Cosmic Music. Correlations Between Music and ...

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Cosmic Music. Correlations Between Music and Cosmos-Related Ideas Across Ancient Cultures BARBARA

RAPPENGLÜCK

Abstract

Pythagoras and Plato established the basic ideas of the Occidental theory of."cosmic music=ithe relations between intervals of music and numbers, the character of the scales and their influence in nature and society, the harmony of the planetary spheres, etc. Occidental philosophy and theology went back to these concepts, up to their influence in Johannes Kepler's famous work "Harmonice mundi". Non-Western cultures developed ideasof"cosmic rnusic", too. Ancient China e.g. created a very complex system of relations between the different tones of the scale, elements of the calendar and social phenomena. According to the concepts of other people the celestial bodies sound while moving around, or the creation itself happened by sound. Some kinds of music instruments were meant to embody these ideas, to show the connections between music and cosmos, and to enable man to manipulate these relations in an active manner. The article presents an overview about some correlations between cosmosrelated ideas and music across ancient cultures. Introduction

Hearing the stars singing or the sun playing a flute is no common experience for modem men. But what were ancient people speaking about, when they talked about "sounding cosmos" or "singing stars"? This article is entitled "Cosmic Music". Fro·mthe article "music" in The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians (Nettl 2001: 425-437) you will learn that the concepts of music differ very much: Does music only mean instrumental and vocal music, or is it a complex of instrumental or vocal music, dance and recitation? Is the spoken word an element of music? Does music include howling and shrieking? The answers change according to the different concepts of music. Because of the wide scope of the definition I must define a limit to my subject. As the topic "cosmic dance" would be an article for itself, I will restriet my subject to "cosmic sound". I will use "sound" in its broadest sense: all kinds of sound produced by the voice or by playing an instrument, including the sound of idiophones. The sounding cosmos

The most famous text illustrating the ancient idea of the sounding cosmos is found in Plato's dialog "The Republic", in the so-called "Vision ofEr" (X,616d-617d): Er gets a look into the structure of the cosmos being organized in 8 whorls, that are turning around a central axis, the "spindle of necessity". A siren is sitting on each of the whorls 361.

and each of these sound of harmony. past), Clotho (the harmony produced

an

sirens is producing individual tone. These 8 tones fuse to one The whole system is kept in motion by the three Fates Lachesis (the present) and Atropos (the future), who by their singing enrich the by the Sirens.

With his idea of the "music of the spheres" Plato adopted an idea coming from the Pythagoreans. Iamblichos teils us, that Pythagoras had been able to hear the music of the spheres: " ... his hearing and his mind were intent upon the celestial harmonies ofthe cosmos. It seemed as if he alone could hear and und erstand the universal harmony and music of the spheres and of the stars which move within them, uttering a song more complete and satisfying than any human melody, composed of subtly varied sounds of motion and speeds and sizes and positions, organized in a logical and harmonious relation to each other, and achieving a melodious circuit of subtle and exceptional beauty." (Iamblichos: 27) The music of the spheres is said to have cleared Pythagoras' spirit, and by singing and playing musical instruments he tried to imitate its structure and to use it for manipulating the mood of his disciples. But Pythagoras and his successors did not only try to make practical use ofthe harmony ofthe spheres, but they did also give a theoretical basis to this idea. By means of a monochord they demonstrated the fundamental relations between numbers and music intervals: the octave being expressed by the numerical proportion 1:2, the fifth by 2:3, the fourth by 3:4 etc. The Pythagoreans were convinced, that numbers and numerical proportions describe the structure of the cosmos as weil as the structure of music (Aristotle: I, 5, 985b 23 - 986a 7). These two basic ideas - the harmony of the spheres and the numbers and numerical proportions as the common base of the cosmos as weil as of music - constituted main elements ofthe Western musical theories up to the lih century (Meyer-Baer 1970). But they also had an impact on philosophy, theology and cosmography, up to Johannes Kepler's famous work called "Harmonice mundi" (1619). Scientific astronomical findings up from the 18th century passed over the idea of a cosmic music produced by sounding spheres and celestial bodies, but e.g in poetry it had a long life: "Die Sonne tönt, nach alter Weise / In Brudersphären Wettgesang ... " (Goethe, "Faust", Prologue in Heaven: "The Sun intones, in ancient tourney / With brother-spheres, a rival song ... ") This article's dealing with the idea of cosmic music intends not to focus on the traditional Western ideas of the harmony of the spheres, but to look for other concepts around the world. The most elaborated concepts coming from a non-European culture, are the ones of Old China. In the Chinese theory pitches, intervals and modes were set in relation to all conceivable elements of the cosmos: with the months of the year, the seasons, the cardinal directions, the elements, colours, numbers, kinds of animals, parts of the house, virtues, parts of the body, trends of taste, etc. (Granet 1980: 284). The belief was, that music did not only reflect the order of the cosmos but could itself influence it. That means music improperly used could disturb the cosmic harmony and with it the order ofthe country. Therefore Chinese emperors had to care for the correct music, including correct pitch standards: the Han emperor Wudi (140-87 BC) founded a Bureau of Music that had to guarantee the correctness of music and became part of the Imperial Bureau of Weights and Measures (Picken 1957: 87). But also the emperor himself had to contribute to the correctness of music - and of astronomical measurements: the height of his body served as a measure for the fundamental pipe, frorn which the other pipes were derived, and it served as a measure for the gnomon 362

