Dust Collection and Nutrient Absorption by Halophyte ... - Springer Link

J Korean Soc Appl Biol Chem (2013) 56, 679−686 DOI 10.1007/s13765-013-3281-8

ORIGINAL ARTICLE

Dust Collection and Nutrient Absorption by Halophyte Communities in Saemanguem Reclaimed Land Myoung-Ho Shin · Hyun-Seob Hwang · In-Bok Lee · Young-Ho Seo · Min-Kyun Kim

Received: 18 November 2013 / Accepted: 2 December 2013 / Published Online: 31 December 2013 © The Korean Society for Applied Biological Chemistry and Springer 2013

Abstract Halophyte community was established for dust prevention in Saemangeum reclaimed land from 2006 to 2008. In the present study, the functions of halophyte community were examined on-site in aspects of dust collection and nutrient absorption. In dust collection experiments, total suspended particulate (TSP) decreased through transplanted halophyte community and the reduction effect continued to 50 m leeward, which was 5.6 times of plant height. TSP reduction behind in-situ halophyte communities amounted to 25.6% on seven-monthly average. TSP collected within four halophyte communities varied among halophytic species in the field. Harvested in the reclaimed land, halophytic samples contained significant amount of nitrogen (0.84 to 1.71% of dry weight), P2O5 (0.05 to 0.21% of dry weight), and Na+ (0.08 to 3.20% of dry weight). On the basis of halophyte community area in 2006, the amount of total nitrogen, P2O5 and Na+ absorbed by Suaeda asparagoides was estimated up to 404,000, 47,000, and 498,000 kg, respectively. These results

M. -H. Shin () Chungnam Provincial Office, Korea Rural Community Corporation in Daejeon, Republic of Korea E-mail: [email protected] H. -S. Hwang Department of Rural Systems Engineering, College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Seoul National University in Seoul, Republic of Korea I. -B. Lee Department of Rural Systems Engineering, College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Seoul National University in Seoul, Republic of Korea Y. -H. Seo Maize Research Station, Gangwon Agricultural Research and Extension Services in Hongcheon, Republic of Korea M. -K. Kim Department of Agricultural Biotechnology, College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Seoul National University in Seoul, Republic of Korea

implied that halophyte communities are capable of both collecting significant dust particulates and absorbing of nitrogen, phosphorus, and sodium in the reclaimed land. Keywords deposition · dust collection · halophyte · nutrient absorption · wind reduction

Introduction Saemangeum reclaimed land is vulnerable to wind erosion and dust occurrence, due to soil texture of sandy loam mainly composed of sand and silt (Shin et al., 2012). From meteorological data and soil properties, wind erosion in Saemangeum reclaimed land was predicted to be 7.49 Mg ha−1 yr−1 and cause damages such as air pollution, crop growth hindrance, nutrient and productivity losses, and abrasion of facilities (Jung et al., 2004). Therefore, dustprevention measures have been regarded very urgent in order to reduce wind velocity and avoid the damages. Windbreaks or shelterbelts are surely effective barriers used to reduce wind velocity (Zhou et al., 2004). However, they have both temporal or technical and economic problems in reclaimed lands. It is hard to find trees to survive the harsh conditions of high salinity, excessive sand and strong wind (Hwang et al., 2006). Moreover, planting trees on a large-scale requires much time and enormous budget. Rather than trees, therefore, halophyte community was established in Saemangeum reclaimed land (Shin et al., 2012). Precedent halophyte community establishment had been tried at first on the 500 ha of reclaimed land at Yungjong-do, Incheon (Choi, 1998) and then conducted in Whahong reclaimed land in Gyeonggi Province, Korea. Halophytes are a primary producer and provide feeding and roosting grounds for herbivorous insects and mammals in the

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structure of food web (Laegdsgaard, 2006). They can be also used for bioremediation of sodic soils (Quadir and Oster, 2004). Hong et al. (1968) examined the chlorine absorption capacity of halophytic species in the reclaimed land. Lately, halophytes including Phragmites communis were reported to be available in water purification (Roggo et al., 1987; Tabata et al., 1988). In most saline soils, NaCl is major salt, and high sodium and chlorine can induce toxicity if they are absorbed by plants (Muhammad, 2004). Furthermore, high levels of nitrogen and phosphorus in an early reclaimed land would be leached or run off into water system, if not assimilated, leading to a serious lake eutrophication. Fortunately, halophytes are a versatile solution of the above concerns, because they are able to maintain water absorption under high-salinity conditions and can avoid ion toxicity, compartmentalizing excessive ions to vacuoles in plant cells. The growth of some halophytes, in particular dicotyledon halophytes, is stimulated by moderate increases in NaCl concentration (Flowers and Colmer, 2008). Hwang et al. (2008; 2009) reported that fugitive and suspended dust concentration dispersed from Saemangeum reclaimed land to neighboring farms was remarkably reduced after halophyte community establishment. However, there are little quantitative evidences to prove how the dust-prevention effect of halophyte communities works in the field.

