MENOYO, M.P. (2001) El contrato didáctico o pedagógico, en AA. ... PIGRAU, T. (2000) El contrato didáctico en el trabajo cooperativo: un instrumento para la.
EDUCATIONAL STRATEGIES FOR PRIMARY AND SECONDARY EDUCATION Margarita R. Rodríguez Gallego
SUMMARY: Introduction. 1. Conceptual definition. 2. Guidelines for the teacher's intervention in class. 3. Educational strategies for Primary and Secondary Education. 3.1 One class, two instructors. 3.2 Differentiation according to learning levels 3.3 Didactic Contract 3.4 Cooperative groups 3.5 Work projects 3.6 Individual study and independent learning 3.7 Thinking strategies 3.8 Expression strategies 4. Activities 5. Autoevaluation 6. Bibliography. INTRODUCTION Educational strategies in Pre-school, Primary and Secondary education enable teachers to solve controversial situations in the school or the classroom (flexible groups of students, comradeship issues, workshops, flexible timetables, different programs, etc.) and also to find practical solutions to educational problems. When taking these kinds of decisions, it is important to bear in mind that psychological, pedagogical and institutional levels converge within the organizational aspect. This work is focused on the pedagogical level, always taking into account the rest of levels. This chapter aims at the following goals: 1. To become aware of the complexity and the extension of the concepts presented here. 2. To acquire knowledge that enables the teacher to develop thinking and investigation processes about education. 3. To learn about the educational strategies for a Primary and Secondary Education class in order to face challenges of active teaching. 4. To cope with real situations where the knowledge acquired can be put into practice. 1. CONCEPTUAL DEFINITION Although the concept “strategy” has been clearly defined during the last chapter, the aim here is to highlight its meaning. According to Uría, in the educational field, it refers to an organized and sequenced series of actions, which end is to solve one or various problems (1998:13). In Rodríguez Diéguez words (1994), a strategy is conceived as a sequence of activities decided by the teacher as a guideline for his/her intervention in the classroom (cf. Medina y Salvador, 2002:160).
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From this perspective, educational strategies are the solution for the heterogeneity of educational centers and classes. The class group is the perfect environment to address this heterogeneity, and teachers have to cope with the differences as something common from their daily job. “From a traditional perspective, students not able to achieve the established objectives are excluded in different ways: creating special groups in class for those lagging behind; special classes for students with learning difficulties or behavioral problems; or sending the student to special schools. In this kind of measures underlie the fact that learning difficulties have their origins in individual factors or variables. For this reason, measures especially designed for these students are taken instead of revising or modifying the teaching practice aspects creating these difficulties” (Blanco Guijarro, 2004) Addressing heterogeneity means to break with the traditional scheme where students work on the same matter, at the same moment, in the same way, and with the same material. The main issue is how to arrange the learning process so that common learning experiences could be taken into account at the same time that individual needs are kept in mind. For achieving this, some basic principles on how the teacher has to proceed in class, and diverse educational strategies to focus on diversity should be established. 2. GUIDELINES FOR THE TEACHER'S INTERVENTION IN CLASS. In this chapter, some basics that every teacher has to keep in mind when establishing didactic strategies, regardless the educational model, are illustrated. a) To be aware of students’ previous knowledge. Thanks to an initial test, teachers must know students’ previous knowledge on the subject, as well as some basic intellectual skills in order to establish a real evaluation of the situation. Activities for the initial test must be linked to motivation and activation of previous knowledge (open questions, semantic networks, multiple choice questions, observation guidelines, interviews…). They should not be considered as exams or excluding tests. Moreover, studying students’ previous knowledge involves aspects not related to the class, but the relevant ones…) b) To work with students’ previous notions. Teachers must know their students’ previous notions about the subject they are going to work on in order to corroborate if these are right or wrong. This inquiry should be done at the beginning of every lesson and every content unit. Detection strategies for students’ previous notions can be grouped in paper and pencil (previous tests, graphic and expressive illustrations, etc.) and oral (interviews, Phillips 66, brainstorming, debates, role- playing, leaded debates, forum, etc.). Dramatizations 2
and real or imaginary situations are useful for assessing behaviors or attitudes in order to overcome negative aspects and improve the positive ones. c) To help students to be part of their own learning process. Teachers must favor necessary conditions for students to participate actively in their own learning process, as well as to help them to establish connections between what they already know and what they are going to learn. d) To offer individual assistance. Teachers must help and orientate students as individually as possible so that they are able to acquire the comprehension ability to determine the elements that compose a certain piece of information, its basic structure, the different aspects of its related parts, and the connections established between them. e) Flexibility in the teaching planning. Teachers must suggest topics, lessons, assignments, or work plans where students can participate in different ways. This means a flexible didactic planning, which enables active participation of all students involved. f) To create a positive classroom environment. Teachers must create a positive classroom environment that favors schoolwork and where students feel comfortable so that didactic communication can be developed more effectively. g) To combine individual and group work. Teachers must combine individual and group work for the learning/teaching process. The instructor must teach the students how to work individually as well as in groups (collaboration, respect for peers’ ideas, task-sharing, etc.). h) To set rules for the running of the class. Rules must be set up by students, a few and very specific in order to assimilate them. A useful criterion is to reach a consensus with all teachers of the school. i) To diversify lessons’ rhythm. There is a wide range of possibilities: an initial presentation of the teacher, followed by warming- up activities (individuals and in groups), then questions to better assimilate the information thanks to extra material concluding with final activities for learning assessment. j) To use different materials. Teachers must use more materials apart from the textbook such as materials created by them and also by students. Using different sources must correspond to the usage of different resources, such as the new information and communication technologies. k) To foster critical thinking. Learning must not be reduced to rote learning. For this reason, students should be encouraged to reach personal conclusions about the topics seen in class. These kinds of activities will foster the development of critical thinking, which is one of the goals of active methodologies. l) To provide information about the learning process. Students must know what, why, and the purpose of activities in order to manage their work plan and to know their progresses and difficulties.
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Once analyzed, some leading principles for educational performance in the classroom and some didactic strategies are going to be tested regarding learning organization in the class-group.
