Developmental Cell - BioMedSearch

Sponsored document from

Developmental Cell Published as: Dev Cell. 2009 January 20; 16(1): 83–92.

Sponsored Document

Dystroglycan and Perlecan Provide a Basal Cue Required for Epithelial Polarity during Energetic Stress Vincent Mirouse1,3, Christina P. Christoforou2, Cornelia Fritsch2, Daniel St. Johnston1, and Robert P. Ray2,∗ 1The Gurdon Institute and the Department of Genetics, University of Cambridge, Tennis Court Road, Cambridge CB2 1QN, UK. 2Department

of Biology and Environmental Science, School of Life Sciences, University of Sussex, Falmer, Brighton BN1 9QG, UK.

Summary Sponsored Document

Dystroglycan localizes to the basal domain of epithelial cells and has been reported to play a role in apical-basal polarity. Here, we show that Dystroglycan null mutant follicle cells have normal apicalbasal polarity, but lose the planar polarity of their basal actin stress fibers, a phenotype it shares with Dystrophin mutants. However, unlike Dystrophin mutants, mutants in Dystroglycan or in its extracellular matrix ligand Perlecan lose polarity under energetic stress. The maintenance of epithelial polarity under energetic stress requires the activation of Myosin II by the cellular energy sensor AMPK. Starved Dystroglycan or Perlecan null cells activate AMPK normally, but do not activate Myosin II. Thus, Perlecan signaling through Dystroglycan may determine where Myosin II can be activated by AMPK, thereby providing the basal polarity cue for the low-energy epithelial polarity pathway. Since Dystroglycan is often downregulated in tumors, loss of this pathway may play a role in cancer progression.

Keywords CELLBIO

Sponsored Document

Introduction In multicellular organisms, the majority of cells are polarized, and this polarity is an essential feature of cell morphogenesis and the functional specification of cellular domains. Our current understanding of cell polarization suggests that it occurs in three successive steps. First, the cell receives extrinsic signals that provide polarity cues that determine the orientation in which the cell polarizes. Second, these cues induce the localization of conserved polarity proteins that direct the formation of distinct cortical domains, such as apical, lateral, and basal in epithelial cells. Finally, these cortical polarity complexes direct the polarized organization of the other constituents of the cell, such as the cytoskeleton and the exocytic and endocytic pathways.

© 2009 ELL & Excerpta Medica This document may be redistributed and reused, subject to certain conditions. ∗Corresponding author [email protected]. 3Present address: GReD, CNRS UMR 6247, Clermont Université, Faculté de Médecine, Clermont-Ferrand 63001, France This document was posted here by permission of the publisher. At the time of deposit, it included all changes made during peer review, copyediting, and publishing. The U.S. National Library of Medicine is responsible for all links within the document and for incorporating any publisher-supplied amendments or retractions issued subsequently. The published journal article, guaranteed to be such by Elsevier, is available for free, on ScienceDirect.

Mirouse et al.

Page 2

Apical-basal polarity is particularly important for the function of epithelia, where it is required for paracellular barrier formation and polarized transport, whereas the loss of polarity has been implicated in tumor formation and metastasis.

Sponsored Document

One of the best-studied in vivo models of epithelial polarity is the epithelium formed by the follicle cells in the Drosophila ovary. All follicle cells in each ovariole are produced by a pair of stem cells in region 2 of the germarium. The follicle cells migrate to surround each germline cyst as it leaves the germarium and become polarized, with their apical sides contacting the germ cells and their basal sides facing a basement membrane (Tanentzapf et al., 2000; Margolis and Spradling, 1995). Like other polarized epithelia, the apical domain is characterized by the presence of microvilli and two interacting cortical polarity complexes, the Crumbs/Patj/ Stardust (Crb/Patj/Sdt) complex and the atypical Protein Kinase C/PAR6/Bazooka (aPKC/ PAR6/Baz) complex (Tanentzapf et al., 2000; Knust and Bossinger, 2002; Benton and St. Johnston, 2003; Wang and Margolis, 2007; Wodarz and Näthke, 2007). Beneath this, lies the belt-like zonula adherens, which is enriched in DE-Cadherin (DECad), β-catenin, and Baz, which mediates adhesion to the neighboring cells (Tanentzapf et al., 2000; Mirouse et al., 2007). The rest of the lateral cortex is marked by the presence of the Lethal Giant Larvae/ Scribble/Discs-large (Lgl/Scrib/Dlg) complex and the protein kinase PAR1 (Doerflinger et al., 2003; Goode and Perrimon, 1997). Finally, the basal domain accumulates receptors, such as Integrins and Dystroglycan (Dg), that interact with proteins of the extracellular matrix (ECM) of the basement membrane (Schneider et al., 2006; Deng et al., 2003).

Sponsored Document

It is thought that the primary polarity cues in most epithelia are provided by Cadherindependent adhesion to the adjacent cells and by adhesion to the basement membrane (Yeaman et al., 1999; Yu et al., 2005). In the case of the follicular epithelium, these cues are sufficient to differentiate a distinct basal domain that contacts the basement membrane and a noncontacting domain, but the specification of distinct apical and lateral domains requires apical contact with the germ cells (Tanentzapf et al., 2000). Junctional complexes such as the adherens junctions are good candidates for lateral cues, whereas Dg has been proposed to provide a basal cue (Deng et al., 2003).

Sponsored Document

Dg is a component of the Dystrophin (Dys) Associated Protein Complex (DAPC), which is required for muscle cell integrity in vertebrates, and mutations in many of the genes in the complex are associated with muscular dystrophies (Ervasti and Sonnemann, 2008). Dg is a transmembrane glycoprotein that interacts with several components of the ECM, including Laminin, Perlecan (Pcan), and Agrin. Inside the cell, the WW domain of Dg binds to Dys, which recruits most of the other DAPC components, such as the Syntrophins and Dystrobrevin. Dys also binds F-actin, and this interaction is critical for DAPC function in muscle cells. Indeed, it is proposed that the main function of the DAPC in muscle is to create a physical link between the ECM and the cytoskeleton. Mammals have two additional Dys paralogs, Utrophin and Dystrophin Related Protein 2 (DRP2), and partial redundancy between these genes has been reported (Deconinck et al., 1997). There is a single Dys gene in Drosophila, making it a good model for understanding the function of this protein. In vertebrates, most of the components of the DAPC, including Dg, Utrophin, Dystrobrevin, and Syntrophin, are expressed in epithelial cells (Durbeej and Campbell, 1999; Kachinsky et al., 1999). The DAPC is mainly localized to the basal domain. Several Dg ligands, such as Laminin and Pcan, are also present in epithelial basement membranes, where they interact with Dg (Hohenester et al., 1999). Consistent with a role in epithelial polarity, Dg knockout mice die as early embryos and show defects in the formation of one of the first basement membranes, suggesting abnormal development of epithelia (Henry and Campbell, 1998). Surprisingly, the double knockout of dys and utrophin is viable and does not show the same epithelial defect (Deconinck et al., 1997). This suggests that Dg either functions independently of its usual

Published as: Dev Cell. 2009 January 20; 16(1): 83–92.

