Concurrent engineering fundamentals

CONCURRENT ENGINEERING FUNDAMENTALS VOLUME II Integrated Product Development Biren Prasad PRENTICE HALLINTERNATIONAL SERIES IN ~NDUSTRIALAND SYSTEMS ENGINEERING

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Prasad, Biren Concurrent engineering fundamentals: integrated product development / Biren Prasad. cm. - (Prentice-Hall international series in industrial p. and systems engineering) Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN &13-3969464 1. Production engineering. 2. Concurrent engineering. 3. Design, Industrial. 1. Title. 11. Series. TS 176.P694 1996 670.4--dc20 95-43 132 CIP Acquisitions editor: Bernard Goodwin Cover designer: Design Source Cover design director: Jerry Votta Manufacturing buyer: Alexis R. Heydt Compositor/Productionservices: Pine Tree Composition, Inc. O 1997 by Prentice Hall PTR Prentice-Hall, Inc. A Simon & Schuster Company Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458

The publisher offers discounts on this book when ordered in bulk quantities. For more information contact: Corporate Sales Department Prentice Hall PTR One Lake Street Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 Phone: 80&382-3419 Fax: 201-236-7141 email: [email protected] All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, in any form or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher. Printed in the United States of America

ISBN: 0-33-3767q6-0 Prentice-Hall International (UK) Limited, London Prentice-Hall of Australia Pty. Limited, Sydney Prentice-Hall Canada, Inc., Toronto Prentice-Hall Hispanoamericana, S.A., Mexico Prentice-Hall of India Private Limited, New Delhi Prentice-Hall of Japan, Inc., Tokyo Simon & Schuster Asia Pte. Ltd., Singapore Editora Prentice-Hall do Brasil, Ltda., Rio de Janeiro

WHAT OUR READERSIREVIEWERS SAY ABOUT VOLUME I? In the last few years, several books have been published in Concurrent Engineering. The book Concurrent Engineering Fundamentals is the first comprehensive text book, which balances coverage of fundamental concepts, original research results, industrial applications and practical experiences. It deals with all major issues involved in CE ranging from information technology to life cycle management. Concurrent Engineering Fundamentals is essential reading for engineers, managers and academics who are working in the field of concurrent engineering. ...It is an excellent text book for senior undergraduate students and graduate students in the field of manufacturing engineering, production engineering, industrial engineering and business schools. Peihua Gu, Ph.D. and P.Eng. Professor and NSERC/AECL Chair Dept. of Mechanical Engineering University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK, Canada

I found Concurrent Engiyleering Fundamentals to be an easy-to-read introduction to an area that has intrigued me for several years. The book is rich in illustrations and tables, and this abundance of visual material helped me make sense of the concepts and jargon introduced in the book. Furthermore, I found that I could skip around the book to topics of particular interest without too much trouble. That is, the book permits the reader to select topics of interest without having to read it in its entirety. ...The Concurrent Engineering Fundamentals book will be eminently useful both to students taking a course in Concurrent Engineering and to engineers seeking to update their skills on their own. Raphael (Raji) T. Haftka, Ph.D. Professor, University of Florida Department of Aerospace Engineering Mechanics and Engineering Science Gainesville, Florida

This book Concurrent Engineering Fundamentals-although it has Fundamentals in its title-is a book not only for the newcomers to the field, but also for the experts, too. What distinguishes this book from others is that it really embodies concurrent engineering in its writing. Concurrency is well maintained throughout-among the concepts, methodologies including discussions of the social and technical backgrounds. Further, these concepts and methodologies are so well illustrated that newcomers will not find any difficulty in understanding them. The well indexed technical terms help a great deal for the newcomers to understand. Experts will also find Concurrent Engineering Fundamentals very informative because there are so many descriptions and comparisons of different cultures. There are also many descriptions about Japan. Even to a Japanese like me, I found that the book contains many new findings about our Japanese industrial backgrounds that I did not know before. ...I would like to recommend Concurrent Engineering Fundamentals for all who have interests in CE, newcomers and experts as well. Shuichi Fukuda, Ph.D. Chair Professor and Deparment Chair Department of Production, Information and Systems Engineering Tokyo Metropolitan Institute of Technology Asahigaoka, Hino, Tokyo, JAPAN

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A long needed book ...Concurrent Engineering Fundamentals is the first comprehensive text in the rapidly developing area of CE that covers the very fundamentals.. .. Apart from its merits of high quality and timely content, the book is very well organized editorially. The book will appeal to both the engineering and management practitioner, as well as the academic community, where it can serve as a textbook. Dr. Marek B. Zaremba Professor, Dept. of Computer Science University of Quebec, CANADA

The cost and time it takes to do product and process engineering has been escalating over the last few decades due to several reasons among them: increasing customer satisfaction, increasing government regulations, and increasing design alternatives due to material and process innovations. Concurrent Engineering Fundamentals rightly sets forth the philosophy and methodology necessary to conduct a modem concurrent engineering process. ...Concurrent Engineering Fundamentals will be a very welcomed addition to the literature in this important growing field.

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Mounir M. Kamal, Ph.D. Executive Director (Retired) General Motors Research Laboratory Warren, Michigan

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Concurrent Engineering Fundamentals is a very comprehensive, thorough, and visionary analysis of the concurrent engineering process. It serves a wide range of needs from an engineering textbook to a highly useful reference. In this day of exploding knowledge, intensifying global competition, and more demanding customers, it is imperative to significantly improve the engineering process. No longer is an undisciplined and often ad hoc process good enough. The entire process must be managed following a very disciplined approach. Concurrent Engineering Fundamentals is a book that brings both breadth and depth to the issue. It is a coherent work integrating the "alphabet soup" of current thidcing and new techniques related to the overall product development process and should help individuals, work teams, and companies improve their effectiveness. Key performance factors, including quality, time to market, and cost are given appropriate attention as is the important issue of continuous improvement and reengineering. . ..I recommend Concurrent Engineering Fundamentals to all who are faced with challenges of improving the effectiveness and efficiency of their engineering process. David E. Cole, Ph.D. Director, Transportation Research Institute Ofice for the Study of Automotive Transportation The University of Michigan Ann Arbor, Michigan

