Dietary fibre: new frontiers for food and health

Exploration of functionality of low-glycemicimpact sugars and polyols M. Kweon1, L. Slade2 and H. Levine2 1USDA, ARS, Soft Wheat Quality Lab, Agricultural Research and Development Center, Ohio State University, 1680 Madison Avenue, Wooster, Ohio, USA; [email protected] 2Food Polymer Science Consultancy, 4D Yacenda Dr, Morris Plains, New Jersey, USA

Abstract The anti-plasticising action of the high sucrose concentration in a cookie formula inhibits both gluten development during dough mixing and starch gelatinisation/pasting during baking. If alternative sugars and polyols with lower glycemic impact are used to replace sucrose, the resulting absence of readily digestible starch allows production of healthier cookies. For this study, sucrose (as a reference) and potential sucrose-replacing sugars (tagatose and ribose) and polyols (maltitol, lactitol, xylitol, and polydextrose) were used to explore the effects of sugar-replacer type on results from solvent retention capacity (SRC), differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), Rapid Visco-Analyzer (RVA), and wire-cut cookie baking. DSC results showed retardation of starch gelatinisation, and RVA results showed retardation of the onset of starch pasting, both in the same order: water < ribose < tagatose < xylitol < sucrose ≤ maltitol < lactitol < polydextrose. Cookie-baking results showed that wire-cut cookies formulated with xylitol, tagatose, and ribose exhibited snap-back, diagnostic for gluten development during dough mixing. In contrast, cookies formulated with maltitol, lactitol, and especially polydextrose showed facilitated flow and elongation in the direction of sheeting. Notably, only for the cookies that exhibited snap-back, cookie height was inversely correlated with cookie length, but not with width. Among these potential sugar-replacers, maltitol and lactitol exhibited the most similar baking responses to those of sucrose, as demonstrated by time-lapse photography during baking. These results suggested that those polyols could be used most easily as sucrose substitutes, in order to produce traditional wire-cut cookies with lower glycemic impact. The baking behaviour of polydextrose was also sufficiently similar to that of sucrose, so that a blend of polydextrose with maltitol or lactitol could replace sucrose, with the additional benefit of a prebiotic soluble fibre. Keywords: low-glycemic-impact sugars, polyols, SRC, DSC, RVA, cookie baking

Introduction Consumers’ growing interest in healthy cookies includes expectations for prebiotic nutritional benefits (Knudson and Peterson, 2005, Livesey, 2003, Swennen et al., 2006) Dietary fibre: new frontiers for food and health

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M. Kweon, L. Slade and H. Levine