Mirouse et al.

Page 3

downstream partners in epithelial polarity or that DRP2 has an early function in the embryo. The Caenorhabditis elegans Dg mutant also shows defects in epithelial development, indicating a conserved function of the DAPC in this process (Johnson et al., 2006).

Sponsored Document

The function of Dg in epithelia has been best characterized in Drosophila, in which lethal Dg alleles have been generated by the imprecise excision of a P element to produce deletions around the Dg promoter (Deng et al., 2003). Homozygous clones of these deletion alleles disrupt the apical-basal polarity of epithelia. Furthermore, clones of cells mutant for Pcan, a Dg ligand, show a very similar phenotype (Schneider et al., 2006). In addition, homozygous Dg mutant germline clones block the early polarization of the oocyte. These results suggest a general function of Dg adhesion to the ECM as a polarity cue, but they have been called into question by the discovery of Dg nonsense mutations that are homozygous viable (Christoforou et al., 2008). Here, we report that neither Dg nor Pcan is required for the apical-basal polarity of epithelial cells in Drosophila under normal laboratory conditions. The published deletion alleles of Dg that produce polarity phenotypes also remove mRpL34, which encodes a mitochondrial ribosomal protein, and the polarity defects of these alleles are due to the concomitant loss of Dg and mRpL34. Since defects in mitochondria are likely to lower ATP levels in cells, we tested whether Dg is specifically required for epithelial polarity under low-energy conditions. Nonsense mutations in Dg and Pcan, but not Dys, induce a loss of polarity only when the flies are subjected to energetic stress, and this function is linked to the control of Myosin II.

Sponsored Document

Results Dg Null Alleles Do Not Affect Apical-Basal Polarity Dg deletion mutants have been reported to disrupt epithelial polarity and the early polarization of the oocyte (Deng et al., 2003). However, this essential role in polarity is not consistent with the recent discovery that Dg null alleles caused by nonsense mutations early in the Dg coding region are homozygous viable and fertile (Christoforou et al., 2008). We therefore decided to explore the effect of these null mutations on cell polarity in the ovary by using mosaic analysis, which allows us to compare wild-type and mutant cells in the same tissue.

Sponsored Document

We first focused our analysis on the epithelial follicle cells. No Dg protein could be detected by antibody staining in mutant clones of the nonsense alleles DgO86 or DgO43, consistent with these mutations being protein null (Figure 1A data not shown). In all Dg mutant clones, the localization of the Drosophila β-catenin ortholog, Armadillo (Arm), was not affected, indicating that these cells have normal adherens junctions (Figure 1A), and the Dlg protein was normally localized to the lateral domain (Figure 1B). Moreover, three apical markers, aPKC, Crb, and Patj, were properly restricted to the apical cortex in all mutant clones (n = 36) (Figures 1B–1D). In addition, Pcan, a Dg ligand, is correctly localized to the basement membrane of Dg mutant cells (Figure 1E). Finally, the loss of Dg has no effect on the apicalbasal organization of the actin cytoskeleton (Figure 1E). Indeed, the only localization defect observed in Dg mutant cells was the loss of the basal localization of its intracellular binding partner, Dys (see Figure S1A available online). We therefore conclude that Dg is dispensable for epithelial polarity, since the apical, subapical (adherens junctions), lateral, and basal cortical domains form normally in its absence. Since previous analysis of Dg deletion mutants showed a defect in maintaining the early polarization of the oocyte, we studied the effect of DgO43 and DgO86 in the germline. Polarization of the oocyte during early oogenesis employs many of the same factors used in the establishment of epithelial polarity, such as members of the Par family (Huynh and St. Johnston, 2004). This polarization is marked by the recruitment of microtubule minus ends to


Mirouse et al.

Page 4

Sponsored Document

the posterior pole, allowing the accumulation of oocyte determinants, such as the RNA-binding protein Orb via minus end-directed transport. The oocyte also undergoes a repolarization of its cortical domains and cytoskeleton during midoogenesis to define the anterior-posterior axis of the future embryo. Germline clones for the null Dg alleles were generated and stained for Orb as an oocyte polarization marker. All mutant clones of the appropriate stage (region 2a of the germarium to stage 4, n = 36) showed a normal localization of Orb, and were indistinguishable from wild-type germline cysts (n = 18), indicating that Dg is not required for the early polarization and the differentiation of the oocyte (Figure 1F). Furthermore, Dg null egg chambers repolarize their oocytes at stage 7 and continue to develop normally throughout the rest of oogenesis (data not shown). Thus, Dg is not required for polarity in the Drosophila germline. Dg and Dys Are Required for Basal Planar Cell Polarity

Sponsored Document

Whereas the above-described results clearly show that null Dg alleles do not affect either epithelial or oocyte polarity, the mutations do exhibit an oogenesis defect. Females homozygous or transheterozygous for the DgO alleles lay eggs that are shorter and rounder than wild-type (Figures 2A and 2B). This phenotype is completely penetrant, although some differences in expressivity are observed. Despite this difference in shape, the majority of eggs hatch, and the resulting larvae develop into viable, fertile adults (Table S1). This defect reflects a somatic requirement for Dg, since germline clones of either DgO43 or DgO86 produce eggs of wild-type shape (data not shown). The short-egg phenotype produced by Dg mutants is similar to, albeit weaker than, that produced by the mutations in dLar and kugelei, which disrupt the planar organization of basal actin stress fibers in the follicle cells (Gutzeit et al., 1991; Frydman and Spradling, 2001; Bateman et al., 2001). The stress fibers in wild-type follicle cells are arranged in parallel arrays around the dorsal-ventral axis of the egg chamber from stage 6 of oogenesis onward (Figure 2E). This circumferential organization of the stress fibers over the entire follicular epithelium is thought to constrain the lateral growth of the oocyte, so that it extends along the anterior-posterior axis to give rise to the final elongated shape of the egg. As reported previously for the Dg deletion alleles (Deng et al., 2003), DgO mutant ovaries show a defect in the organization of the actin stress fibers (Figure 2F). The stress fibers are still properly assembled in mutant follicle cells, but they do not align along the dorsal-ventral axis, and they sometimes show a mixed orientation within a single cell. This function of Dg is cell autonomous, since heterozygous cells adjacent to a mutant clone adopt the normal stress fiber orientation (Figures 2G and 2H).

Sponsored Document

As the canonical link between Dg and the actin cytoskeleton is through the cytoplasmic protein Dys, we tested whether the latter was also required for egg shape and basal stress fiber organization. As has been shown previously, the small deficiency Df(3R)Exel6184 deletes the entire dys gene as well as several other predicted genes, and, consistent with this, Dys protein is not detected in follicle cells homozygous for this deficiency (Figure S1B). The deficiency is viable as a homozygote, and the eggs laid by homozygous females are short and round, like those laid by Dg mutant females (Figure 2C). The same phenotype is observed in females carrying the Df(3R)Exel6184 chromosome in trans to dysE17 (Figure 2D). This allele, which behaves genetically as a null in all tests, is associated with a nonsense mutation (Q2807STOP in isoform Dys-PA) that truncates the protein just before the WW domain that mediates the interaction between Dys and Dg. Mosaic analysis of dys mutant cells shows a similar cellautonomous defect in the orientation of the actin stress fibers in the follicle cells (data not shown). Thus, both Dg and Dys are required for the planar polarity of the basal stress fibers in follicle cells, and this probably accounts for the egg-shape phenotype observed in Dg and dys mutants.