3. Educational strategies for Primary and Secondary Education The flexibility of our educational system, established by the Organic Law of Education 2/2006, May 3rd, involves the concession of some autonomy for educational centers. It means that every center should use the methodology that best fits its needs and students’ ones in order to achieve academic success. Moreover, decisions taken in class are determined by different educational conceptions and by the teacher´s professional experience. For example, when the teacher gives more or less autonomy in class, fosters more or less participation in the learning process organization, and prepares activities more or less flexible, it determines his/her daily task and class intervention (Bravo, 2006). This flexibility criterion at school and classroom level discards the idea of homogeneous groups and focuses on three learning levels in class: lower, intermediate and upper. Therefore, the alternative to the gradual organization based on students’ age is flexible grouping. Gairín (1995) proposes three guidelines to be combined in order to achieve the management and heterogeneous groups in schools: 1. The class as a structure unit. 2. The subject. Nowadays, the teaching load is linked to the departments. Even though this way of arrangement is space–effective, difficulties appear when seeking for interdisciplinarity, when fostering school social life (difficult to establish from the subjects) or when topics non-easily catalogued from the cultural aspect are carried out in class. 3. Activities. They must be common and differentiated in order to distribute students and spaces flexibly according to the nature of the task that must be carried out, and according to students’ characteristics. Boggino and Huberman’s proposal (2002) is closely related to the activities. They suggest the creation of special learning groups, which are educative scenarios focused on the task, by cycles or subjects, where the teacher’s role is to give special importance to his/her students learning process. An example could be the class arrangement for Language or Math in the sixth year of Primary Education, where parallel classes are established. The Language subject is in the same time slot for every group in order to teach students according to their level; the same is applied to Math classes.
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Another important organizational requirement is the length of learning sessions according to the type of activity, group size, students’ level, etc. Space arrangement is also important, both in the class and outside with regard to the students’ necessities. As a didactic requirement, methodology has to be related to group abilities, interests, attitudes and responses. It is also necessary to expand time slots and evaluation models. Evaluation activities have to respect different learning styles and students’ educational needs. (Adapting evaluation processes and using less academic methods like interviews, oral tests, observation boards, etc is recommended). Finally, it is necessary to differentiate the tutorship system in order to assist students individually. Thanks to the aspects abovementioned, different models that make possible variations in class and learning arrangements are offered (Agelet, Bassedas y Comadevall, 2001 and Bravo 2006). Although there is a wide range of classifications regarding educational strategies, the most common ones in our schools ( workshops, projects, work plans, places of interest, cooperative work with peers, etc.) have been chosen because of their origins in pedagogical trends and authors such as Freinet, Montessori, Decroly, Dewey, Ferrer i Guardia, among others. They were the predecessors and set the basis of a pedagogy centered in students’ self-directed learning processes, interacting with their peers, taking into account their interests, and fostering their autonomy as well as collaborative work. These principles are still valid and applied. The game-task, developed in corners and workshops, has been analyzed in the previous chapter, focused on Pre- School education. Readers can take a look at recalling their previous knowledge, because it is a strategy also used in Primary Education. 3.1.One class, two instructors. It consists of taking advantage of all personal resources of the school (supportive teachers, therapeutic pedagogy teacher, Psychology and Pedagogy teacher, and teachers of the same area…) in the same classroom. This strategy allows sharing knowledge of the same group by two teachers in order to adequate the necessary didactic planning and methodology for students. It is essential to plan the joint educational interventions at the beginning of the school year, establishing functions and dividing tasks among students. Contents revised thanks to this organization allow the monitoring and grading of tasks involving problem- solving, text creations, searching of information after an experiment, tutorship, etc. This experience has been put into practice in Pre- School, Primary and also Secondary education. 3.2.Differentiation according to learning levels The entire group works with the same topic, but proposing different activities according to levels of difficulty. Activities can be done in pairs, groups or individually. 5
“This kind of organization requires different materials prepared by the teachers together with the department. These materials have to take into account students’ skills so that the level of difficulty can be adapted to their possibilities” (Agelet, Bassedas y Comadevall, (2001:20). This strategy brings some organizational aspects of the school, where students of different ages and thus, different abilities, take part in different activities. These kind of activities have been conducted in Social Science classes during both Primary and Secondary education. Estruch (1995) developed in Navás, Bages (Catalonia) a flexible grouping experience for instrumental subjects (groups of 10-12 and 12-14 years old). Students were divided in two or more groups, depending on their interest and motivation in Math and Language, as well as their personal way of working. In order to know the initial level of students, they were evaluated in at least two subjects. Evaluations were focused on contents (methods, concepts, and values). Thanks to interviews with students and their interaction in school activities, motivation, interests and adaptation were evaluated. After that, they were initially grouped. The group nomenclature was of two digits: the first one was the year that the student was in, and the second the content level that they had to work at. If the second digit was 1, students had learning difficulties, and they were not motivated. If the digit was 2 or 3, students were more autonomous organizing their work, with more ability to relate concepts, deducing rules and reaching conclusions, etc. This initial level was recorded on monitoring forms, and it was completed and modified during the school years and periodically valued in a joint evaluation with the teacher- tutor and the student. Groups were flexible so that the students could move from one group to another depending on their pace of working, the topic, the didactic unit or learning phase, motivation, etc. Teachers, parents and students decided group change. All groups worked with the same contents, topics and projects, but with different specialization, rhythm and, mainly, methodology and intervention level from the adult. Basic exercises were common to all groups, but extra activities for a better understanding were different. Members of group 1 were motivated when they saw each other working in the same way. In group 1, topics were explained step by step, with diverse strategies to keep students’ attention: using colorful chalks, emphasizing, mural images displaying the resolution of a type of exercise, more concrete explanations, etc. However, in the other groups more global aspects were studied, and students were encouraged to reach their own conclusions about proposed situations. The duration of the lessons was between one hour and 45 minutes and two hours and always in the early morning, when students are more receptive. 6
