Developing Learners' Academic Writing Skills in Higher Education: A ...

Developing Learners’ Academic Writing Skills in Higher Education: A Study for Educational Reform Nahla N. Bacha Lebanese American University, PO Box 36, Byblos, Lebanon L2 writers are known to face problems in developing their writing skills at the university level. These problems are even more accentuatedwith L1 Arabic non-native speakers of English in required English composition courses. Some research has shown that with low motivation levels the process can further be a very difficult and unrewarding one for both the learner and the teacher. However, students need to develop their writing skills in order to cope with their university coursework in the medium of English. This necessitatesthe search for learning tasks that meet student needs in a wider educational context. This paper outlines some of the writing theories proposed by researchers that have contributed to current L2 teaching/learning classroom methodologies. Drawing upon the insights gained from these theories, one EFL freshman composition classroom learning experience in doing practical research with L1 Arabic non-native speakers of English is described. Results indicated that the experience was not only a very highly motivating basis for developing students’ writing skills but also a valuable one for students in acquiring necessaryacademic researchknow-how. Implications are made for the teaching/learning of writing and programme development in light of the post-war educational reform in Lebanon.

Introduction Developing learners’ writing skills in L2 has been of concern for a long time in tertiary education (Belcher & Braine, 1995; Jordan, 1997). Students studying in institutions of higher learning in the medium of English, which may not be their native language, have been found to face problems mainly in writing, making them unable to cope with the institution’s literacy expectations. However, these ‘disadvantaged’ students may be able to develop writing skills significantly with positive instructional attitudes towardsthe errors they make and an awareness on the teachers’ part of learner problems (Grabe & Kaplan, 1996; Shaughnessy, 1977; Zamel, 1983). The research literature in L2 writing contains a great range of different supportive methodologies (e.g. Belcher & Braine, 1995; Grabe & Kaplan, 1996; Jordan, 1989, 1997; Kroll, 1990; Reid, 1993; Silva, 1993; Zamel, 1983, 1992). Similar studies on L1 Arabic non-native-speakers of English have also been found and although their writing problems might sometimes be different (Kaplan, 1966; Khalil, 2000; Kharma & Hajjaj, 1989), recent findings suggest that, with appropriate instruction, these learners can and do improve in their writing skills (Bader, 1992; Connor, 1996; Grabe & Kaplan, 1996).

The Problem Studies carried out on L1 Arabic non-native speakers’ English-writing problems have shown student texts to lack lexical variety, subordination and to rely 0950-0782/02/03 161-17 $20.00/0 LANGUAGE AND EDUCATION

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heavily on redundancy that does not add any new information to the text (Sa’Addedin & Akram, 1989, 1991; Zughoul & Husain,1985). Other studies have indicated problems in these students’ writing in linking ideas over larger stretches of text (Al Abed Al-Haq & Ahmed, 1994; Dudley-Evans & Swales, 1980; Kaplan, 1966). Al Abed Al-Haq & Ahmed (1994) point out that these texts are characteristic of writing on mechanical and sentence levels rather than on more communicative discourse ones necessary for ‘advanced’ writing. Discourse aspects that these students find difficult to cope with in their academic texts are in the use of cohesive devices that form meaningful connections between and among sentences over larger stretches of text such as substitution, lexical cohesion, transition, deixis and so forth. Further studies in discourse have emphasised the need for students to produce certain types of texts or genres needed by the different disciplines in the academic community, such as summaries, reports, research papers and the like, which the non-native speaker of English finds difficult to produce. However, with suitable teaching/learning methods, these students can and many have overcome their difficulties in writing in English through various techniques such as collaborative discipline-based writing classes, peer work and teacher conferencing (Connor, 1996; Fulwiler & Young, 1990; Grabe & Kaplan, 1996; Leki, 1995b; Swales, 1990). The writing problems for the students attending the English as a Foreign Language (EFL) freshman programme at the Lebanese American University (LAU) (a programme set up to help ‘low’ language proficiency students) are very similar to the foregoing. In addition, because they have had their elementary, primary and secondary schooling in the medium of French, or English or French and English equally, the problems may also extend to negative influencing factors not only from L1 Arabic but also L2 French (Bacha, 2000a; Yazigi, 1991). More significantly, few students following a course of study in the medium of English at university level in Lebanon are motivated to develop their writing skills, except when directly related to their major course of study at the university (Yazigi, 1991). In a recent survey carried out on a total population of 1658 students attending the EFL programme at LAU in the four required English composition courses, motivation was reported to be significantly the main cause for their writing difficulties when compared to use of required textbooks, past and present classroom practices, evaluation techniques, negative interference of Arabic and/or French, and individual learning styles (Bacha, 2000a). In addition to the above problems, an overriding concern by many institutions of higher education is in revisiting their EFL programmes in light of the recent developments in the new national English pre-university educational reform in post-war Lebanon. This new national English curriculum is sponsored by the Ministry of Education in conjunction with the National Center for Research and Development and approved by the Council of Ministers in 1994. As part of this reform, all schools must either adopt French or English as the medium of instruction in addition to students learning the native language, Arabic (Shaaban & Ghaith, 1997). If schools opt to choose English as the medium of instruction, the system of education is referred to as an English type of education (students then would be called ‘English-educated’); if