and low glycemic impact (Garsetti et al., 2005, Jones, 2007). Sucrose is the most common sugar used in baking cookies, but sucrose must be replaced with other (potential sucrosereplacing) sugars or sugar alcohols for the manufacturing of healthy cookies. Regarding the health benefits of sucrose alternatives, fructose, polydextrose, xylitol, and isomaltulose show lower glycemic impact, compared to glucose and sucrose (Foster-Powell and Miller, 1995, Foster-Powell et al., 2002), and isomaltulose, tagatose, lactulose, trehalose, and polyols provide prebiotic benefits (Chen et al., 2007, Duan et al., 2005, Hafer et al., 2007, Livesey 2003, Lu et al., 2007, Swennen et al., 2006). Sugar functionality in cookie baking varies, depending on sugar type and particle size (Slade and Levine, 1994). Abboud et al. (1985) reported that the rate and extent of dissolution of sugar in cookie dough during mixing, lay time and baking depend on both sugar type and crystal particle size. Doescher and Hoseney (1985) reported that substitution of a small amount of crystalline sucrose by crystalline glucose, fructose, maltose monohydrate, or high fructose corn syrup changed cookie-baking behaviour. Olinger and Velasco (1996) evaluated cookies formulated with polyols (sorbitol, lactitol, isomalt, maltitol, and polydextrose), and found the lactitol cookie to be closest to the sucrose control, with respect to overall quality. Zoulias et al. (2000) showed that low-fat cookies formulated with maltitol, lactitol and sorbitol could replace sucrose-based cookies and give acceptable properties. Among sucrose-replacing sugars, cookies formulated with tagatose were harder and darker, with less spread than sucrose cookies, but tagatose appeared to be suitable as a partial replacer for sucrose in cookies, based on similar dough and cookie properties, and likeness scores (Taylor et al., 2008). Most previous publications dealing with sucrose replacement in cookies have focused on dough and final cookie properties. However, for successful sucrose replacement, cookie-baking behaviour must be linked to flour functionality. A cookie flour’s starch gelatinisation and pasting behaviour, damaged starch and arabinoxylan contributions, and gluten development capability should be considered. Recently, we reported that a core experimental design for cookie baking with four diagnostic sugars (xylose, fructose, glucose, and sucrose) and two cookie-baking methods (sugar-snap and wire-cut) demonstrated that the effect of sugar type on cookie making is to transform the apparent baking performance of a flour, such that an excellent cookie flour can appear to be a poorquality cookie flour (Kweon et al., 2009). We concluded that use of solvent retention capacity (SRC), differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), Rapid Visco-Analyzer (RVA) and wire-cut cookie baking as predictive research tools demonstrated that identification of a flour with an optimised SRC pattern is the key to successful mitigation of the detrimental effects of sucrose replacement on cookie processing and product attributes. As a follow-up cookie-baking study of various alternatives with low glycemic impact in place of sucrose, sucrose (as a reference) and potential sucrose-replacing sugars (tagatose

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Dietary fibre: new frontiers for food and health

Exploration of functionality of low-glycemic-impact sugars and polyols

and ribose) and polyols (maltitol, lactitol, xylitol, and polydextrose) were used to explore the effects of sugar-replacer type on SRC, DSC, RVA, and wire-cut cookie baking.

Materials and methods Croplan 594W wheat, a soft red winter cultivar, was tempered (to 14% moisture content) and milled with a Miag Mill to produce a straight-grade flour. This flour contained 13.3% water, 7.6% protein, and 0.396% ash (versus 1.677% wheat ash). It exhibited excellent milling performance (74% milling yield, based on cleaned wheat) and produced a superior-quality cookie flour, which was demonstrated by its pattern of SRC values in four solvents: 47.8% water, 82.9% lactic acid, 64.5% sodium carbonate, and 83.4% sucrose (AACC Method 56-11, AACCI 2000). Sucrose and sucrose-replacing sugars and sugar alcohols were used for DSC, RVA, and cookie baking. Maltitol (Maltisweet™ CM40 Crystalline Maltitol, FCC) was obtained from Corn Products Specialty Ingredients (New Castle, DE, USA); xylitol (Xylitol C), lactitol (Lactitol monohydrate) and polydextrose (Litesse®) from Danisco USA (New York, NY, USA); tagatose from Arla Foods (Basking Ridge, NJ, USA); and ribose from Bioenergy Life Science (Ham Lake, MN, USA). Reagent-grade sucrose was used for DSC and RVA, and fine-granulated sucrose (FG sugar – Domino Foods, New York, NY, USA) was used for cookie baking. A commercial Crisco® shortening (Smuckers Co., Orville, OH, USA) was used for cookie baking with all sugars.

SRC of flour SRC tests were conducted using AACC Method 56-11 (AACCI, 2000) with four standard solvents: deionised water, 5% (w/w) lactic acid, 5% (w/w) sodium carbonate, and 50% (w/w) sucrose. Additional SRC measurements on Croplan 594W flour were also made using 50% w/w solutions of all the sucrose-replacing sugars and sugar alcohols.