Concurrent Engineering Fundamentals offers a lot of new information ... new material and focused. Frankly speaking, no book exits in the market to this-CE Fundamentals book.. .. Nanua Singh, Ph.D. Professor, Department of Industrial and Manufacturing Engineering Wayne State University, Detroit, MI

To Pushpa, Rosalie, Gunjan, and Palak, for your patience and support

Trademarks (TM) pro/EngineerTM:Parametric Technology Corp., Waltham, MA. I-DEAS Master seriesTM:SDRC, Milford, OH. CADDS 5TM:Computervision Corp., Bedford, MA. Anvil 5 0 0 0 ~Manufacturing : & Consulting Series, Scottsdale, AZ. catiaTMSolutions: Dassault Systems, North Hollywood, CA. unigraphicsTM:EDS Unigraphics, Maryland Heights, MO. HP ~ ~ l ~ o l i d ~ e s Hewlett-Packard, i~ner~: Ft. Collins, CO. lcADTM: Concentra Corporation, Burlington, MA. I / E M S ~ Intergraph : Corp., Huntsville, AL.

Acronyms

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Preface

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Acknowledgments 1 Concurrent Function Deployment Introduction 1 Components of QFD 2 Limitations in Deploying QFD 10 Concurrent Product Development 13 Concurrent Function Deployment 13 CFD Methodology 17 Applications of CFD 25 Formulation of CFD as an Optimization Problem 29 Horizontal Deployment 32 CFD Tier-based Vertical Deployment 41 Ihplementation Issues 47 References 49 Test Problems: Concurrent Function Deployment 50

2 CE Metrics and Measures 2.0 2.1

Introduction 52 Metrics of Measurements 56

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Contents 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8

Establishing Life-cycle Measures 59 Value Characteristic Metrics (VCM) 61 Simulations and Analyses 65 Product Feasibility and Quality Assessment 70 "Design for X-ability" Assessment 77 Process Quality Assessment 91 VCM Management 106 References 106 Test Problems: CE Metrics and Measures 108

3 Total Vallie Management Introduction 111 Total Quality Management 113 Total Value Management 123 Methodology for TVh4 124 Major Elements of TVM 128 TVh4 in the P~oductDevelopment Process 130 TVM Measures of Merits 135 Value Management Tools 144 Concurrent Process for TVM 152 TVM Measures 154 References 160 Test Problems: Total Value Management 161

4 Product Development Methodology Introduction 164 IPD Process Invariant 167 Integrated Product Development Process 173 Steps in IPD Methodology 178 Product Requirements Planning and Management 181 Work Structuring and CE Team Deployment 182 Methodology Systemization 183 Product and Process Systemization 187 Problem Identification and Solving Methodologies 193 Integrated Problem Formulation 194 Collaboration and Cross-functional Problem Solving 198 Continuous Monitoring and Knowledge Upgrade 200 Concurrent IPD Methodology 20 1 References 203 Test Problems: Product Development Methodology 204

Contents

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Frameworks and Architectures Introduction 207 General Architecture 208 Distributed Computing 221 Work Group Computing 225 Product Information Management (PIM) 23 1 CE Architecture 239 CE Sub-architectures 245 CE Computational Architecture 248 Standards 254 References 258 Test Problems: Frameworks and Architectures 259

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Capturing Life-cycle Intent 6.0 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6

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Introduction 261 Design Classification 263 Life-cycle Capture 267 Language for Life-cycle Capture 275 Capture Product Models 281 Creation of Smart or Intelligent Models 285 Smart or Intelligent Models 301 References 308 Test Problems: Capturing Life-cycle Intent 310

Decision Support Systems 7.0 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5 7.6 7.7 7.8 7.9

Introduction 3 13 Basis of Decision Making 3 15 Typical Progressive Models 322 Intelligent Models 328 Smart Regenerative System 334 Life-cycle Values 338 Total Life-cycle Cost 346 Compatibility Analysis 350 Sensitivity Analysis 35 1 Life-cycle Ranking or Rating Scheme (LCRS) 351 References 353 Test Problems: Decision Support Systems 355

8 Intelligent Information System 8.0 8.1

Introduction 358 Enabling Elements 364

Contents

Major Bamers 367 Vision of the Future 374 Levels of Intelligence 379 Product Intelligence 384 Process Intelligence 385 Technical Memeory 392 Flexible Computer Integrated Manufacturing (FCIM) 396 Groupware 398 References 401 Test Problems: Intelligent Information System 401

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Life-cycle Mechanization Introduction 405 CE Mechanized Environment 409 Concurrent Product Development (CPD) 414 CE Network Tools and Services 415 IPD Automation Modules (Preprocessing) 419 IPD Automation Modules 423 Library of Parts 427 Synthesis Models 427 Decision Support Tools or Models 429 Knowledge-based Product and Process Models 432 Computer-based Training Tools 432 Cost and Risk Reduction Tools 433 IPD Automation Modules (Post-processing) 433 Unified or Single PPO Concept 440 References 443 Test Problems: Life-cycle Mechanization 444

10 IPD Deployment Methodology 10.0 10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4

Introduction 447 Strategic CE Ideals 447 Ten Commandments of IPD Deployment 452 CE Case Histories 472 Computation of Savings 474 References 478 Test Problems: IPD Deployment Methodology 478

Index

8Ws AFNOR AMICE ANSI API ATIS BOMs BSI C4 CA CAD CAE CALS CALS CAM

Policy, Practices, and Procedures Fourth Generation Language Models, Methods, Metrics, and Measures Six Resource Elements (Materials, Manpower, Methods, Management, Money, and Machine)-(Figure 3.8Nolume I) Talents, Tasks, Teams, Techniques, Technology, Time, and Tools (Figure 4.1Nolume I) Collaboration, Commitment, Communications, Compromise, Consensus, Continuous Improvement, and Coordination Eight Waste Components (Figure 3.4Nolume I) French Association for Standardization European CIM Architecture-in reverse American National Standards Institute Application Programming Interface A Tools' Integration Standards Bill-of-materials British Standard Institution CADICAMICAEICIM Computational Architecture Computer-Aided Design Computer-aided Engineering Computer-aided Acquisition and Logistics Support (old) Computer-aided Acquisition and Life-cycle Support (new) Computer-aided Manufacturing xiii