(Granet 1980: 178, correspondence of t appropriately, the st: very weil the old ( music, astronomy an

Traditions of other celestial bodies aru described above. So music: a Mesoamei surrounded by musi while the Earth is w musicians from the since this time there Brazil tell, that the ( manner and then tat 196). This flute b included melodies a shaman of the Blac] man (Laade 1975: r singing (Laade 197: In the Orphic hymns cosmic motion, ...." instruments is ascril too. The same Black flute from the moon used it for this purpc this case it is of spe and spoke of it as b Hudson and Underl whistle of the Chur (Hudson and Undei mentioned story of 1 relation to music w: 226): according to tl a special star-const appropriate anima!.

Another corresponc Babylonians, who SI Chinese culture: as correspond to a foui relation between seE seven holes of the playing causes snow

The whole complex expressed in the trar enter the great, perf Shell Girl to enter .

8 tones fuse to one ; Fates Lachesis (the r singing enrich the

(Granet 1980: 178, 243). A new emperor ordered his officers to anew arrange the correspondence of the music with the universe, because if the music was not ordered appropriate1y, the state would be corrupted (Sachs 1959: 59). These examples illustrate very well the old Chinese conviction of a close correlation and even interaction of music, astronomy and social order.

ea coming from the o hear the music of .ial harmonies of the versal harmony and ttering a song more tly varied sounds of .al and harmonious nle and exceptional cleared Pythagoras' imitate its structure Pythagoras and his the spheres, but they a monochord they nusic intervals: the 'y 2:3, the fourth by rnerical proportions usic (Aristotle: I, 5,

ibers and numerical ; - constituted main yer-Baer 1970). But ihy, up to Johannes entific astronomical music produced by mg life: "Die Sonne "Faust", Prologue in ;, a rival song ... ") ot to focus on the k for other concepts m-European culture, and modes were set nths of the year, the ids of animals, parts net 1980: 284). The nos but could itself iosmic harmony and ) care for the correct ~0-87 BC) founded a i became part of the ut also the emperor nd of astronomical le fundamental pipe, sure for the gnomon