DSC DSC was used to measure the thermal behaviour of the wheat flour in each sugar solution (for details, see Slade and Levine, 1987). For these DSC experiments, pre-dissolved 50% w/w sugar solutions were used, in order to ensure that sugar dissolution was not convoluted with starch gelatinisation during DSC heating. Equal weights of flour and 50% w/w predissolved sugar solution were mixed, about 40 mg of the mixture was transferred to a stainless steel DSC pan (Perkin-Elmer), and the pan was sealed. Each sample was heated in the DSC instrument (DSC-7, Perkin- Elmer, Norwalk, CT, USA) from 30 to 130 °C, using a 10 °C degree min-1 heating rate. An empty pan was used as the reference. The DSC was calibrated as described previously (Slade and Levine, 1987).


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RVA RVA (RVA-4, Newport Scientific Pty. Ltd, Warriewood, Australia) was used to measure the starch pasting behaviour of the wheat flour in each sugar solution, employing the Standard 1 method. Flour (3.5 g, dry basis) was added to 25 ml of 50% w/w pre-dissolved sugar solution in the sample canister, and mixed thoroughly. Pasting temperatures were calculated with the Thermocline for Windows™ (TCW, Newport Scientific Pty Ltd., Warriewood, Australia) software program.

Cookie baking AACC Method 10-53 (AACCI, 2000) wire-cut cookie baking was conducted, according to the procedure used by Kweon et al. (2009) (Slade and Levine, 1994). The ingredients and formula for this method are shown in Table 1. The effect of sugar type on cookie baking was investigated by replacing sucrose with each alternative sugar type, and dough mixing and baking were conducted in duplicate. The anhydrous crystalline form was used for all sugars, except for lactitol monohydrate, which was used with proportional adjustment of total added dough water. Dough firmness was measured with a TA instrument (TA.XT2i, Texture Technologies Corp., Scarsdale, NY, USA). About 150 g of each of the duplicate doughs was compressed Table 1. Ingredients and formula for AACC Method 10-53 wire-cut cookie baking. Ingredients

Standard weights (g)

Flour Sucrose Non-fat dry milk NaCl Sodium bicarbonate Shortening High fructose corn syrup Ammonium bicarbonate Water Calculated TS2 Calculated % S3

225.01 94.5 2.3 2.8 2.3 90.0 3.4 1.1 49.5 64 66

1 Method 10-53 assumes 13% flour water content.

2 Total solvent (TS) calculated as the sum of sugar weight and total formula water weight, based on

100 g of flour.

3 S % calculated as sugar weight divided by the total solvent weight, based on 100 g of flour.

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in a single pass with a rolling pin to make a flat surface with a height of 3.2 cm. The test conditions were: test mode, measure maximum peak force in compression for three spots on the flat surface of the dough sample; test option, return to start; pre-test speed, 2.0 mm/sec; test speed, 2.0 mm/sec; post-test speed, 5.0 mm/sec; probe, 0.5-inch ball; penetration distance, 15.0 mm. Dough firmness is reported (Table 2) as the average of the measurements of maximum peak force (g). Each of the duplicate doughs was divided into four 60 g portions and sheeted in a single pass to a height of 0.7 cm, using a rolling pin. Each cookie dough piece was cut with a 6.0-cm- diameter round cutter. Before placing the baking sheet into the oven, the weight of the baking sheet and the four (more-or-less) round cookie dough pieces was recorded. Dough weights ranged from 101 to 109 g for four pieces. The cookies were baked for 11 min at 204 °C. After baking, the baking sheet was removed from the oven, and the weight of the baked cookies and baking sheet was recorded immediately. The difference in weights was used to calculate moisture loss as weight loss during baking. The baked cookies were cooled for 3 hours, and then final height, width, and length (the latter two at perpendicular diameters) were measured. The final baked cookie width (dimension perpendicular to the direction of sheeting) reflects lateral flow of the cookie dough during baking. The final baked cookie length (dimension parallel to the direction of sheeting) reflects elastic recovery (snap-back) of the cookie dough during machining and baking. Thus, in contrast to conventional measurements of ‘average’ cookie diameter, these more discerning measurements of cookie width and length – more common in industrial R&D (Slade and Levine, 1994, Kweon et al., 2009) – reveal important and practical information Table 2. Dough firmness, and weight loss and water retention during cookie baking. Sugar type

