Design and Engineering of Jute Geotextile

American International Journal of Research in Science, Technology, Engineering & Mathematics

Available online at http://www.iasir.net

ISSN (Print): 2328-3491, ISSN (Online): 2328-3580, ISSN (CD-ROM): 2328-3629 AIJRSTEM is a refereed, indexed, peer-reviewed, multidisciplinary and open access journal published by International Association of Scientific Innovation and Research (IASIR), USA (An Association Unifying the Sciences, Engineering, and Applied Research)

Design and Engineering of Jute Geotextile Prof. Swapan Kumar Ghosh1, Mr. Kalyan Ray Gupta2, Mr. Satyaranjan Bairagi3, Mr. Rajib Bhattacharyya4 1 (Professor, Department of Jute and Fibre Technology, Calcutta University, Kolkata, INDIA) 2 (Asst. Professor, Department of Jute and Fibre Technology, Calcutta University, Kolkata, INDIA) 3 (Senior Research Fellow, Department of Jute and Fibre Technology, Calcutta University, Kolkata, INDIA) 4 (Teaching Associate, Department of Jute and Fibre Technology, Calcutta University, Kolkata, INDIA) Abstract: Traditional sacking quality jute woven fabrics with double warp 2/1 Twill Weave have been extensively used for road construction but studies and applications so far undertaken have not been comprehensive enough for large scale acceptability and adoption of the above said fabrics. The previous studies and field applications of woven Jute Geotextiles (JGTs) carried out so far on rural road construction have subtended the efficacy of the appropriate variety of jute material. The applications, however, did not focus on design and engineering of application specific and functions oriented varieties of Jute Geotextiles. It is in this context that development of potentially important JGT for strengthening of rural roads assumes significance. Hence Plain Weave, Twill Weave, Matt Weave and Basket Weave Jute Fabric samples of same fabric weight, expressed in gsm, have been produced by varying yarn property parameters and yarn density in the fabrics to optimize their property parameters with the help of a suitable statistical method and standardize those property parameters after taking actual field trials on roads. Keywords: Weave structure; Geotextile; JGT; Tensile Properties.

I. Introduction Application of geotextiles in flexible paved road construction is an established one and is increasing at rapid pace throughout the world. Geotextiles extend the service life of roads, increase their load carrying capacity and reduce rutting. The effectiveness of geotextiles in stabilization and separation roles with flexible pavements has been extensively researched. It has been found that for weak subgrade (California Bearing Ratio, CBR = 2%), the geotextile extends the service life of a flexible pavement section by a factor of 2.5 to 3.0 compared to a non – stabilized section. Further a geotextile effectively increased the pavement section’s total AASTHO 1 structural number by approximately 19%. The performance of pavements constructed on soft soils can be improved using jute Geotextiles. Jute fabric when used as separator prevents the penetration of subgrade material into voids of granular base course. The permeability characteristic of the fabric also aids in faster dissipation of pore pressures and ensures better drainage which results in better long term performance of the pavement. Provision of fabric enables subgrade develops its full bearing capacity and thus controls rutting. Jute Geotextile was used as a separator between subgrade and sub-base layers. Jute Geotextile (JGT) is much cheaper than synthetic fibre2. It is easy to blend with other natural material and synthetic fibres. JGT is environmental friendly, design biodegradable, hydrophobic, anionic and locally available materials. Initially it has got the high strength and non-hazardous properties. It is also a renewable source of energy as natural biomass3. World Jute production is on the decline since mid – 1980s4. At the time production was in excess of 6 million tons. In 2008 jute production has reached about 2.65 million tons5. Jute production is concentrated (90 – 95%) in Bangladesh and India. China, Myanmar, Thailand and Nepal contribute a smaller share. Jute has mostly been used in the packaging industry as well as for carpet backing. In the last decades jute has been experiencing heavy competition from synthetic materials, resulting in greatly reduce demand. Identification and development of new products and new applications are crucial for the sector to continue providing employment and income to millions of jute farmers and those employed in the mills. It is estimated that in India alone, the jute industry provides direct employment to about 260,000 workers6 and supports the livelihood of around 4 million farm families. An additional 140,000 people are engaged in the territory sector and allied activities. In Bangladesh, it is estimated that about half these numbers are involved in production and processing of jute. Keeping into view about the potential application of JGT, this article delineates optimization of the fabric property parameters of the produced woven jute fabric samples followed by their ranking with respect to different geotechnical applications keeping in view for maintaining techno economic viability mainly in the field of road construction in terms of strengthening of sub grade.