The number of teachers working in a class-group was reduced as much as possible and tutors were told to teach instrumental parts of the subjects. Apart from the initial evaluation, after each test, students were quizzed, returning the same result for 80% of the students. The remaining 20% was based on a better in-sight on one hand, and for basic or review exercises on the other hand. According to the levels reached at the end of the year, the teacher developed “summer homework” adapted to the different groups so that students could revise, remember and get a better in-sight about instrumental subjects. Combining this strategy with extra class activities in Primary and Secondary Education is recommended. 3.3 Didactic Contract Its main function is to alleviate teacher’s task when proposing students learning activities according to their possibilities and interests. It is an alternative of the Work Plan and is carried out through a contract where the teacher and the student negotiate the work that has to be done during a fixed period of time and with the resolutions written down. “The pedagogy of the contract arrange learning situations where there is a negotiated agreement between two parts that want to achieve a cognitive, methodological or behavioral objective” (Przesmycki, 2000:17). There are some innovative education proposals that can be considered as the predecessors of the didactic contract. Sanmartí (2001) comes back to Freinet’s proposal, from the 1940’s, the cooperative society. With this proposal, students and teachers take decisions about class performance, in the legislative and judicial aspect, and sometimes executive. Another movement from France, the institutional pedagogy in the 1960’s was also successful. This movement focused on the self-directed construction of schools, considering that all that happens in a class and in a school could only be understood by taking into account its constitutional dimension. They developed pedagogical selfmanagement tools such as class assemblies. A third movement, also from France, constitutes the basis of lots of didactic contracts. It was developed in the 1980’s with the influence of trends such as educational evaluation, the autonomy pedagogy or the contract pedagogy. “They have in common the stress on the necessity to share meanings and responsibilities in a school through negotiations, and the achievement of explicit agreements between institution or class members” (Sanmartí, 2001:59). Therefore, the contract is an effective tool according to two differentiation aspects, one focused on the required processes and the other focused on contents. 1. Differentiation of learning processes. Students work with the same objective, but according to their own learning process through autonomous work. 7
2. Differentiation of learning contents. Students work in class with different contents, defined in terms of cognitive and methodological objectives. In a pedagogical contract, the following elements have to be negotiated: Final result defining the contract objective. Means at the disposal of the teacher and the sequence by which they are going to be implemented. Students’ required help. Final and intermediate outcomes Successful contract evaluation and steps followed to accomplish the goal. Eventual diffusion These elements can be defined and formulated according to a fixed language. Once the contract has been negotiated, participants commit themselves to spend time, energy, and reflection to carry it out. Thus, “we can talk about pedagogical contract when a student and a teacher share opinions, talk about their needs, their feelings, and they share projects and decide to carry them out together. They also decide the evaluation of the learning process and achieved results” (Przesmycki, 2000:18). Depending on the objectives proposed and the participants involved, different contracts can be established. TYPES
FUNCTIONS
AGREEMENT
Retaking
School retake of a sequence, credits…short duration
Individual (according to personal characteristics)
Problem- solving
To solve any behavioral problem (absenteeism, aggressiveness, disorder…)
Individual, in groups or the entire class
For a Project
To create a project. It can take a long time but some moments have to be dedicated to revise work progress.
Individual or in groups (every group has its own task, or every member of the group has a different responsibility)
Assessment
To establish the assessment criteria of a task or learning sequence.
Individual (when putting information in common in class).
Class group
To achieve a common objective for the entire class. Its duration can vary from three months to the entire academic year.
Classes (methodological indications are for the entire group, and every student writes his/her own contract down).
Table IX.1.Didactic contract types (Menoyo, 2001:196). Przesmycki proposes another classification for contract types (2000:133). Every type is described and illustrated with negotiation examples. 8
1. Didactic contract. The main objective is to conduct cognitive and methodological learning processes linked to a subject. The objective is the same for the entire class, defined by the teacher and explained in every individual contract. Its main feature is that they can be rarely negotiated because the teacher has established it. 2. Successful contract. Its aim is based on students’ success during the academic year. There are various objectives. It has similarities with the didactic contract, but with individualized characteristics. It is adjusted to students’ need of improving, but not to adult contents teaching. Its parameters can be negotiated. 3. Project contract. This contract has two goals, the information obtained after a class assembly, as well as trips and internships organization. 4. Problem-solving contract. Its aim is to find solutions to behavioral problems such as aggressiveness, nervousness, stealing, vandalism, impoliteness, physical and verbal violence, passiveness, etc. Its goals are mainly focused on behavioral changes. 5. Institutional contract, life contract or social contract. Its aim is to elaborate the rules for the running of the community, which can be one or various classes, as well as the entire school. All institution members negotiate the contract: students, teachers, surveillance, administration, orientation, and documentation members, as well as parents, and external people. Answering the following questions will improve the didactic contract creation process: 1. Why a contract? It is essential to find out the teacher’s objective when proposing a learning process through a contract, and which reasons have motivated him/her to do so. 2. What kind of contract? It will depend on the objective and the causes determining it. 3. On whom is this contract focused? On a group of students, an entire class, a group contract to solve problems, to help one particular student, etc. 4. In which context is it best to carry out negotiation? Where, for how long, in or out the classroom? When the contract is finally evaluated, there is only one period of negotiation. However, there are various periods in the intermediate balance and initial analysis stages, when the contract can be modified and negotiated again. The student needs to realize that the sooner completed the better. The longer the contract takes, the more likely it is to be given up. 5. Who proposes the contract? Members of the educational system, librarians, nurses, social workers, the school principal, teachers, students… 6. Is the contract oral? In this case, oral elements will be recorded or written down. This kind of contract is normally carried out with students who have 9
difficulties with oral skills, who are passive and reserved, reticent, rebellious or who do not like school. 7. Is the contract written? The terms of the contract can be formulated and then written by students, adults or all together. 8. Which are the contract limits? For successful communication it is necessary to establish adult limits (mutual respect, listening to each other, non physical or verbal violence, insults, etc.) According to Przesmycki (2000) contract pedagogy stages are the following: Initial analysis of the situation Setting up of the objectives Negotiation of all elements constituting the learning process covered by the contract. In a didactic contract, the final result cannot be negotiated because the teacher establishes it (dossier, cartel, audiovisual setting, produced object, joint project exposition, computer or electronic programs, sketch, artistic expression or monitoring the given lessons). For other contracts, production can be negotiated. Contract evaluation. The teacher must evaluate when proposing that students learn and acquire professional skills in his/her subject. However, he/she also needs students’ selfevaluation regarding the success of the contract. We talk about co- evaluation contract in groups. In intragroup co-evaluation, three to five students, grouped according to a common objective, negotiate a contract that allows them to do a group evaluation. Each one in his/her own table or everybody in the same. In intergroup co-evaluation, each group (with different contracts) assesses the final products of the other groups. Constructive dialogue co-evaluation consists on suggesting and organizing dialogs, most of the times in pairs or trios as an interview or sketch.