J Korean Soc Appl Biol Chem (2013) 56, 679−686

In the present study, considering that halophyte communities were made primarily for dust-prevention and eventually to construct quality arable land and freshwater lakes in Saemangeum reclaimed land, the functions of halophyte communities were examined on-site in aspects of dust collection and nutrient absorption from soil on the assumption that particular dust particulates could be deposited by halophyte communities as the wind velocity decreases allowing them to survive harsh surroundings such as a high level of sodium.

Materials and Methods Site description. Saemangeum Reclamation Project is an agricultural project to develop 28,300 ha of reclaimed land and 11,800 ha of two freshwater lakes geographically flanked with Gunsan, Gimje, and Buan in Korea. Main constructions include 33.9 km sea dikes, two sluice gates, and 68.2 km water-blocking embankment. Halophyte communities were established on 2,866 ha of reclaimed land from 2006 to 2008 using 10,653 kg of eight halophytic seeds. The establishment area increased from 1,236 ha in 2006 to 2,352 ha in 2007, and to 2,431 ha in 2008, showing a significantly improved growth of halophyte community. The seaward extremities of halophyte communities in 2008 reached

Fig. 1 Location of experiments. Wind reduction experiment was conducted at a site neighboring Gimje in 2007. Dust collection in 2008 was carried out at six sites before or behind halophyte communities. In 2010, TSP was measured both at fifteen sites within halophyte communities and at five in nonvegetated areas.


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Fig. 2 Schematic diagram of measuring wind velocity reduction through a halophyte community. Anemometers were set up at one position before a halophyte community and at three inside. At a height of 20 cm, the wind was blocked by halophytes beginning to be clearly reduced from the first leeward position (P2) and was stabilized at the following P3 and P4 positions passing through the halophyte community.

out to 1,500 m off the old sea dike in Gunsan, 3,200 m in Gimje, and 3,100 m in Buan (Shin and Kim, 2010; Shin et al., 2012). Wind velocity reduction and dust collection experiments were carried out at sites around the halophyte communities in three districts. Locations of the experiments are shown in Fig. 1. Wind velocity reduction and dust collection experiments. Wind velocity reduction by a Suaeda asparagoides community with plant height of 50 cm was experimented from August 21 to August 23 in 2007. Anemometers (1560, Kanomax, Japan) were established at four positions in triplicate with spacing of 160 cm and wind velocity was measured for 20 min at 1Hz-frequency (Fig. 2). S. asparagoides plants (50 cm in height and 80 cm in width) in the reclaimed land were transplanted on November 8 of 2008 in order to examine dust collection by a pilot halophyte community (50 m×50 m). Twelve portable small-volume dust samplers (PCR8X, SKC Inc., Korea) with Teflon filters (PSVDS) were installed for TSP collection at 25 m intervals in four rows, of which configuration was determined in advance after checking the prevailing wind direction of northwest. Three were windward before the community and the rest leeward after. The flow rate was 2 L min−1 , and the operation time was 4 h. Monthly from June to December in 2008, each of two PSVDS were placed before and behind in-situ halophyte communities in three districts of Gunsan, Gimje, and Buan toward the prevailing wind direction in order to compare dust reduction by halophyte communities. The flow rate was 2 L min−1 and the operation time was 13 h. On October 13, 2010, TSP was concurrently collected with PSVDS both at fifteen sites within in-situ halophyte communities and at five sites in air-exposed areas in the vicinity of Buan to measure dust collection within halophyte communities. Dust samplers were set up at a height of 80 cm. The flow rate was 2 L min−1 and the operation time was 6 h. All filters were weighed on a balance with 1 µg precision after being dried in desiccators for 48 h before and after collection. One portable weather station (Watchdog 2900 ET, Spectrum Technologies Inc., USA) was used to examine wind characteristics. The prevailing wind direction was southwest in the morning and northwest in the afternoon. It was calm and hence the mean wind velocity recorded only 2 to 3 m s−1 during the experiment. High tide level was 0.31 m and low tide level −0.03 m according to Saemangeum Project Office.