AIJRSTEM 16-217; © 2016, AIJRSTEM All Rights Reserved

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Ghosh et al., American International Journal of Research in Science, Technology, Engineering & Mathematics, 15(1), June-August, 2016, pp. 45-50

II. Material and Methods The warp and weft yarns required for this study have been prepared in the Department of Jute and Fibre Technology, University of Calcutta, India. The batch composition of the warp and weft yarns is furnished in Table 1. Table 1: Batch composition of warp and weft yarns Grade/ Type of Jute Fibre TD – 4 TD – 5 Root Cuttings Sliver Wastes Total

Warp Yarn Percentage Composition (%) 63.6 18.2 9.1 9.1 100

Grades /Type of Jute Fibre TD – 4 Root Cuttings

Weft Yarn Percentage Composition (%) 90 10

Total

100

Using this batch composition counts of warp yarn 9.0 lb/spy and weft yarns 12.0 lb/spy were produced in conventional slip draft spinning machine. The warp and weft yarn particulars are furnished in Table 2. Table 2: Warp and Weft Yarn Particulars Specification of Warp Yarn

Parameters Count of Yarn (lbs/spy) Twists per inch (T.P.I) Diameter (mm) Breaking Strength (N) Breaking Elongation (%) Tenacity (cN/tex) Quality ratio (%)

9.0 4.0 0.5596 33.94 1.66 10.37 80.10

1st Lot 12.1 3.45 0.755 40.61 1.59 9.82 75.97

Specification of Weft Yarn Single weft yarn Plied weft yarn 2ndLot 3rdLot 4th Lot 1stLot 2nd Lot 11.95 11.45 12.0 2/23 2/24 3.45 3.4 3.53 2.9 2.93 0.859 1.062 0.754 1.832 1.501 43.79 28.28 42.57 68.80 70.12 1.535 1.17 1.46 2.14 2.18 10.59 6.84 10.30 8.32 8.48 81.92 52.90 79.64 64.35 65.59

Collected warp yarn and prepared weft yarn was used for producing the desired fabric sample of different designs like Plain, Twill, Matt and Basket weave in a conventional loom. The specification of the loom and the weave prepared is given below in Table 3. The particulars of the fabric samples are furnished in Table 4. Table 3: Particulars of the Loom Type of Loom Maker’s Name Reed space Type of Dobby Capacity of Dobby Reed count

Conventional Hessian Loom With Dobby Attachment Urquhart & Lindsay Ltd. 42.5 inch Left Hand Climax Dobby(Negative Dobby-Double Lift, Double Jack) 16(Maximum) 7.8 Porter

Table 4: Particulars of the fabric samples prepared Sl. No.

Gsm Range

Weave

1.

600-650

Plain(A)

2.

600-650

1/2 Twill (B)

3.

600-650

1/3 Twill (C)

4.

600-650

2/2 Matt (D)

5.

600-650

4/4 Basket (E)

Warp yarn Double Warp Yarn Double Warp Yarn Double Warp Yarn Double Warp Yarn Double Warp Yarn Double Warp Yarn Double Warp Yarn Double Warp Yarn Double Warp Yarn Double Warp Yarn Double Warp Yarn Double Warp Yarn Double Warp Yarn Double Warp Yarn Double Warp Yarn

Weft yarn Single Weft Yarn (A1) Double Weft Yarn (A2) Ply Weft Yarn (A3) Single Weft Yarn (B1) Double Weft Yarn (B2) Ply Weft Yarn (B3) Single Weft Yarn (C1) Double Weft Yarn (C2) Ply Weft Yarn (C3) Single Weft Yarn (D1) Double Weft Yarn (D2) Ply Weft Yarn (D3) Single Weft Yarn (E1) Double Weft Yarn (E2) Ply Weft Yarn (E3)

Ends/ dm 100 100 100 102 100 100 100 100 100 102 102 100 100 100 100

Picks/ dm 43 64 33 48 58 35 55 76 37 60 74 39 74 74 40

The entire range of Jute based Woven Fabric Samples were conditioned according to an ASTM standard using standard temperature (210 C ± 20 C) and humidity (65% ± 5% R.H.) for 24 hours before commencement of any testing work. The details of the testing activities to which these fabric samples have been subjected, is provided in Table 5. Table 5: List of Testing Performed and Corresponding Standard References to Asses Different Property Parameters of DW Plain Weave JGT Samples. Sl. No. 01. 02. 03. 04. 05.

