enhancing research methodologies in the built ...

Proceedings of the 1st International Conference on Research Methodology for Built Environment and Engineering Kuala Lumpur,Malaysia, 17-18 December 2013

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enhancing research methodologies in the built environment & engineering ICRMBEE2013

VOLUME2: PROJECT DESIGN & SUSTAINABILITY #1st. International Conference on Research Methodology For Built Environment and Engineering

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enhancing research methodologies in the built environment & engineering ICRMBEE2013

Editors Assoc. Prof. Datin Dr. Hamimah Adnan Zarina Alias

Editorials ICRMBEE2013 Rostam Yaman Aidatul Fadzlin Bakri Mohd Reza Esa Nor Azmi Bakhary Dr. Shamsida Saidan Khaderi Farrah Norrizah Mohd Yussof Norazian Mohamad Yusawan

Faculty of Architecture, Planning & Surveying Universiti Teknologi MARA. Shah Alam.2014


Preface

This ICRMBEE2013 proceeding is a compilation of full papers presented at the 1st. Annual International Conference on Research Methodology For Built Environment and Engineering organized by Research Management Unit (RMU), Faculty Architecture, Planning & Surveying of Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM), Malaysia. The conference is lauded as annual platform for academicians and researchers throughout the university system and academic & research fraternity to present and share their findings to the rest of the community. This particular Volume1 edition comprises of 49 selected academic papers submitted and presented at ICRMBEE 2013. As inaugural conference of research methodology in the field for built environment and engineering, we at RMU-FAPS hoping to see an increased in submitted papers and more importantly a diversity in various disciplines and qualities. The fact that some of outstanding papers are attentively warranted and been accepted by international referred journal publication. Some of the findings of the research have reached international recognition and awards for their practical & commercial values. The ICRMBEE2013 proceeding contains exactly 50 valuable articles that range from various sub-disciplines of built environment and engineering. To name a few, ICRMBEE2013 proceeding rendered a full papers encompassed Environmental Architecture & Design, Building Economics, Construction Management, Property & Assets Management, Sustainability Design, Built Technology and Engineering. Years to come, RMU-FAPS hoping to see more submission especially a cross-discipline with others field which will enrich and create a niche in built environment and engineering. Without any doubt or question the main quest and obligation of an academic institution is to developed and innovated knowledge to be passed to the students, societies and future generations. It is also partially a responsible and an obligation in academic fraternity to find practical and tangible solutions to current problems and provide insights into new dwelling issues and phenomenon that happened around the world and us. The general public are looking high and depending on academic institutions to mould and nurtured the future generations, to drive the development & technology; to be practical solution provider of social, economic and political of the country. It is RMU-FAPS hope that this ICRMBEE2013 proceeding will provide some of the solutions to some problems and some answers to some questions. In the noble efforts to materialize this 49. book, RMU-FSPU would like to thanks all the papers contributors, the Dean of the FSPU, Head of Academic Center, ICRMBEE2013 organizing


committee, University Publisher & Printers, Sponsors and all who has made this ICRMBEE2013 proceeding a success. Each one is a hero.

Associate Professor Dr. Masran Saruwono ICRMBEE 2013 Proceedings RMU-FSPU, Research Management Unit Faculty Architecture, Planning & Surveying Universiti Teknologi MARA Malaysia.


Message from ICRMBEE2013 Conference Chairman

Assalamualaikum

It is with great pleasure that I welcome all distinguished guests, keynote speakers, and delegates to The International Conference on Research Methodology for Built Environment and Engineering (ICRMBEE2013). To the foreign delegates, WELCOME TO MALAYSIA! This conference with the theme “Enhancing Research Methodologies in The Built Environment & Engineering” bringing together so many experts from around the world is an important opportunity. The ICRMBEE2013 provides a forum for interaction and exchange of ideas the most appropriate ways of building bridges across universities, research institutions, government and industry. I would like to express my appreciation to all the presenters for their cooperation and patience in providing the papers on schedule for the production of the proceedings on a compact disc. Apart from the Malyasian speakers, delegates have come from all around the globe as far as South Korea, South Africa, India, Germany and Australia. The conference represents the outcome of a lot of work by many people over the last one year. I would like to express my thanks, particularly to Associate Professor Dr Masran Saruwono (Dean, Faculty of architecture, Planning and Surveying) for the suggestions and continuous support for the conference. To all my colleagues at The Faculty of Architecture, Planning & Surveying, you have proven that “TEAMWORK” is the fuel that allows common people to produce uncommon results”. Conferences are not just about papers and vigorous discussion, but are importantly, for the networking and renewing friendships. I trust taht all attendees enjoy a good mix of intellectual and social activities in 2 day conference and the experience will motivate you to return to Malaysia againthe future.

Thank you

Associate Professor Datin Dr Hamimah Adnan Chairman Organizing Committee ICRMBEE2013