Halophyte community distribution was field-surveyed from August 18 to September 3 with GPS inputs and aerial photo interpretation. Plant height, density, and coverage were surveyed in the 23 quadrats (1 m×1 m) by Braun-Blanquet’s method (1964) in October. Phragmites communis, Suaeda asparagoides, Aster subulatus, Salicornia europaea were major four halophyte communities. P. communis had the greatest plant height (88 cm), population density (58 individuals m−2) and coverage (40%) among four communities. Annual S. asparagoides and S. europaea expressed poor growth, especially in height and coverage. Additionally, a sample of deposition by halophyte communities in the reclaimed land was taken in April, 2009 to analyze particle size distribution at Korea Institute of Geology, Mining and Materials (GRADISTAT version 4.0). Absorbed nutrient analysis. Halophytic samples harvested at 20 sites in 2005 and 31 in 2010 all around the reclaimed land, were first air-dried indoors and then oven-dried at 40–70oC. Absorbed nutrient contents were determined by Rural Development Administration’s method (2000) after milled by a ball-mill. The nutrient absorption of S. asparagoides, a major halophytic species in 2006 (Shin et al, 2012), was determined by multiplying dry weight by nutrient contents. Dry weight of S. asparagoides was calculated by multiplying dry weight per m2 (3,174 g m−2) by developed area (1,236 ha) under the assumption that S. asparagoides are distributed uniformly. Dry weight per m2 was obtained by multiplying density (213 individuals m−2) by dry weight of individual (14.9 g) using height (28.3 cm) and the regression curve (y=0.73x−5.79, R2=0.89) between height (x) and dry weight (y).

Results & Discussion Dust collection. At a height of 20 cm, the wind was blocked by halophytes beginning to show a clear reduction from the first leeward position (P2) and was stabilized at the following P3 and P4 positions passing through the halophyte community. Wind reduction was 38 to 82% at a height of 20 cm in comparison with P1 before the halophyte community (Fig. 3). This result indicates halophyte communities can induce dust deposition within or to a leeward distance behind themselves by wind reduction or stabilization.

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Fig. 3 Wind velocity profiles through halophytes at heights of 20 and 60 cm. At a height of 20 cm, the wind velocity was clearly reduced at three leeward positions (by 67% at P2, 82% at P3, and 73% at P4) in comparison with P1 before the halophyte community. Table 1 TSP before and behind transplanted halophyte community Before community Position

P1

Behind community P2

P3

P4

µg (mean±standard deviation) TSP

26.4±6.7

10.1±3.3

10.0±3.2

11.1±3.5

P stands for the position where TSP was measured before and behind halophyte community.

Passing through transplanted halophyte community in the field, TSP was reduced by 61.7% (26.4→10.1 µg) between P1 and P2, and the reduction effect continued almost the same to 50 m position away from the community, which was 5.6-fold of plant height (Table 1). In addition, TSP between two sites before and behind in-situ halophyte communities was maximally reduced by 101.1 µg in June, and the reduction, regardless of experimented districts,

reached 25.6% on seven-monthly average (Fig. 4). Dust collection was also carried out within four halophyte communities of P. communis, S. asparagoides, A. subulatus, and S. aeuropaea (Fig. 5). Their detailed ecological properties are listed in Table 2. TSP collected within the vegetated area of four halophyte communities averaged 26.7 µg whereas 24.0 µg in the exposed area. TSP was 40.0, 33.3, 21.3, and 21.3 µg for S. asparagoides, P. communis, A. subulatus, and S. europaea respectively. Mean TSP at the wind-incoming north or seaward stations (D-2, D-3, D-5, D-9, D-10, and D-16) was 40.0 µg, which was much higher than 16.0 µg at central south ones (D-7, D-11, D-12, D-17, and D-19) located in the inner side of halophyte communities (Table 2). The experiment on dust collection within halophyte communities directly indicates that dust can be collected by halophyte communities. On the other hand, the findings were different from the hypothesis that dust collection is related with the ecological properties of halophyte communities that dust amount could be dependent on the plant height or coverage of dominant species. There seemed to be no significant relationship among dust amount and plant height, population density or coverage. Dust amount increased inside the communities of A. subulatus and S. europaea compared with exposed areas. Wang (1991) reported the typical threshold wind velocity of dust occurrence in the sandy desert regions is 4 m s−1, but the wind velocity that day was too low to raise slight dust off the exposed areas. The different extent of airexposed dust source around each station might also complicate dust collection by halophyte communities. However, at three stations of D-1, D-2, and D-3 in a line having the same bearing with the prevailing wind in the afternoon, TSP was on the increase in sequence from air-exposed area to S. asparagoides community to P. communis community (40.0→ 46.7→53.4 µg). This result implies that halophyte communities

Fig. 4 Monthly dust collection by in-situ halophyte communities. Monthly dust collection is the difference of TSPs before and behind halophyte community areas. (-) indicates that dust collection occurred by halophyte communities. TSP difference was measured as 25.6% on seven-monthly average.