Mirouse et al.

Page 5

Simultaneous Loss of Dg and mRpL34 Produces a Synthetic Polarity Phenotype

Sponsored Document

Nonsense mutations in Dg, such as DgO43 and DgO86, are semiviable, which raises the question of why the deletion alleles, which only remove sequences upstream of the coding region, are lethal. We have previously reported that DgO homozygotes have reduced viability, but are invariably recovered at 30%–50% of the expected frequency (Table S2) (Christoforou et al., 2008). This is not due to a maternal effect, since mutant larvae derived from DgO mutant mothers crossed to DgO/CyO-GFP males show a similar viability (data not shown). Interestingly, when the DgO mutant larvae are reared separately from their DgO/CyO-GFP siblings at low density, the viability of the mutant larvae improves to >90% of what is expected (Table S3). This result shows that the reduced viability that has been previously reported is not due to the loss of Dg function per se, but rather to the competition between the mutant larvae and their wild-type siblings. Thus, complete loss of Dg is not lethal under favorable conditions, but does affect viability under conditions of stress.

Sponsored Document

The lethality associated with the Dg deletion alleles is linked to the Dg locus, as both alleles are completely lethal in trans to Df(2R)ED2457. Consistent with the results reported previously (Deng et al., 2003), this lethality is not associated with either of the two genes, CG8414 or Rho1, that lie immediately upstream of Dg, because both deletion alleles are fully viable in trans to null alleles in CG8414 or to a deletion allele of Rho1. Nor is the lethality due to the Dg locus itself, as the Dg deletion alleles are fully viable in trans to any of the DgO alleles (Table S4). Indeed, Dg248/DgO and Dg323/DgO transheterozygotes survive better than DgO transheterozygotes, indicating that the deletion alleles are hypomorphs. This conclusion is supported by the severity of the crossvein phenotype observed in Dg248/DgO and Dg323/DgO transheterozygotes. The DgO alleles mainly produce a “detached” posterior crossvein phenotype in which the crossvein fails to join with either the L4 or L5 longitudinal vein (Christoforou et al., 2008). In Dg248/DgO and Dg323/DgO transheterozygotes, the crossvein phenotype is weaker than in any DgO allele heteroallelic combination, showing more “complete” or “gapped” phenotypes (Figure S2). Thus, both in terms of viability and crossvein phenotype, the Dg deletion alleles are hypomorphic, in contrast to a previous report that they are protein nulls (Deng et al., 2003).

Sponsored Document

As the lethality associated with the Dg deletion alleles is not due to any of the previously identified genes in the region, we re-examined the annotation of this genomic region and found an additional gene between Dg and CG8414 in recent releases, the mitochondrial ribosomal protein mRpL34. Both deletion alleles affect this gene: Dg248 deletes sequence up to the start codon, and Dg323 removes more than half of the mRpL34 coding sequence (Figures 3A and 3B). To determine whether mRpL34 is associated with the lethality of the Dg deletion alleles, we generated a genomic rescue construct spanning the sequence from the first noncoding exon of Dg and extending to the coding sequence of CG8414 and thus including the entire mRpL34 gene (Figure 3B). One copy of this transgene completely rescues the lethality and sterility of Dg323/Dg248 transheterozygotes and hemizygotes of either allele (Table S5). Consistent with the role for Dg in crossvein patterning and egg shape, the rescued flies show mild crossvein defects, and the mutant females lay short, round eggs (Figure S2; data not shown). Thus, the lethality of the Dg deletion alleles is not due to Dg, but rather to disruption of the adjacent mRpL34 gene. Since the lethality and sterility of Dg248 and Dg323 alleles are due to the deletion of mRpL34, we asked whether the latter gene could explain the polarity defects associated with these alleles. As previously reported, follicle cell clones mutant for Dg248 exhibit a polarity phenotype. In these cells, cortical markers of the apical (aPKC) and lateral (Dlg) domains are no longer detected in most of the clones (70%, n = 20) (Figure 3C). One copy of the mRpL34 transgene rescues this phenotype completely (Figure 3D). This result was surprising since it has been reported that expression of a Dg transgene also rescues the Dg248 polarity phenotype (Yatsenko Published as: Dev Cell. 2009 January 20; 16(1): 83–92.

Mirouse et al.

Page 6

et al., 2007). We therefore reproduced this experiment and confirmed that Dg expression is sufficient to suppress the polarity defects associated with Dg248 (Figure 3E). Thus, the apicalbasal polarity phenotype of the deletion allele Dg248 is due to the concomitant disruption of both mRpL34 and Dg.

Sponsored Document

Dg Is Required for Apical-Basal Polarity under Energetic Stress This result reveals that Dg function is only required for epithelial polarity when translation of the mitochondrial genome is impaired. Interestingly, we and others have recently shown that the LKB1 and AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) are specifically required to establish and maintain epithelial polarity under conditions of energetic stress, indicating that epithelia are polarized by a different mechanism when cellular ATP levels are low (Mirouse et al., 2007; Lee et al., 2007). The loss of mRpL34 is likely to disrupt mitochondrial function, including the production of ATP by oxidative phosphorylation. In support of this view, Dg248 mutant follicle cells show an increased level of AMPK phosphorylation on T184, which is a marker for the high levels of AMP that are produced when ATP levels are low (Figure S1C). This raises the possibility that Dg is also specifically required to maintain epithelial polarity under lowenergy conditions.

Sponsored Document

To test this hypothesis, we generated DgO43 or DgO86 follicle cell clones in flies that were subjected to energetic stress by culturing them on sugar-free food (Mirouse et al., 2007). Under these conditions, the mutant follicle cells show a fully penetrant polarity phenotype at all stages of oogenesis. Crb and aPKC are lost from the apical membrane domain, indicating that the two major apical complexes, aPKC/PAR6 and Crb/Patj/Sdt, are affected (Figures 4A and 4B). Surprisingly, Patj is still properly localized in small mutant clones, suggesting that the mutant cells maintain some characteristics of an apical domain (Figure 4D). A more severe polarity phenotype is observed in larger clones, in which the cells round up and apical Patj disappears (data not shown). The lateral marker Dlg is also lost from the cortex of all Dg mutant follicle cells under energetic stress (Figure 4A). In addition, these cells show an upregulation of Arm (Figure 4C), a phenotype that appears to be specific for this component of the adherens junction, as the expression levels of both DE- and DN-Cadherins are normal (data not shown). Finally, Dg loss of function causes a marked decrease in the density of basal actin (Figure 4E). However, Dg mutant clones have no effect on the deposition of Pcan on the adjacent basement membrane (Figure 4E). Dg mutant cell clones disrupt the organization of the epithelium and frequently round up to form multiple layers, indicating a complete loss of epithelial architecture (Figure 4F).