Contents Preface 1

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Evaluating Interpretive Methods for a Successful Ecotourism Experience: A Case Study of the South Australian Parks Firdaus Chek Sulaiman, Rijal Saffuan, Kamarul Bahrain Shuib & Habsah Hashim The Evaluation of Green Infrastructure Elements to Enhance Green Neighbourhood Park in Shah Alam, Selangor Rijal Saffuan, Khalid Zanudin & Puziah Ahmad Experimental Research Methods in Built Environment and Engineering Abdul Naser Abdul Ghani Econometrics Modelling for Real Estate Research Ting Kien Hwa Persian garden: cultural sustainability Nazanin Nafisi & Yusoff Abas A Review on Current Above-ground Biomass and Carbon of Hevea Brasiliensis Rosnaini Hasan, Halmi Kamaruddin & Zulkiflee Abdul Latif Exploring The Compliance Of Safety At Construction Site Based On Occupational Safety And Health Act 1994 (OSHA) And Factories And Machineries Act 1967 (FMA) Muhammad Naim Mahyuddin, Kamarul Syahril Kamal & Azim Sulaiman Green Building Management System for Interior Design. Yaman R, Adnan H, & Ahmad N Visualizing the Tectonics of Heritage Shophouses in Georgetown, Penang. Hailane Salam, Nurulhusna Qamaruz-Zaman & Nik Farhanah Nik Azhari Environmental Awareness and Attitudes of Senior University Teknologi MARA (Perak) Town and Regional Planning Students Ahmad Faisal Alias, Rusamah Abdul Jalil & Siti Nur Awanis Mohamad Zulkifli Quantitative Measures Of Human Interaction in Open Spaces Filzani Illia Bt Ibrahim, Dasimah Bt Omar & Nik Hanita bt Nik Mohamad Impact of Urbanization of Lakes – The Case of Bangalore Rajshekhar Rao Aquatic Plant Based Green Technology as Phytoremediator for Polluted Urban Lakes Ecology Siti Zubaidah Abu Kasim & Nik Ismail Azlan Abd. Rahman Public perception and Component Analysis of Wood carving Calligraphic Ornamentation in Malaysian Heritage Mosques


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Ahmadreza Saberi, Esmawee Haji Endut & Abu Bakar Abd Raub A Study on Safeguarding Local Intangible Cultural Heritage in Melaka, A UNESCO World Heritage Site Nur Izzati Mohd Rodzi, Saniah Ahmad Zaki & Syed Mohd Hassan Syed Subli Leisure Activity Preferences across Three Ethnic Groups: Variations in Park Usage Pattern and Activity Participation Amelia Ahmad & Nik Ismail Azlan Abd. Rahman Application of Biomimicry in Solving Design Problems at Sensitive Site Aidatul Fadzlin Bakri, Nurulhusna Qamaruz Zaman & Embong Mohamad Aquifers Sustainability: The Modeling of Sana’a Basin Aquifer Izzadin Ali, Dasimah bt Omar and Siti Mazwin bt Kamaruddin Positioning The Research With Relation To The Studied Subjects Diana Mohamad, Matthew Rofe, Suraiyati Rahman & Zul Zakiyuddin Ahmad Rashid The Influence of Public Artificial Lighting on Users Phychology of Being Safe during Night time in Section 7 (Commercial Centre) Shah Alam, Selangor Luqmanul Hakim Shamsul, Nurulhusna Qamaruz Zaman, Aidatul Fadzlin Bakri & Hailane Salam Urban Metabolism: A Research Methodology in Urban Planning and Environmental Assessment Farah Ayuni Shafie, Dasimah Omar & Subramanian Karuppannan Adaptive Thermal Comfort Assessment Methodology for Urban Public Parks in Hot and Humid Climate of Malaysia Rabiatul Adawiyah Nasir, Sabarinah Sh Ahmad & Azni Zain Ahmed Human Factors and the Usability Issues of Immersive Architectural Design Ahmad Okeil Diminishing Trend Of Open Spaces In Urban Fabric Case Study: Bangalore, India Arunachal Hombali, R.S. Hombali & Sarojini Hombali Community Participation in Protected Area Management in Peninsular Malaysia: A Participatory Research. Mohd-Salleh Daim and Jamalunlaili Abdullah


Project Design & Sustainability


Evaluating Interpretive Methods for a Successful Ecotourism Experience: A Case Study of the South Australian Parks

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Firdaus Chek Sulaimana, Rija lSaffuana and Kamarul Bahrain Shuibc, Habsah Hashimd Faculty of Architecture, Planning and Surveying, UniversitiTeknologi MARA, Shah Alam, Malaysia E-mail address corresponding author: [email protected]

ABSTRACT Increasingly, parks and protected areas are seen as tourist locations that could help visitors learn and experience a particular place. The uniqueness of a successful park is derived not only from the value of the resources available but also on how well those values are exhibited and presented to tourist. The first impression account is believed to have a significant impact on one’s recreational experience. A group of Malaysian students on an exchange program at the University of South Australia evaluated several parks and recreation areas in Adelaide, South Australia. Using mainly observational investigation with background research on interpretation, the study surveyed four different types of parks around the city. Focus on theme, media and facility the research analysed the park attributes on interpretations approaches based on their strengths and potential. The result found several successful methods employed for helping tourist gain valuable experience in their visits. Keywords: interpretation; visitor experience; nature-based recreation

INTRODUCTION Tourism requires providing visitors with information. The information provides process ranging from simple message or direction through complex explanation of a location. The process is considered as interpretation. Interpretation is a communication process designed to reveal meanings and the relationships of our cultural, heritage and natural relationships to the public (visitors) through first-hand experiences with objects, artifacts, landscapes or sites (Veverka, 1994). It can be assumed that interpretation is not a matter or things but actually is a communication process towards delivering information to people. The use of interpretation in recreational area such as parks and natural areas are widely applies by the authorities. The interpretive elements encourage interest of visitors in doing recreational activities instead of delivering informative messages. Interpretation also can be considered as recreation learning to describe kind of learning to visitors in parks, forests, historic sites and zoos (Veverka, 1994). As part of recreation, interpretation have role of education, entertain, as an exhibition, information and provide experience. According to a research by Ballantyne& Hughes (2001), interpretation has to provide correct information, giving as much interesting information as possible and to educate people. Therefore there is need to provide accurate and precise in recreational areas which easily understood by the visitors. The study conducted to determine the potential element and approach that can be interpreted at parks and protected area in Adelaide. There are four (4) park have been evaluated in Adelaide, South Australia which is Kaiser Stuhl Conservation Park, Cleland Wildlife Park, Adelaide Botanical Garden and Adelaide Zoo.Thedata have been collected is limited to the case study of parks and protected areas related to field of facilities, informative elements, promotion, visitor access and experience of visitors. The analysis has been done through interpretation analysis on aspect of theme of the park, media and facilities.