Traditions of other people tell us of correspondences between the cosmos or single celestial bodies and music, too, even though not in such elaborated concepts as described above. Some of these more simple concepts above all correlated the sun to music: a Mesoamerican manuscript of the 16th century describes, how the Sun is surrounded by musicians playing flutes and spreading the light with glowing singing while the Earth is without any music. The god Texcatlipoca sends the wind to bring the musicians from the Sun to earth. After overcoming obstacles the wind succeeds and since this time there exists music on the Earth. (Laade 1975: no. 162) The Camayura of Brazil tell, that the creator handed over a flute to the sun, who played it in a wonderful manner and then taught humans to play it and presented it to them. (Laade 1975: no. 196). This flute became an important element of Camayuran ceremonies. These included melodies and dances which were said to have been taught by the sun, too. A shaman of the Blackfeet natives reported of having received a mighty drum by the Sun man (Laade 1975: no. 109a), and Black Elk in one of his visions heard the rising sun singing (Laade 1975: no. 119). Occidental tradition associates the sun with music, too: In the Orphic hymns, the sun plays the Iyre: "Yours the golden Iyre and the harmony of cosmic motion, ...." (The Orphic Hymns: no. 8 [To the Sun]) The origin of musical instruments is ascribed not only to the sun, but sporadically to other celestial beings, too. The same Blackfeet-sharnan, who received a drum from the sun-rnan, got a wooden flute from the moon-wornan. This flute had the power to prevent birth, and the shaman used it for this purpose. Furthermore, he got an iron flute from the morning star-man. In this case it is of special interest that the shaman showed a button attached to his flute and spoke of it as being the representation ofthe morning star (Laade 1975: no. 109d). Hudson and Underhay suggested that the beads attached to a ceremonial deer tibia whistle of the Chumash might represent the Pleiades, parts of Orion, Cassiopeia etc. (Hudson and Underhay 1978: 131, 133). This looks like an illustration to the just mentioned story of the shaman with the button attached to his flute. The stars being in relation to music was an idea familiar to the Kalina of Guayana as weIl (Zerries 1952: 226): according to their idea each species of animal is ruled by a spirit who is situated in a special star-constellation. The constellation is sounding in the same way as the appropriate anima!. Another correspondence of cosmos-related phenomena to music was seen by the Babylonians, who saw a similar relation between seasons and musical intervals as the Chinese culture: as in China in the Babylonian concepts also spring and autumn correspond to a fourth, spring and winter to a fifth (Sachs 1959: 59). A variation ofthe relation between seasons and music is given in the tradition ofthe Mandan-Natives: the seven holes of the flute correspond to the seven months of the winter, and the flute playing causes snowfall (Laade 1975: no. 115). The whole complex of sun and moon, gender, whistles and the course of the year is expressed in the tradition of the Navajos: "The Holy Ones asked the Turquoise Boy to enter the great, perfect turquoise that was to become the sun; and they asked the White Shell Girl to enter the great, perfect, white shell that was to become the moon. The 363

Turquoise Boy was to carry a whistle made from the Male Reed. This whistle had 12 holes in it, and each time that the Turquoise Boy would blow on his whistle the earth would move one month in time. The White Shell Girl was also to carry a whistle. It was made from the Female Reed, and with it she should move the tides ofthe sea." (Leopold 1996:30) In all these ideas demonstrated above, we notice that the idea of a cosmic music and sounding cosmic elements is far frorn being a singular Western idea. Many different cultures have concepts of elose correspondences between cosmic and musical elements, with music reflecting .and influencing the organisation of the whole cosmos, from numbers, seasons and constellations up to social elements like the integrity of states. Creation by sound Correspondences between cosmic and musical elements are not accidentally: many people believed the cosmos to be created by sound, and thus sound to be the funda:mental principle ofthe cosmos. The most prominent example of creation by sound is given in the Bible: God repeatedly uttered words and called the different elements of the cosmos into existence (Gen 1, Ps 33,6, John 1, lf.). A Maori creation myth describes the creation of the world in a striking similar manner (Hongi 1907: 113-115): In the beginning the whole world was dark and covered by water. By the process of speaking the god 10 creates the light, the change of light and darkness, earth and sky. The creation by sound is an important element of the creation myths of several North American native people. The Californian Yuki describe the beginning of the creation as folIows: In the beginning there was all water. On the water, in some bubbles, there circled a down feather. From this a voice and a singing emerged. This was the creator, Taikomol. Step by step he took on human form, while he was always singing. (Schmidt 1929: 59) While in this myth the process of "incamation" of the creator hirnself is related to sound, in the creation myth of the Pawnee singing and rattling are indispensable elements of the act of creation: In the beginning Tirawa, the highest God, placed the other gods in the heavens. After these preparations he intended to create the earth and all living beings. He urged the gods to sing and to shake their gourd rattles, and a thunderstorm came up. Tirawa dropped a pebble into the elouds, and it was rolled around. When the storm had passed over, the space was full of water. In several steps Tirawa created the earth, formed the landscape, gave life to the plants, etc. Each ofthese acts was supported by special songs sung by the gods and their rattle-shaking. (Cha:mberlain 1982: 213f.) In similar manner the Polynesian god-hero Maui created the island of Hawaii (i.e. the world): while he was pulling the island out of the primordial ocean with the help of a fishing rod, he was singing a magical song (Laade 1975: no. 210). Other exa:mples connect the singing and the dancing in the act of creation, as mentioned in a myth from Micronesia: In the beginning there was no earth and no sky. Nevertheless all things existed in a gigantic shell that was closed. God Nareau was standing on the top of its curve. There he was stamping und singing, thus stabilizing the sky and causing the emergence of all beings from the shell. (Laade 1975: 236) This reminds ofthe Indian god Siva, in his emanation ofSiva Nataraja, the dancing Siva. His dancing symbolizes his five basic modes of operation in relation to the world: he causes creation, preservation, destruction, disguise and salvation, all these activities expressed in his dancing (Moeller 1984: 168). In one of his right hands Siva holds a drum that has been "associated with the utterance of the primal sound, with the beginning of