Sponsored Document

By contrast to its function in epithelial cells, the removal of Dg from the germline under conditions of energetic stress has no effect on the polarization and subsequent maintenance of the oocyte in the germarium or on the repolarization of the oocyte during stages 7–9 (Figure S1D; data not shown). Thus, Dg is required to establish and maintain epithelial polarity under low-energy conditions, but is dispensable for polarity in the germline. Dg Induces Myosin II Activation Independently of AMPK The polarity phenotype observed in Dg mutant cells under energetic stress is very similar to that observed in lkb1 or ampkα mutant cells under the same conditions (Mirouse et al., 2007). AMPK acts as a cellular energy sensor because its activation requires the binding of AMP, which is generated as the cell uses up its supplies of ATP. This results in a conformational change that allows LKB1 to phosphorylate the activation loop of AMPK on T184 (T172 in human) to turn on its kinase activity (Lizcano et al., 2004). Since T184 phosphorylation is necessary and sufficient for the activation of AMPK in vitro and in vivo, the level of this phosphorylation is therefore an excellent readout for AMPK activity. Dg null mutant follicle cell clones under energetic stress show the same level of Phospho-T184 staining as wild-type


Mirouse et al.

Page 7

cells (Figure 5A). Thus, Dg is not required for AMPK activation and must function either downstream or in parallel to the LKB1/AMPK pathway.

Sponsored Document

An essential function of AMPK in epithelial polarity is to phosphorylate the Myosin Regulatory Light Chain II (MRLCII), called Spaghetti Squash (Sqh) in Drosophila, and thereby activate Myosin II (Lee et al., 2007). We therefore tested whether Dg mutants affect the phosphorylation of Sqh under conditions of energetic stress. PhosphoS21-Sqh (corresponding to S19 in mammalian MRLCII) is mainly apical in early stages in wild-type follicle cells on sugar-free food, but it accumulates on both the apical and basal domains in later stages. By contrast, Dg mutant cells lack staining for pS21-Sqh (Figure 5B). This result indicates that Dg, like AMPK, is required for the activation of Myosin II under energetic stress.

Sponsored Document

A phosphomimetic form of MRLCII rescues the starvation-dependent polarity phenotype of ampkα mutants, indicating that the only function of AMPK in polarity is to activate Myosin II (Lee et al., 2007). To investigate further how Dg fits into this low-energy polarity pathway, we asked whether phosphomimetic forms of either AMPK or Sqh proteins could rescue the phenotype of Dg mutant cells under low-energy conditions. Neither AMPK-T184D nor SqhE20E21 rescue Dlg and aPKC localization or the organization of F-actin in Dg mutant follicle cells under energetic stress (Figures 5C and 5D; Figure S1E). Since phosphomimetic Sqh is not sufficient to rescue the polarity of Dg mutant cells under low-energy conditions, Dg must have another function, in addition to the activation of Myosin II. We therefore tested whether Dg could also influence Myosin II localization itself. In early stages, Sqh and Myosin II Heavy Chain are enriched at the apical side of the follicle cells. However, in Dg mutant cells under energetic stress, both proteins are mainly localized to the basal side and the apical enrichment is usually lost (Figures 5E and 5F). Thus, Dg is required both for the activation and localization of Myosin II in starved follicle cells. Pcan, But Not Dys, Is Required for Apical-Basal Polarity under Energetic Stress Since the primary target of Dg in the cytoplasm is the Dys protein, we tested whether the latter was also involved in epithelial polarity under energetic stress conditions. Follicle cells mutant for null alleles of dys show a wild-type localization of all of the polarity markers we examined, including Dg, both under normal conditions and during energetic stress (Figures 6A–6D). The function of Dg in establishing and maintaining apical-basal polarity is therefore independent of Dys.

Sponsored Document

It has been proposed previously that the function of Dg in epithelial polarity required its interaction with Pcan in the ECM, since pcannull mutant follicle cells lose their polarity (Schneider et al., 2006). We tested for a requirement of Pcan in follicle cells under normal and energetic stress conditions by using the same null allele as the previous study. On standard food, epithelial polarity was completely normal, even when the pcannull mutant clones encompassed the entire egg chamber (Figures 6E, 6G, and 6I; data not shown). By contrast, pcan mutant follicle cells lose polarity under energetic stress. The apical and lateral determinants, aPKC and Dlg, are mislocalized, Arm is overexpressed, and there is a decrease in the density of basal F-actin (Figures 6F, 6H, and 6J). Furthermore, Sqh is not phosphorylated in starved pcan mutant cells (Figure 6J). This phenotype is fully penetrant, regardless of the size of the clone, and is identical to that observed in Dg mutant cells. Thus, Pcan is required to maintain epithelial polarity when cells are under energetic stress, strongly suggesting that it acts upstream of Dg as a ligand. Dg protein itself is strongly overexpressed in pcan mutant cells under energetic stress and tends to localize all around the cortex (Figure 6H), a phenotype that is also observed in lkb1 and ampkα mutant follicle cells. This suggests the existence of a negative-feedback loop, in which


Mirouse et al.

Page 8

the Dg-dependent activation of Myosin II reduces Dg protein levels and limits its localization to the basal domain.

Discussion Sponsored Document

Here, we report that clones of Dg null mutations have no effect on apical-basal polarity under normal conditions, but disrupt the planar cell polarity (pcp) of the basal actin stress fibers. The loss of this organization allows the oocyte to grow in all directions, leading the short, roundegg phenotype of Dg null homozygotes. A very similar phenotype is seen in mutants in the receptor tyrosine phosphatase DLar and in the α and β subunits of integrin (Frydman and Spradling, 2001; Bateman et al., 2001). Since DLar and integrins are also receptors for the components of the ECM, three different ECM receptors are required nonredundantly for the pcp of the actin stress fibers. However, mutants in Dg, dys, and DLar have no effect on other well-characterized examples of pcp in Drosophila, such as the orientation of the apical trichomes on the wing blade. This indicates that pcp on the basal side of the cell has different requirements than apical pcp, and it would therefore be interesting to examine whether the classical pcp pathways that regulate apical planar polarity are involved in the orientation of the basal actin stress fibers.

Sponsored Document

A newly identified null allele in dys also gives rise to short, round eggs and causes an identical defect in the orientation of the basal actin stress fibers. Since Dys binds to the intracellular domain of Dg and to F-actin, it may provide a direct link between the two to transmit the planar polarity of the ECM to the basal stress fibers. Dg and Dys also function as links between the ECM and the actin cytoskeleton in muscle cells, where they play an important role in allowing the cell surface to withstand the mechanical forces caused by contraction, thereby preventing muscular dystrophy (Ervasti and Sonnemann, 2008). Our results in epithelial cells indicate that the DAPC does more than just create a physical link between the ECM and actin, raising the possibility that it also plays a role in organizing the cortical actin network in muscle.