PROBLEM STATEMENT Nature-based recreation has been increasingly participated in this great continent in visiting natural areas, forests, parks and protected areas. This situation has reflecting the importance of this new and growing trend for recreation industry to be well planned and managed. This outdoor recreation provides visitor to experience and satisfy the activity while at the same time balancing the uniqueness, richness and diversity of natural resources of the places. Nature-based recreation also is able to educate people who joined the activity to be aware and realize about the importance of natural resources and biodiversity to our life. The goals of recreation would be enhanced by exposing and understanding the value in participated recreation such as wildlife viewing. Evidence of heritage value loss in Port of Adelaide Maritime was due to the loss of the physical elements of its history as a working port. This shows that the significant of the port for Australian heritage values. Uncontrolled residential development eliminates the heritage value threatens the history and cultural value of the place.A unique natural resource such as coastlines, riverbank, and mountain has their own heritage and cultural value but not presented to the public.Besides conservation of the historical items, interpretation play role in conserving the values through delivering information and knowledge to public.According to research by Roy Ballantyne and Karen Hughes (2001), the use of model and diagrams and provocative statements in the interpretation technique in Queensland and Western Australia is below than necessary point. This condition reflected the technique used in interpretation in natural area is not satisfied and did not fulfill the need for visitor. The symptom is low level of satisfaction of visitors at the research areas. The cause of the problems may come from insufficient funds, ineffective management and misunderstanding of user needs.

LITERATURE REVIEW There are several theory of interpretation enhanced the basic understanding of the research topic. According to Interpretation Canada (1976), interpretation is a communication process designed to reveal meanings and relationships of our culture and natural heritage to the public (visitors) through first hand experiences with objects, artifacts, landscapes or sites.Larry Beck and Ted Cable (2002) defines interpretation is an educational activity that aims to reveal meaning about our culture and natural resources through various media including talks, guided tours and exhibits. Interpretation enhances our understanding, appreciation, and therefore protection of historic sites and natural wonders. Interpretation is an informational and inspirational process that occurs in our nation’s parks, forest, wildlife refuges, zoos, museums and cultural sites. According to Sam Ham (1992), interpretation is simply an approach to communication. Following on his research, environmental interpretation involves translating the technical language of a natural science or related field into terms and ideas that people who aren't scientists can readily understand. According to Division of Interpretive Planning, Harpers Ferry Centre (HFC) (1998), the interpretation is based on three (3) aspect of theme of the park, media and facilities.Themes are often described as the key stories or concepts that visitors should understand after visiting a park. Themes provide the foundation for all interpretive programs and media developed in the park. They tell interpreters and designers what are the most important ideas or stories. They do not include everything we may wish to interpret, but they do cover those ideas that are critical to visitorsunderstanding of park significance. There are many approaches to the mechanics of writing interpretive themes. Since visitors are seldom exposed to the themes exactly as written, it matters less which methods are used than whether they work. The goal is to produce themes that are understandable, concise, andcomplete thoughts, that are the most important ideasfor that area. Interpretive media selection is as much art as science. There is rarely only one way to achieve a goal. Involving specialists in key media is highly recommended. Each situation has its own particular mix of factors to consider. Some of the most important elements in a media decision are: message, audience,


and resources.The message comprehend communications affects the method of communication, and viceversa. The audience must be able to access and comprehend the information. The more detailed the audience profile, the easier it is to select appropriate media.The quality and quantity of resources available to support media development will not only affect the kind of media selected, but may determine the feasibility and cost of production. Common types of media used to deliver interpretive messages include audiovisual products, museum exhibits, wayside exhibits, publications, and personal services.Sound interpretive planning is essential for visitor facilities such as visitor centers, contact or information stations, environmental education centers or camps, trails, wayside kiosks, and scenic overlooks. Interpretive planners should be involved in planning and schematic phases of facility development, and work closely with designers and park staff in fitting facilities to the needs of visitors and resources. It is especially important to establish the goals and functions, and the criteria for variables such as location and appearance, before options or solutions are considered.

ANALYSIS AND FINDINGS Interpretative Method on Theme, Media and Facilities The analysis has been done using the interpretation method on media, theme and facilities. All the three (3) indicators are analyzing with observation by the researcher. This research will cover with the park and natural area to know the approaches of interpretation guideline. Table 1: Interpretation Method on Theme, Media and Facilities for South Australia Parks

Area

Theme

Media

Facilities

Kaiser Sthul Conservati on Park

The park purpose to protect native vegetation, seasonal wildlife and wetland habitats.

The park has provided the transparent box for brochure to visitor to know about the species of fauna in the conservation area.

The park provides no picnic, toilet facilities and car parking. These facilities and recreation areas are available in nearby towns or other parks. Camping is not allowed and all types of fire are prohibited.

Cleland Wildlife Park

The park purpose to natural bush setting of Cleland Conservation Park. The park provides 35 hectares of open bushland habitat where visitors can interact with Australian wildlife.

The park has provided the information centre and interpretive guide. Through this exposure, visitor will more understand about the wildlife habitat in term of food chain, living habitat and relationship with human itself.

The park provides modern approach of interpretation; visitor experience can be enhanced through the uses of different senses in receiving the information.Facilities such as lighting system and sound system are used to interpret animals such as snake, possum, reptiles, lizards, nocturnal animals.


Adelaide Botanical Garden

Adelaide Zoo

The parks propose to natural area and herbs plant limited species.

The zoo propose to conserve the limited species of animal such panda. These animals are borrowed from China to prevent for public in Adelaide.