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CAPP CASA CASE

I

CEC CERA CFD CFI CIM CIMOSA COe CORBA CPU CWCe DARPA DBMS DDL DECnet DFM DFm DICE DIN DNS E-mail EAL EC ESPRINT ED1 ESPRIT EWS FEA FEM FMEA GUI GKS ICAM IDL IEEE IGES 10s IPPO IPD IPPD IPR

Acronyms

Computer-aided Process Planning Computer-aided Society of Manufacturing Engineers Computer-aided Process Engineering or Computer-aided Simultaneous Engineering Commission of the European Communities Concurrent Engineering: Research and Applications Concurrent Function Deployment CAD Framework Initiative Computer-integratedManufacturing Open System Architecture for CIM Consistent Office environment Common Object Request Broker Architecture Central Processing Unit Consistent Work group Computing environment Defense Agency for Research Projects Data Base Management Systems Dynamic Data Linking Digital Electronic Computer (DEC) Network Design for Manufacturability Distributed File management DARPA Initiative in Concurrent Engineering German Industrial Standards Institute Distributed Name Service Electronic-mail Engineering Analysis Language European Strategic Program for Research and Development in Information Technology Electronic Data Interchange European Strategic Planning for Research in Information Technology Engineering Workstations Finite Element Analysis Finite Element Modeling Failure Mode and Effects Analysis Graphics User Interface Graphics Kernel System Integrated Computer-Aided Manufacturing ICAD Design Language Institute of Electricals and Electronics Engineers Initial Graphics Exchange Specification InputlOutput Sub-systems Integrated Product and Process Organization Integrated Product Development Integrated Product and Process Development Interactive Photorealistic Rendering

Acronyms International Standard Organization International Standard OrganizationOnitialGraphics Exchange Specification International Society for Productivity Enhancement ISPE Japanese Industrial Standards Committee JISC Local Area Network LAN Manufacturing Automation Protocol MAP Mechanical Computer-aided Engineering MCAE Million Instructions Per Second MFLOPS Mainframe Information System MIS Manufacturing Resource Planning MRP Network Application Services NAS Numerical Control NC Network Computing System NCS Network File System NFS National Institute of Standards and Technology NIST Non-Uniform Rational B-Splines NURBS Open System Foundation OSF Open System InstituteManufacturing Automation Protocol OSI/MAP Personal Computer PC Product, Design, Development and Delivery PD~ Product Data Exchange using STEP PDES PDES/Express A Language developed using PDES Product Database Management System PDMS Programmers' Hierarchical Interactive Graphic Standard PHIGS Product Information Management PIM Product, Process, and Organization PPO Process Breakdown Structure PsBS Product Breakdown Structure PtBS Quality Control QC Quality Function Deployment QFD Relational Data Base Management System RDBMS Reduced Instruction Set Computing RISC Remote Procedure Call RPC Systems Automation: Research and Applications SARA Strategic Business Unit SBU Stereolithography Apparatus SLA Society of Manufacturing Engineers SME Systems Network Architecture SNA System Performance Evaluation Cooperative SPEC Structured Query Language SQL Secondary Storage Device SSD Standard for the Exchange of Product Model Data STEP (HP) TaskBroker program TaskBroker

Acronyms

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TCP/IP TQM TVM UI v-c WAN WBS WC

Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol Total Quality Management Total Values Management User Interface Video-conferenceing Wide Area Network Work Breakdown Structure Work-group Computing

As the name implies, the book describes the fundamentals of Concurrent Engineering (CE) and explains the basic principles on which this very subject is founded. Most of the material in this book is either original ideas or their extension to CE. Most is never reported elsewhere and is based on the author's successes while practicing CE on the job. They encompass decades of his research and learning while working with electronic, automotive, aerospace, computer, and railroad industries including Ford, General Motors, Electronic Data Systems, Association of American Railroads, NASA, and numerous other places. Concurrent Engineering approach to product design and development has two major themes. The first theme is establishing an integratedproduct and process organization (PPO). This is referred herein as process taxonomy. The second theme is applying this process taxonomy (or a set of methodologies) to design and develop a total product system. This is referred to as integrated product development (IPD). Each theme is divided into several essential parts forming major chapters of this book. The first volume called product and process organization (PPO) had nine chapters. The second volume sub-titled integrated product development has ten chapters. The materials in these two volumes have been brought together to balance the interests of both the customers and the companies. The contents of "Volume I" were Manufacturing competitiveness, Life-cycle Management: Process Re-engineering, Concurrent Engineering Techniques, Cooperative Work groups, System Engineering, Information Modeling, The Whole System, and Product Realization Taxonomy. The contents of "Volume 11" are Concurrent Function Deployment, CE Metrics and Measures, Total Value Management, Product Development Methodology, Frameworks and Architectures, Capturing Life-Cycle Values, Decision Support Systems, Intelligent Information System, Life-Cycle Mechanization, and IPD Deployment Methodology. xvii

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In Concurrent Engineering (CE) system, each modification of the product represents a taxonomical relationship between specifications (inputs, requirements, and constraints),outputs, and the concept it (the modification) represents. At the beginning of the design process, the specificationsare generally in abstract forms. As more and more of the specificationsare satisfied, the product begins to take shape-begins to evolve into a physical form. To illustrate how a full CE system will work, and to show the inner-working of its elements, author defines this CE system as a set of two synchronized wheels. The representation is analogous to a set of synchronized wheels of a bicycle. Figure P1 shows this CE wheel set:

CONCURRENT ENGINEERING WHEELS The first CE wheel represents the integrated product and process organization (PPO). The second CE wheel accomplishes the integrated product development (IPD). The two wheels together harmonize the interests of the customers and the CE organization (also frequently referred as an enterprise). The contents of first wheel were described in volume I and contents of second wheel are described in volume I1 of the CEfundamental books. Three concentric rings represent the three essential elements of a wheel. The innermost ring of the wheels constitutes the hubs of the wheels. A hub represents four supporting "M" elements: models, methods, metrics and measures. The chapters from the two volumes that contribute to " M elements are contained in the following table. Innermost Ring (Hub)

Volume I-PPO

Volume 11-IPD -

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Models Methods

Information Modeling (Chap. 7) Product Realization Taxonomy (Chap. 9)

Metrics & Measures

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IPD Deployment Methodology (Chap. 10) CE Metrics and Measures (Chap. 2)

Life-cycle mechanization and IPD deployment methodology constitute the middle ring of the IPD wheel. The two are discussed in Chapters 9 and 10 of volume 11, respectively. Each sector in the outer ring represents a chapter of this book. The sectors for the first wheel are discussed in volume I. Volume I explains how the CE design process (called herein CE process taxonomy) provides a stable, repeatable process through which increased accuracy is achieved. The sectors of the second wheel are discussed in volume 11. Volume I1 explains how a product can be designed, developed and delivered using a process-based taxonomy of volume I. A separate chapter in the books is dedicated to discussing each part of the two CE wheels.