Sponsored Document

Our data contradict previous reports that Dg is required for the apical-basal polarity of epithelial cells and for the initial anterior-posterior polarity of the oocyte (Deng et al., 2003). This discrepancy can be explained by the fact that we used null alleles of Dg, whereas the earlier studies used deletions in the 5′ end of the Dg locus that also remove mRpL34, an essential gene that encodes a mitochondrial ribosomal protein. More importantly, the apical-basal polarity defects of the Dg deletion alleles can be rescued by transgenes expressing either mRpL34 or Dg, indicating that this phenotype is caused by the concomitant loss of both genes. Furthermore, the nonsense alleles of Dg give an identical polarity phenotype to the deletion alleles when the flies are cultured on food without glucose. Thus, Dg is required for epithelial polarity only under conditions of energetic stress, and the Dg deletion alleles give a polarity phenotype under normal conditions, because the loss of mRpL34 disrupts mitochondrial function, thereby reducing cellular energy. Although the energetic stress caused by disruption of mRpL34 can explain the epithelial polarity phenotypes of the Dg deletion alleles, the Dg nonsense mutations have no effect on oocyte polarity even in starved flies. The early defects in oocyte polarity observed with the deletion alleles may therefore be due to loss of mRpL34 alone. It has also been reported that loss of pcan disrupts epithelial polarity and the basal localization of Dg under normal conditions (Schneider et al., 2006). Using the same allele, we found that pcan null clones show normal apical-basal polarity on standard food, but show similar polarity defects to Dg mutants under energetic stress conditions, and this discrepancy may be due to differences in fly food composition in different laboratories. Like Dg and Pcan, LKB1 and AMPK are only required for epithelial polarity under conditions of energetic stress (Mirouse et al., 2007). Indeed, the polarity phenotype of Dg or pcan mutant Published as: Dev Cell. 2009 January 20; 16(1): 83–92.

Mirouse et al.

Page 9

Sponsored Document

clones is indistinguishable from that of ampk and lkb1 mutants under glucose starvation. Apical (Crb, aPKC) and lateral (Dlg) markers are no longer localized at the cortex, whereas markers for the adherens junctions (Arm, DECad) are more stable, but eventually disappear in large mutant clones. Interestingly, the Crb complex component Patj remains apically localized in small mutant clones like the adherens junctions components. Since all other apical markers are disrupted, Patj cannot be targeted apically solely through its interaction with Sdt and Crb, suggesting that it may also interact with junctional proteins. This is consistent with the observation that Patj is still properly localized in crb mutant cells (Tanentzapf et al., 2000). Starved Dg and pcan mutant clones do not accumulate phosphorylated Sqh and show a reduction of basal actin and an increase in apical actin, just like ampk and lkb1 clones. As well as these polarity phenotypes, mutations in all four proteins upregulate Arm under conditions of energetic stress, whereas starved pcan, ampk, and lkb1 clones show a dramatic increase in Dg levels. Thus, mutants in these proteins have no effect on polarity under normal conditions and cause the same spectrum of phenotypes under conditions of energetic stress, strongly suggesting that they are all essential components of a low-energy polarity pathway (Figure 7).

Sponsored Document

The principal function of LKB1 and AMPK in epithelial polarity under low-energy conditions is to activate Myosin II through the direct phosphorylation of its regulatory light chain, Sqh, by AMPK, since a phosphomimetic form of Sqh rescues all of the polarity defects of starved ampk or lkb1 null cells (Lee et al., 2007). Our results show that Pcan and Dg are also required for the activation of Myosin II under conditions of energetic stress, but their polarity phenotypes cannot be rescued by the constitutively active forms of either AMPK or Sqh. This leads to two important conclusions. First, Pcan and Dg are not required for the activation of AMPK, and the loss of localized, phosphorylated Sqh must therefore be due to some other defect. Second, the failure of phosphomimetic Sqh to rescue the polarity defects of starved Dg clones indicates that Dg must have another function in addition to its role in Myosin activation.

Sponsored Document

Sqh is mislocalized to the basal cortex of starved Dg clones, and this could account for both the failure of AMPK to phosphorylate it and the inability of phosphomimetic Sqh to rescue the polarity phenotype. Phospho-AMPK is uniformly distributed, however, and should be able to phosphorylate Sqh anywhere in the cell. In addition, Sqh and the Myosin II heavy chain still colocalize in Dg mutant cells, strongly suggesting that the lack of rescue by phosphomimetic Sqh is not caused by its failure to interact with and activate the heavy chain. An alternative possibility is that loss of Dg disrupts Myosin activation and localization indirectly, perhaps by altering the arrangement of F-actin. Phosphomimetic Sqh does not rescue normal actin organization in starved Dg clones, demonstrating that this phenotype is not caused solely by the loss of Myosin activity, and this suggests that Dg plays a myosin-independent role in the polarized organization of the actin cytoskeleton. If Myosin II activation is regulated by its actindependent localization and/or its binding to actin, the failure to phosphorylate Sqh in Dg clones could be a secondary consequence of a polarity defect that disrupts the actin cytoskeleton. LKB1 or AMPK activation, glucose deprivation, or the expression of phosphomimetic Sqh are sufficient to induce apical-basal polarity in isolated human intestinal cells in culture, indicating that this pathway is conserved in humans (Lee et al., 2007; Baas et al., 2004). In order to polarize single cells de novo, there must be a polarity cue that provides the positional information to generate cellular asymmetries. This cannot be provided by LKB1 or AMPK, since activated P-AMPK is not spatially restricted, and its function can be bypassed by providing a constitutively active myosin (Mirouse et al., 2007; Lee et al., 2007). Cell-cell adhesion is also unlikely to act as the polarity cue, because the low-energy pathway can polarize single mammalian cells in culture in the absence of any contacts with their neighbors. The only remaining asymmetry under these conditions is cell adhesion to the ECM on the substrate. Since Pcan is a component of the basal ECM and Dg is an ECM receptor, and they are both


Mirouse et al.

Page 10

required for polarity under energetic stress, it is attractive to propose that the adhesion of Pcan to Dg provides the basal cue for epithelial polarity under low-energy conditions.

Sponsored Document

In all organisms, the intracellular domain of Dg has two conserved features: a WW domainbinding motif that interacts with Dys, and a PXXP motif that can function as a SH3 domainbinding site. A null mutant in the single Dys/Utrophin homolog in the Drosophila genome has no effect on epithelial organization under low-energy conditions, suggesting that Dg does not regulate polarity through binding to Dys. In support of this view, the overexpression of fulllength Dg or Dg with a mutated Dys-binding domain disrupts follicle cell polarity, whereas a construct that lacks the SH3 domain-binding site does not (Yatsenko et al., 2007; Deng et al., 2003). Thus, it seems most likely that the binding of Pcan to Dg controls epithelial polarity under low-energy conditions by signaling through the SH3-binding domain, and it will be important to identify the SH3 protein responsible.