Dough firmness1 (g force)

% weight loss during baking2 (total dough weight basis)

% water retention2

Ribose Tagatose Xylitol Sucrose Maltitol Lactitol Polydextrose

122±3e 202±20cd 217±14bc 169±4d 250±3ab 263±9a 192±6cd

10.55±0.27b 10.14±0.46b 10.29±0.37b 13.05±0.28a 13.15±0.13a 13.72±0.03a 13.51±0.11a

36.91±1.61a 39.38±2.76a 38.43±2.21a 21.98±1.70b 21.34±0.78b 17.97±0.18b 19.23±0.62b

1 Dough firmness (average of six measurements, three measurements from each of the duplicate doughs). 2 % weight loss of cookie during baking and % water retention (% of total water in the dough, which

is retained in the baked cookie) (average of two measurements from duplicate baking). Means±st dev followed by the same letters within each column are not significantly different at P=0.05 (Tukey-Kramer test). Dietary fibre: new frontiers for food and health

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(the latter relating to issues of commercial product packaging) about any asymmetry in ‘out-of-round’ cookies. Separately, additional dough was prepared as described above, and time-lapse photographs were taken at 1 min intervals through a glass window in the oven door, to record changes in cookie geometry during baking (Slade and Levine, 1994). Only vertical expansion (height) and lateral flow (width) could be recorded, as a result of the orientations of the camera, dough pieces, and baking sheet. As a reference for measuring dimensional changes, a 1-cm matte metal cube was placed on the baking sheet between two cookie dough pieces.

Statistical analysis Statistical analysis of dough firmness (Table 2) and cookie geometry (Table 3) was performed by Tukey-Kramer HSD multiple comparison of means, using JMP for Windows (Version 8.0 SAS, Cary, NC, USA).

Results and discussion Thermal behaviour of wheat flour in each sugar solution DSC results for the flour in pre-dissolved 50% w/w sugar solutions (flour:sugar:water = 1:0.5:0.5) showed retardation of starch gelatinisation, compared to water, in the order Table 3. Geometry of wire-cut cookies baked with various sugars. Sugar type

Ribose Tagatose Xylitol Sucrose Maltitol Lactitol Polydextrose

Cookie geometry1 Width (cm)

Length (cm)

Height (cm)

6.88±0.09b 6.84±0.01b 7.06±0.08b 7.85±0.08a 7.85±0.06a 7.82±0.01a 7.64±0.02b

6.55±0.06c 6.70±0.20c 6.94±0.01b 7.92±0.04a 8.03±0.09a 7.93±0.02a 7.90±0.05a

1.63±0.04a 1.53±0.01b 1.43±0.02c 1.02±0.00d 0.93±0.02e 0.92±0.02e 0.91±0.02e

1 Cookie geometry (average of eight pieces, four pieces for each of the duplicate doughs).

Initial diameter (one piece) 6 cm; initial height (one piece) 0.7 cm. Width is the dimension perpendicular to the direction of sheeting; length is the dimension parallel to the direction of sheeting. Means±st dev followed by the same letters within each column are not significantly different at P=0.05, (Tukey-Kramer test). 518