First CE Wheel: Integrated Product and Process Organization The innermost ring of the first CE wheel is a hub. The layout of hub is the same for both wheels. The hub represents four supporting "M" elements: models, methods, metrics and measures. Models refer to information modeling. Methods refer to product realization

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taxonomy. They are discussed in Chapters 7 and 9 of volume I, respectively. CE Metrics and Measures are discussed in Chapter 2 of volume 11. The middle ring represents the CE work groups, which drives the customer and the enterprise like how a human drives a bike. The work groups are divided into four quadrants representing the four so called CE teams. These teams are: personnel team, technology team, logical team and the virtual team. They are discussed in Chapter 5 of volume I. The outer ring for each wheel is divided into eight parts. Volume I starts with an introductory chapter on manufacturing competitiveness reviewing the history and emerging trends. The remaining chapters of the book (volume I) describe CE design techniques, explain how concurrent design process can create a competitive advantage, describe CE process taxonomy, and address a number of major issues related to product and process organization. The complexity of the product design, development, and delivery (pD3) process differs depending upon the

1. Types of information and sources 2. Complexity of tasks 3. Degree of their incompleteness or ambiguity Other dimensions encountered during this pD3 process that cannot be easily accommodated using traditional process (such as serial engineering) are:

4. Timing of decision making 5. Order of decision making 6. Communication mechanism The elements of the first CE wheel define a set of systems and processes that have the ability to handle all of the above six dimensions. In the following some salient points of the volume I chapters are briefly highlighted: Manufacturing Competitiveness: Price of the product is dictated by world economy and not by one's own economy or a company's market edge alone. Those companies that can quickly change to world changing market place can position themselves to complete globally. This chapter outlines what is required to become a market leader and compete globally. Successful companies have been the ones who have gained a better focus on eliminating waste, normally sneaked into their products, by understanding what drives product and process costs and, how can value be added. They have focused on product and process delivery-system-how to transform process innovations into technical success and how to leverage the implementation know-how into big commercial success. Many have chosen to emphasize high-quality flexible or agile production in product delivery rather than highvolume (mass) production. Life-cycle Management: Today, most companies are under extreme pressure to develop products within time periods that are rapidly shrinking. As the market changes so do the requirements. This has chilling effect in managing the complexity of such continuously varying product specifications and handling the changes

FIGURE P I A synchronized set of CE Wheels

Integrated Product Development (7PD)Wheel

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within this shrinking time period. The ongoing success of an organization lies in its ability to: continue to evolve; quickly react to changing requirements; reinvent itself on a regular basis; and keep up with ever changing technology and innovation. Many companies are stepping up the pace of new product introduction, and are constantly learning new ways of engineering products more correctly the first time, and more often thereafter. This chapter outlines life-cycle management techniques, such as change management, and process improvement to remain globally competitive. Process Reengineering: The global marketplace of 1990s has shown no sympathy to tradition. The reality is that if the products manufactured do not meet the market needs, demand declines and profits dwindle. Many companies are finding that true increase in productivity and efficiency begins with such factors as clean and efficient process, good communication infrastructure, teamwork, a constancy of shared vision and purpose. The challenge is simply not to crank up the speed of the machines so that it outputs (per unit of time) are increased or doubled, but to change the basic machinery or process that produces the outputs. To accomplish the latter goals, this chapter describes several techniques to achieve competitive superiority such as benchmarking, CPI, organizational restructuring, renovation, process reengineering, etc. CE Techniques: The changing market conditions and international competitiveness are making the time-to-market a fast shrinking target. Over the same period, diversity and complexity of the products have increased multi-folds. Concurrency is the major force of Concurrent Engineering. Paralleling describes a "time overlap" of one or more work groups, activities, tasks, etc. This chapter describes seven CE principles to aim at: Parallel work-group; Parallel Product Decomposition; Concurrent Resource Scheduling; Concurrent Processing; Minimize Interfaces; Transparent Communication; and Quick Processing; This chapter also describes the seven forces that influence the domain of CE (called here as enabling agents or 7Ts) namely: talents, tasks, teams, techniques, technology, time and tools. Cooperative Work Groups: It has been the challenge for the design and manufacturing engineers to work together as teams to improve quality while reducing costs, weight, and lead-time. A single person, or a team of persons, is not enough to provide all the links between: human knowledge and skills; logical organization; technology; and a set of 7Cs coordination features. A number of supporting teams is required, some either virtual or at least virtually collocated. For the waltz of CE synthesis to succeed, CE teams need clear choreography. This chapter describes for the first time the four collaborative teams that are essential for managing a CE organization. Examples of collaborative features include capabilities of electronic meeting such as message-posting and interactions through voice, text, graphics and pictures. System Engineering: Most groups diligently work to optimize their subsystems, but due to lack of incentives they tend to work independently of each other. This results in a product, which is often suboptimized at each decomposed level. System engineering requires that product realization problem is viewed as a "system-centered"