Sponsored Document

LKB1 is mutated in both familial and spontaneous tumors of epithelial origin, suggesting that disruption of the low-energy polarity pathway may play a role in tumor progression (Alessi et al., 2006). Most tumor cells undergo a metabolic switch, called the Warburg effect, in which they take up about five times more glucose than normal cells because they are generating ATP from glycolysis, which is much less efficient than oxidative phosphorylation (Brahimi-Horn et al., 2007). Moreover, tumor cells often have reduced access to nutrients and oxygen as the tumor outgrows the local blood supply. Thus, the cells are likely to be subjected to energetic stress, both because they are inefficient at generating ATP and because they are hypoxic. In this context, it is interesting to note that Dg is downregulated in a wide variety of tumors, with low levels of expression correlating with a poor prognosis (Henry et al., 2001; Losasso et al., 2000; Sgambato et al., 2003). Furthermore, when Dg is reintroduced into breast cancer cell lines that no longer express it, it restores epithelial polarity and reduces tumorogenicity (Muschler et al., 2002; Sgambato et al., 2004). These results suggest that Dg is required to maintain epithelial organization in tumor cells under energetic stress, and that its downregulation leads to overproliferation and a loss of polarity that contribute to metastasis.

Experimental Procedures Drosophila Strains

Sponsored Document

The Dg alleles have been described previously (Deng et al., 2003; Christoforou et al., 2008). The detE17 (= dysE17) allele was isolated in EMS mutagenesis for mutations that failed to complement the crossvein-less mutation det1 (R.P.R., unpublished data). We sequenced the coding region of the gene by using PCR amplification of individual exons from detE17/Df(3R) 6184 genomic DNA and compared this sequence to that of the isogenic parental stock. Df(3R) 6184 was obtained from Exelixis. Dg and Dys alleles were recombined with FRTG13 and FRT82B, respectively. The two lethal alleles of CG8414, CG8414OO7 and CG8414OO9, were isolated in a screen for lethal mutations that failed to complement the rearrangement “J43,” as described previously (Christoforou et al., 2008). Both are associated with nonsense mutations in the coding region of the gene: CG8414OO7, with a C > T change at position 3175 resulting in Q977 > STOP; and CG8414OO9, with a C > T change at position 2151 resulting in R655 > STOP. Other stocks used are FRT101, pcannull (Voigt et al., 2002), UAS:AMPK-T184D (Mirouse et al., 2007), da:Gal4, and Sqh(E20E21) (Winter et al., 2001). Fertility and Viability of Dg and dys Alleles Virgin females of the indicated genotype were mated to either wild-type (Oregon R) or mutant males for a different allele in trans to a GFP balancer. Females were allowed to lay on apple juice plates for 12 hr, and the eggs were collected, counted, and laid out on fresh plates. The plates were scored for hatching 36 hr later, and the unhatched eggs were classified as


Mirouse et al.

Page 11

unfertilized, collapsed, or dead. For the larval viability studies, eggs were collected for 12 hr, and 24 hr later, homozygous and heterozygous first-instar larvae were sorted and distributed into normal food vials at 50 larvae per vial. The larvae were allowed to develop, and the number of pupae and eclosed adults were scored.

Sponsored Document

mRpL34 Genomic Rescue Construct A 1.3 kb fragment was PCR amplified from Oregon R genomic DNA by using primers in Exon 3 of CG8414 and in the first noncoding exon of Dg. The product was cut at the endogenous EcoR1 and Pst1 sites to the left and right, respectively, of mRpL34; cloned into pCasper4; and fully sequenced. The construct was transformed into flies by using standard techniques For the rescue studies, stocks of the genotype w1118; Dg∗/CyO; P[w+;mRpL24+]42.1/TM6b, Hu Tb were generated for Dg248 and Dg323. For clones in the ovary, stocks of the genotype w1118; FRT-G13, Dg248/CyO; P[w+;mRpL24+]42.1/TM6b, Hu Tb were constructed and used to generate clones as described below. Starvation Conditions and Clone Induction Adult flies were placed in vials containing “normal” Drosophila food medium (5% glucose, 5% yeast extract, 3.5% wheat flour, agar 0.8%) or energetic starvation medium (1.5% yeast extract, 3.5% wheat flour, agar 0.8%). Clones were induced by heat shocking adult females at 37°C for 2 hr on 2 consecutive days. Females were dissected 2 days after the last heat shock.

Sponsored Document

Staining and Imaging Procedures Immunofluorescence on ovaries was performed by following standard procedures. Primary antibodies were used as follows: mouse anti-Orb (1/50, Developmental Studies Hybridoma Bank), mouse anti-Arm (1/50, Developmental Studies Hybridoma Bank), rabbit anti-Pcan (1/2000) (Friedrich et al., 2000), rabbit anti-Dys (1/1000) (Schneider et al., 2006), rabbit antiPatj (1/500) (Tanentzapf et al., 2000), rabbit Psqh (1/100, Cell Signaling), guinea pig Sqh (1/500) (Franke et al., 2006), rabbit Myosin II Heavy Chain (1/2000) (Jordan and Karess, 1997), mouse anti-Crb (cq4) (1/50, Developmental Studies Hybridoma Bank), rabbit antiaPKC (1/1000, Santa Cruz Biotechnologies), mouse anti-Dlg (1/50, Developmental Studies Hybridoma Bank), rabbit anti-Dg (1/1000) (Deng et al., 2003), rabbit anti-phosphoT172AMPK (1/100, Cell Signaling). Actin staining was performed with rhodamine-conjugated phalloidin (Molecular Probes). Images were taken with a Zeiss LSM 510 confocal microscope. Chorion preparations were performed by following standard procedures.

Supplemental Data Sponsored Document

Refer to Web version on PubMed Central for supplementary material.

Supplemental Data Refer to Web version on PubMed Central for supplementary material.

Acknowledgments We are grateful to W.M. Deng, H. Ruohola-Baker, S. Baumgartner, U. Tepass, R. Karess, D. Kiehart, and D. Strutt for sending reagents and fly stocks. V.M. was supported by the European Molecular Biology Organization; D.St J. was supported by the Wellcome Trust; C.P.C., C.F., and R.P.R. were supported by a New Investigator grant from the Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council and by a Research Grant from the Medical Research Council.


Mirouse et al.