364

manifestation and n Cheerbrant 1996: 31

What did sound m: reasons for this fact: Musical instrumem

As this artiele show cosmos. People wer, your spirit as weil a: pulse and blood-pre participate in and m: ofthese aspects - th power of music - c may become magi: instruments with a CI purpose. 2. The who several divine music

The Western traditio is the so-called "w Musurgia Universal cosmos was reveak harmony. He visuali a picture entitled "T the "world-organ". E the six days of crea1 above the organ. The animals and man. B, plays in the sphere 0 whole cosmos as hi Christian theology destructive power is noises (Hammersteir Robert Fludd, a cont "world-monochord". cosmi maioris scilicc three levels of the I instrument, each of tl by the instrument: ; planetary circies, an regions are found. G the instrument as we With these pictures sounding cosmos as allegory of Christ go 1970: 69), and with

This whistle had 12 iis whistle the earth rry a whistle. It was f the sea." (Leopold

manifestation and more generally with the rhythm of the universe." Cheerbrant 1996: 319)

1 cosmic

Musical instruments as images ofthe cosmos - the cosmos as musical instrument

music and :lea. Many different d musical elements, 'hole cosmos, from tegrity of states.

accidentally: many

s sound to be the rf creation by sound

lifferent elements of ition myth describes 17: 113-115): In the process of speaking I1dsky. The creation ~al North American creation as folIows: oles, there circled a e creator, Taikomol. (Schmidt 1929: 59) imself is related to s are indispensable est God, placed the create the earth and gourd rattles, and a :, and it was rolled uer. In several steps ts, etc. Each of these their rattle-shaking. ~roMaui created the .ut of the primordial 19 (Laade 1975: no. : act of creation, as 10 earth and no sky. d. God Nareau was , thus stabilizing the ide 1975: 236) This re dancing Siva. His the world: he causes activities expressed olds a drum that has h the beginning of

What did sound make an essential element of many creation reasons for this fact shall be discussed in the conclusions below.

(Chevalier

and

myths? The possible

As this article shows, many people believed in a correspondence between music and cosmos. People were also aware of transforming power of music: music can transform your spirit as weil as your bodily being and it influences not only your mood, but your pulse and blood-pressure, too. By singing or playing a musical instrument you can participate in and make use ofthis transforming power ofmusic. From the combination of these aspects - the correspondence between music and cosmos, and the transforming power of music - conclusions could be drawn: 1. the voice and musical instruments may become magic tools to participate in the "cosmic music". Notably musical instruments with a cosmic symbolism may have been seen as especially suitable for this purpose. 2. The whole cosmos could be understood as the musical instrument of one or several divine musicians, who by their music govem the universe. The Western tradition knows some impressive examples ofsuch analogies: One ofthem is the so-called "world-organ" of Athanasius Kircher. In his musical encyclopedia Musurgia Universalis (1650) Kireher held the essentially medieval view that the cosmos was revealed in musical ratios and that musical harmony mirrored God's harmony. He visualized this concept ofthe world being a product of God's harmony in a picture entitled "The Harmony ofthe Birth ofthe World" (Roob 1996: 94). It shows the "world-organ". Each ofthe six stops, which are all activated, corresponds to one of the six days of creation described in the Book of Genesis and illustrated in six circles above the organ. These scenes show the creation ofthe light, seas, earth, plants, planets, animals and man. Below the keyboard is written in Latin "Thus God's eternal wisdom plays in the sphere ofthe worlds". God is interpreted as the world-rnusician who has the whole cosmos as his instrument. This may be contrasted by the claim of Medieval Christian theology that in contrary to God as the creative power, the devil as the destructive power is not able to produce music at all or only disharmonious sounds and noises (Hammerstein 1962: 102, 105, 109). Robert Fludd, a contemporary to Kepler, created several wood-cuts showing a so-called "world-monochord". One of these images (Roob 1996: 95) from his work Utriusque eosmi maioris seifieet et minoris Metaphysiea (1617) can be described as folIows: The three levels of the cosmos are lined up along the sound box and the string of the instrument, each of their elements being identified with the tones and intervals produced by the instrument: at the bottom are the four elements, in the middle you find the planetary circles, and above the sphere of the fixed stars the supernatural heavenly regions are found. God's hand is reaching out ofthe clouds. By turning the peg he tunes the instrument as well as the cosmos. With these pictures both Fludd and Kireher based on the old Occidental idea of the sounding cosmos as the musical instrument of God. The Church Fathers had used the allegory ofChrist governing the cosmos while playing on the celestiallyre (Meyer-Baer 1970: 69), and with this they had referred to the even older idea of Apollo ruling the 3{)5