Through the transparent interpretive board observation can be done through to board without any block thus visitor is able to observe and understand the information clearly. Using shape interpretation, every growth stages of panda are interpreted using different shape according age.

The facilities provided very satisfied for visitor such as toilet, information centre, pedestrian walkway and etc.

The visitor who will visit the zoo can rent the bicycle to visit the interesting place at Adelaide City.

Interpretative Method There are several methods used in parks in South Australia that are unique and have potentialto be implemented in Malaysia’s parks. The methods are brochure interpretation, transparent interpretive board, touch sense interpretive board, different signage design, timeline interpretation, shape, provocation, facility, picture guide interpretation and interpretive guide. i.

Brochure Interpretation

Brochure is provided at the entrance of the park in a transparent box which protected from rain and wind. The brochure provides information about specific bird species, fauna species, vegetation, map and direction. The interpretation functions when visitor use the brochure to find by their own about the information in the park. The advantage is the visitors completely use the information to find the actual items such in the information. They will also simultaneously explore the park when searching the information using the brochure. Using this method, visitor will more understand the information instead of reading but also watching, exploring and experiencing the information in the brochure. Based on the observation, this method is used in Kaiser Stuhl Conservation Park. ii.

Transparent Interpretive Board

This type of interpretive material make the information medium looks new and interesting rather than wood and metal. Through the transparent interpretive board observation can be done through to board without any block thus visitor is able to observe and understand the information clearly. The board is made of transparent glass and is resistant of any weather condition including rain, hot and strong wind. The interpretation describes about desert air temperature which can reach 49 0C and soil temperature can reach 65 0C. The information also describe about the different temperature in desert where temperature over 64 0C are lethal for most plants and keeping cool temperature in hot desert is essential. Many plants


evaporate water to stay cool, but this costs water that desert plants cannot afford to lose. This type of interpretation is used in Adelaide Botanical Garden.

Figure 2: Transparent Interpretive Board in Adelaide Botanical Garden iii.

Touch Sense Interpretive Board

This type of interpretation is used in Adelaide Botanical Garden. The boards provide real experience to visitor to identify different temperature in different surface of ground soil, rocks and sand. When sunlight lights at constant temperature, visitors will recognize that the temperature in different surface is not the same because of surface content. Visitors will experience by touching and feeling the real phenomenon. To understand information, touch sensory play very important role in this interpretation where skin can differentiate the information.

Figure 3: Touch Sense Interpretative Board in Adelaide Botanical Garden iv.

Timeline Interpretation

This type of interpretation shows the growth of panda by stages of age starting from embryo until adult. It indirectly describes the process of panda growth and its life period. It also describes the history of panda, the origin of the animal and its habitat. Through this type interpretation, visitor will be able to understand detail about panda life and relate the information with the real panda.


Figure 4:Interpretation using timeline in Adelaide Zoo v.

Shape

Using shape interpretation, every growth stages of pandaare interpreted using different shape according age. Using this method, visitor will understand the stages of panda life starting from embryo until adult. Panda is considered as endangered species, thus people will alert and aware to protect the panda for the next generation. Visitors such as kids can easily understand the information through observation and touching. This type of interpretation is used in Adelaide Zoofor panda show and is placed by 10 meter each of the arc.

Figure 5: Shape of panda embryo in Adelaide Zoo


vi.

Provocation

This approach is essential in interpretive principle to attract people to explore something. Word such as ‘please find me’encourages interest of visitors to find the animal hidden in enclosure. Therefore visitors will always searching for the reason and information on how the animal lives in the habitat. Visitor will acknowledge about how the animals protects themselves from danger and how to treat with the animal.Snake arc which is placed at the entrance of reptilian areacan be able to attract visitor to come into the center. The arc can be touched and presents the real size of snake. This type of provocation is used in Adelaide Zoo.

Figure 6: Snake enclosure in Adelaide Zoo

vii.

Picture guide interpretation

Bird information sheets are provided in the entrance of Mallee Exhibition in Cleland Wildlife Park. The sheets were laminated in order to protect from water and heat. It is put in a transparent box with a label. The sheet contains pictures of bird, scientific names and map. This method encourage visitor to identify the bird species through recognition using the information sheet. Visitor will use the whole space to locate and identify the birds therefore recognizing the species by eyesight rather than pictures. Picture guide interpretation is suitable as an interpretive method in a small scope of area such as bird cage, orchid species exhibition and trees species.

Figure 7: Interpretation using picture sheet in Cleland Wildlife Park


CONCLUSION Overall, the research findings and analysis on interpretation of parks in Adelaide South Australia answered the research objectives. The interpretive approaches used are brochure interpretation, transparent interpretive board, touch sense interpretive board, different signage design, timeline interpretation, shape, provocation, facility, picture guide interpretation and interpretive guide. All the approaches can be used in Malaysia parks to fulfill the successful information to the visitor experience. From the three (3) element of interpretation, the entire indicators are related such as theme, media and facility. The goals of themes that are understandable, concise and complete thought, that are the most important ideas for that area. This is means the theme at park are most important because theme can help organize the media and facility to give the understanding about the interpretation to the visitor experience. The researcher will decide that, three (3) indicators are important in the interpretive guideline in the parks and protected area. For that, the interpretative method will be using in Adelaide park can used in Malaysia park. Thus, to fulfill the approaches, tourism organization in Malaysia such as federal government, state government and local authority needs to committee to the delivery of excellent tourism services to the visitor and deals with tourism matters.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT First of all, the researcher thanked to Allah because of his Almighty, after nearly two months of preparation and progress, this research entitled Interpretation of Parks in Adelaide South Australia was finally completed according to the schedule.We would like to extend our warmest gratitude and appreciation to the program coordinator Associate Prof. Dr. Kamarul Bahrain Shuib for their guidance, support and advices in finishing the writing. All of their guidance and advice are not only truly meaningful to us in preparing this writing but also for our future education and career. We also would like to record thousands of appreciation and thankful to the University Technology MARA (UiTM) who givethe donors on this research under Student Mobility Exchange Programme with University of South Australia’s (UniSA). The thanks go to the University of South Australia’s lecturers especially Dr. Barbara Koth, Dr. Ian Clark and Prof. Dr. Patrick James. Thousand of thanks go for our dearest friends for their advice, assistance and support in producing this writing. Lastly, the appreciations go to our parents and family that supports us until the last day of research completion.