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COOPERATIVE WORK CONTRACT Drawn up by teachers and students Level: 5º year Primary Education. School year: 2005/2006
COOPERATIVE WORK IN THE CLASSROOM AND LABORATORY
Why?
Some of the goals of this school year are: To learn to listen to teachers and students To learn to coherently argue and discuss own ideas in front of a group To learn to share and take advantage of skills and knowledge that every group member can bring to the table To appreciate the value of solving problems through collaboration among equals To learn to ask for help when it is required To learn to manage time and work when working in groups To learn to work as scientists do: analyzing, questioning, experimenting, testing and checking. How?
How can this be achieved? Agreements shall be made and fulfilled in order to be able to carry out work in groups. These agreements are:
To know how to respect others’ opinions To help any member of the group if they have any difficulty in understanding something Not to get nervous or act impolitely when something goes wrong. It must be done again The work shall be done once again in order to get everyone involved in the project To work in an organized way To discuss and argue in a politically correct and polite way To lower the voice when the teacher needs to speak to someone entering the classroom To correctly manage time and work. Signed (Each of students in their own document)
Table IX. 2. Example of a didactic contract (Pigrau 2000:107) (Cada uno de los alumnos, en su propio documento)
This kind of experience has been conducted through the Primary and Secondary Education stages. 11
3.4. Cooperative groups In its early stages it was known as “work in groups” or “team work”, although as Ovejero and others assert (2002), every form of cooperative learning is group learning, but not all group learning means cooperative learning. Cooperative learning is a classroom management strategy that fosters students’ organization in heterogenic groups in order to carry out tasks and learning activities inside the classroom. “Cooperative learning is one of the most efficient ways in order to respect individual differences that are present inside the classroom. It is also valid in order to address the content taught to every student, considering that individual work is a global concept where everyone is indispensable and everyone progresses according to their necessities. At the same time, everyone must also receive the required help in order to accomplish the assigned tasks” (Essomba y Laborda, 1995:268/154). Ainscow (2004) establishes some differences between group learning and cooperative learning: 1. In cooperative groups there is a positive interdependence between group members. Each student has an interest in both the performance of their classmates and for their own. This does not take place in the traditional proposals of team work. 2. In cooperative learning there is both an individual and a common responsibility between all group members regarding the work that must be done. This characteristic does not usually take place in group learning. 3. Groups composition in cooperative work is heterogenic, while in team work activities, this composition is usually homogenic. 4. Required techniques, skills and strategies in order to develop team work are taught by the teacher, while in group work it is assumed that the student already has this set of techniques, skills and strategies. 5. Cooperative work is carried out inside the classroom under the teacher’s supervision, while group work is mostly conducted outside the classroom. Cooperative groups create a learning group dynamic and structure that enables students to acquire knowledge in a shared way, as a result of the interaction and cooperation among equals. Cooperation means that every group member will achieve their goals provided that the other members of the group can achieve and fulfill their own objectives and goals. Separately, each student will have to show what they have learnt and because of that, team work; initial and final evaluation must be individual. The learning process is not the same for everyone so, each 12
student will have to accomplish the previously established goals according to his/her level, capacity and agreement with the teacher. By doing this, teachers can offer customized support, and at the same time, teachers can pay attention to the diversity at different levels and rhythms, as well as capacities and interests that are present in the classroom (Essomba and Laborda, 1995). Cooperative learning represents a change in the activity structure (when combining individual work with cooperative team work), in the authority structure (there is a balance between teachers and students when deciding what and how to learn) and in the reward structure (a process of self-overcoming and self-improvement take place at individual and group levels). Students are divided in reduced teams (4-5 members), heterogenic, (gender, ethnicity, interests, motivations, capacities, performances…) and they must follow the process proposed by Slavin (1991) in order to organize cooperative groups.
To present goals and objectives to students To conduct an initial evaluation To prioritize goals of each student To clearly explain contents and evaluation criterion To conduct an autoevaluation by groups. The teacher must conduct an individual evaluation To evaluate each group To plan the individual support Johnson and Johnson (1999) suggest the following recommendations in order to plan a lesson with cooperative techniques: To make decisions before giving instructions. Before each session, teachers present the goals, decide the group size, and establish the method to be followed and prepare and organize the necessary material to carry out the work. To explain the activity. In each session teachers must explain the activity, evaluation criterion and attitudes that students must show. To supervise and intervene. In each session teachers must orientate the groups and make students understand contents to be acquired and tasks to be accomplished. To assess. Teachers and students will assess the work done by the group. In order to work in cooperative groups, students must enlarge their social skills; this means that they must learn how to organize themselves, to listen, to distribute the work, to solve conflicts, to divide responsibilities and to coordinate tasks. On the other hand, teachers must develop a set of skills related to the capacity of anticipating the action, management in the classroom, material gathering, infrastructure required to conduct planned tasks, time needed to accomplish the work and possible behaviors that do not allow the group to work properly (Kagan, 1994). 13
This strategy can be developed throughout all educational stages, subjects and curricular components. Some techniques for developing cooperative learning according to Domènech (2001) are: 3.4.1. Group-Investigation This technique remarks the following aspects: 1. Sub-topic selection and distribution (students choose their own interests). 2. Group formation inside the classroom (between 3 and 5 members). 3. Sub-topic study planning. Students and teachers plan goals and procedures to be accomplished and used respectively, as well as the tasks that are going to be carried out (to find, summarize, analyze and process information). 4. Plan development (teachers make a follow-up of each student’s progress). 5. Synthesis and analysis (students summarize information and then they present it to the rest of the group). 6. Work presentation (questions are asked and answered according to possible solutions or doubts). 7. Evaluation (students and teachers must evaluate both group work and its presentation to the rest of the classroom). 3.4.2. STAD (Student Team-Achievement Divisions) This technique incorporates an intragroup cooperation and an intergroup competence. Heterogenic groups of 4-5 members are formed and teachers present the topic to the entire class regarding explanations that they consider appropriate. Then, students will work in teams for several lessons in which questions, doubts, discussions, presentation of new information, concept explanation and memorizing take place. Finally, teachers assess each student individually. The obtained grade is compared to prior ones. If they are the same or higher, students gain points which when added up compose the group grade. 3.4.3. Aronson’s Jigsaw technique By making use of this technique, students become learning instructors for their own classmates. The main idea of this technique consists of dividing the class into work groups (puzzle or jigsaw groups) and assigning a different task to all of its members. Afterwards, puzzle groups are broken up and expert groups are formed. Each expert group will be composed of one member of each puzzle group. Once the assignment has been finished, expert groups will assess the outcome of their work. At the next stage, original puzzle groups are once again created and each expert will explain to the rest of their team mates the part of information that has been imparted to him/her. Finally, when work sessions are finished, puzzle groups must have a complete portfolio of the content that has been covered. At the evaluation stage, teachers must assess and grade the portfolio presented by each puzzle group 14