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French were chosen, then the system is referred to as a French type of education (students referred to as ‘French- educated’). The public sector (national education) follows mainly the French system, while privately owned schools follow the English. However, students learn the other language (either English or French) as a third language and, when higher education is considered, students from either system of education might enter a French university system or an English one depending upon their career goals. Over the past 10 years, there has been a significant increase in students attending English-medium universities, hence the challenge for EFL programmes at these institutions to develop teaching/learning environments conducive to helping students acquire the necessary writing skills for both university coursework and the workplace. The work of the new national English curriculum is grounded in modern theories of curriculum design and teaching methods drawing upon local experts in the various universities in Lebanon with international consultants. The project is aimed mainly at the public sector, involving a multiplicity of interrelated learner, teacher, subject and contextual factors. The purpose of the English curriculum is designed for academic achievement, social interaction and cultural enrichment based on the following five main principles: (1) Language learning is learning to communicate. (2) Language varies according to the context of the communicative interaction. (3) Learning is an exposure to a new culture whereby students develop understanding, respect, and appreciation of cultural backgrounds. (4) Language learners have to engage in meaningful and interactive tasks. (5) Language skills are interdependent. The above are achieved through: implementing a thematic content-based approach; developing native-like proficiency in English stressing fluency and then accuracy; referring to the objectives of the English language curriculum that have clear and measurable performance tasks; presenting language in a proper cultural context (cultural awareness objectives); highlighting the role of group work in the development of communicative language skills (in the cooperative learning model of classroom interaction); having practical implications of cooperation between English teachers and those of other subject areas and a comprehensive staff development program by the National Center for Research and Development. (NCERD, 1994) The curriculum is now in its third year of implementation, and although there are no published rigorous research results to date as to its relative success, the experience has indicated some positive feedback in the learning situation (personal communication with teacher trainers, 1999).

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Aim and Significance of the Study The purpose of the present study, therefore, is to describe one classroom task-based learning experience that could help to develop EFL students’ academic writing skills. The significance of the present study is that it gives a first opportunity to follow up on the content-based approach in language teaching and learning adopted by the Ministry of Education, even though here on a very small scale. It is also a worthwhile study in reinforcing many of the teachers’ views that students at this ‘lower’ level of English proficiency can deal with ‘research’ tasks often thought too difficult for them. Most importantly, the research task adopted in the study may not only motivate these learners to improve their skills, but also give them those needed in the academic disciplines and the job market. The study described below focuses on the implications of writing theories to the development of learners’ writing skills and the application of the theory in the practical research task.