water < ribose < tagatose < xylitol < sucrose < maltitol < lactitol < polydextrose (PDX) (Figure 1). The gelatinisation peak temperatures were: 63.4 °C in water, 74.0 °C in ribose, 78.4 °C in tagatose, 82.9 °C in xylitol, 92.0 °C in sucrose, 92.8 °C in maltitol, 94.2 °C in lactitol, and 102.3 °C in polydextrose. Although all the sugars elevated the gelatinisation temperature of starch, the extent of elevation by different sugars varied. Slade and Levine (1987, 1991, 1994) explained that the retardation of starch gelatinisation – resulting in gelatinisation at a higher temperature, due to the elevation of the amylopectin glass transition temperature – by different sugars in solutions of the same concentration is highly correlated with the dielectric rotational relaxation times of the sugar solutions. This correlation enables a direct comparison of the mobility of a sugar solution and its relative effectiveness as a plasticiser, compared to water. Among the sugars in the present study, ribose was lowest in molecular weight (MW) and polydextrose was highest. Their MWs correlate with their anhydrous glass transition temperatures – Tg = -10 °C for ribose and +110 °C for polydextrose (Slade and Levine 1991) – which in turn correlate inversely, in a fundamental way, with molecular mobility. Levine and Slade (1992) reported that starch gelatinisation temperature increases with increasing co-solvent (water + sugar) weightaverage MW (Mw), due to an increase in the extent of anti-plasticisation and a decrease in free volume. At the high sugar concentration in a cookie formula, the effectiveness of anti-plasticizing action by different sugars would contribute to differences in cookies

Water Heat flow (endo up)

Ribose Tagatose Xylitol Sucrose Maltitol

1mW

Lactitol PDX 40

60

80

100

120

Temperature (°C)

Figure 1. DSC thermograms for the flour in water or pre-dissolved sugar solutions. Flour : water = 50:50 w/w = 50:50 w/v; flour:sugar solution = 50:50 w/w = 50:40.55-41.36 w/v.


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formulated with different sugars. Doescher et al. (1987) reported DSC thermal properties of cookie dough and baked cookies, and showed that the extent of starch gelatinisation in baked cookies formulated with sucrose was not different from that in the unbaked doughs, but baked cookies formulated with glucose or fructose showed partial starch gelatinisation, which resulted in cookies with significantly smaller diameters than that of sucrose cookies. Our previous study (Kweon et al., 2009) showed that gelatinisation of the starch in flour in pre-dissolved 50% w/w sugar solutions was retarded in the order: water < xylose < fructose < glucose < sucrose, and the cookie formulated with xylose had the tallest height and the most exaggerated out-of-round shape (cookie length > 80 w% at 25 °C (Angyal, 2005)) is much higher than the calculated 66% S value for the wire-cut cookie formula (Table 1). As a result, the ribose dough would be very soft and sticky, because the actual instantaneous TS value would be very high during mixing. Table 4 also shows that (anhydrous) ribose has an unusually low (sub-zero) glass transition temperature (‘dry Tg’ Dietary fibre: new frontiers for food and health

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Table 4. Characterisation of sugars and sugar alcohols. Sugar

Solubility (w%, 25°C)

Dry Tg1 (°C)

SRC2 (%)

Xylitol Lactitol Maltitol Sucrose Glucose3 PDX Fructose3 Tagatose Xylose3 Ribose

64 64 61 67 51 80 80 57 56 >804

-18.5 nd 44 52 31 110 11, 100 40.5 9.5 -10

73 74 76 83 82 83 85 86 91 99

1 Dry glass transition temperature (Tg) values from Slade and Levine (1991). 2 SRC% for Croplan 594W flour in 50% w/w solution.

3 Glucose, fructose, and xylose were used previously for cookie baking, as reported in Kweon et al. (2009). 4 Unlike fructose, which can be crystallised by seeding from its saturated solution, the water solubility

of ribose is so much greater that it cannot be crystallised, even by seeding (Angyal, 2005).