and must conduct an individual test covering the topic content. The final grade will be the average of the puzzle group grade. This technique was developed during the school year 2003-04 at the Education Science Degree of Seville University obtaining outstanding results (Navarro and others, 2004). 3.4.4. De Vries’ Teams Games Tournament technique It consists of addressing the teacher’s previously explained contents. Afterwards, weekly “academic tournaments” are organized. Teams are organized according to similar academic performance levels and teams play against each other. When the game is finished, individual punctuations are summed up. The success of the team will depend on the individual successes of its members and the help offered to all of them. The final punctuation is the sum of all individual punctuations. García, Traver and Candela (2001) present the following example: a 25 student classroom will be divided into 5 different groups. Five different contests will be organized in which 5 different students from each group with similar academic levels of performance will participate. For each contest the teacher must prepare 15 questions so 3 different questions will be addressed to each student. In order to hold 5 different contests the teacher must prepare a set of 75 different questions related to the topic. 3.4.5. TGT (Teams-Games Tournaments) This is similar to the STAD technique. However, this technique makes use of individual tests at the end of each tournament where students from different groups play against each other. Students form groups of three. The three students who obtained the higher punctuation in the last tournament form the group number 1; the next three form group number 2 and so on. 3.4.6. Tutoring among equals (Peer tutoring) It is based on collaboration among peers when one classmate asks for help from another. A dual learning structure takes place here: between pairs of students belonging to the same group. This strategy consists of an advanced student teaching a less advanced fellow student under the teacher’s supervision. It is also called “student’s assisted learning”, “student’s provided teaching” and “associated students’ strategy” (Gallego y Salvador, 2002).This technique is gradually growing in popularity and is now being performed in an increasing number of schools where students explain to their peers a previously read text and how to hold a discussion on certain topics, for instance. A different approach used with this strategy is the tutoring among students of different ages. In order to implement this strategy correctly, students must be previously trained for the tutorial function that they are going to perform. The teachers’ function when making use 15
of this strategy is to lead, to control the interaction process and to evaluate the individual results obtained. This way of working can be used at most education levels, specifically among the second and third cycle of Primary and Secondary Education. 3.5. Work projects It consists of stimulating the selection of information in order to foster student’s progressive autonomy through the usage of different strategies and procedures. Thanks to this type of organization, diversity can be better addressed as well as answering a global education plan upon the same work project. Each project has a different pattern and it is designed according to student’s interests, previous knowledge, and experiences. In these work projects, accumulation of lineal information is substituted by the seeking of relations between different sources and problems that intend to connect to knowledge structures. According to Hernández and Ventura (2000), this project’s function is to foster and improve the creation of school knowledge organization strategies in relation with: 1. Dealing with information 2. The relationship between contents and problems or hypothesis aimed at knowledge building. This means the transformation of information coming from different disciplinary epistemological fields. Projects can be organized according to certain topics or axis: a concept definition, a general or particular problem, a set of related questions, a topic of interest…The teacher’s role moves from transferring knowledge, organizing and controlling the didactic sequence to students’ learning helper. The teacher enables them to take part in the didactic sequence. Normally the teacher can follow the next steps: 1. Topic selection by students through teachers’ recommendations. It can be related to an official curriculum topic, it may come from a common experience, from a current fact or someone else´s project question. This information may be published on the school information boards, so families can also be involved in the project. 2. Knowledge assessment that students have about the topic (initial evaluation). 3. Concept identification about the aspects that students are interested in studying. The path that needs to be followed must be specified, the cognitive sketch that will allow the project to go beyond the informative or instrumental necessary aspects, so it can be used in other topics or problems. 4. Searching of materials. 5. Information topic searching and gathering. This information selection must be compared to other sources that students already have or may have. It must also be compared with the connections that may come from other educational spaces that take place inside the school schedule and the school planning. 16
6. Participation and interest degree with the classroom work at a group and individual level. It consists of reinforcing the group consciousness about learning. 7. Process evaluation: a) Initial: what students know about the topic, what their hypotheses are and their learning references. b) Formative: what students are learning and the process they are following. Categories used in order to assess students can be the following: Concept learning Proceedings usage Instrumental learning progress Attitude towards work Formal aspects in work’s presentations Students´ general assessment in relation with his/her autoevaluation Students´ general attitude towards the group and the teacher c) Final: what has been learnt according to the initial proposals. Are they able to establish new relations? 8. To recall the process that has been carried out throughout the project through a planning form. This activity can be used as a memory activity, an exchange with other colleagues and a starting point for a new project for the teacher. Once students have chosen the projects, the following steps are to be followed: -
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After the topic selection, each student must create an index in which aspects to be dealt with in the project are explained (with young students this activity is conducted in groups). The index means a motivation and evaluation component since it establishes the provisions about the different aspects of the project and it also incorporates its members´ degree of involvement. To establish the different index aspects by common consent. Diversified information searching: written information, guests conferences, museums visits, expositions, videos, etc. Students assume and learn to face information searching upon their own resources. Thus, more people can be involved in the searching of information which means that learning does not only take place at the school and that it is a fact that implies communication between two people. Dealing with information. This process can be conducted individually or collectively (opinion confrontation, information organization and presentation, new questions planning, etc.) To develop the pointed aspects at the index through group or individual activities. To create a synthesis dossier about the dealt aspects and the ones that remain open for future projects (initial index elaboration, used information sources organization, activities, work analysis and observation, etc.). Entire project process assessment and evaluation. 17
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New continuity perspectives for the next project.