REFERENCES Bob Major (2010). Hallet Cove Geological Trail. South Australian Division of the Geological Society of Australia and Primary Industries and Resources South Australia Department of Environment and Heritage (2004).Kaiser Stuhl Conservation Park. Government of South Australia Douglas M. Knudson, Ted T. Cable & Larry Beck (1999).Interpretation of Cultural and Natural Resources. Venture Publishing, Inc. Larry Beck and Ted Cable (2002). Interpretation for the 21st Century. Sagamore Publishing Roy Ballantyne and Karen Hughes (2001).Interpretation in Ecotourism Settings. The Journal of Tourism Studies Vol. 12, No. 2 Sam Ham, (1992). Environmental Interpretation:A Practical Guide For People With Big Ideas And Small Budgets,United States of America

Division of Interpretive Planning,Harpers Ferry Center (1998) : Planning for Interpretation and Visitor, Harpers Ferry , West Virgini


The Evaluation of Green Infrastructure Elements to Enhance Green Neighbourhood Park in Shah Alam, Selangor abc

Rijal Saffuana, Khalid Zanudinb and Puziah Ahmadc Faculty of Architecture, Planning and Surveying, UiTM, Shah Alam, Malaysia [email protected]

ABSTRACT Green infrastructure is an effort of countering the negative impact caused by the climate change and urban sprawl. This green infrastructure basically consists of diverse green spaces which are interconnected and linked by the streets, waterways and drainage network in urban areas. The purpose of the study is to apply the implementation of green infrastructure concept as a medium to enhance the neighbourhood park using green infrastructure concept and principle in Section 6, Section 7, and Section 8, Shah Alam. The analysis has been done to determine the current provision of green infrastructure elements within the study area based on the concept of green infrastructure. Green infrastructure consists of several components that work and function together to maintain the green network of physical environment. The components refer to the combination of hub and links where hub is the neighbourhood park and link is the landscape and pedestrian walkways. The level of green infrastructure is assessed through site inventory on aspects of provision, maintenance, accessibility, and image/character. The outcomes of the analysis are used to evaluate the efficiency of current provision of green infrastructure in enhancing the neighbourhood park in the study area before proposing an improvement provision of green infrastructure within the study area. The findings could be used by local authority to formulate plan and guidelines in developing infrastructure and facilities that fulfill green infrastructure elements to enhance the neighbourhood park. Keywords: green infrastructure; neighbourhood park; site inventory

INTRODUCTION Climate change which faced by many countries nowadays has been closely related with the process of urbanisation or urban sprawl. Thus, smart growth and smart conservation have been identified as one of the approaches that can be applied in our effort to combat and counter the urban sprawl (Suzuki & Moola, 2010) of which causing imbalanced land development and distribution. Urban sprawl has been identified as the culprit for inability to conserve the green spaces, lower economical effectiveness for investment in infrastructure and other environmental and socio-economic issues. One of the smart growth and conservation approaches that can be implemented is the Green Infrastructure Network concept which is part of the green technology. It has been identified as a tool that can enhance neighbourhood park. Green infrastructure is an approach of providing improvement in infrastructure provision such as tools of networks and linkages of green spaces. This green infrastructure basically consists of diverse green spaces which may be linked and connected by the streets, waterways and drainage network in urban areas (Tzoulas, 2007). This paper aims to exemplify an effort by a group of student doing master’s coursework in evaluating elements of green infrastructure as a catalyst of green neighbourhood park development. The purpose of the study is to apply the implementation of green infrastructure concept as a medium to enhance the neighbourhood park using green infrastructure concept and principle in Section 6, Section 7, and Section 8, Shah Alam. The neighbourhood parks are lack of green elements and no linkages of


landscape and pedestrian walkways in the neighbourhood park in Shah Alam. The analysis has been done to determine the current provision of green infrastructure elements within the study area based on the concept of green infrastructure which is hub and link. The data collection was done through site inventory based on aspects of provision, maintenance, accessibility, and image/character. The assessment been made using Likert Scale based on self assessment of enumerators through non participant observation on study area. The output of the analysis is to provide connection between neighbourhood park as hub and pedestrian walkways and landscape as link.

