Keywords: Organizational learning; constructive learning; workplace knorvledge ... support technology, to improve the use of technoloey and workplace designs.
IJTM, Special Publication on Unlearningand Learning, VoI. I I, Nos.7/8, 1996
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Constructivelearning:a newapproachto deploying technologicalsystemsinto the workplace LiaDiBello Laboratoryfor CognitiveStudiesof Activity, City Universityof New York GraduateCentre,33 West 42 Street,New York NY 10036USA
J-C.Spender Faculty of Management, Rutgers University, 180 University Avenue, Newark NJ 07102 USA Abstract: High-technologyproductionand information systemsare becoming increasingly common in the workplace-Those who work with them need formal and knowledge-intensiveskills that match the way thesesystemswork. The traditional methodsof shopfloor education,learning-by-doingfrom other skilled operators,or from the equipmentsupplier,are risky, expensiveand inefficient. Classroomtraining doesnot work well either.We describetwo-day construcriveiearningworkshopsdesignedto help introduceMRP, the widely used computer-basedproduction and inventorymanagementsystem.into a facility.MRP is notoriouslydifficult to install maintenance major transportation 'reduced the operatives' successfully.These workshopsworked well and leaming periodby upwardsof a year. Keywords: Organizational learning; constructive learning; workplace knorvledge;compiexsystemstraining;trainingsimulation. Referenceto this papershouidbe madeas follows:DiBello,L. and Spender,J'Constructiveiearning:a new approachto deployingtechnological C. (1996) systemsinto the workplace', Int. J. TechnologyManagement,Special Issueon Unlearning and Learningfor TechnologicalInnovation,Yol. ll, Nos.7/8 pp.147-158. Biographical notes: Lia DiBello is a Senior ResearchAssociateat the Laboraroryfor Cognitive Studiesof Activity at City University Graduate School in New York. She is aiso visitingprofessorat Universityof California, San Diego, teachingand researchingteam decisionmaking in manutacturing environments.She receivedher PhD in psychologyfrom CUNY Craduate School. She is an experton aduit cognitivedevelopmentand constructive learning. Her early researchconcernedthe developmentof expertisein work using a Vygotskianframework.Sheis working with technology-intensive to design alternative a number of public and private sectororganizations educarionaiapproachesto acceleratethe developmentof expertisein decision support technology,to improve the use of technoloeyand workplacedesigns. journals.as She has publishedmany articlesin psychologyand industry-related well as numerousbook chapters. at Rutgers, J-C. Spenderis Professorof StrareeyandChairof Entrepreneurship Newark NJ. Beforebecomingan academiche spent Faculty of lv{anagement. intbrmationconsulting, fitteen years in the nuclearengineering,management and computerindustries.He has beenon the iaculty at the City University in London. York Universityin Toronto,UCLA, and the Universityof Ciaseow in EnterprisesLtd. Copyright O 1996Inderscience
L. DiBello and J-C'
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SPender
BusinessSchool Scotland.HeholdsBAandMAdegreesinengineelng.froloxfordUniversity "'"ttgy."ft* ?nt ft'f-thester (UK) and a PhD "ito'po'ut"
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Introduction
1
East US public transport '*io"ry with a North report usld computer-based .,action-research, In this paper we MRpII, ,t. i"uoo*e to f,.1r mainrenan." fu.ility
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of Io for CognitiveStudies y-o'tt''L;;;;d develoPment N'* Univ.rri,y'oi The City thefacility'smechanics' successfully. *o ouv*orr,rr,of . ouin deveioped-a puP:t we look at the the Activiry icrrNy_r_csA) In the fi"t stttion of unul1r* t indt of knowledge superviso.,uno irlir.,.:' fo.usingJnin. oir.r.nt rr.s" to workshops bacrgiound conceptual lio;riopr, In tt. ,.lonJ -*..descrite the *orr.pia.e. tr,. in considerthe In the final sectionwe and learningpi.r.nr r.'utt'' d;il;; intotheproblems T;;;irO ,..rion insighrs themselver. actiuiryono,t * ,o*r *orpt.e or of ;i;;i.* impiicarions systems' technoiogical of depioyingcomplex
2
WorkPlace knowledge
is impacron the abouttechnologyand written been has so much It is surprisingthat
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; ;$ iT:iiii:::#l' The worker's :i#:r].,ru:: b.ri.] four supplemenrary' on. categories, five assignedto activity rhe .un be pur into out
knowledg" tt"*'t" t"ty It is about,r,. ,"",i"""p'.*edures, management' basicknowledgeis foT.1i" ;;;::t't-t-o "o' t'f t^priti i' g. approved rnir'iif kno*t.O new recruis are taught him/her. progru*rnes in which training the the focus of
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thereis disorder' ptun' "tuth of the dme ,;;;;;r;*tnt'u concernsthe according kind going play' one orderly and t""*I1*:-::ilt'i"to docume.nts' and this is ihen supplemeni.v we mean inputs of all t'ypes:marerials' vanatlons (by. whicfr input those processed mareriars w,ltriii inqu,i.r, undsotonh)' 'basic'l::1,L.i co-workers cusro*., Kusterer's activiry' inriastrucrure, oirrurb the work and ti,r.ar.n',o that impa., ii,.i,