Work projects suppose an innovation that can be used in every knowledge field, but basically, work projects have been put into practice in the areas of Natural and Social Science. There are also projects aimed at the building of an object in the areas of Artistic Crafts and Technology. These projects are mainly used at the Pre-school, Primary and Secondary Education stages. 3.6. Individual study and autonomous learning It is a process aimed at self-control and self-assessment as the activity orientates towards the creation of intellectual skills in order to obtain knowledge and learning. This modality is used for personal reflection, research, and knowledge restoring, and originality and creativity development. Students have the individual responsibility for their own training throughout the studying period. Through individual study, students may achieve the basic skills of comprehension to establish which elements are a phenomenon or a fact, their essential structure, and the linked characteristics between their parts and the relations between elements of different nature. Space and time dimensions must be also observed at the same time. Through individual study, students must develop and control self-motivation to carry out academic work. Individual work enables students to establish substantive links between what needs to be learnt and what is already known. This process leads students towards the acquisition of integrated learning in its cognitive structure in order to secure its comprehensive memorization and its functionality. Learn how to learn allows students to keep on working and to take advantage of the lessons since they are trained and experiment beyond what is being taught. Students who have learnt how to learn do not need anyone to guide their learning process since they have become autonomous learners and they can learn by themselves (Sevillano, 2004). 3.7. Thinking strategies Bravo (2006:75-79) presents a list of useful strategies in order to develop students’ thinking. 3.7.1. PIN (Positive, Interesting, Negative). Each group member individually tries to describe positive aspects about the topic in order to share these relevant aspects with the rest of the group. Afterwards, he/she tries to find individually negative aspects of the topic for sharing them with the rest of the group. Lastly, he/she tries to discover more interesting aspects: “realizing the fact that…is very interesting…” “It is interesting how…” 3.7.2. Everybody to everything 18
Students are divided into groups. For an allotted time, a (A) group member presents his/her opinion to another (B) group member who tries to listen to him/her and eventually help him/her to express his/her idea. A (C) group member will listen to the whole discussion without any intervention. When this discussion is finished, (C) group member will synthesize what has been presented and will check whether or not his/her intervention has been appropriate. Students will change their role and repeat the same process. Thus, (B) will talk and (C) listens and helps to express while (A) keeps quiet and then synthesizes the whole discussion. Finally, (C) will talk to (A) who listens and helps to express. (B) keeps quiet and then synthesizes the whole discussion. This strategy fosters attention, listening and explanation capacity since it highlights students’ listening difficulties. 3.7.3. Advisors Students in the classroom are divided into two different groups with the same number of members. They take a concentric position so every member of the inner circle has another student behind him/her, who will be his/her advisor. For an allotted period of time they discuss about a topic. Advisors cannot intervene under any circumstance. Their task is to observe whether their advisees’ performance is appropriate or not. Once the established time is over, advisor and advisee get together and listen to the recommendations of the advisor in order to improve the performance and its effectiveness. Dialogue is resumed and after some minutes it will be stopped again in order to have a final conversation with the advisor. Finally, roles are changed and the whole process is repeated again. This strategy allows students to become conscious of the way they perform in their group. It also enables them to realize whether or not they have been emphatic while acting as advisors. It is a good strategy to work with big groups. 3.7.4. Heart Mailing Students of the classroom are divided into groups composed of 4-5 members. Each group receives a piece of text in which they are asked about their opinion and some advice about the topic. Time is given in order to write an answer. Afterwards, answers with their respective arguments are gathered and a common answer is created. Finally, a final conclusion is established taking into account all the answers gathered. This strategy fosters the opinions about some topics, active listening and enables the group to make comprehensive decisions. 19
3.7.5. Editorial Staff A newspaper´s Editorial Staff is created. It can be divided into groups if the initial group is too big. The structure of the Editorial Staff must incorporate co-directors, writing staff, writing secretary, publisher, etc. Several pictures related to the topic are presented and three of them are chosen by consensus. Once the agreed time expires, the conducted work is assessed and discussed as well as the decisions that have been made. After some thought each member suggests a title for each of the pictures chosen, and then they vote for three of them. This strategy develops negotiation habits and enables students to become familiar with new topics as well as explaining new attitudes to them. The exposed thinking strategies can be developed and implemented from the second cycle of Primary and Secondary Education. 3.8. Expression strategies Expression strategies compose the last stage of the learning process and take place through oral, body and artistic language. A friendly environment must be created in order to make the usage of these expressions possible, allow ideas to appear and give freedom to express them. This can be achieved through a mixed pedagogic practice in which flexible activities such as sensor perception, motor games, mimic, relaxation and concentration can take place. Shared verbalization activities about states of mind, processes and experiences are also important. Besides, these strategies enable students to make use of the multiple conceptions of the Theatre in Pre-school, Primary and Secondary Education, since it deals with people’s emotions, dramatic plays are carried out, the importance of learning is emphasized, and they are focused on human relations. Theatre pedagogy is a fundamental discipline, necessary to explain and understand the interaction processes between teachers and students among the field of scenic arts (Colectivo el Glayu 2006). Moreno and Paredes (2005), according to Montávez and Zea (1998: 21-22) propose some patterns to follow in order to develop expression strategies: To use expression strategies as an educational, amusing and artistic tool. To raise communication needs with more expression resources providing a psychophysical wellbeing (holistic philosophy). To create a set of motor patterns that increase the body´s vocabulary, using the body as a means of expression and communication. To become familiar with the successfulness of expressive work by means of personal and group experiences. 20
To offer the possibility of using these resources in order to communicate ideas, sensations and states of mind as well as understanding messages in order to foster direct and indirect communication. To lead students towards the world of creativity in order to increase their own self-esteem that is the base of the future autonomy for the rest of their lives. To promote reflection and oral communication. To use a wide range of games. To pay attention to the degree of maturity displayed by students. 3.8.1. Motor activities The group of students is distributed by pairs and each of them will have a visual element that differentiates them. Student A´s left foot is connected to Student B´s right foot. Holding each other around the waist the pair enters a large maze, previously constructed in the playground or gym. Moving as quickly as possible the pair negotiates the maze. If one falls the other must help his/her partner back to their feet and continue the race. In order to win, the pair must still be tied together when crossing the finishing line. With this activity students can develop general-dynamic coordination, common goals searching strategies, emotional development, collaboration and completion with a good sense of humor being a key element to bear in mind. 3.8.2. Expression strategies It consists of holding a race through the school or its surroundings. The group of students is divided into 5 member teams who are then each assigned with a number. Each group will have to do a 5 stop circuit in which there will be written texts that will either be a: -