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Fig. 5 Dust collection within in-situ halophyte communities. Solid circle: dust station, open square, plant survey site; solid triangle, weather station. TSP was 40.0, 33.3, 21.3, 21.3 ìg for S. asparagoides, P. communis, A. subulatus, and S. europaea, respectively. Mean TSP at the wind-incoming north or seaward stations was 40.0 ìg, which was much higher than 16.0 µg at central south ones. D stands for the station where TSP was measured in the field. Table 2 Dust collection and ecological properties of halophyte communities Dust station

Halophyte communities

Mean±SD

TSP (µg) D-1 40.0

D-4 20.0

P. communis

D-3 53.4

D-6 13.3

S. asparagoides

D-2 46.7

D-5 46.7

D-9 26.6

A. subulatus

D-12 13.3

D-13 6.70

D-14 33.3

D-17 20.0

D-20 33.3

21.3±11.9

S. europaea

D-7 20.0

D-10 33.3

D-11 13.3

D-16 26.6

D-19 13.3

21.3±8.70

Exposed area

D-8 6.70

D-15 33.3

D-18 20.0

Vegetated area

Ecological properties Height (cm)

Density (ind · m-2)

Coverage (%)

88±45

58±86

40±20

22±10

40±40

13±10

60±15

30±29

24±25

12±3

231±388

22±19

24.0±13.0 26.7±13.5 33.3±28.3 40.0±11.6

may function as a bio-filter of dust particulates. Approximately, 80% of dust particulates collected by twometer BSNE (Big Spring Number Eight) originated from a height ≤40–45 cm, moving near the surface of the reclaimed land (Hwang et al., 2008). Therefore, even short halophyte community

as a physical barrier against dust movement could have enough opportunity to filter sandy particulates with relatively homogeneous particle size curve of 54.64 to 355.95 µm in diameter whose peak appeared around 100 µm (Fig. 6). The size, shape, and arrangement of dunes stem from the

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J Korean Soc Appl Biol Chem (2013) 56, 679−686 Table 4 Nutrient absorptionof halophytic species Halophytic species Atriplex gmelini Aster subulatus Carex teinogyna Limonium tetragonum Phragmite scommunis Suaeda asparagoides Sonchus brachotus Salicorni aeuropaea Suaeda japonica Zoysiasinica

Fig. 6 Particle size distribution of dust particulates collected by halophyte community. A sample of deposition in halophyte community area was taken in April, 2009 to analyze particle size distribution. Sandy particulates had relatively homogeneous particle size of 54.64 to 355.95 µm in diameter whose peak appeared around 100 µm.

interaction of factors including sand supply, the direction and velocity of the prevailing wind, and the amount of vegetation. Although dunes are usually found in deserts, they can develop wherever there is an abundance of sand (Wicander and Monroe, 2006). In reality, large-scale sand deposition by halophyte communities was frequently found in Saemangeum reclaimed land. Its shape was like barchan observed in deserts. Deposition was almost up to the top center of halophytes. Just behind halophytes, it was about half the plant height and reduced gradually as becoming distant from halophytes. Deposition length reached 1.5 to 2 times of deposition width. Sand deposition by single halophyte was overlapped and promoted by many rows of halophytes such that small sand dunes were formed on a massive scale in the sown area. According to Seo (2010), about 1 m high sand accumulated around sand fences for two years, and considerable amount of sand was deposited during the winter season. Similarly but more rapidly, as fine sandy particulates blown off from seaward exposed area were intercepted by halophyte communities near Gyewha during the winter of 2007, a linear sand dune of five rows was observed perpendicular to the prevailing wind direction of northwest to west, about 900 m in length and 10 m in width. Deposition amount was roughly estimated to be 1,580 MT by multiplying its length, width, bulk density (1.25 g cm−3) and

T-N (%)

P2O5 (%)

Na+ (%)