Page 12

References

Sponsored Document Sponsored Document Sponsored Document

Alessi D.R. Sakamoto K. Bayascas J.R. Lkb1-dependent signaling pathways. Annu. Rev. Biochem. 2006;75:137–163. [PubMed: 16756488] Baas A.F. Kuipers J. van der Wel N.N. Batlle E. Koerten H.K. Peters P.J. Clevers H.C. Complete polarization of single intestinal epithelial cells upon activation of LKB1 by STRAD. Cell 2004;116:457–466. [PubMed: 15016379] Bateman J. Reddy R.S. Saito H. Van Vactor D. The receptor tyrosine phosphatase Dlar and integrins organize actin filaments in the Drosophila follicular epithelium. Curr. Biol. 2001;11:1317–1327. [PubMed: 11553324] Benton R. St. Johnston D. Drosophila PAR-1 and 14-3-3 inhibit Bazooka/PAR-3 to establish complementary cortical domains in polarized cells. Cell 2003;115:691–704. [PubMed: 14675534] Brahimi-Horn M.C. Chiche J. Pouysségur J. Hypoxia signalling controls metabolic demand. Curr. Opin. Cell Biol. 2007;19:223–229. [PubMed: 17303407] Christoforou C.P. Greer C.E. Challoner B.R. Charizanos D. Ray R.P. The detached locus encodes Drosophila Dystrophin, which acts with other components of the Dystrophin Associated Protein Complex to influence intercellular signalling in developing wing veins. Dev. Biol. 2008;313:519–532. [PubMed: 18093579] Deconinck A.E. Rafael J.A. Skinner J.A. Brown S.C. Potter A.C. Metzinger L. Watt D.J. Dickson J.G. Tinsley J.M. Davies K.E. Utrophin-dystrophin-deficient mice as a model for Duchenne muscular dystrophy. Cell 1997;90:717–727. [PubMed: 9288751] Deng W.M. Schneider M. Frock R. Castillejo-Lopez C. Gaman E.A. Baumgartner S. Ruohola-Baker H. Dystroglycan is required for polarizing the epithelial cells and the oocyte in Drosophila. Development 2003;130:173–184. [PubMed: 12441301] Doerflinger H. Benton R. Shulman J.M. St Johnston D. The role of PAR-1 in regulating the polarised microtubule cytoskeleton in the Drosophila follicular epithelium. Development 2003;130:3965–3975. [PubMed: 12874119] Durbeej M. Campbell K.P. Biochemical characterization of the epithelial dystroglycan complex. J. Biol. Chem. 1999;274:26609–26616. [PubMed: 10473626] Ervasti J.M. Sonnemann K.J. Biology of the striated muscle dystrophin-glycoprotein complex. Int. Rev. Cytol. 2008;265:191–225. [PubMed: 18275889] Franke J.D. Boury A.L. Gerald N.J. Kiehart D.P. Native nonmuscle myosin II stability and light chain binding in Drosophila melanogaster. Cell Motil. Cytoskeleton 2006;63:604–622. [PubMed: 16917818] Friedrich M.V. Schneider M. Timpl R. Baumgartner S. Perlecan domain V of Drosophila melanogaster. Sequence, recombinant analysis and tissue expression. Eur. J. Biochem. 2000;267:3149–3159. [PubMed: 10824099] Frydman H.M. Spradling A.C. The receptor-like tyrosine phosphatase lar is required for epithelial planar polarity and for axis determination within Drosophila ovarian follicles. Development 2001;128:3209–3220. [PubMed: 11688569] Goode S. Perrimon N. Inhibition of patterned cell shape change and cell invasion by Discs large during Drosophila oogenesis. Genes Dev. 1997;11:2532–2544. [PubMed: 9334318] Gutzeit H.O. Eberhardt W. Gratwohl E. Laminin and basement membrane-associated microfilaments in wild-type and mutant Drosophila ovarian follicles. J. Cell Sci. 1991;100:781–788. [PubMed: 1814932] Henry M.D. Campbell K.P. A role for dystroglycan in basement membrane assembly. Cell 1998;95:859– 870. [PubMed: 9865703] Henry M.D. Cohen M.B. Campbell K.P. Reduced expression of dystroglycan in breast and prostate cancer. Hum. Pathol. 2001;32:791–795. [PubMed: 11521221] Hohenester E. Tisi D. Talts J.F. Timpl R. The crystal structure of a laminin G-like module reveals the molecular basis of α-dystroglycan binding to laminins, perlecan, and agrin. Mol. Cell 1999;4:783– 792. [PubMed: 10619025] Huynh J.R. St Johnston D. The origin of asymmetry: early polarisation of the Drosophila germline cyst and oocyte. Curr. Biol. 2004;14:R438–R449. [PubMed: 15182695]


Mirouse et al.

Page 13


Johnson R.P. Kang S.H. Kramer J.M. C. elegans dystroglycan DGN-1 functions in epithelia and neurons, but not muscle, and independently of dystrophin. Development 2006;133:1911–1921. [PubMed: 16611689] Jordan P. Karess R. Myosin light chain-activating phosphorylation sites are required for oogenesis in Drosophila. J. Cell Biol. 1997;139:1805–1819. [PubMed: 9412474] Kachinsky A.M. Froehner S.C. Milgram S.L. A PDZ-containing scaffold related to the dystrophin complex at the basolateral membrane of epithelial cells. J. Cell Biol. 1999;145:391–402. [PubMed: 10209032] Knust E. Bossinger O. Composition and formation of intercellular junctions in epithelial cells. Science 2002;298:1955–1959. [PubMed: 12471248] Lee J.H. Koh H. Kim M. Kim Y. Lee S.Y. Karess R.E. Lee S.H. Shong M. Kim J.M. Kim J. Energydependent regulation of cell structure by AMP-activated protein kinase. Nature 2007;447:1017– 1020. [PubMed: 17486097] Lizcano J.M. Goransson O. Toth R. Deak M. Morrice N.A. Boudeau J. Hawley S.A. Udd L. Makela T.P. Hardie D.G. LKB1 is a master kinase that activates 13 kinases of the AMPK subfamily, including MARK/PAR-1. EMBO J. 2004;23:833–843. [PubMed: 14976552] Losasso C. Di Tommaso F. Sgambato A. Ardito R. Cittadini A. Giardina B. Petrucci T.C. Brancaccio A. Anomalous dystroglycan in carcinoma cell lines. FEBS Lett. 2000;484:194–198. [PubMed: 11078877] Margolis J. Spradling A. Identification and behavior of epithelial stem cells in the Drosophila ovary. Development 1995;121:3797–3807. [PubMed: 8582289] Mirouse V. Swick L.L. Kazgan N. St Johnston D. Brenman J.E. LKB1 and AMPK maintain epithelial cell polarity under energetic stress. J. Cell Biol. 2007;177:387–392. [PubMed: 17470638] Muschler J. Levy D. Boudreau R. Henry M. Campbell K. Bissell M.J. A role for dystroglycan in epithelial polarization: loss of function in breast tumor cells. Cancer Res. 2002;62:7102–7109. [PubMed: 12460932] Schneider M. Khalil A.A. Poulton J. Castillejo-Lopez C. Egger-Adam D. Wodarz A. Deng W.M. Baumgartner S. Perlecan and Dystroglycan act at the basal side of the Drosophila follicular epithelium to maintain epithelial organization. Development 2006;133:3805–3815. [PubMed: 16943280] Sgambato A. Migaldi M. Montanari M. Camerini A. Brancaccio A. Rossi G. Cangiano R. Losasso C. Capelli G. Trentini G.P. Dystroglycan expression is frequently reduced in human breast and colon cancers and is associated with tumor progression. Am. J. Pathol. 2003;162:849–860. [PubMed: 12598319] Sgambato A. Camerini A. Faraglia B. Pavoni E. Montanari M. Spada D. Losasso C. Brancaccio A. Cittadini A. Increased expression of dystroglycan inhibits the growth and tumorigenicity of human mammary epithelial cells. Cancer Biol. Ther. 2004;3:967–975. [PubMed: 15467432] Tanentzapf G. Smith C. McGlade J. Tepass U. Apical, lateral, and basal polarization cues contribute to the development of the follicular epithelium during Drosophila oogenesis. J. Cell Biol. 2000;151:891–904. [PubMed: 11076972] Voigt A. Pflanz R. Schäfer U. Jäckle H. Perlecan participates in proliferation activation of quiescent Drosophila neuroblasts. Dev. Dyn. 2002;224:403–412. [PubMed: 12203732] Wang Q. Margolis B. Apical junctional complexes and cell polarity. Kidney Int. 2007;72:1448–1458. [PubMed: 17914350] Winter C.G. Wang B. Ballew A. Royou A. Karess R. Axelrod J.D. Luo L. Drosophila Rho-associated kinase (Drok) links Frizzled-mediated planar cell polarity signaling to the actin cytoskeleton. Cell 2001;105:81–91. [PubMed: 11301004] Wodarz A. Näthke I. Cell polarity in development and cancer. Nat. Cell Biol. 2007;9:1016–1024. [PubMed: 17762893] Yatsenko A.S. Gray E.E. Shcherbata H.R. Patterson L.B. Sood V.D. Kucherenko M.M. Baker D. Ruohola-Baker H. A putative SH3-domain binding motif but not the C-terminal dystrophin WWdomain binding motif is required for dystroglycan function in cellular polarity in Drosophila. J. Biol. Chem. 2007;282:15159–15169. [PubMed: 17355978] Yeaman C. Grindstaff K.K. Nelson W.J. New perspectives on mechanisms involved in generating epithelial cell polarity. Physiol. Rev. 1999;79:73–98. [PubMed: 9922368]