Implications from Writing Theories Writing is significant in students’ academic course of study as most examinations, reports and research work depend on it. Also, the writing process helps to develop the students’ cognitive skills in acquiring the necessary strategies such as analysis, synthesis, inference and so forth, instrumental in the learning process. In this context, both L1 and L2 English-writing theories have influenced much present-day classroom practice (e.g. Crusius, 1989; Grabe & Kaplan, 1996). Crusius’s (1989) comment articulates this: ‘In our field … they [theories] have been and are still the most influential, playing major roles in conceiving writing, course syllabi, and texts’ (p. 3). Four of the main L1 theories that have been influential and on which much of L2 writing methodology has drawn, specifically in the process and product writing approaches, are those expounded by: (1) the expressive school of thought (e.g. Moffet, 1968); (2) the cognitive school of thought (e.g. Britton et al., 1975; Kinneavy, 1980); (3) the interactionists (e.g. Swales, 1990); and (4) the social constructivists (e.g. Halliday & Martin, 1993). These theories could all be viewed in light of Kinneavy’s (1971 in 1980) communication triangle (see Figure 1) which comprises three essential parts of writing: the encoder (writer), the audience (decoder or reader), and reality and truth (context), all crucial to the process of producing a text. Basically, the expressionist model argues for ‘expressive, self actualizing writing in which students “discovered” ideas and themselves through free-writing and brainstorming’ (Kroll,

Figure 1 Kinneavy’s communication triangle (1971 in 1980)


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1990). Moffet’s (1968) model focused on the writer, audience and the different types of texts and was mainly influential in the American elementary and secondary schools. The process approach, as we know it today, had its roots in this expressionist model. The cognitivist model (Flower & Hayes, 1981) although overlapping with that of the expressionists, focused more on the rhetorical modes of discourse as end products and showed the relation between syntax, semantics and pragmatics. In this sense, there was more emphasis on both the process and the product in writing. The approach was more influential at the secondary and tertiary levels of writing. The interactionists focused more on the reader’s schemata (that is, knowledge of the world), and thus writing was focused more for a particular audience. The social constructionists spoke of discourse communities in which the writer had to take into consideration the norms and expectations of the tasks and writing models required. For example, in an academic context, the writer’s intended audience are those who expect scholastic forms such as research papers, reports and the like which are organised and worded according to standardised academic criteria within the context of the academic community. Thus, a research or term paper must conform to certain academic, organisational, language and content criteria which may vary from one discipline to another. Although L1 theories influenced many L2 theories and instruction, researchers noted that L2 non-native students’ needs differ (Johns, 1990). Four instructional methods have been influential in EFL: controlled, rhetorical, process and English for Specific Purposes (ESP) and specifically English for Academic Purposes (EAP), on which the present study draws. First, controlled writing emphasised pattern practice and grammar accuracy based on the audio-lingual approach (Fries, 1949, in Kroll, 1990). Second, the rhetorical approach focused on models of writing above the sentence level and advocated the different rhetorical modes of narration, cause–effect, comparison–contrast, argumentation, etc., and took into account the cultural and linguistic background of the writer as possible negative interfering factors in L2 English writing. Later research indicated that it is perhaps more of an instructional issue rather than a cross-cultural matter (Grabe & Kaplan, 1996). The rhetorical approach was challenged by researchers and linguists who advocated a more process type of writing in which learners go through preliminary writing (brainstorming and outlining), drafting the product (revising and reformulating) and post-writing stages (editing and proofreading) before a product is finalised (Kroll, 1990). The proliferation of the process approach in the past two decades has been questioned (e.g. Robinson, 1988) especially by the ESP approach in which the exponents (Halliday & Martin, 1993; Swales, 1990) view the necessity to focus on more specific writing tasks or genre related to the different discourse communities, be they academic, professional or other. Some ongoing research in the English programme at the Lebanese American University has indicated a need for more writing tasks related to research and report writing (Bacha, 2000b). Although there is controversy as to what extent the English faculty should teach the content-based writing of the disciplines (Braine, 1988; Horowitz, 1986; Johns, 1988; Spack, 1988a, 1988b), the role of proficient writing in fostering the thinking process and academic success cannot be underestimated

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(Horowitz, 1986; Johns 1988; Jordan, 1997; Reid, 1993; Robinson, 1988; Swales, 1990; Vygotsky, 1962).