LITERATURE REVIEW According to Town and Country Planning Association, UK (2010), Green Infrastructure is the subregional network of protected sites, nature reserves, green spaces, and greenway linkages. The linkages include river corridors and flood plains, migration routes and features of the landscape, which are of importance as wildlife corridors. Conservation Fund, 2009 defines green infrastructure as a network of natural areas and open spaces—such as woodlands, wetlands, trails and parks—that conserves ecosystems, helps sustain clean air and water and provides many other benefits to people and wildlife. Green infrastructure should provide for multi-functional uses i.e., wildlife, recreational and cultural experience, as well as delivering ecological services, such as flood protection and microclimate control. It should also operate at all spatial scales from urban centres through to open countryside. (Town and Country Planning Association, UK, 2010) The term green infrastructure is used to improvise different approaches from the traditional conservation practices and strategies which diversify the old perception regarding the green space planning and protection. According to Benedict and McMahon (2009)’s, diversified perception of green space through this concept is “green spaces as something that we must have where protecting and restoring our environment and resource is a necessity rather than amenity”. Besides that, green infrastructure also changes the common and traditional perception regarding green space which is traditionally an isolated space to interconnected spaces that form a system of protection and management. Thus it will give ecological benefits provided to the people and the environment itself. This environmental concept also emphasized on the needs to maintain the green space actively and monitor from time to time rather than let it alone without being manage (Benedict & McMahon, 2009). Green infrastructure provide practical ways to plan the environment which can be done by recognising the significant green spaces can contribute in producing the quality of life. Basically green infrastructure form consisted of several components that work and function together to maintain the green network of natural environment. These components are diverse in shape and size depending on the type and size of resource being protected. The ecological importance of natural features within each component determines the level of conservation required protecting these resources and simultaneously the interaction between human and his or her natural environment (Williamson, 2003). These components refer to the combination of hub and links where there can be more than one (1) hub and more than one (1) link.


Figure 1: Conceptual green infrastructure diagram: a network of core areas, hubs and corridors (Adapted from Weber et. all, (2011). Landscape and Urban Planning, Volume 96, Issue 4, 30 June 2012) A hub is an anchor to the green infrastructure network where this hub provides the origin and destination for wildlife and ecological process movement. A hub according to Benedict and McMahon, 2009 can be a reserved and protected area such as national park, and working lands such as farms. This includes a regional parks, parks and open spaces at all in national, state, regional, country, municipal and private level that may provide opportunity for recreation and protection of the natural resources. While links refer to connections that tie the system together and allow the green infrastructure network to worked. The links can be in various sizes and forms which include a landscape linkage of a large protected area that connect existing parks or natural areas. The connection will provide adequate space for flora and fauna to flourish while functioning as corridor that connecting ecosystem and landscape (Benedict & McMahon, 2009). Landscape linkage may also provide space for recreation use. Links also refers to the greenways and greenbelts which function as framework for development while preserving the ecosystem. Conservation corridor such as river or stream functions as biological base for wildlife besides providing the opportunity for recreational activities.

ANALYSIS AND FINDINGS This inventory approach focused on the provision of green infrastructure elements within the study area (Section 6, Section 7 and Section 8 Shah Alam) which contributes to the potential of green infrastructure network within the areas thus enhances the liveable community. This green infrastructure element inventory will be divided into two (2) main aspects of green infrastructure that is the hub and the link. Hub is Neighbourhood Park which whereby an assessment of provision, maintenance, accessibility, and image/ character will be conducted. Link is analysed based on the provision of landscape and pedestrian walkway, maintenance and connectivity. The Likert’s scale method are based on ordered response options by Renesis Likert (1932) that will indicate the level of provision for green infrastructure in the study area. Likert’s Scale refers to five (5) ordinal measurement [One (1) to five (5)] which is 1Very Poor, 2- Poor, 3-Fair, 4-Good, and 5-Very Good that will be use to indicate the current provision of green infrastructure. Site Inventory of Green Infrastructure Element An Analysis for site inventory will be based on the elements of green infrastructure concept that encourages and enhances the liveable community within the study areas. This approach will indicate whether the study areas (Section 6, Section 7 and Section 8) consist the elements of green infrastructure as a medium to liveable community as indicated by the linkages of the hub and link elements. a.

Hub of Green Infrastructure


A hub refers to an anchor to the green infrastructure network where this hub provides the origin and destination for wildlife and ecological process and movement. In these study areas the Neighbourhood Park and open spaces such as field that existed around the areas is the hub for recreation and protection of the natural resources. i.

Neighbourhood Park

Neighbourhood Park is one of the green elements that existed in any built environment as part of initiative to provide spaces for recreation and social interaction besides enhancing the balance between physical development and environment. Neighbourhood Park also provides opportunity to preserve the natural elements such as beautiful landscape, water elements or greenways which become part of the green infrastructure components. This neighbourhood park can become the hub for the green infrastructure network which functions as the origin and destination of ecological process within the study area. Table 1 : Provision Level of Neighbourhood Park around Section 6, Section 7 and Section 8

Aspects Provision Maintenance Accessibility Image/ Character

Section 6 1 2 3

4

5

Section 7 1 2 3

4

5

Section 8 1 2 3

4

5 – Very good (The provision level of Neighbourhood Park in term of its facilities is very good besides well maintained. The location of the Neighbourhood Park also provides good accessibility to the local people where people can walk to the park. The Neighbourhood Park also has a clear unique character and image.) 4 – Good (The provision level of facilities in the Neighbourhood Park is good and well maintained. The location of the park located is near to the neighbourhood and accessible by private vehicles The park also has its own image and character.) 3 – Satisfactory (The provision and maintenance level of facilities in the neighbourhood park is satisfactory. The location of the park provides fair accessibility level to the neighbourhood besides having a fair image of the park.) 2 – Poor The facilities for the park are poorly provided and maintained besides the location of the park encourage the usage of private vehicles. The park did not have a specific image or character. 1 – Very poor (The Park did not provided with facilities or all facilities cannot function well because of poor maintenance level. It is difficult to find and come to the park which requires people to depend on vehicles. The park also did not have a specific character or image.) Based on the observation that has been made in Section 6, Section 7 and Section 8 Shah Alam the level of provision for Neighbourhood Park as the hub for green infrastructure network in the study areas are still lacking of facilities. This has resulted these parks are unable to attract many local people to use these spaces as the social and recreation spaces. While in term of maintenance of the park, the park in Section 8 is poorly maintained especially in term of its facilities while both in Section 6 and 7 are satisfactorily maintained and functioned.