(Slade and Levine, 1991)) and an extraordinarily high SRC value, the latter reflecting the swelling of the wheat flour pentosans in 50% w/w ribose solution, to an even greater extent than in 50% w/w xylose solution, for which xylose matches the ‘solubility parameter’ of the xylan backbone of pentosans, more closely than does the standard sucrose SRC solution. Both factors would be expected to contribute to the softness and stickiness/ tackiness (Slade and Levine 1991) of the ribose dough. The dough made with xylitol also was sticky, even though the water solubility of xylitol (64 w% at 25 °C) is not greater than the calculated % S value for the wire-cut cookie formula, so that stickiness in this case would not be caused by a high value of actual instantaneous TS during mixing. Again as shown in Table 4, the most anomalous characteristic of xylitol, which could explain its stickiness contribution to a cookie dough, is its extremely low value for dry Tg, the lowest of all the sucrose-replacers used in this study. In contrast, doughs made with lactitol and maltitol were relatively firmer. The water solubilities of lactitol and maltitol (64 and 61 w% at 25 °C, respectively) are not greater than the calculated % S value for the wire-cut cookie formula (Table 1), and the actual instantaneous TS values during dough mixing are smaller than the calculated TS value. Curley and Hoseney (1984) showed that the softness and stickiness of sugar-snap cookie doughs depended on the extent of dissolution of sucrose: a dough with 0% dissolved sucrose was firm and manageable, whereas a dough with 100% dissolved sucrose was very sticky and unmanageable. When crystalline sucrose was replaced by high fructose corn syrup in sugar-snap cookies, softer and stickier doughs 522



resulted. They suggested that the volume of total solution in a cookie dough system directly influenced its degree of softness and stickiness. Cookie-baking results are shown in Table 3. Baked wire-cut cookies formulated using 66% S and 64 TS showed cookie width in the order: maltitol ≥ sucrose ≥ lactitol ≥ polydextrose > xylitol ≥ ribose ≥ tagatose; cookie length in the order: maltitol ≥ lactitol ≥ sucrose ≥ polydextrose > xylitol > tagatose ≥ ribose; and cookie height in the order: polydextrose ≤ lactitol ≤ maltitol < sucrose < xylitol < tagatose < ribose. Cookies formulated with xylitol, tagatose, and ribose showed snap-back, which is diagnostic of gluten development during dough mixing (Kweon et al., 2009). In contrast, cookies formulated with maltitol, lactitol, and especially polydextrose showed facilitated flow and elongation in the direction of sheeting. Notably, only for the cookies that exhibited snap-back, cookie height was inversely correlated with cookie length, but not with width. The ribose and polydextrose cookies showed the most noticeable effect of sugar type on cookie geometry. The out-of-round shape of the ribose cookie (cookie length > width) is diagnostic of facilitated flow and elongation in the direction of dough sheeting. Our results for the geometry of the polydextrose cookie were very different from those reported by Olinger and Velasco (1996), described as a very dense and minimally spread cookie; this discrepancy probably arises from differences in the two cookie formulas. As anticipated, the cookies formulated with ribose and tagatose were much darker and browner in colour than those made with the other sugars, because ribose and tagatose are reducing sugars that promote Maillard browning. Time-lapse photography was used to record the effect of sugar type on changes in cookie geometry during baking. The comparative effect of sugar type, represented by ribose, xylitol, sucrose, and maltitol, is illustrated in the photographs in Figure 3, and the data analyses of cookie dimensions measured from time-lapse photographs for all the sugars are presented in Figure 4. The baking time at which maximum lateral expansion occurred was in the order: ribose < tagatose ≈ xylitol ≈ polydextrose ≈ sucrose < maltitol < lactitol, but the ultimate extent of lateral expansion (final cookie width) was in the order: ribose ≈ tagatose < xylitol < polydextrose < lactitol < maltitol < sucrose. The baking time at which maximum vertical expansion occurred was in the order: polydextrose ≈ sucrose ≈ maltitol ≈ lactitol ≈ ribose < xylitol ≈ tagatose, but the ultimate extent of vertical expansion (final cookie height) was in the order: polydextrose ≈ sucrose ≈ maltitol ≈ lactitol < xylitol < tagatose < ribose. Among these potential sucrose-replacers, maltitol and lactitol exhibited the most similar baking responses to those for sucrose, as demonstrated by time-lapse photography during baking. These results suggested that those two polyols could be used most easily as sucrose substitutes, to produce traditional wire-cut cookies with lower glycemic impact. The Dietary fibre: new frontiers for food and health