Methodology In light of the above theories, recent studies in academic writing, and the writing problems of the students in the EFL programme, a research writing activity was designed using the essay as a framework.1 Participants The study involved 30 L1 Arabic non-native speakers of English who were attending one freshman English 101 course (the first of the three required composition courses) in the EFL programme at the Lebanese American University. The students had followed a pre-university course of study in either French or English and were now enrolled in various majors in one of the four disciplines: Arts and Sciences, Business, Engineering and Architecture, and Pharmacy. The students’ ages ranged between 17 and 19 with 20 females and 10 males, 18 were French-educated and the rest English-educated. However, since the focus of the present study is to concentrate on the process of writing, age, gender, major, L2 or L3 were not influencing variables or of concern in the study. Procedure Over the last month (January) of the Fall 1999 semester (October to January) and based on the pilot study done in the previous semester, a research essay writing activity was refined and better clarified for the students using models as guides for each step in the writing process. The freshman English 101 course involves writing essays of different rhetorical modes, drafted and finalised in class time according to the process/product approach with reference to the readings from the course textbook (Leki, 1995a). The study focuses on the last of the four essays students write in the course. The essay is in the comparison–contrast rhetorical mode, often found difficult and uninteresting for the students and thus the challenge to revisit it in the learning situation. The study specifically is comprised of eight steps, discussed and illustrated below with one student’s work chosen at random (see Appendices). Results of the relative success of the study are then discussed. Step 1: Choosing a topic Choice of topic was left to each individual student. Some chose to relate it to their major at the university in the various schools mentioned above, while others to their personal interest. In summary, the topics could be grouped under five broad headings given here in order of popularity: business (e.g. mobile phones, computers, Internet, cars, etc.), politics (e.g. Queen Elizabeth, Winston Churchill, labour market, television, sports and money, etc.); health (e.g. cloning, diets, nutrition, disorders, sex, smoking, stress, etc.); social (e.g. child crime, divorce, marriage, Marilyn Monroe, romantic movies, sex discrimination, etc.); and education (e.g. class attendance, library use). It was interesting to see the variety of topics as well as a near representation of the disciplines in which the students were enrolled. This indicated that the opportunity of choosing their


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own topics was well exploited on the part of the students. In order to obtain support for their research paper, students were requested to administer a self-made survey on their topic, interview an expert in the field and find a relevant Internet article. Thus, the students need not rely only on ‘library sources’ that they have found ‘boring’ and difficult at times to find, but can also be involved in using all the four language skills: speaking, listening, reading and writing in a more learner-centred activity (Nunan, 1997). Step 2: Carrying out a survey and analysing the results After limiting the topic, students carried out a survey in the class and/or on campus from which they could obtain evidence. The main variables used were gender, major at the university and age. The students were shown how to keep the questions simply phrased, relevant to their topic and varied, using no more than five or six questions consisting of fixed response (no or yes), scaled or multiple choice, and one open-ended question (see sample in Appendix A). Students enjoyed this step as it gave them the ‘authority’ to question their colleagues in a professional way. Many reported that they were also surprised by the results, as what they thought to be a fact sometimes proved to be the contrary. This was a good learning experience in itself, since it taught them not to take things at face value. The number of respondents was left up to the students, but it was pointed out that if they wanted to generalise the results to the population they sampled, a representative number would need to be obtained. In analysing the results, students were shown how they could do it both manually and on the computer using one or more of the variables, although they needed to report according to only one (see Appendix B). Step 3: Carrying out an interview The second type of source was to interview an expert related to the topic chosen, tape it if permission were granted and transcribe it (see Appendix C). The pre-, during and post-steps of interviewing were discussed with the class prior to the interviewing process. Scheduling and confirming the interview, wearing the correct apparel, being respectful, relevant and concise during the interview and thanking the interviewer after the interview were stressed, as was accurate transcription. Step 4: Summarising an article A third source needed for their research essay was to summarise a relevant, credible article from the Internet. This exercise reinforced their summary skills (see Appendix D). Only significant evidence from the sources was to be used in the research essay, which stressed students’ decision-making skills concerning relevant inclusion of content. This was considered an important cognitive exercise in research writing as most students from their pre-university schooling have been known to include more information than necessary, a characteristic of the learning culture. Step 5: Writing the first draft The comparison–contrast format was discussed and the block- and chain-organisational models were examined (see Appendix E of one type of organisational