5


From the observation, it can be seen that these Neighbourhood Park provide a good level of accessibility to the people where people who live nearby can come to the park by walking which will encourage more walkable environment to the neighbourhoods. Unfortunately, it can be concluded that all three (3) Neighbourhood Parks still lack of specific character and image which can provide or enhance the sense of place to the park. b.

Link of Green Infrastructure

Links refer to connections that tie the system together and allow the green infrastructure network to work. The links can be in various sizes and forms. This includes a landscape linkage which refers to a large protected area that connect existing parks or natural areas which provide adequate space for flora and fauna to flourish and growth. At the time, acts as corridor that connecting ecosystem and landscape. The link element in the study areas refers to the link of landscape and pedestrian walkway provide around the three (3) neighbourhoods which function as linkages that connect between neighbourhood parks. i.

Landscape

Landscape is defined as visible features of an area of land, including the physical elements of landforms, water bodies such as rivers, lakes and the sea, living elements of land cover including indigenous vegetation, human elements including land uses, buildings and structures, and transitory elements such as lighting and weather conditions. Landscape also includes the vegetation and flora elements that provides in the neighbourhood particularly along the road network. Landscape elements are closely related with pedestrian network where both elements can encourage more walkable environment and reduce the dependency of vehicles. This condition meets one of the objectives of the livable city (community). Table 2: Provision Level of Landscape around Section 6, Section 7 and Section 8, Shah Alam

Aspects Provision Maintenance Connectivity

Section 6 1 2 3

4

5

Section 7 1 2 3

4

5

Section 8 1 2 3

4

5 – Very good (The provision of landscape is adequate which able to encourage walkable environment in all or most of the area. The maintenance of landscape is in a very good condition and it is able to enhance the visual aesthetic of the area. The provision of landscape is able to form a connection of network.) 4 – Good (The provision of landscape is able to encourage walkable environment in majority of the area. The maintenance of landscape is able to enhance the visual aesthetic value to the area. The provision of landscape is able to form a connection in most of the area.) 3 – Satisfactory (The provision of landscape satisfactorily encourages walkable environment in the study area. The maintenance of landscape satisfactorily enhances the visual aesthetic value to the area. The provision of landscape is able to form a connection in some part of the area.) 2 – Poor (The provision of landscape unable to encourage walkable environment in most of the study area. The maintenance of landscape is unable to provide the visual aesthetic value to the area. The provision of landscape is unable to form a connection in most of the area.)

5


1 – Very poor (The provision of landscape cannot encourage walkable environment in the study area. The maintenance of landscape did not provide or enhances the visual aesthetic value to the area. The provision of landscape is unable to form a connection in whole study area.) Based on the inventory of green infrastructure element around Section 6, Section 7 and Section 8 Shah Alam, in term of the landscape provision it can be described that the level of provision in all three (3) neighbourhoods are satisfactory although landscape provision in Section 7 is better in term of its maintenance and provision. While Section 8 provided has the lowest level of landscape provision compared with other two (2) sections. Therefore, it can be seen that people tend to walk within Section 7 and Section 6 compared to Section 8 as Section 8 has much lesser landscape and lack of maintenance. ii.

Pedestrian Walkway

Pedestrian walkway is an important element in a built environment especially in urban area in order to encourage more walkable environment and reduce the dependency of private vehicle. The provision of pedestrian walkway is one of the initiatives to reduce the traffic movement on the road which become one of the objectives for liveable city. In this study, the linkage of landscape has been closely related with the linkage or network for pedestrian in order to identify the potential link component for green infrastructure network. Table 3: Provision Level of Pedestrian Walkway around Section 6, Section 7 and Section 8

Aspects Provision Maintenance Connectivity

Section 6 1 2 3

4

5

Section 7 1 2 3

4

5

Section 8 1 2 3

4

5 – Very good (The provision of pedestrian is adequate enough to encourage walkable environment in all or most of the area. The maintenance of pedestrian walkway is in a very good level which able to enhance the visual aesthetic of the area besides able to form a connection of network.) 4 – Good (The provision of pedestrian is able to encourage walkable environment in most of the area. The maintenance of pedestrian walkway is good which able to provide the visual aesthetic to the area besides able to form a pedestrian network to most of the area.) 3 – Satisfactory (The provision of pedestrian is satisfactorily enough to encourage walkable environment in some part of the area. The maintenance of pedestrian walkway is satisfactorily less likely to provide the visual aesthetic to the area plus unable to form a pedestrian network to the study area.) 2 – Poor (The provision of pedestrian walkway unable to reduce the dependency of private vehicle within the study area. The maintenance of pedestrian walkway cannot provide visual aesthetic value to the area. The provision of pedestrian walkway is unable to form a connection in most of the study area. 1 – Very poor (The provision of pedestrian is unable to encourage walkable environment in most of the area. The maintenance of pedestrian walkway is very poor which unable to provide the visual aesthetic to the area besides failing to form a pedestrian network to the overall study area.) In term of the pedestrian walkway provision in all three (3) study areas, it can be concluded that pedestrian walkway provided was adequate in both Section 6 and Section 7 compared with Section 8. It

5


can be seen that both Section 6 and Section 7 generate more pedestrian movement as these areas well are connected and linked satisfactorily through the pedestrian walkway. While for the maintenance of the pedestrian walkway, based on the observation that has been made, it can be said that the maintenance level of pedestrian around these study areas is satisfactory where not all part of the areas are provided with proper pedestrian walkway which indirectly influenced influence the connectivity between area through pedestrian walkway.