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Time (min)

A Ribose

B Xylitol

C Sucrose

D Maltitol

Time (min)

0

0

1

1

2

2

3

3

4

4

5

5

6

6

7

7

8

8

9

9

10

10

11

11

Figure 3. Time-lapse photography of wire-cut cookies during baking for 11 min at 204 °C.

cookie-baking behaviour for polydextrose was also sufficiently similar to that for sucrose, so that a blend of polydextrose with maltitol or lactitol could be used to replace sucrose in cookies, with the additional benefit of a prebiotic soluble-fibre ingredient. Similar results were reported by Zoulias et al. (2000), who showed that low-fat cookies formulated with maltitol, lactitol, and sorbitol in place of sucrose gave acceptably similar dough and cookie properties to those of corresponding sucrose cookies. Finally, it should be noted that, whenever sucrose is replaced by an alternative sweetener in cookies, it is necessary to sufficiently mitigate such detrimental effects as excessive gluten development, excessive starch gelatinisation, and excessive starch pasting, in order to produce cookies with the same product eating-quality attributes as corresponding cookies formulated with sucrose.

Conclusions A follow-up cookie-baking study, using various alternatives with lower glycemic impact in place of sucrose, was conducted to explore the requirements for commercial production of high-quality cookies with lower glycemic impact and improved prebiotic nutritional benefits. As diagnostic sugars, sucrose (as the reference) and potential sucrose-replacing sugars (tagatose and ribose) and polyols (maltitol, lactitol, xylitol, and polydextrose) were 524



8.5

Cookie width (cm)

8.0 7.5

Final Width Length

Ribose Tagatose Xylitol Sucrose Maltitol Lactitol PDX

7.0 6.5 6.0 5.5 2.5

Cookie height (cm)

2.0

1.5

1.0

0.5

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

Baking time (min)

Figure 4. Data analysis of cookie dimensions measured from time-lapse photographs for wire cut cookies. ‘Final’ dimensions were measured following 3 hours of cooling after cookie baking. PDX: polydextrose.

used to explore the effects of sugar-replacer type on SRC, DSC, RVA, and wire-cut cookie baking. DSC and RVA of wheat flour in 50% sugar solutions showed retardation of starch gelatinisation and retardation of the onset of starch pasting, respectively, compared to that in water, in the order: water < ribose < tagatose < xylitol < sucrose ≤ maltitol < Dietary fibre: new frontiers for food and health

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lactitol < polydextrose. Cookie-baking results showed that wire-cut cookies formulated with xylitol, tagatose, and ribose exhibited snap-back. In contrast, cookies formulated with maltitol, lactitol, and especially polydextrose showed facilitated flow and elongation in the direction of dough sheeting. Time-lapse photography during baking demonstrated that maltitol and lactitol cookies exhibited the most similar baking responses to those for sucrose, among all the potential sucrose-replacers. Those two polyols could be used most easily as sucrose substitutes, to produce healthier cookies with lower glycemic impact. In addition, the cookie-baking behaviour for polydextrose was sufficiently similar to that for sucrose, so that a blend of polydextrose with maltitol or lactitol could be used to replace sucrose, thus providing the additional benefit of a prebiotic soluble-fibre ingredient. As in our previous study (Kweon et al., 2009), SRC, DSC, RVA, and wire-cut cookie baking, including time-lapse photography, were shown to be valuable as predictive research tools for guiding the successful mitigation of the detrimental effects of sucrose replacement, thus enabling the production of healthier cookies with the same product eating-quality attributes as ordinary cookies formulated with sucrose.

Acknowledgements We thank Lonnie Andrews, Tom Donelson, and Sharon Croskey for flour milling and cookie baking.

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