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model). Students were asked to choose one or two questions from the survey and write an essay of two body paragraphs mentioning the similarities and differences they found concerning one variable, following the model outline. For example, in the ‘Internet Addiction’ paper, the student found that although male as female students differ in owning a computer, males use the Internet as often as females. Incorporating relevant material from the article, interview and survey in the essay would help students read material of their choice and at their individual literacy level and capacities. Students were then asked to mention the statistical finding as well as to interpret the results in the light of the interview, the article and/or their own experience. They found interpretation of the ideas the most difficult to do, as they had been used to reading for literal comprehension and not for higher order cognitive purposes. In the sample research paper, however, an attempt is made at interpretation in giving reasons why females might own fewer personal computers. The process of giving thought to these issues was the main aim of including them since interpretation of findings is often a neglected area in EFL instruction in pre-university education in Lebanon. Format of presentation was discussed and modelled and the MLA documentation of sources was followed, being the one required in the programme. First drafts were read by the teacher mainly for content and organisation, leaving language and mechanical aspects for a further draft. Step 6: Revising the first draft Students revised the first draft in class, taking into account teacher comments for improvement. Peer response was not conducted in the classroom owing to past experience with previous classes in which some students displayed a negative attitude to their ability to carry out such an ‘important teacher job’ (as they put it). However, the researcher believes that peer response should be encouraged in the future. It was not included in this experiment as implementing the strategy needed time and more experimentation. The sample student’s first draft was well organised; however, it needed more interpretation of the results and sentence improvement in subordination. Step 7: Writing a final draft Writing the final draft was an open-book assignment, with students taking into account teacher comments on organisation and content, and editing for language and mechanical errors (see Appendix F). It is clear that even this final draft could be further improved. Step 8: Outlining and summarising the final draft The purpose of students outlining and summarising their own individual research papers was to give them a realistic situation in which often an abstract and outline or table of contents are requested. Also, this exercise would give them a final global view of their own work and better prepare them to share their findings with their colleagues in the final oral class report. The outline and summary of the sample student’s work have not been included, not being the specific focus of the present paper.