pion'luio 9T'::':";; :* :*n:fT:il T:'il:"i'l: inthepop".'one-making oinropIavenabIed'he geca*e 1:H"J:I1,;* ;'ased J"tp;l actualiya variable :l*:**", .iuri.' uiprou.t treated a constanlwas ::iry ,n. rvorkerto seethat what
Constructivelearning: a new approachto deployingtechnologicalsvstems
'149
susceptibleto the workers' control.They learnedthat their machinesand systemscould ,tweaked' and this was crucial to becomingexpertand gettingthe work done.Other be areas of supplementaryknowledge were about equipment,patterns of customer behaviour,and the functioningof the restof the organization. The thrust of Kusterer's[l] and Hirschhorn's[2] rathersimilar argument,is that it is supplemenraryknowledge that (a) keeps the plant moving, and (b) is developed ,informatty' by the workersas they acquireexpertisefrom eachother.This knowledgeis typicaily not available to those such as managers,who are not party to the systemof 'situated'in the activity.[3,4].Thus managersoften u.iiuity, for this type of knowledgeis make changesto the production system not knowing that they are disturbing the knowledgethat keeps relationshipbetweenthe productionsystemand the supplementary knowledgecan only be it functioning. The raining questionis whethersupplementary with the increasinguse of that now important is becoming This experienrially. acquired systems,workersseemto be requiredto acquirethe formalized knowledge-intensive 'informal' ways [5]' necessaryformal knowledgein The work of the CUNY-LCSA stems from long-run efforts to examine the 'learning-by-doing'. 'formal' school-based learningand experiential relationshipbetween MRp was chosenas the researchdomain becausethesesystemsare known to require their usersto understandthe system'sformal underlyingprinciples.Earlier,DiBello and Glick [6] showedthat classroominstructionwas an ineffectiveway to developIVIRP skills. Bur given tharpeoplemanageto developsuchskills in the workplace.rveneedto understandbY rvhatmeans. revealedtwo distinctpatternsof activity previousanalysisof work in organizations 'consrructive'versus'formalized'.[7].Constructive activitiesare rvhich can be labelled haveciearly activities Formalized means. detined poorly goals but thosethar haveclear formal i zed.i t i s i s [erm, the u s e d a s Ku s te re r k n o w l e d g e . sp e ci fied m eans .B as i c and codified it can be it is explicit, that the degree To and abstracted. deconrexruaiized l i ke K usterer' s It i s i s di fferent. a c ti v i ty ta u g ht in t he c las s ro o m .C o n s tru c ti v e by It is driven and experience. experimentation of supplementarycaregory,the result .pioUtemisticsearch'[8] and evolvesrhroughfeedbackfrom the organizational system, in the participate actively Workers fiom supervisors,and from the technologyprovided. constructionof this knowledge. C o n s t r u c t i v e k n o w l e d g e h a s i m p l i c i t d i m e n s i o n sl a c k i n g i n f o r m a i i z e d kn o w ledge. [ 9] . T hed i ffe re n tte rrn ss e e mto i m p i y di fferentki nds of know l edgeand l e a rn ing.Rec ailingS i n g l e y a n d A n d e rs o n ' s[1 0 ] A C T* theoryand thei r di sti ncti on ,procedural'and 'declarative' knowledgeis we seethatconstructive knowiedge, betrveen -procedurai'and ar leastpartiallyembedcied knorvledge Formalized work practice. in the ,d e c lar at iv e' Con s tru c ti vken o w l e d e eth e re fo rehas a depth,throughi ts i mpl i ci t is probl em-sol vi ne co n rent .whic h f or m a l i z e dk n o w l e d g el a c k s .In MR P , constructi ve while formalizedactivityrequiresno activity requiresa graspof irs organizingprinciples, 'secondorder' understanding. N1uchof the literatureon the differencebetween such deep the organi zi ng n o vi c es and ex per t sIl l ] p o i n ts ro rh e i mp o rta n ceof understandi ng principles behind the tocal situation.In the earlier CUNY-LCSA research[6] when experienceon the job, formal educationand opportunitiesfor constructiveactivity were correiatedrvith MRp skill, only the numberof opportunitiesfor consructiveengagement a p p e ar eds ignif ic an t(p < .0 1 ), e v e n th o u g hs u c h opportuni ti esw ere tbrtui tousand u n p l a nned.
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L. DiBetlo and J-C' SPender
The MRP workshoPs
which is both logically constructed of manufacturing MRp can be thoughtof as a theory situations.It is based on models incorporating and adaptabre[o- most production Installing.the systemmeans andass'embling'[12]' forecasting,purchasing,manufacturing, assemblingpatternsinto and manufacturing translatingthe plant,s-d"mand,purchling, productionschedulewhich tells MRP abouteach MRp format. This createsthe Master areinvorvedin its manufacture, it, whatoperations particularfinisheJpurt,*hut goesinto selectingthe process'sstart includes It eachstage. and how long it tat