1.06 0.86 1.26 1.00 0.97 1.03 1.71 1.17 1.07 0.84

0.05 0.21 0.10 0.17 0.11 0.12 0.09 0.14 0.13 0.05

3.20 0.12 0.69 0.08 0.80 1.27 0.20 3.90 1.75 1.14

average deposition height (0.14 m). Nutrient absorption. Nitrogen and phosphorus in soil can be washed away by erosion to have an adverse effect on water quality and excessive sodium in itself severely inhibits crop growth. Halophytes are very useful in mitigating such problems by absorbing nitrogen, phosphorus, and sodium into body as essential nutrients. Nitrogen (total nitrogen), phosphorus (P2O5), and sodium (Na+) contents absorbed by halophytes in 2005 before halophyte community establishment were 2.60, 0.14, and 4.98 g m−2, respectively. However, in 2010 after halophyte community establishment, they changed to 0.45, 0.11, and 0.09 g m−2, respectively (Table 3). Table 4 shows nutrient contents of representative halophytic species in Saemangeum reclaimed land. Different halophytes contained considerable amount of nitrogen (0.84 to 1.71% of dry weight), phosphorus (0.05 to 0.21% of dry weight), and sodium (0.08 to 3.90% of dry weight). Nitrogen and phosphorus contents temporally decreased in 2010 (Fig. 7), which may be caused by the proliferation of low salt-tolerant halophytes (A. subulatus, L. tetragonum, P. communis) and glycophytes with different absorption patterns. Overall, considerable amounts of nutrients were absorbed into halophytes. Compared with Min’s result (1990), phosphorus and sodium contents were similar but nitrogen content was high. The amount of total nitrogen, P2O5 and Na+ absorbed by S. asparagoides occupying only part of halophyte communities in 2006 was estimated up to 404,000, 47,000, and 498,000 kg, respectively. Thus, if all species in Saemangeum reclaimed land are considered, the total nutrient absorbed into halophytes could run into astronomical figures.

Table 3 Nutrient absorption of halophytesper unit area before and after halophyte community establishment Unit

Year

T-N (%)

P2O5 (%)

CaO (%)

K2O (%)

MgO (%)

Na+ (%)

% of dry weight

2005 2010

1.16 0.84

0.06 0.20

3.57 0.51

2.22 0.16

0.57 0.17

1.61 0.15

Grams per m2*

2005 2010

2.60 0.45

0.14 0.11

8.02 0.27

4.98 0.09

1.28 0.09

3.61 0.09

*: this is calculated from mean dry weight (224.5 g m−2) multiplied by % of dry weight.


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Fig. 7 Absorbed nutrient percentages of halophytic species. Ag: A. gmelini, Zs: Z. sinica, Ct: C. teinogyna, Pc: P.communis, Pl: P. latifolius, Sb: S. brachotus, Sa: S. asparagoides, Sj: S. japonica, Se: S. europaea. Ass: Aster subulatus, Lt: Limonium tetragonum. Nitrogen and phosphorus contents temporally decreased in 2010, which may be caused by the proliferation of low salt-tolerant halophytes and glycophytes with different absorption patterns.

In terms of atmospheric environment, halophyte communities were capable of reducing and stabilizing wind velocity from the ground to the top of halophytes. Actual dust reduction through halophyte communities was also measured by comparison of dust collection before and behind themselves. On the basis of established halophyte community area, a great deal of total nitrogen (T-N), P2O5 and Na+ can be absorbed by halophyte communities in the reclaimed land. Future studies. Dust collection can be affected by field conditions such as wind velocity, wind direction, the weather, halophyte growth, anthropogenic activities, among others (Seo et al., 2010). To overstep these limitations, wind tunnel experiments and computational fluid dynamics simulations along with field experiments need to be introduced on halophyte communities hereafter as the previous studies did (Bitog et al., 2009; 2011; 2012). Although frequently ignored or underestimated in reclamation projects, Saemangeum Reclamation Project will face some challenges like urgent environmental adverse effects, low soil fertility, shortage of good quality irrigation water, rice overproduction, and ecosystem restoration. Halophytes are expected to play a pivotal role in overcoming such challenges as a primary producer or an alternative crop as well as a bioremediation plant. Halophytes, as many as 21 families 57 species, were recently classified in Korea (Shim et al., 2009), and many of them were also identified in Saemangeum reclaimed land (Kim et al., 2006). It is especially promising to study halophytes as an alternative crop for bio-ethanol production as well as a CO2 sink in Saemangeum reclaimed land, because they are reported as one of the most productive sources in terms of lingo-cellulosic biomass (Flowers and Colmer, 2008), which may be converted into ethanol without compromising human food production. As Abideen et al. (2011) suggest, there is a need to investigate the possibility of breeding plants as well as to select native plants having desirable characteristics such as high biomass with high cellulose/hemicellulose and low lignin contents. Acknowledgment. This research was conducted by the financial support from the Ministry for Food, Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries.

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