A written poem A cinema actor´s/actress name A musical play name A sportsman/women name A writer name Written poem Name of a cinema actor/actress Name of a musical play Name of a sportsman/sportswoman
All groups must go through the 5 stop circuit, identify them, pick the envelope containing the question, look for the teacher and give a correct answer. A point is given per correct answer that will then be summed up collectively. Resistance, cohesion and team work, creativity, improved personal relations, and general culture acquisition are promoted through this activity. 21
3.8.3. Cognitive strategies This game must take place in a wide and comfortable place (gym or other large open space). Students must stand creating a circle. The teacher will give a white paper to each student. At the head of the sheet the name of a value or a virtue will be written. When the teacher says “now”, each student will write on his/her sheet the name of another student that they believe has the value or virtue written down on their sheets. After 20 seconds, students will pass their sheets to the right. They then write a different name according to the different virtue or value that they find on the new sheets. Once each sheet has been filled in by each student they read aloud all the names that appear at their lists, including their own. Prior to this activity, a brief explanation of 20 different virtues and values must be offered. This activity allows students to improve their sense of responsibility, honesty, respect and comradeship. It also fosters self-esteem and empathy, as well as accepting some critiques. 3.8.4. Breathing-relaxation activities Positive visualization. A. Students must sit on a chair or lay on the ground. Eyes must be closed. The mind should be totally clear. Rhythmic breathing start is required. A trip through the time tunnel is going to be conducted until the childhood period is reached. A pleasant memory from the past should be evoked. Next, students are asked to visualize a special cinema room B. In the cinema room. All seats are free except ours. A fragment of our life is projected onto the screen. All lights are turned off and a decreasing numbers countdown to show us that the film is going to start. C. Images become clear and we see ourselves when we were much younger. We are conscious of all people and details involved as we enjoyed the moment. D. Gradually the images become less clear. Voices can no longer be heard and everything becomes dark again. Gradually light returns to the room. The film is finished and we open our eyes. With this activity, a valuable memory can be taken from our memories, imagination and reflection can be exercised and this incorporates a mental health technique. 3.8.5. Visual activities
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A. Our watch is hidden. Are we able to remember details such as the brand name, linguistic indications, or the number of watchband holes? Another item can be used if a watch is not available at the time. B. We move around the classroom observing details that had never caught our attention before. Wall color, superficial damages, pipes, etc. C. We move around the classroom again. When the teachers says “now”, we close our eyes and he will ask where the broken window is and without opening our eyes we point at it with our finger. We open our eyes and we check if we were correct. The process is repeated again. D. I see, I see…in order to look for objects and let the others guess what object is it. E. A classmate stands before a small group of his peers in order to be observed. Next, the observers turn around so the classmate can modify some details that observers will try to guess when they turn around again. With this activity it is possible to exercise and improve observation capacity, to appreciate small details and reflect about looking and seeing. 3.8.5. Voice activities A small piece of text (5-10 lines) is delivered, with numbered lines to enable localization of sentences and words. This activity can be done individually or in groups. A. We play with the characteristics of the sound: tone, intensity, rhythm… B. We must imitate the sound as if we were walking through sand, a puddle, an icy surface, very hot sand… C. We must imitate the sound as if we were a ball or a spring at the same time as we move, but continue reading. D. Nobody is allowed to read his/her own text. Our classmates’ texts are the ones to be read. E. We can stand or lay. F. We only read the vowels or the consonants. G. We change the stressed syllable. H. We make a noise every time we find a stressed syllable. I. Everyone sits in their original place. With this activity linguistic and imaginative creativity can be exercised. Voice possibilities can be explored and the amusing sense of written texts can be discovered.
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Summarizing, it can be asserted that these strategies do not exclude when executing them. They can coexist with different didactic approaches depending on the contents, type of learning, students’ characteristics, and interactive dynamic. It is inconvenient to use each strategy rigidly and to its maximum. Variations can be found among the teacher work frame based on reflection and researching-action. 4. ACTIVITIES 1. To create a work project regarding the following steps and considering steps that must be followed by teachers and students: - Addresses: First year of Secondary Education students - Subject: Natural and Social Science - Topic: Atmosphere pressure and winds 2. To plan a unique session for fifth year Primary Education students. Math department. Two different learning levels. It must be decided which methodological format shall be used, heterogenic groups and tutorials relations must be established. Level 1 contents
Level 2 contents
To reinforce division operation with natural numbers
To learn entire division by default and exact division by excess
Level 1 goals
Level 2 goals
SESSION MATERIALS AND ACTIVITIES
3. To check this web site and summarize the process of cooperative learning. http://perso.wanadoo.es/angel.saez/c-085_aprendizaje_cooperativo_(torre).htm 4. Opinion and point of view about information presented in the web page “Celestín Freinet.
A Freinet lesson today” http://didac.unizar.es/jlbernal/frein5.html 5. AUTO EVALUATION 24
In order to check the acquisition of the content presented in this chapter, please answer the following questions: 1. What does the word strategy mean? 2. How do education strategies allow us to define heterogeneity? 3. Which criterion is established by Gairin (1992) about the flexible grouping in schools? 4. Explain at least four principles of intervention in the classroom 5. What are special learning groups? 6. List the factors that have an influence on the duration of learning sessions 7. Which didactic strategies must be taken into account in order to establish education strategies at any educational level? 8. Explain the didactic organization for one classroom, two instructors. 9. What is the basic function of the didactic contract? 10. What are the stages of a pedagogic contract? 11. List the types of didactic contracts 12. List the students’ developed skills through cooperative groups. 13. Name some cooperative learning techniques. 14. What is the tutorial among equals? 15. What is the teacher’s function in the tutorial among equals? 16. How can the work projects be organized? 17. Comment on the steps followed by teachers in a work project methodology. 18. What is the individual study modality for? 19. Comment on the steps followed by students in a work project methodology. 20. How are work projects evaluated? 21. Which capacities foster thinking strategies? 22. Explain some patterns to develop in expression strategies. 23. Which capacities foster expression strategies? 24. What is Theatre Pedagogy? 6. BIBLIOGRAPHY
AA.VV. (2000) ¿Cómo hacerlo? Propuestas para educar en la diversidad. Barcelona: Graó.