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Results and Discussion The research activity using the essay as a framework produced much better products than any of the essay writing during the semester or in previous semesters. This was reflected in the grades based on evaluating the writing according to the ESL Composition Profile of Jacobs et al. (1981). When compared to the three essays given in the same semester, an average class writing grade of 77% was attained on the research essay compared to an average of 63% for essay 1, 68% for essay 2 and 70% for essay 3. What is important though is not that the students progressed over the semester, which is probably expected, but that the average final essay grades over the past three semesters were between 68–73% even when take-home essays had been given. Also, the grades on the research writing activity were higher than the teacher’s expectations. It was expected that an average of 70% would be attained with very few grades above 80%. What is more revealing than the average grades can show, is that 10 students gained grades above 80% (three 90%), five in the 60s and the rest in the 70s, a spread of grades not previously attained. A more significant result is the fact that, this time, some students who were considered ‘lower’ achievers at the beginning of the semester were able to attain grades above 80%. The student sample essay earned an 85% final product score according to the freshman English 101 objectives, while the other three essays written by the same student scored 60%, 70% and 65% respectively, not very satisfactory by the institution’s standards. These three grades also clearly show a (not uncommon) regression in the third essay, in which often fatigue, topic choice, time and other variables may influence the writing process (Kroll, 1990; Yazigi, 1991). When interviewed on their experience with the research task, the students expressed interest. They did not know that the assignment had been adapted into a research task until after it was completed. Some commented, however, that more work had been demanded compared to the other assignments or other semesters, that there was no time to carry out and transcribe a good interview, and that there was difficulty in finding relevant articles in both the library and on the Internet. These difficulties were experienced by some of the students probably due to the fact that this was the first time they were carrying out ‘research’, it being the first semester at the university for the majority of the students. Also, the activity was carried out towards the end of the semester and time may have been a limiting factor for many who were under pressure to complete assignments for their other courses. However, a few of the students did return the following semester for further help on their research projects for their courses in other disciplines; it is hoped that more will appreciate the activity. L2 learners do have problems in writing and may not be motivated to develop their writing skills; however, the students’ work in the study suggests that practical research writing may be a motivating basis in helping lower language-proficient learners to improve. Although research in its own right has been found to be quite a difficult and complex activity for any freshman student (Ford, 1995), the practical approach used in the present study with the essay as a framework facilitated the task. The use of supporting material through the survey findings, interview comments and Internet article made the task more interesting and gave the ‘weaker’ students the confidence they lacked in reading, writing and doing ‘research’ work with readily available evidence often difficult to obtain in Leba-

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non. It also allowed students to do research on topics they were interested or had experience in such as surfing the Net, using statistics, interviewing business people and sharing their ideas in the oral presentation with their colleagues at the end of the semester. The results of the study are far-reaching for English programme development at the university in which the study was carried out. Teachers are of the opinion that research should be learned at a much later stage of the English curriculum; however, the study does indicate that it is possible for students to cope with developing their writing skills through research. The ‘research essay’ is not, however, the only way to help motivate and develop learners’ writing. Different teaching/learning techniques can be used to exploit the essay (Hunter-Carsch, 1990) as a framework for discipline-related tasks. Discipline-related discourse can be drawn upon to motivate students to want to improve their writing skills and students can interact with various types of resources in a much more dynamic way. These resources need to be identified, researched and included in a curriculum which enables the learners to develop their writing proficiency. Conclusion The purpose of the present study was to identify writing theories which could be drawn upon to help less proficient learners improve their language skills, specifically writing through a practical research task. Kinneavy’s writing model (1971 in 1980), mentioned earlier, is perhaps still relevant today to the latter. The suggested model of the research paper based on Kinneavy’s model (see Figure 2) emphasises the reciprocal relationship between the reader and the writer in the production and processing of a text – in this case the research essay – in conformity with the academic community and its conventions concerning research writing. Although the reader in the present study was not involved as such, the reader is included in the diagram as presumably research is to be shared ultimately with others in the same discourse community that writers must conform to. More precisely as it relates to the present study, the inverted triangle framework could be seen to represent the overall approach to any writing task, which begins with broad, general assumptions or research questions, moving on to more specific theses and evidence. The model could be adapted to other types of research and/or writing tasks in the academic community. Having students interact in practical research, even in a basic freshman English composition course, and using the essay as a framework proved initially to be a valuable learning experience, one in which students learned a disci-

Figure 2 Suggested model of the research essay


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pline-related task or the process of the task, interacted with different texts and language skills and above all increased their interest in the assignment. The students could ‘stretch out’ of the English classroom into other classrooms and places, making the development of their writing more genuine and used for a motivating purpose. No doubt it is no easy task to help the more ‘disadvantaged’ develop their writing proficiency, but it is believed it is here that we as curriculum designers and educators can make the most difference. Acknowledgements I thank the Research Council at the Lebanese American University for supporting a travel grant to present the above paper at the TESOL Greece Convention in March 1999. I also extend my appreciation to the students for their active involvement in the classroom experience. Correspondence Any correspondence should be directed to Dr N.N. Bacha, Lebanese American University, PO Box 36, Byblos, Lebanon ([email protected]). Note 1. The practical research assignment was included in the English 101 syllabus beginning the academic year 2000–01. Readers are welcome to contact the author concerning the present study ([email protected]).