cosmos by the melodies of his Iyre. In the Orphic hymns the consequences of Apollo's performance are described (The Orphic Hymns: no. 34 [To ApolIon]): " ... and with your versatile Iyre you harmonize the poles, now reaching the highest pitch, now the lowest, and now again with the Doric mode balancing the poles harmoniously ... You have infused harmony into alI men 's lot, giving them an equal measure of summer and winter. The lowest notes you strike in the winter, the highest in the summer, and your mode is Doric for spring's lovely and blooming season." Again let us have a look on non-western cultures and their ideas of musical instruments retlecting the cosmos. A number of examples have already been mentioned in other parts of this article: e.g. the drum of Siva Nataraja, the Chinese standard pipe, the tlutes and whistles of different native people. The Pawnee natives, whose story of creation supported by singing and rattling has been mentioned above, used ceremonial rattles of obvious cosmic reminiscence. One of them is described as " ... a rattle with four stars around it ... In clockwise direction (as viewed from the top), the stars are yelIow, black, red, and white: the colours and relative positions of the world-quarter stars." (Chamberlain 1982: 106) These world-quarter stars marked the semi-cardinal points in the Northeast, Northwest, Southeast and Southwest. According to Pawnee tradition they supported the sky and had a close relation to the seasons, to certain animals, to the four kinds of com and of wood, colours, etc. (Chamberlain 1982: 23, 212, fig. 22) On ceremonial gourd rattles ofthe Navajo constelIations have been identified (Young 2005: 60). An extended description underlines the cosmic symbolism of rattles used in Hopi ceremonialism. These rattles are "given to children before their initiation: The flat round face of the gourd represents the earth. The circle inside symbolizes the sun ... The swastika symbol may show clockwise rotation with the sun, or countercIockwise to indicate the earth. The stick thrust through the gourd for a handle symbolizes the northsouth axis of the earth, at whose ends sit the Hero Twins, ... , who keep the planet rotating. The markings shown on the side represent the constellations in the Milky Way. Both Twins constantly send out echoing vibrations along the earth's axis. These constitute the real source of the noise of the rattle, which re-echoes their vibrations as either a signal or a warnings." (Waters 1977: 166f.) Ceremonial rattles representing cosmic elements like world-quarter stars, constelIations or even the whole cosmos hence participate in the cosmic symbolism and might be meant to influence the cosmic relations. A musical instrument very obviously related to a cosmic symbolism is the drum used in Siberian and Saami shamanism (Rappenglück 1999: 261-264; Findeisen and Gehrts 1983: 130-134). These drums help the shaman to perform his joumey to the underworld as weil as to the heavenly regions. Drawings on the drum skin represent the cosmic models of these people: often the different levels of the cosmos are shown, with the shaman's tree as the cosmic axis, with sun and moon, with the openings that enable the shaman to pass through the different levels, etc. Thus the appearance of the drum depicts the cosmos, in some cases it is even a kind of cosmic map. It can help the shaman to find his way, and it may stimulate the cosmic forces and beings to gather in the drum (Findeisen and Gehrts 1983: 135). Its sound calls these forces and activates the shaman's power for performing the journey. A similar cosmic symbolism is described by the North-American Zuni song ofthe origin ofthe Bow Priesterhood: the ceremonial drum is painted with the symbols of thunder and lightning and its skin shows the cross of the four world-quarters (Laade 1975: no. 137) The Oglala Sioux elder Black Elk compared the form of the drum to the form of the cosmos and referred to its beat as the 366

pulse of the cosmos drum is extremely f Conclusions

It is a far-spread ide the mythical conce sound derives from sound helps man tc phenomena. Furthe by musical instrum creation by sound I music is inevitably "skeleton" to sounc instrument or the character of sound motion by ever nei music and astronon strict and fundarner also defined by pen ever new constellati stabilizing and stru: so apt as the myth especially its time-r