AA.VV. (2001) Estrategias organizativas de aula. Propuestas para atender la diversidad. Barcelona: Graó. AGELET, J.; BASSEDAS, E. y COMADEVALL, W. (2001) Algunos modelos organizativos, facilitadores del tratamiento de la diversidad, y alternativos a los agrupamientos flexibles en, AA. VV. Estrategias organizativas de aula. Propuestas para atender la diversidad. Barcelona: Graó, 15-35. 25
AINSCOW, M. (2004) Tendiéndoles la mano a todos los estudiantes: algunos retos y oportunidades. http://www3.usal.es/~inico/investigacion/jornadas/ jornada3/ actas/conf1.pdf (20/7/2005). BLANCO GUIJARRO, R. (2004) La atención a la diversidad en el aula y las adaptaciones del currículo. www.inclusioneducativa.cl (13/7/2005). BOGGINO, N. y HUBERMAN, H. (2002) Bandas de aprendizaje: una innovación curricular y didáctico-pedagógica. Rosario: Homo Sapiens. BRAVO, M. (2006) Estrategias educativas en el aula. Málaga: Aljibe. COLECTIVO EL GLAYU (2006) Teatro para educar. Ciudad Real: Ñaque Editora. DOMÈNECH, J. (2001) Algunas técnicas para el aprendizaje cooperativo, en AA.VV. Estrategias organizativas de aula. Propuestas para atender la diversidad. Barcelona: Graó, 181-186. ESTRUCH SUBIRANA, M. (1995) “Agrupación flexible para las materias instrumentales (ciclos 10-12 y 12-14)”. Aula, 35, 49-52. ESSOMBA, M.A. Y LABORDA, C. (1995) El tratamiento de la diversidad en la transición de primaria a secundaria. Una propuesta organizativo-didáctica en, GAIRIN, J.Y DARDER, P. Estrategias e Instrumentos para la Gestión Educativa. Barcelona: Praxis, 268/147-268/170. FREINET, C. (1993) Técnicas Freinet de la escuela moderna. Madrid: Siglo XXI de España Editores S.A. GALLEGO ORTEGA, J.L. y SALVADOR MATA, F. (2002) Metodología de la acción didáctica, en MEDINA RIVILLA, A. y SALVADOR MATA, F. (2002) Didáctica General. Madrid. Prentice-Hall: 157-181. GAIRÍN, J. (1995) “El reto de la organización de los espacios”. Aula, 39, 45-50. GARCÍA, R.; TRAVER, J.A. y CANDELA, I. (2001) Aprendizaje cooperativo. Fundamentos, características y técnicas. Madrid. CCS. HERNÁNDEZ, F. y VENTURA, M. (2000) La organización del currículum por proyectos de trabajo. El conocimiento es un calidoscopio. Barcelona: Graó. JOHNSON, D.W. y JOHNSON, R. (1999) Learning together and alone: cooperative, competitive and individualistic learning (5ª ed.) Boston: Ally and Bacon. KAGAN, S. (1994) Cooperative learning. California: Kagan Publishing. MEDINA RIVILLA, A. y SALVADOR MATA, F. (2002) Didáctica General. Madrid. Prentice-Hall. 26
MENOYO, M.P. (2001) El contrato didáctico o pedagógico, en AA.VV. Estrategias organizativas de aula. Propuestas para atender la diversidad. Barcelona: Graó. MORENO, J. Y PAREDES, J. (2005) Hacer sentir pensar. Reflexiones y actividades para mejorar la comunicación en los centros educativos. Ciudad Real: Ñaque Editora. NAVARRO, R.; RODRÍGUEZ, M.; BARCIA, M. y CORUJO, M.C. (2004) El aprendizaje cooperativo como innovación para la mejora del rendimiento de los alumnos universitarios, en DE MESA, J.M.; CASTAÑEDA, R. y VILLAR, L.M. (Coord..) La Universidad de Sevilla y la innovación docente. Curso 2002-03. Área de Ciencias Sociales y Jurídicas. Sevilla:ICE/Vicerrectorado de Calidad y Nuevas Tecnologías. OVEJERO BERNAL, A., DE LA VILLA MORAL JIMÉNEZ, M., PASTOR MARTÍN, J. (2002) “Aprendizaje cooperativo: un eficaz instrumento de trabajo en las escuelas multiculturales y multiétnicas del siglo XXI”, en Revista Electrónica Iberoamericana de Psicología Social (R.E.I.P.S.), Facultad de Psicología, Universidad de Oviedo, 1, 2, http://www.psico.uniovi.es/REIPS/Vinl/art7.html (10/9/07). PIGRAU, T. (2000) El contrato didáctico en el trabajo cooperativo: un instrumento para la autoevaluación, en Ballester, M. y otros Evaluación como ayuda al aprendizaje. Barcelona: Graó. PRZESMYCKI, H. (2000) La pedagogía de contrato. El contrato didáctico en la educación. Barcelona: Graó. SANMARTÍ, N. (2001) Los contratos didácticos: un instrumento para la institucionalización de la gestión del aula, en AA.VV. Estrategias organizativas de aula. Propuestas para atender la diversidad. Barcelona: Graó, 55-68. SEVILLANO, Mª L. (2004) Estrategias Innovadoras para una Enseñanza de Calidad. Madrid: Pearson Prentice Hall. SLAVIN, R. (1991): “Synthesis of research on cooperative learning”, Educational Leadership, 48, págs. 71-82. URIA, Mª E. (1998) Estrategias didáctico-organizativas para mejorar los centros educativos. Madrid: Narcea.
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