Mirouse et al.

Page 14

Yu W. Datta A. Leroy P. O'Brien L.E. Mak G. Jou T.S. Matlin K.S. Mostov K.E. Zegers M.M. β1-integrin orients epithelial polarity via Rac1 and laminin. Mol. Biol. Cell 2005;16:433–445. [PubMed: 15574881]

Sponsored Document Sponsored Document Sponsored Document Published as: Dev Cell. 2009 January 20; 16(1): 83–92.

Mirouse et al.

Page 15

Sponsored Document Sponsored Document

Figure 1.

Dg Null Mutant Cells Have Normal Apical-Basal Polarity (A–E) DgO43 or DgO86 mutant follicle cell clones under normal food conditions. Mutant cells are marked by the absence of GFP (green). The apical domain is at the top and faces the oocyte. (A) Armadillo (Arm, red) and Dystroglycan (Dg, blue). (B) Discs-large (Dlg, red) and atypical Protein Kinase C (aPKC, blue). (C) Crumbs (Crb, red). (D) Patj (blue). (E) F-actin (red) and Perlecan (Pcan, blue). (F) DgO86 mutant germline clone, marked by the absence of GFP (green) and stained for the oocyte polarity marker Orb (red).

Sponsored Document Published as: Dev Cell. 2009 January 20; 16(1): 83–92.

Mirouse et al.

Page 16


Figure 2.

Dg and dys Mutants Show Planar Cell Polarity Defects in the Follicle Cells (A–D) Dorsal view of eggs from females of the indicated genotype. Anterior is oriented toward the top. (A) Wild-type. (B) DgO86. (C) Df(3R)6184. (D) dysE17/Df(3R)6184. (E–H) Basal view of follicle cell stress fibers stained for F-actin (red). Anterior is oriented toward the left. (E) Wild-type. (F) Cells from a DgO43/DgO86 mutant female. (G and H) Follicle cell clone for DgO86. Wild-type cells (green) present a parallel orientation of their stress fibers perpendicular to the anterior-posterior axis. In cells mutant for Dg, the stress fibers are randomly oriented.


Mirouse et al.

Page 17

Sponsored Document Sponsored Document Figure 3.

Sponsored Document

Concomitant Deletion of Dg and mRpL34 Induces Epithelial Polarity Defects (A and B) Scheme of the Dg and mRpL34 loci with a representation of Dg alleles and of the genomic fragment used for the rescue of mRpL34. Both deletion alleles affect the first exon of Dg and mRpL34. (C) Dg248 mutant follicle cell clones under normal food conditions. Mutant cells are marked by the absence of GFP (green). The apical domain is at the top and faces the oocyte. Dlg is shown in red, and aPKC is shown in blue. (D) As (C), but in flies carrying the rescue transgene for mRpL34. (E) As (C), but in flies expressing Dg from the UAS:Dg transgene driven by the da:Gal4 driver. Reintroduction of Dg or mRpL34 rescues the polarity defect observed in follicle cells mutant for Dg248.


Mirouse et al.

Page 18


Figure 4.

Dg Is Required for Apical-Basal Polarity under Energetic Stress (A–F) DgO43 or DgO86 mutant follicle cell clones under energetic stress conditions. Mutant cells are marked by the absence of GFP (green). (A and A′) Dlg (red) and aPKC (blue). (B) Crb (red). (C) Arm (red, white in [C′]). (D) Patj (blue). (E) F-actin (red, white in [E′]) and Pcan (blue). (F) DgO86 mutant clone stained with F-actin (red) and showing a complete loss of the epithelium architecture.


Mirouse et al.

Page 19


Figure 5.

Dg Is Required for Myosin II Activation and Localization Independently of AMPK (A and B) DgO43 mutant follicle cell clones under energetic stress conditions. Mutant cells are marked by the absence of GFP (green). (A) PhosphoT184-AMPK (red, white in [A′]). (B) Factin (red) and Phospho-Sqh (blue, white in [B′]). (C and D) DgO43 mutant cells under energetic stress conditions and expressing (C) UASAMPKα-T184D or (D) Sqh-E20E21. The expression of the phosphomimetic AMPKα or sqh transgenes does not rescue the Dg energetic stress-dependent phenotypes. (E and F) DgO43 mutant follicle cell clones under energetic stress conditions stained for (E) Sqh (white in [E′]) and (F) Myosin II heavy chain (white in [F′]). Published as: Dev Cell. 2009 January 20; 16(1): 83–92.

Mirouse et al.

Page 20


Figure 6.

Pcan, but Not Dys, Is Required for Apical-Basal Polarity under Energetic Stress (A–D) dys mutant follicle cell clones under (A and C) normal or (B and D) energetic stress conditions. Mutant cells are marked by the absence of GFP (green). (A and B) Dlg (red) and aPKC (blue). (C and D) Arm (red) and Dg (blue). (E–J) pcan mutant follicle cell clones under (E, G, and I) normal or (F, H, and J) energetic stress conditions. Mutant cells are marked by the absence of GFP (green). (E and F) Dlg (red) and aPKC (blue). (G and H) Arm (red) and Dg (blue, white in [G′] and [H′]). (I and J) F-actin (red) and Phospho-Sqh (blue, white in [I′] and [J′]).


Mirouse et al.

Page 21


Figure 7.

Model of a Low-Energy Polarity Pathway Energetic stress induces inhibition of an undetermined polarization mechanism. This is compensated for by the activation of AMPK, which activates Myosin II. Myosin II is required for the proper establishment and maintenance of the cortical epithelial domains. Dg is also required for Myosin II activation and localization. However, Dg has an additional function, probably acting as a polarity cue via its interaction with the basement membrane protein Pcan. In turn, establishment of epithelial polarity restricts Dg localization to the basal domain.