Test Parameters Area Density(Mass per unit area) Fabric Thickness Tensile Properties of Geotextiles (Breaking Load and Breaking Elongation) by the Wide-Width Strip Method CBR Puncture Resistance Hydraulic Bursting Strength


Sample Size 250 mm.×250 mm. 7.6 cm. diameter 200 mm.×100 mm.

No. of Tests 15 15 15

ASTM Test Standard D –5261-92 (2009) D - 5199 -01 (2006) D-4595-09

45 mm. 33.5 mm.

15 15

D -6241-04 (2009) D – 3886

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III. Results and Discussion In the present work, fifteen numbers of woven jute fabrics with different weave and constructional parameters were produced to study the effect of different fabric parameters on the properties of the fabric. The physical, mechanical, air permeability, drape coefficient and bending properties of the produced fabrics are shown in Tables 6, 7, 8 and 9 respectively. Table 6: Physical Properties of the Fabric Samples Converted gsm Samples @ 20% M.R. A1 A2 A3 B1 B2 B3 C1 C2 C3 D1 D2 D3 E1 E2 E3

522.0746 611.1735 619.11 544.9129 574.0803 634.34 566.5234 649.5093 648.41 591.044 652.2512 662.49 638.4756 632.3966 657.82

Samples A1 A2 A3 B1 B2 B3 C1 C2 C3 D1 D2 D3 E1 E2 E3

Ends/dm × Picks/dm

Thickness (mm)

Crimp (%)

Specific Density

Volume Porosity

100 X 43 100 X 64 100 X 33 102 X 48 100 X 58 100 X 35 100 X 55 100 X 76 100 X 37 102 X 60 102 X 74 100 X 39 100 X 74 100 X 74 100 X 40

2.01 2.45 2.28 2.03 2.42 2.47 2.38 2.71 2.83 2.07 2.52 2.39 2.75 2.98 3.18

8.7X4.1 9.3X2.9 9.7X2.3 7.3X3.6 6.2X2.1 7.9X3.6 6.6X3.8 5.7X2.4 7.7X2.8 5.7X3.5 5.5X4.2 5.2X4.3 4.3X3.0 3.0X2.3 3.3X2.1

0.259739 0.249459 0.271539 0.272456 0.237223 0.256818 0.238035 0.239671 0.229119 0.291155 0.263004 0.277192 0.232173 0.202044 0.200554

99.72569 99.73654 99.71323 99.71226 99.74947 99.72877 99.74861 99.74688 99.75803 99.69251 99.72224 99.70725 99.7548 99.78662 99.78819

Table 7: Mechanical Properties of the Fabric Samples Tensile Strength (KN) Elongation (%) Bursting Cone Drop (MDXCD) (MDXCD) Strength (kg) (mm) 20.83 X 16.1 20.27 X 21.43 20.42 X 21.67 20.67 X 15.63 22.08 X 20.82 23.37 X 20.8 20.68 X 16.1 22.3 X 20.15 22.63 X 22.62 25.42 X 17.97 25.35 X 20.75 26.5 X 18.98 25.3 X 19.87 24.47 X 18.5 22.42 X 19.82

11.3 X 7.0 11.3 X 6.3 13.3 X 6.3 10 X 6 9X5 10 X 6 9.7 X 7.7 8.3 X 6.3 9.7 X 7.7 8.7 X 9.7 7.0 X 6.7 8.7 X 9.0 9.3 X 6.7 6.0 X 5.7 7.7 X 9.0

15.6 16.77 18.23 16.7 20 17.6 19.9 23.1 19.2 23.73 29.17 29.83 32.6 29 26.63

15.33 16.67 18.23 17.3 14.6 12.6 16 16.7 16 16 15.33 16.67 8.67 11.33 14

CBR Puncture (KN) 1.45 1.79 2.18 1.42 1.77 1.69 1.36 1.75 2.36 1.97 2.05 2.22 2.77 2.09 2.48