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Appendix A: Sample Student Questionnaire The final submitted work of the student has been kept with minor editing. Permission has been obtained to reproduce student’s work. Sex : ___________________ Age : ___________________ Major: ___________________ 1)

Do you have a personal computer at home? Yes No

2)

Do you usually work on the Internet? Yes No

3)

How many hours do you spend on the Internet per week? 4 8 15 20 35 More Other Specify ____________

4)

How do you rate yourself as an Internet user? Hardly Use It Average User Heavy User Addicted User Other Specify ________________

5)

How much does the use of the Internet affect your social life? A Lot Some A Little None

6)

Do you think that the heavy use of the Internet has some kind of effect on a person’s social life? Explain.

Appendix B: Analysing, Interpreting and Arranging Data (n = 50) After computing the results, the student made a summary statement appearing after each relevant question. Tables prepared by the student have been included only for questions 1 and 2 for illustrative purposes. (1) Do you have a personal computer at home? It seems that more males than females have a personal computer at home. Table 1 Percentage of male and female students with personal home computer Total%

Male n = 25 83.33% 50%

Female n = 14 70% 28%

n=5 16.67% 10%

n=6 30% 12%

Yes

78

22

No


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(2) Do you usually work on the Internet? It seems that both males and females work equally on the Internet. Table 2 Percentage of male and female students working on the Internet Total%

Male

Female

n = 16 53.33% 32%

n=9 45% 18%

Yes

n = 14 46.67% 28%

n = 11 55% 22%

No

50

50

(3) How many hours do you spend on the Internet per week? It seems that most of males and females work on the Internet between 0 and 4 hours a week, only a very small number work more than 15 hours a week and nobody works on the Internet more than 30 hours a week. (4) How do you rate yourself as an Internet user? Most males and females are average users. Few are heavy Internet users and nobody is an Internet addict. (5) How much does the use of the Internet affect your social life? It seems that females and males are not affected socially by the Internet. (Not included in the research paper as the results were not deemed necessary.) (6) Omitted from the research analysis by the student as the results were considered unimportant and irrelevant.

Appendix C: Transcribed Interview Person interviewed: owner of an Internet company Question 1: Answer 1:

Question 2: Answer 2:

What is your opinion about the Internet? When it comes to the Internet, you cannot but give a general opinion of it. The Internet is a very useful source from which a person can get various information about various topics. The Internet provides amusement as well as education, it is really great. Do you think that the Internet is more helpful in the advantages it presents or it is more harmful in the negative sides it shows? No doubt that everything has advantages and disadvantages, even the Internet. However, the advantages of the Internet exceed by far its disadvantages. A person can benefit from the Internet through its database, communication (e-mail and other communication software), entertainment, etc … On the other hand, we see the disadvantages are that it mainly hurts the eyes (staring at the monitor), and some people consider it a waste of time and money. I disagree. Well, it is never a waste of time because you always benefit one way or the other, either by getting data, or by meeting new friends.


Question 3: Answer 3: Question 4: Answer 4: Question 5: Answer 5:

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So we can clearly say that the Internet is more helpful in the advantages it provides. How much do you think a person should use the Internet in an average way? (Per week/month) The average way is 5 to 10 hours per week. How do you rate an Internet addict? An Internet addict is a person who does everything on the Net and spends more that 30 hours a week on it. Do you have any statistics about the addictive use of the Internet? Not at the moment.