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Preface problem as opposed to "component-centered." Systems Engineering does not disagree with the idea of compartments or divisions of works, but it emphasizes that the interface requirements between the divisions (inter-divisional) and across the levels should be adequately covered. That way, when the time comes to modernize other components of the system, an enterprise has the assurance that previously introduced technologies and processes will work logically in a fully integrated fashion, thereby increasing the net efficiency and profitability. Information Modeling: A successful integrated product development (IPD) requires a sufficient understanding of the product and process behaviors. One way to achieve this understanding is to use a series of reliable information models {or planning, designing, optimizing and controlling each unit of an IPD process. The demands go beyond the 3-D CAD geometric modeling. The demands require schemes that can model all phases of a product's life-cycle from cradle to grave. The different aspects of product design (planning, feasibility, design, process-planning), process design (process-execution,production, manufacturing, product support), the human behavior in teamwork, and the organization or environment in which it will operate, all have to be taken into account. Five major classes of modeling schemata are discussed in this chapter. They are: 1. Product representation schemes and tools for capturing and describing the product development process and design of various interfaces, such as designmanufacturing interface 2. Schemes for modeling physical processes, including simulation, as well as models useful for product assessments, such as DFAfDFX, manufacturability evaluation of in-progress designs 3. Schemes for capturing (product, process, and organization structure) requirements or characteristics for setting strategic and business goals 4. Schemes to model enterprise activities (data and work flow) in order to determine what types of functions best fit the desired profitability, responsiveness, quality and productivity goals 5. Schemes to model team behavior, because most effective manufacturing environments involve a carefully orchestrated interplay between teams and machines. The Whole System: Often while designing an artifact, work groups forget that the product is a system. It consists of a number of subassemblies, each fulfilling a different but distinct function. A product is far more than the collection of components. Without a structure or some "constancy-of-purpose" there is no system. The central difference between a CE transformation system and any other manufacturing system, such as serial engineering, is the manner in which the tasks' distribution is stated and requirements are accomplished. In a CE transformation system, the purpose of every process step of a manufacturing system is not just to achieve a transformation but to accomplish this in an optimal and concurrent way. This chapter proposes a systembased taxonomy, which is founded on parallel scheduling of tasks. This chapter also proposes a set of breakdown structures for product, process and work to realize a drastic reduction in time and cost in product and process realizations.

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Product Realization Taxonomy: This constitutes a "state of series of evolution or transformation" leading to a complete design maturity. Product Realization Taxonomy involves items related to design incompleteness, product development practices, readiness feasibility, and assessing goodness. In addition, CE requires these taxonomies to have a unified "product realization base." The enterprise integration metrics of the CE model should be well characterized and the modeling methodologies andor associated ontology for developing them should be adequate for describing and integrating enterphse functions. The methodologies should have built-in product and service accelerators. Taxonomy comprises of the product, process descriptions, classification techniques, information concepts, representation, and transformation tasks (inputs, requirements, constraints and outputs). Specifications, describing the transformation model for product realization. They are included as part of the taxonomy descriptions.

Second CE Wheel: Integrated Product Development The second CE wheel defines the integrated product development (IPD). This is discussed in this book (Volume 11). IPD in this context does not imply a step-by-step serial process. Indeed, the beauty of h i s IPD wheel is that it offers a framework for a concurrent P D ~ process. A framework within which, a CE team has flexibility to move about, fitting together bits of the jigsaw as they come together. A CE team has an opportunity to apply a variety of techniques contained in this volume (such as: Concurrent Function Deployment, Total Value Management, Metrics and Measures, etc.) And through their use, teams could avail the opportunity to achieve steady overall progress towards a finished product. Concurrent Function Deployment: The role of the organization and engineers is changing today, as is the method of doing business. Competition has driven organization to consider concepts such as time compression (fast-to-market), Concurrent Engineering, Design for X-ability, and Tools and Technology (such as Taguchi, Value Engineering) while designing and developing an artifact. Quality Function Deployment (QFD) addresses major aspects of "quality" with reference to the functions it performs but this is one of the many functions that need to be deployed. With conventional deployment, it is difficult, however, to address all aspects of Total Values Management (TVM) such as X-ability, Cost, Tools and Technology, Responsiveness and Organization issues. It is not enough to deploy just the "Quality" into the product and expect the outcome to be the World Class. TVM efforts are vital in maintaining a competitive edge in today's world marketplace. CE Merits and Measures: Metrics are the basis of monitoring and measuring process improvement methodology and managing their effectiveness. Metric information assists in monitoring team progress, measuring quality of products produced, managing the effectiveness of the improved process, and providing related feedback. Individual assurances of DFX specifications (one at a time) do not capture the most important aspect of Concurrent Engineering-the system perspec-

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tives, or the trade-off across the different DFX principles. While satisfying these DFX principles in this isolated manner, only those which are not in conflict are usually met. Concurrent engineering views the design and evaluates the artifact as a system, which has a wider impact than just suboptimizing the subsystems within each domain. Total Value Management: The most acclaimed slogan for introducing a quality program in early corporate days simply was to provide the most value for the lowest cost. This changed as the competitiveness became more fierce. For example, during the introduction of traditional TQM program in 1990 "getting a quality product to market for a fair price" was the name of the game. The new paradigm for CE now is total value management (TVM). TVM mission is "to provide the total value for the lowest cost in the least amount of time, which satisfies the customers the most and lets the company make a fair profit." Here use of value is not just limited to quality. To provide long lasting added value, companies must change their philosophy towards things like x-ability, responsivepess, functiot~ality,tools and technology, cost, architecture, etc. Product Development Methodology: A systematic methodology is essential in order to be able to integrate: 1. Teamwork 2. Information modeling 3. Product realization taxonomy 4. Measures of merits (called CE metrics), and quantitatively assess the effectiveness of the transformation. This may involve identification of performance metrics for measuring the product and process behaviors. Integrated product development methodology is geared to take advantage of the product realization taxonomy. Frameworks & Architectures: In order to adequately support the CE and the 4Ms (namely: modeling, methods, metrics and measurements), it is necessary to have a flexible architecture. An architecture that is openly accessible across different CE teams, information systems, platforms, and networks. Architecture consists of information contents, integrated data structures, knowledge bases, behavior and rules. An architecture not only provides an information base for easy storage, retrieval, and tracking version control, but can also be accessed by different users simultaneously, under ramp-up scheduling of parallel tasks, and in synchronization. We also need a product management system containing work HOW management capabilities integrated with the database. This is essential because in CE there exists a large degree of flexibility for parallelism that must be carefully managed in conjunction with other routine file and data management tasks. Capturing Life-cycle Intent: Most CADICAM tools are not really capture tools. In static representation of CAD geometry, configuration changes cannot be handled easily, particularly when parts and dimensions are linked. This has resulted in loss of configuration control, proliferation of changes to fix the errors caused by other changes, and sometimes ambiguous designs. By capturing "design intent" as opposed to "static geometry," configuration changes could be made and