Table 8: Air Permeability and Cover Factor of the Fabric Samples Air Permeability Sample Cover Factor (m³/m²/min) A1 A2 A3 B1 B2 B3 C1 C2 C3 D1 D2 D3 E1 E2 E3

60.43 70.25 74.49 59.73 69.65 79.87 73.82 78.59 106 61.92 95.16 89.3 64.89 107.83 112


90.01 90.74 91.20 92.60 89.40 92.10 93.86 93.40 93.01 96.30 93.90 93.90 99.00 93.05 94.40

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Table 9: Drape and Bending Properties of the Fabric Samples Sample

Drape (%)

Bending Length (cm) (MDXCD)

Flexural Rigidity (mg.cm) (MDXCD)

Bending Rigidity (kg/cm²) (MDXCD)

A1 A2 A3 B1 B2 B3 C1 C2 C3 D1 D2 D3 E1 E2 E3

97.6 96.7 94.0 97.3 97.5 96.0 97.6 96.8 94.1 97.2 96.8 94.0 97.3 96.9 94.0

6.79 X 6.29 6.4 X 6.87 6.21 X 6.42 6.0428 X 5.3625 6.1125 X 6.1813 6.0875 X 5.0975 5.04 X 5.2 5.78 X 5.41 5.18 X 5.03 6.02 X 5.33 6.29 X 5.84 6.38 X 5.06 6.28 X 5.93 6.59 X 5.25 5.82 X 5.14

16343.4 X 12992.25 16021.5 X 19816.85 14826.6 X 16382.17 12023.8 X 8402.896 13110.8 X 13558.51 14310 X 8402.237 7252.86 X 7965.772 12542.1 X 10284.36 9012.31 X 8251.837 12894.6 X 8949.555 16231.8 X 12991.32 17204.5 X 8582.838 15813.3 X 13314 18098.6 X 9150.976 12968.1 X 8932.963

17.76785 X 12.41715 10.69824 X 11.06357 14.48828 X 8.506906 10.40405 X 11.4267 10.6195 X 8.707877 7.176726 X 6.571145 11.47783 X 7.966211 9.786788 X 7.832976 9.108845 X 4.544152 22.11119 X 17.5774 12.0139 X 14.85985 13.03253 X 14.39988 9.124444 X 7.682305 8.206882 X 4.149539 4.839216 X 3.333461

Effect of Fabric Parameters on Tensile Strength The values of tensile strength in warp and weft direction for all the samples are shown in above Table 7. From the Table 7 it is found that the warp way tensile strength of the fabric samples varies from 20.27 kN/m to 26.5 kN/m. From the literature review it is found that the strength of a fabric in warp direction depends on the strength of the warp yarn, thread density in warp and weft direction, types of weave, gsm and crimp% in warp direction. It is found that the thread density in warp direction of all the samples produced varies from 100 ends/dm to 102 ends/dm. From the literature review it is found that with the increase in weft density the strength of the fabric increases if the other fabric parameters remain same. Again the maximum achievable thread density in weft direction of the fabric depends on the types of weave for a given thread density of warp yarn in the fabric. So during the preparation of the fabric samples it was aimed to achieve maximum weft density without bumping during beat-up except for the fabric with matt design (E1, E2 & E3) which are woven with lower weft density then the achievable limit. Among the fabric samples containing single weft thread the weft density is lowest for the sample A1 (43 picks/dm) and highest for the sample E1 & E2 (74 picks/dm). Again the fabric produced using ply yarn, the sample A3 have lowest picks/dm (33 picks/dm) whereas the sample E3 have the highest weft yarn density (40 picks/dm). Effect of Fabric Parameters on Elongation at Break The values of elongation at break in warp and weft direction for all the samples are shown in Table 7. In that table it is observed that the warp way breaking elongation of the fabric samples varies from 6% to 13.3%. From the literature review it is found that the elongation at break of a fabric in warp direction depends on the count of warp yarn, types of weave and crimp% in warp direction. Effect of Fabric Parameters on Drape Coefficient The value of Drape coefficient for all the samples is shown in Table 9. From Table 9 it is found that the value of Drape Coefficient of all the samples ranges from 94% to 97.6%. It is also found from the Table 9 and in Figure 4.15 that the warp way Bending Modulus varies from 4.839216 kg/cm2 to 22.11119 kg/cm2. In the weft direction it is observed that the Bending Modulus varies from 3.333461 kg/cm2 to 17.5774 kg/cm2. From the literature review it is found that the drape coefficient of a fabric depends on the thread density in warp and weft direction, types of weave, count of warp and weft yarn and flexural rigidity of both warp and weft direction. Effect of Fabric Parameters on Air Permeability The value of Air permeability for all the samples is shown in Table 8. From Table 8 it is found that the value of Air Permeability of all samples ranges from 59.7 m3/m2/min to 112 m3/m2/min. From the literature review it is found that the air permeability of a fabric depends on the thread density in warp and weft direction, types of weave, volume porosity and pore/cm2. Ranking of Fabric Samples Produced for Standardization and Optimization of Different Machine Parameters and Process parameters Values of all the Dimensional and Geotechnical (physical, mechanical and hydraulic properties etc.) property parameters obtained for all the jute woven fabric samples produced in this study by varying process parameters are compared by the method of Simple average weighted ranking procedure for five categories (Plain, Twill, Matt