Appendix D: Summary of an Internet Article According to the American Psychological Association in the article on ‘Internet Addiction’ from Infoteck-library, excessive Internet use is described as a legitimate disorder one may encounter if cyberspace interferes with his life. Professor Kimberly Young, a psychologist at the University of Pittsburgh, revealed that the craving to go online is similar to the craving that smokers have for cigarettes. Middle-aged women, the unemployed, and Internet ‘newbies’ are most prone to Internet addiction, says Young. Some experts warn that Net addiction can worsen depression and cause withdrawal from reality. Others see the Net as the latest scapegoat for the human urge to overdo.

Appendix E: Model Outline Introduction – Arouse interest – Place your topic in context and give background information – Define any key terms – Thesis statement Although there are differences between males and females in owning a computer at home, there are a few similarities in the use of the Internet. I. Difference in owning a personal computer A. B. C. D.

Results from survey Support from interview Support from article Your Interpretation

II. Similarity in use A. B. C. D.

Results from survey Support from interview Support from article Your Interpretation


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Conclusion – Restate thesis statement – Refer to background mentioned in the introduction – Conclude with a closing remark

Appendix F: Final Practical Research Essay Title: Internet Addiction

Introduction What is the Internet? How is the Internet used? Is the Internet helpful or harmful? Does the extended use of the Internet causes addiction to it? These are some of the questions asked about the Internet which has been developing more and more in our days. Most of all, the Internet is known as new, fast and wide source of information, but some people have misused the Internet for destructive purposes. Although there are differences between males and females in owning a computer at home, there are a few similarities in the use of the Internet. Body paragraph 1: Difference(s) There is a difference between males and females on owning a personal computer at home. From the survey made (Khneisser), more males own a personal computer than females: (83%) of the males have a personal computer but only 16.7% do not have one. As for the females, 70% have a personal computer and 30% do not have one (0–9% constitutes a similarity). So, it seems that more males have a personal computer than females. Why? Well, as I am not an expert in this field, my information may not be 100% true but I think that this is due to the interest of the females in different things like taking of their looks, helping their parents at home, and many other things. I think that males have more time to use computers than females especially if we consider the majors of the students, because we have a few number of female students following a computer major than male students. Also, females may not have the motivation needed to use the computer as the males do. There is no supportive material about these results in the article and in the interview. I believe that more research should be done about this subject, because both article and interview discuss the use of the Internet and its addiction, but not specifically on its use. The article mentions how psychologists rate Internet addiction. Body paragraph 2: Similarity(ies) Even though more males own a personal computer than females, there is a similarity between males and females on the use of the Internet. From the survey made (Khneisser), 53% of the males use the Internet and 46.7% do not use it. As for the females, 45% use the Internet and 55% do not use it (0–9% constitutes a similarity). It seems that even though more males own a personal computer than females, the females seem to have the same urge to use the Internet as the males do. Why do we have such results? Seeing how wide the Internet is growing these days, and how much it is needed, it is expected that both males and females use it. They need the Internet for research, as it is filled with all kind of information about millions of topics for university projects. It also gives us all the news around the world, such as ‘LBCI news on Internet’, all kind of new updates to


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keep track of everything that is happening all over the globe, like updates in sports, technology, news, political issues and other information. So, there is nothing strange about the similarity between males and females on the use of the Internet because all this information is in the interest of both sexes, not to forget the fact of meeting and making new friends. A look at the article only shows us the negative side of the Internet because of the addicted users that make it look bad. If we take a look at the interview, however, the advantages of the Internet exceed by far its disadvantages.

Body paragraph 3: Additional comments A brief look at the other questions shows that 33% of the males and 30% of the females use the Internet around 4 hours a week and about 36.7% of the males and 40% of the females are average uses (4–8 hours a week are rated average users), but no one seems to use the Internet more than 30 hours per week which means we have no addicted users. Conclusion To conclude, although there are differences between males and females on the owning a personal computer at home, there are few similarities on the use of the Internet . Even though some females do not own a personal computer, they are managing to use the Internet at the university or any other place taking advantage of all the facilities it gives us, because the Internet was created for everybody, and not only one sex.