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controlled more effectively using the power of language constructs than through traditional CAD attributes (such as lines and surfaces). The power of a "capture" tool comes from the methods used in capturing the "design intent" initially so that the required changes can be made easily and quickly if needed. "Life-cycle capture" refers to the definition of the physical object and its environment in some generic form. "Life-cycle intent" means representing the life-cycle capture in a form, which can be modified and iterated until all the life-cycle specifications for the product are fully satisfied. * Decision Support System: In CE, cooperation is required between CE teams, management, suppliers, and customers. A knowledge based support system will help the participating teams in decision making and to reflect balanced views. Tradeoffs between conflicting requirements can be made on the basis of information obtained from sensitivity, multi-criterion objectives, simulation, or feedback. The taxonomy can be made a part of decision support system (DSS) in supporting decisions about product decomposition. By keeping track of what specifications are satisfied, teams can ensure common visibility in the state of product realization, including dispatching and monitoring of tasks, structure, corporate design histories, etc. * Intelligent Information System (11s): Another major goal of CE is to handle information intelligently in multi-media-audio, video, text, graphics. Since IIS equals CIM plus CE, with IIS, many relevant CE demands can be addressed and quickly processed. Examples include: 1. Over local or wide area networks, such as SQL, which connects remote, multiple databases and multimedia repositories 2. Any needed information, such as recorded product designers' design notes, figures, decisions, etc. They can be made available on demand at the right place at the right time 3. Any team can retrieve information in the right format and distribute it promptly to other members of the CE teams. 0 Life-cycle Mechanization: Life-cycle mechanization equals CIM + Automation + CE. Life-cycle mechanization is arranged under a familiar acronym: CAE, for CIM, Automation, and CE. Since CAE also equals IIS plus automation, the major benefits of mechanization in CAE come from removing or breaking barriers. The three common barriers are: a. Integration (this is a term taken from CIM) b. Automation c. Cooperation (which is a term taken from CE). 0 CE provides the decision support element, and CIM provides the framework & architecture plus the information management elements. Life-cycle Mechanization refers to the automation of life-cycle functions or creation of computerized modules that are built from one another and share the information from one another. This includes integration and seamless transfer of data between commercial computerbased engineering tools and product-specific in-house applications. This tends to reduce the dependency of many CE teams on communication links and product realization strategies, such as decomposition and concatenation.

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IPD Deployment Methodology: The purpose of this chapter is to offer an implementation guideline for product redesign and development through its life-cycle functions. IPD implementation is a multi-track methodology. The tracks overlap, but still provide a structured approach to organizing product ideas and measures for concurrently performing the associated tasks. Concurrency is built in a number of ways (similar to what was discussed in volume I), depending upon the complexity of the process or the system involved. This chapter proposes a set of "Ten Commandments," that serves to guide the product and process iterative aspects of IPD rather than just the work group collaborative aspects required during the development cycle. The CE teamwork in the center of the wheel ensures that both local or zonal iterative refinements and collaborative refinements take place during each concurrent track.

A SYNCHRONIZED WHEEL-SET FOR CE All the above nineteen parts of CE put together creates a synchronized wheel-set for CE, as shown in Figure P1. The teamwork, with four cooperating components (technological teams, logical teams, virtual teams, and personnel teams), is in the middle ring. The 4Ms (models, metrics, measurements and methodology) form the center of this wheel. The center ring has four parts to it: Information Madeling; Product Realization Taxonomy; Measures of Merit and IPD deployment methodology. The 4Ms are shown in the center because it provides the methodology for guiding the product realization process. The two inner rings, which are same for both wheels, makes the wheels a synchronized set. The teams in the middle ring are the driving force of the methodology (4Ms listed in the center) and controller of the technologies (listed as sectors on the suter ring). The emphasis of a team-centered wheel for CE is a departure from a conventionalfunction-centered approach. Outer rings of each wheel contain the remaining parts of an integrated product and process organization-PPO (volume I) and integrated product development-IPD (Volume 11),respectively. The idea of this middle ring is to provide a team-centered 7Cs (Collaboration, Commitment, Communications, Compromise, Consensus, Continuous Improvement, and Coordination) interplay across layers of enabling technologies and methodologies. Everything is geared towards cutting and compressing the time needed to design, analyze, and manufacture marketable products. Along the way, costs are also reduced, product quality is improved and customer satisfaction is enhanced due to the synchronized process. There is, however, a finite window in which the benefits of time compression and cost cutting are available. As more manufacturers reduce lead time, what once represented a competitive advantage can become a weakening source. Fortunately, the CE wheel provides a continuum (dynamic) base through which new paradigms (process, tools, technology and 7Ts) can be launched to remain globally competitive for a long haul. Before we take a closer look at the different parts of this wheel as different chapters of this book, it is important to note that all the parts of the wheel-set are not of the same kind. They emphasize different aspects of CE. The four major aspects are (see Figure P2):

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Asped FIGURE P2 Four Aspects of CE

*'Philosophical aspect *'Methodological aspect *'Conceptual aspect Virtual aspect *'Philosophical Aspect: Personnel CE team governs the philosophical aspects of CE. Philosophical aspect deals with the boundaries of the responsibility and the authority, culture, empowerment. It also includes team's make-up, program organization, supplier rationalization, management styles or philosophies, change management, workplace organization and visual control, physical proximity (collocation), management and reporting structure, etc. The chapters on Cooperative Teamwork and Life-cycle Management emphasize more of this aspect than others. *'Methodological Aspect: This aspect of CE is governed by technology team. Methodological aspect deals with system thinking, approaches to system complexity, system integration, transformation model of the manufacturing system. It also deals with CE enterprise system taxonomy, integrated product and process development, transformation system for product realization, pull system for product realiza0 '

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tion, track and loop methodology, etc. The chapters on Systems Engineering, The Whole System and Product Realization Taxonomy emphasize more of this aspect than others. Conceptual Aspect: Logical CE team governs the co?ceptual aspect of CE. Conceptual aspect mostly deals with the major principles of CE, concurrency and simultaneity, modes of concurrency, modes of cooperation. It also deals with understanding and managing change, reengineering approaches, work flow mapping, information flow charting, process improvement methodology, etc. The chapters on CE Definitions and Process Re-engineering emphasize more of this aspect than others. Virtual Aspect: This aspect of CE is governed by a virtual CE team. Virtual aspect mostly deals with capturing life-cycle intent, information modeling, electronic capture of CE invariants. These CE invariants deal with product model class, process model class, specification model class, cognitive model class, communication through virtual proximity, agile virtual company, artifact intent definitions, etc. The chapters on Information Modeling and Life-cycle Mechanization emphasize more of this aspect than others.