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and Basket weave) of such woven JGT fabric samples separately for standardization and optimization of different property parameters. For ranking within the specified range of fabric area density, each property parameter of each sample is proportionately weighted as compared to the best values obtained in that property parameter to award ten (10) point and rest of the obtained values lower than the best value were weighted proportionately. Finally considering all the property parameters together simple average were determined to get the rank within that class and shown in Table 10. Among the fabric samples A1, A2, & A3 the fabric A3 has maximum ranking value. Similarly among the fabric samples B1, B2 & B3 the fabric B2 has maximum ranking value, among the fabric samples C1, C2, & C3 the fabric C3 has maximum ranking value, among the fabric samples D1, D2, & D3 the fabric D3 has maximum ranking value and among the fabric samples E1, E2, & E3 the fabric E1 has maximum ranking value. And among all the fifteen fabric samples A1 have the lowest ranking with double warp plain design and E1 have the maximum ranking value with 4X4 matt design. Table 10: Ranking of Fabric Samples Sample No.

Tensile Strength in MD (kN/m)

Rank

A1

20.83

A2 A3

20.27 20.42

B1 B2 B3 C1 C2 C3 D1 D2

Tensile Strength in CD (kN/m)

Rank

CBR Puncture Resistance (kN)

Rank

7.86

16.1

7.12

1.45

7.64 7.71

21.43 21.67

9.47 9.58

1.79 2.18

20.67

7.8

15.63

6.91

22.08

8.33

20.82

23.37 20.68 22.3

8.82 7.80 8.41

20.8 16.1 20.15

22.63 25.42

8.53 9.59

25.35

Bursting Strength (kg/cm2)

Rank

Cone Drop (mm)

Rank

5.23

15.6

4.78

15.33

5.66

6.46 7.87

16.77 18.23

5.14 5.59

16.67 18.23

5.20 4.76

1.42

5.13

16.7

5.12

17.3

5.01

9.20

1.77

6.39

20

6.13

14.6

5.94

9.19 7.12 8.91

1.69 1.36 1.75

6.10 4.91 6.32

17.6 19.9 23.1

5.40 6.10 7.08

12.6 16 16.7

6.88 5.42 5.19

22.62 17.97

10 7.94

2.36 1.97

8.52 7.11

19.2 23.73

5.89 7.28

16 16

5.42 5.42

9.57

20.75

9.17

2.05

7.40

29.17

8.95

15.33

5.66

D3 E1 E2

26.5 25.3

10 9.55

18.98 19.87

8.39 8.78

2.22 2.77

8.01 10

29.83 32.6

9.15 10

16.67 8.67

5.20 10

24.47

9.23

18.5

8.18

2.09

7.55

29

8.90

11.33

7.65

E3

22.42

8.46

19.82

8.76

2.48

8.95

26.63

8.17

14

6.19

Rank

Total Rank

Table 10: Ranking of Fabric Samples…….continued

Rank

Bending Rigidity in MD (kg/cm²)

Rank

Bending Rigidity in CD (kg/cm²)

