4 2 2 2 3 3 2 1 2 2 2 4 1 3 2 2 2 2 1 2 2 1 1 2 1 2
2 2 2 2 2 1 2 2 2 3 2 1 1 1 2 1 2 2 1 2 1 1 2 2 1 2 2 2 2
1 2 2 2 3 2 2 2 3 2 3 2 2 3 1 2 2 3 3 2 2 2 4 2 3 2 1 3 4
1 1 3 1 1 3 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 3 1 3 1 2 1 1 1 1 2 2 1 2
1 1 1 1
1
2
2 2 1 1 1 3 3 2 1 3
2 3
3 4
1 1 2 2 2 4 3 1 2 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 2 2 1 2 1 2 2 2 1 2 1 2 2
2 2 2 2 2 1 2 1 2 2 2 1 2 1 2 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 2 2 2 2 1 1 2
249
2 3 1 1 2 1 1 1 2 2 2 1 2 1 2 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 2 2 1 1 1 1 2
1 2 1 2 2 1 1 2 1 1 2 2 2 2 1 1
1 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 4 1 1 1 1 3 1
1 1 3 4 4 5 4 1 5 5 5 5 1 1 1 5
9 5 9 5 6 3
6 4 3 6 4 6 9 6 6 1 6 6 4 3
5 6 5 5 5 5 1 5 5 5 4 1 5 1 1 5
2 2 1 4 4 4 2 2 1 4 4 4 1 1 1 4 2
1 7
2 8 8
8 2 5
3 3 2 2 3 3 4 1 4 1 5 1 1 4 5 4 10 1 5 2 2 5 1 2 3 5 1 3 2 1 3 2 2 5 3 3 2 2 5 5 1 3 2 5 7 1 1 1 1 3 1 3 4 2
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
5 2 5 1 3 2 2 1 1 1 1 3 2 3 2 2
5 4 5 4 4 4 2 2 4 6 2 2 3 1 2 4
3 2 3 2 5 1 1 1 1 5 1 1 2 1 3 3 3
1 1
1 4 2 3 1 7
3 2 3 3 3 3 1 3 3 2 3 3 3 3 3 3
3 3 1 3 2 2 2 2 1 3 2 2 1 1 2 1
2 1 2 4 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 1 2 2
1 2 3 1 1 2 2 2 2 1 2 2 1 2 3 4
5 3 4 3 3 1 2 1 3 3 3 1 2 3 3 2
1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 3 1 1 3 2 1 2
1
3 1 2 1 3 2 3 1
1
2 4 5 1 1 2 2 2 1 1 2 1 2 2 2 2
2 1 2 1 1 2 1 2 1 1 2 2 2 2 1 1
250
2 4 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 2 1 1
Cohesion
TEACHER FOCUS GRAMMAR pronunciation
counselor
Teachers' role
Coherence
vocabulary
norms
Tense sequence
Miming or gesturing
Culture traditions
Gesture helper
Which errors teacher focus Word Language pronunciation choice use
Context
Demonstrator
Language use
Paraphrasing
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
Stopping or changing the topic
Strategic competence Fluency/accura cy
Inductive.
Reference.
Language functions
deductive
Ellipse
Pragmatic competence
Discourse competence
Communicativ e.
Conjunction.
Other Parallel Structure.
Translatio n. Paragraph unity holiday
grammar
Intonation.
Registers
Using Arabic words
dominator
Varieties
Time: 9:36 A.M.
Which errors teachers focus on?
phonology
Other
Conversation structures
Close
Linguistic competence
neutral
Demonstratio n. Theme topic dress
Previous knowledge
Sound. Open. formal
Stress Interrupt informal
Date 31-3-2015
Develop ideas.
Title of the lesson: What do they do?
British
School: Alsafea
Advisor
Asking for help
American.
Observation Checklist (A)
Australian
7.5 Appendix (E)
251
Other
Communicativ e.
TEACHER FOCUS GRAMMAR pronunciation
counselor
Teachers' role
Coherence
norms
Tense sequence
Miming or gesturing
Culture traditions
Gesture
Context
helper
Which errors teacher focus Word Language pronunciation choice use
Demonstrator
Language use
Paraphrasing
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
Stopping or changing the topic
Strategic competence Fluency/accura cy
Inductive.
Reference.
Language functions
deductive
Ellipse
Pragmatic competence
Conjunction.
Cohesion
Paragraph unity holiday
Translatio n. dress
Discourse competence
Parallel Structure.
Demonstratio n. Theme topic
vocabulary
Previous knowledge
Other
Sound.
Intonation.
phonology Other
Conversation structures
Registers
dominator
Using Arabic words Which errors teachers focus on?
Close
grammar
neutral
Linguistic competence
Interrupt informal
Open. formal
Stress.
Varieties
Time: 9:36 A.M.
Develop ideas.
Date 31-3-2015
British
Title of the lesson: What do they do?
Advisor
Asking for help
American.
School: Alsafea
Australian
Inter-rater Observation Checklist. (B)
252
Other
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
2.00
7.00
1.00
6.00
1.00
2.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
5.00
1.00
1.00
2.00
3.00
5.00
5.00
1.00
1.00
5.00
5.00
5.00
5.00
5.00
5.00
4.00
5.00
5.00
5.00
5.00
3.00
5.00
4.00
5.00
5.00
1.00
5.00
1.00
1.00
5.00
5.00
5.00
1.00
5.00
3.00
5.00
1.00
5.00
5.00
4.00
7.00
6.00
6.00
3.00
6.00
6.00
5.00
3.00
4.00
5.00
7.00
7.00
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
5.00
5.00
1.00
5.00
5.00
5.00
1.00
7.00
5.00
7.00
5.00
5.00
1.00
5.00
5.00
6.00
7.00
7.00
1.00
7.00
7.00
3.00
1.00
6.00
7.00
7.00
7.00
7.00
7.00
1.00
5.00
5.00
4.00
5.00
5.00
5.00
5.00
5.00
5.00
5.00
5.00
5.00
5.00
5.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
Observation Checklist Code
7.6 Appendix (F)
4.00
7.00
7.00
7.00
7.00
7.00
7.00
7.00
4.00
7.00
7.00
7.00
7.00
4.00
3.00
1.00
3.00
3.00
2.00
2.00
3.00
3.00
3.00
2.00
2.00
3.00
3.00
2.00
5.00
1.00
3.00
2.00
2.00
2.00
5.00
5.00
5.00
2.00
2.00
5.00
5.00
2.00
5.00
1.00
5.00
5.00
2.00
2.00
4.00
5.00
4.00
6.00
6.00
4.00
4.00
5.00
253
14 14 14 14 14 14 14 14 14 14 14 14 14 14
vocabulary
Phonology
Cohesion
Coherence
Conversation Structure
Language Function
Culture
Registers
Varieties
Strategic competence
Fluency/Accuracy
Errors Correction
Teachers' Role
Valid
Grammar
items
N
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Missing
Statistics
4.1429
3.2857
2.5000
6.3571
1.0000
1.0000
4.9286
5.3571
4.5000
5.2857
3.4286
4.7143
2.2143
2.6429
Mean
Observation Checklist Statistics
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS …
7.7 Appendix (G)
1.51186
1.58980 5.00
.65044 2.00a
1.27745
.00000
.00000
.26726
2.59013
2.02864
1.38278
1.94992
.61125
2.11873
1.90575
3.00
7.00
1.00
1.00
5.00
7.00
5.00
6.00
5.00
5.00
1.00
1.00
Mode
Std. Deviation
254