MAJOR FEATURES OF THIS BOOK Whether you are a firm CE believer, or this is your first introduction to CE, this two volume (book) set provides a full view of CE from all of the above aspects and perspectives. The management perspective, which is a part of philosophical aspect, relates to organization and culture. Complete with a historical review and context, the author articulates these CE aspects by illustrating the differences between the best methodologies (or the best taxonomies) and what are being practiced in industries today. Some examples of topics included in this volume are: What is required to control one's own process-identifying and satisfying the needs and expectations of consumers better than the competitions and doing so profitably faster than any competitor.. You will understand why QFD is not enough for IPD. How to consider deployment of competing values simultaneously. You will discover why TQM is not enough to gain competitive edge in the global marketplace. Why is it not enough to deploy "Quality" into the product and expect the outcome to be a world-class? How to incorporate "Voice of the Customers" into all necessary tracks of the product development cycle. Why individual assurances of DFX specifications (one at a time) do not capture the most important aspect of Concurrent Engineering-the system perspective. How to build a product that optimizes a number of value objectives intrinsically, not just on the basis of Quality. A set of twenty-five metrics and measures for concurrent engineering.

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Three-layer structure for a CE logical framework to provide a flexible application development environment. Integrated Product Development (volume 11) deals with methodology-applying the process taxonomy for CE. Methodology (development and deployment) is necessary to adequately classify, integrate and automate core functions of a complex enterprise in a P D ~ process. The innermost core of this deployment methodology is its foundation, which has four supporting M elements: models, methods, metrics and measures as mentioned earlier. The Table P1 summarizes the major features of this second volume. TABLE P I

Major Features of Volume II of the CE Fundamentals Book

Features of Volume I1 a This is the first CE book that emphasized all aspects of Total Values Management (TVM) such as X-ability, cost, tools and technology, responsiveness and organization issues. What is required is a total control of one's process-identifying and satisfying the needs and expectations of consumers better than the competitions and doing so profitably faster than any competitor. b In this volume, author has expanded the original definition of QFD, discussed in Volume I, to include parallel deployments. This provides a method to consider the deployment of competing values simultaneously. This volume calls this approach as Concurrent

How do these features benefit readers?

What chapters or sections of the book contain these features or examples of them?

It is not enough to deploy Quality into the product and expect the outcome to be a world-class. The competitors are always finding better and faster ways of doing things. Catching up in quality only makes a company at par with its competitors in terms of inheriting some of their product quality characteristics but relatively speaking it gets you there a few years later.

Chapters 1 and 3 (see Figures 1.4.3.1, and 3.5)

The intent of CFD is to incorporate "Voice of the Customers" into all nine phases of the product development cycle, and finally into continuous improvement, support and delivery (see Figure 4.2, volume I) phases.

Chapter 1 (Section 1.4, see Figures 1.1 through 1.4)

Function Deployment (CFD).

c This is the first time this CE book points out that the deployment of many artifact functions (values) can proceed in parallel with what we know today as quality function deployment (QFD) or quality FD. CFD enforces the notion of concurrency and deploys simultaneously a number of competing artifact values, not just the "Quality as found in QFD."

CFD breaks the multi-year QFD ordeal by allowing work-groups to work concurrently on a number of conflicting values and compare their notes at common check points. CFD is a simple and powerful tool that leads to long range thinking and better communication across several value functions. Examples are: X-ability (performance), tools and technology, cost, responsiveness and infrastructure.

Chapter 1 (see Figures 1.4 through 1.9, Section 1.5)

(continued)

TABLE PI

(continued) -

Features of Volume II d No book has yet been published encompassing concurrentfunction deployment, CE metrics and measures, total value management, product development methodology, frameworks and architectures, capturing life-cycle intent, decision support systems, intelligent information system, life-cycle mechanization, deployment methodology and integration issues all described within a unified IPD (integrated product development) theme.

e This book, for the first time, identifies twenty-five CE metrics and measures. Metrics and measures are categorized into f o u ~ groups: simulations and analysis, product feasibility and quality assessment, design for X-ability assessment, and process quality assessment. They are arranged in four file drawers of a file cabinet. f For the first time, this book proposes Total Value Management (TVM) as a concept to replace Total Quality Management (TQM). The six major recognized objectives of TVM are: Quality (function-wise), X-ability (performance-wise), Cost (profitwise), Tools and Technology (innovation-wise), Responsiveness (time-wise) and Infrastructure (business-wise). g The book introduces for the first time a concuirent process of quality engineering (QE) -wherein Quality begins with concurrent product and process design running in parallel with an off-line quality control. Inspection oriented QC methods are shown replaced by online quality control (QC) or quality process control (QPC) methods. h This book for the first time introduces Process invariants as XXX

-

What chapters or sections of the book contain these features or examples of them?

How do these features benefit readers? It allows the readers to consider a wider view meaning "integrating over the enterprise" while implementing CE. This eliminates the common problem of blindly automating tasks-meaning repeating the same mistakes but doing it more often and more quickly.

Chapters 1 through 10.

Individual assurances of DFX specifications (one at a time) do not capture the most important aspect of Concurrent Engineering-the system perspective or the trade-off across the different DFX principles. Product development teams (PDTs) can draw upon these metrics and measures to influence an enterprise P D process. ~ It allows the PDT groups to build a product that optimizes these six value objectives intrinsically, not just on the basis of Quality. How effectively, efficiently, and quickly the work-groups are able to succeed in this endeavor depends upon many factors that need to be considered. TVM is meant to provide a winning path to increase global market share and profitability. The design-oriented QC methods, shown as being part of the product design step, provide an important defect prevention mechanism. Quality circles or work-groups can establish a QE methodology following this concurrent approach.

Chapter 2 (see Figures 2.6 through

The invariants provide a common ground for the work-groups to

2.8).

Chapter 3 (Section 3.1, see Figures 3.5 through 3.6). Quality in the aforementioned sense plays only a minor role in fostering a total optimized product from a worldclass perspective.