Not only Western p and music. The Su' 2001: 431): "Song the uni verse, involv into a single combi animals, and other a human order provi, between cosmos an Greece or Old ChiJ cosmos, and artific (Rappenglück 200S: as a nice, but irrelex speaking in terms ( with the Big Bang, waves of ultrasound

References Aristotle. 1947, The Metaphysics, London. DeForest, Craig E. 2004, High-Frequency , December lO Volume 6 Chamberiain, Von DeI.

luences of ApoIlo's on]): " ... and with lest pitch, now the rmoniously ... You :ure of summer and summer, and your

nusical instruments mentioned in other lard pipe, the tlutes e story of creation eremonial rattles of ittle with four stars s are yellow, black, irld-quarter stars." i-cardinal points in wnee tradition they mimals, to the four , 212, fig. 22) On lified (Young 2005: attles used in Hopi tion: The tlat round es the sun ... The ounterc1ockwise to mbolizes the northho keep the planet I in the Milky Way. arth's axis. These their vibrations as rattles representing rhole cosmos hence luence the cosmic

is the drum used in ideisen and Gehrts { to the underworld present the cosmic re shown, with the ings that enable the rance of the drum ap. It can help the beings to gather in es and activates the iolism is described iod: the ceremonial tin shows the cross IX eider Black Elk ed to its beat as the

pulse ofthe cosmos (Laade 1975: no. 120). On the background ofsuch symbolisms the drum is extremely fitted to make man an active participant in the "cosmic music". Conclusions It is a far-spread idea that sound is in interplay with the cosmos even when the details of the mythical concepts differ: sound calls the cosmos and its elements into existence, sound derives from celestial bodies, sound portrays the organization of the cosmos and sound helps man to find their balance in the interplay of individual, social and cosmic phenomena. Furthermore these aspects can be retlected and perhaps also manipulated by musical instruments. The ideas of the sounding cosmos as weIl as the ideas of a creation by sound refer to important qualities of music: on the one hand, the sound of music is inevitably connected with rhythm. Rhythm builds up a kind of structuring "skeleton" to sound, whether to the spoken word, a chanted syllable, the sound of an instrument or the beats of a drum. But on the other hand, due to the tirne-bound character of sound at the same time sound means a constant advancement kept in motion by ever new inputs of energy (breath etc.), and steadily transformation. Thus music and astronomy do have essential characteristics in common: both are based on strict and fundamental rules with very constant elements, but the character of both is also defined by permanent movement and transformation. Both find their expression in ever new constellations, based on constant elements. Maybe that it is the combination of stabilizing and structuring with advancing and transforming elements that makes music so apt as the mythical promoter of creation and as an analogy for the cosmos and especially its tirne-bound elements like celestial bodies and seasons. Not only Western philosophical tradition speculates about the relations between cosmos and music. The Suya natives of Amazonian Brazil express their ideas like this (Nettl 2001: 431): "Song is the result of a particular relationship between humans the rest of the uni verse, involving an unusually elose relationship and emerging of states of being into a single combined state of being expressed through music. When humans, birds, animals, and other aspects ofthe universe are conjoined, the result is sound ... The nonhuman order provides a model for music." Speculations concerning the correlations between cosmos and sound seem to have a very old tradition, much older than ancient Greece or Old China. In the Palaeolithic epoch man interpreted special caves as the cosmos, and artificially treated dripstones were used to fill this cosmos with sound (Rappenglück 2005). Only today's man has put aside the relation of sound and cosmos as a nice, but irrelevant symbolism. But even modern science doesn't get along without speaking in terms of sound when describing cosmic phenomena: our cosmos started with the Big Bang, and scientists have recently discovered in the atmosphere of the sun waves ofultrasound character (DeForest: L89-L92).

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)iederichs, Köln.

Francke,

"osmology and Rock

Liverpool University

erenden und

" Valentin Koerner,

sh und Mandan,

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ient and Griental

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36.9