97.6 96.7 94 97.3 97.5 96.0 97.6 96.8 94.1 97.2 96.8 94.0 97.3

9.63 9.72 10 9.66 9.64 9.79 9.63 9.71 9.98 9.67 9.71 10 9.66

22.11 12.01 13.03 17.77 10.69 14.49 10.4 10.62 7.17 11.47 9.78 9.11 9.12

2.18 4.02 3.71 2.72 4.52 3.34 4.65 4.55 6.75 4.21 4.94 5.31 5.30

17.58 14.86 14.39 12.42 11.06 8.51 11.43 8.71 6.57 7.97 7.83 4.54 7.68

1.89 2.24 2.31 2.68 3.01 3.91 2.91 3.82 5.06 4.17 4.25 7.33 4.33

54.23 58.39 59.55 55.03 61.73 60.9 56.63 61.59 65.78 65.03 65.92 70.07 76.82

96.9 94.0

9.70 10

8.21 4.84

5.89 10

4.15 3.33

8.02 10

70.65 75.86

Sample No.

Air Permeability (m³/m²/min)

Rank

Drape (%)

A1 A2 A3 B1 B2 B3 C1 C2 C3 D1 D2 D3 E1

60.43 70.25 74.49 59.73 69.65 79.87 73.82 78.59 106 61.92 95.16 89.3 64.89

9.88 8.50 8.02 10 8.57 7.47 8.09 7.60 5.63 9.64 6.27 6.68 9.20

E2 E3

107.83 112

5.53 5.33

IV. Conclusions In this study fabric property and their dependence on the constructional parameters (design, thread density, etc.) and yarn parameters are investigated. From the discussion in this article the following conclusions can be drawn. The tensile strength of the fabric in warp direction is positively influenced by the weft crimp and negatively influenced by the warp crimp. But also process parameters of weaving to be considered during engineering of woven jute fabric. The parameters viz. both warp and weft way thread density and crimp, strength of the weft yarn and gsm of the fabric can be used to predict the tensile strength of the fabric in weft direction with relatively high accuracy than the warp way strength of the fabric. Therefore woven jute fabric with higher value of interlacement


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produces fabric with low tensile strength in warp direction, this may be due to frequent changing of the heald shaft during weaving adversely affecting the strength of the warp yarn. Whereas during weaving there is less stress on weft yarn so strength of the weft yarn did not reduced to an appreciable extent and hence more no of interlacement in weft direction produces a fabric with higher tensile strength in weft direction due to more binding of the weft yarn with the warp yarn. The property parameters like flexural rigidity, thread density both in warp and weft direction and count of weft yarn can be used to predict the drape coefficient of the fabric. With fair degree of accuracy the value of drape coefficient with the increase of overall flexural rigidity of the fabric and also the thread density both in warp and weft direction and weft count influenced the coefficient of drape negatively. The air permeability of the fabric depends on the no of pores per unit area, volume porosity of the fabric and the thread density in warp and weft direction. So consideration of different types of pore and their hydraulic diameter tend to give more accurate results. From the ranking of the produced samples the fabric may be selected according to the required properties as per the end use application. V. References [1] [2]

[3] [4] [5] [6]

Kaswell, E. R.,Textile Fibres, Yarns and Fabrics (Reinhoid Publishing Corporation) ,New York, USA, (1953) 11, 112,. Choudhury, P. K., Das, A., Goswami, D. N. and Sanyal, T., Slope stabilization with jute textile-a bio-engineering approach, The 12th International Conference of International Association for Computer Methods and Advance in Geomechanics (IACMAG), October, ( 2008). Prodhan, Z. H., Application of Jute Geotextile for different structures including Rural Roads with Slope Protection, http://www.jute.org/news/Application%20of% 20Jute%20Geotextile_ %20Zahid%20Hossain%20.pdf. Maity, R.K., World Fibre Crops, Oxford and IBH Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd, ( 1997) ,6-7. Anand, S., Designer natural fibre Geotextiles-a new concept, Indian Journal of Fibre and Textile Research, 33 ,(2008), 339 – 344. Kundu, B.C., Basak, K. C. and Sarkar, P.B., Jute in India (The Indian Central Jute Committee), Kolkata, India, (1959) 54-55.

VI. Acknowledgments The authors convey their regards to the Honorable Vice Chancellor and Pro Vice Chancellor (academic), University of Calcutta, West Bengal, India for their kind consent to allow this review paper for publication in the scholarly journal and valuable guidance to carry out this paper.


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