Chapter 3 (many of these methods are shown in Figures 3.3 and 3.4)

Chapter 4 (see Figures 4.2 and 4.3). The basic structure of model

TABLE P i

(continued)

Features of Volume II key contributors of an IPD realization process that are constant or stationary (always present) in the process dimension of IPD. The process invariants are vertical cross sections of the IPD realization process. Model invariants are horizontal cross sections of IPD realization process. i The book for the first time views the IPD methodology as consisting of eight parts called IPD building blocks. The first four blocks provide a conceptual framework for understanding the IPD challenges and opportunities. The last four parts provide the building blocks for an analytical framework for decision making and improvements. j The book introduces a three-layer structure for a CE logical framework to provide a flexible application development environment. The lowest layer is the computing platform. The second-layer-intelligent interface-provides the primary programming interface to application developers. The top layer consists of end-user applications communicating among themselves (horizontally) and to the intelligent interface (vertically). k Benefits of life-cycle capture stem from a few basic CE principles. The book describes the three lifecycle capture languages on which life-cycle capture is founded. Languages are means of capturing the knowledge for the design and development of a product. These language-based systems use the intent-driven techniques to generically capture product lifecycle values. Such developments are dynamic in nature when it comes down to managing changes.

How do these features benefit readers? represent enterprise or businessdriven, product-driven, and process-driven works, activities, features, functions and decisions. The process and model invariants are linked by taxonomic relationships.

What chapters or sections of the book contain these features or examples of them? invariants and their interactions are shown in Figure 7.11 of volume I.

The purpose of this IPD methodology is to improve the performance characteristics of the product or process relative to customer needs and expectations. It builds the theory of knowledge through systematic revision and extension of the paradigms introduced in previous Chapters.

Chapter 4 (see Figures 4.7 through 4.9)

When work-groups integrates the computing platforms with intelligent interface over the applicable standards, this results in a long life of the end-user applications developed on the top layer. The architecture shields enduser applications from possible downstream changes.

Figure 5.24 shows a logical view of this CE sub-architecture, which forms the basis for the flexible CE environment described in this book. Chapter 5 (see Figure 5.24)

Models are the results of such knowledge capture. They are suited for altering a part geometry, say using variable dimensions, or capturing its engineering design intent. The primary goal of a knowledge-capture formalism is to provide a means of defining ontology. An ontology is a set of basic attributes and relations comprising the vocabulary of the product realization domain as well as rules for combining the attributes and relations.

In the present form, most C4 (CADICAMICAEICIM) systems are mainly suitable for analyzing a problem or for capturing an explicit, static geometric representation of an existing part. Chapter 6 (see section 6.3)

(continued)

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xxxii TABLE P l

(continued)

Features of Volume I1

How do these features benefit readers?

What chapters o r sections of the book contain these features o r examples of them?

1 The types of decisions that engineers make today to solve design problems are bounded by a spectrum with cognitive aspect at one end and progressive aspect at the other end. The book for the first time describes two types of cognitive models and seven types of progressive models.

The work group can use these aspects to choose possible design models during decision making. Progressive models can be used to calculate, analyze or to evaluate design alternatives, or to come up with a new or revised product.

Chapter 7 (see Figures 7.2 and 7.3)

m The book for the first time describes how CIM plus CE equals US. Today, CIM systems are merely being applied to integration and processing (storage and automation) of data, communication, and processes (common systems and standards). n The book for the first time describes the 8 enabling elements of Intelligent Information System (US) applicable to product development.

Intelligent handling of information through computer techniques can yield a better CIM system since it can monitor and correct problems. IIS reduces the need for frequent manual intervention. CE brings forth three missing links of CIM.

Chapter 8 (see Figure 8.2).

The effective implementation of product development process control strategies can be facilitated by a systematic collection and monitoring of relevant enabling elements of IIS.

Chapter 8 (see sectlon 8.1, Figure 8.3)

o The book for the first time describes thirteen barriers that inhibit work groups regain full potential of manufacturing competitiveness.

The key to the successes of IIS is understanding the obstacles and barriers to unifying CE with existing CIM processes and identifying new opportunities for improvement. The criteria of mechanization are global in nature (such as 7Ts, 4Ms, and 3Ps) with the overall company goal of making maximum profits and great product.

p This book for the first time describes a network of 12 modules, which form the infrastructure for life-cycle mechanization process. Five modules belongs to C M , four relates to automation; and three deals in CE topics. q The book explains that the concurrent movement of 1990s is not just a "bunch" of concurrent programs. It is the realization that certain fundamental ideals need to be enforced during an IPD deployment. These ideals can have a profound impact on the long-term success of a business or for

Chapter 8 (see section 8.2, Figures 8.4 through 8.7)

Chapter 9 (Figure 9.4)

Chapter 10 (see Table 10.1). A common implementation mistake committed by a concurrent workgroup is to confuse a CE program with a CE Ideal. CE programs are the vehicles for implementing the ideals in an organization.

Preface TABLE P I

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(continued)

Features of Volume II

What chapters or sections of the book contain these features or examples of them?

How do these features benefit readers?

ensuring manufacturing competitiveness.

r The book offers a set of ten implementation guidelines for product redesign and development through its life-cycle functions. This "Ten Commandments" serves to guide the product and process iterative aspects of IPD rather than just the work-group collaborative ~ aspects of a P D cycle.

Deployment consists of a number of activity-plans arranged in increasing order of enrichment. The activity-plans overlap, and provide a structured approach to organizing product ideas and measures for concurrently performing the associated tasks.

Chapter 10 (IPD deployment is a multi-plan methodology as shown in Figure 10.1)

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BEST PRACTICES Sixty-six senior mangers from 33 progressive companies were surveyed in a NSF study to validate the importance of 56 "best practices" (see Table P3) for both new BS mechanical engineering (ME) graduates and for experienced MEs. The results indicated that [ASME/NSF, 19961 53 of the identified 56 identified "best practices" are in use in more than two-thirds of the companies surveyed. "Concurrent Engineering" practice received the highest number of votes for all the three questions in the "Knowledge of P R P category. The three questions that were asked are listed in Table P2. TABLE P2 Product Realization Process Survey Results (66 Industry Respondentsfrom 33 Industries)