Figure 2: Green Infrastructure Components in Section 6, Section 7 and Section 8, Shah Alam

CONCLUSION Every state and local government has a park management plan. At the same time, local communities also have detailed plans for improving the facilities and infrastructure for the neighbourhood park. Green infrastructure plans provide a blueprint for sustainable management plans and create a framework for future growth and at the same time ensure significant natural resources will be preserved for future generations. Green Infrastructure can provide many social, economic and environmental benefits close to where people live and work including space and habitat for wildlife with access to nature for people and improved health and well being of people especially places for outdoor relaxation and play. Green Infrastructure also acts as catalyst to economic growth by attracting investment to business and tourist. It’s also saving environmental cost by improved air quality, reduces the urban heat island effect, filters diffuse pollution and helps to manage flood risk.

REFERENCES Benedict. M, et al (2009). Green Infrastructure: Smart Conservation for the 21 st Century. Sprawl watches clearinghouse monograph series, Island Press UK. Retrieved 6 October 2013, from www.dnr.mo.gov/env/wpp/stormwater/documents/gi.../gi-appendixb.pdf Suzuki & Moola (2010). Using smart growth to combat urban sprawl in Canda. Retrieved 6 October 2013, from http://www.straight.com/news/david-suzuki-using-smart-growth-combat-urban-sprawlcanada Tzoulas, (2007). Promoting ecosystem and human health in urban areas using Green Infrastructure: A literature review, Landscape and Urban Planning, Volume 81, Issue 3, 20 June 207


Weber et. all (2011). Landscape and Urban Planning, Volume 96, Issue 4, 30 June 2012 Williamson. K.S (2003). Growing with Green Infrastructure, GI, Heritage Conservancy, Doylestown PA. Retrieved 6 October 2013, from,www.greeninfrastructurenw.co.uk/resources/Growing_with_GI.pdf Winchester City Council (2010). Green Infrastructure Study 2010, Winchester City Council Wesite. Retrieved 6 October 2012, from http://www.winchester.gov.uk/planning-policy/evidencebase/environment/green-infrastructure-study-2010/


Experimental Research Methods in Built Environment and Engineering Abdul Naser Abdul Ghania School of Housing Building and Planning, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11800 USM, Malaysia E-mail address corresponding author:[email protected]

a

ABSTRACT This paper describes the deductive approach to research in engineering and built environment and focus mainly on the use of experiments for data gathering. Detail experimental methods in the laboratory, field and numerical conditions are discussed. Various sensors and transducers commonly used in experiments as well as data logging systems are also described. Keywords: Experiments, data collection, sensors, instrumentation.

INTRODUCTION Research methodology is commonly acknowledged as the most important part of any research project that needs to be established before actual data collection program begins. It is like a road map. Research methods and experimental techniques form the major portion of the methodology. In engineering and built environment, detail methodology and tasks to be carried out depends mainly on the type of data to be collected i.e. quantitative (numerical) or qualitative (describe by words). A qualitative data can still be converted to numerical and analyzed by quantitative methods. Another aspect of scientific research is the research approach, where the common approach could be inductive or deductive or both. Most researchers in applied science, engineering and the built environment prefer the deductive approach in which a problem is identified and then its cause and effect is confirmed by experimental data or proof. This paper describes the common methods of experiments and its data collection techniques.

EXPERIMENTS Experiments carried out for the purpose of collecting data to be analyzed and studied are carried in the laboratory, in the field and using computer numerical model. It also can be a combination of the two or three of the said technique. The decision on the location of experiment depends on the objectives and scope of the research. Each method has its own strength, challenges and limitation as well as additional consideration to be included. For example, laboratory scale model has to deal with scale and similitude issues. The field experiment involves a lot of variants and possible disturbance. Computer simulation depends a lot on the input data. Despite the limitations and possible problems, deductive experimental research techniques are preferable in the case of product, technique or technology focused research. This is because it is confirmatory in nature and has specific objectives (visionary) instead of conceptual and guesswork as in the inductive approach. It is also compatible to quantitative (numerical) method.


Figure 1a: Laboratory experiment

Figure 1b: Field experiment

Figure 1c: Numerical Modeling

Laboratory Experiments Laboratory experiments can be standard testing methods, independently developed procedures or laboratory scale model investigations. Standard testing methods such as according to BS or ASTM or other established standards are commonly used to test materials and systems to be used in or related to the research or investigation. In engineering and built environment, these can be strength, environmental and durability tests such as tensile (ASTM, BS), water quality (APHA) and water absorption (ASTM, BS). The standard tests are usually used to gather preliminary data on the material to be used in model testing or field experiments. In the case of numerical or computer modeling, data and result from standard laboratory test can be used as the specific data input for the model. For example, in a computer structural model, data on material properties such as strength, modulus and dimension are required. These data has to be established or ready before computer numerical model investigation could proceed. Scientific research is about discovery of new things, method, systems or theories. It is almost inevitable that in the course of most experimental research, a researcher will have to come up with one or more independent procedures that can be calibrated and repeated. The procedure can be a very simple one or a very complicated one. It could be just a small portion of the investigation or it could also be the major


procedure for the research. In this case, data and discussion on repeatability and measurement uncertainty must be provided in the research report or thesis. Laboratory scale model is a small scale physical model of a larger actual or prototype structure or systems. It is constructed in a laboratory and tested under controlled and monitored conditions. The advantages of small scale model can be its benefits in terms of controllable varied loading conditions, observable effect of extreme/failure loading conditions, and the minimum cost of construction. However, scale model has other issues to be considered such as boundary conditions and similitude. Similitude is the scaling effect of multiple variants such as dimensional, force, time, boundary and instrumentation. Fortunately, there exists established theoretical basis for scaling factors for various conditions. In a simple laboratory scale model for parametric study, only the dimensional similitude and boundary conditions are usually considered.

Figure 2a: Special new simple procedure for Figure 2b: Marine water sampling for standard calibration of new pressure sensor water quality test such as BOD, COD, DO, nitrate etc.

Field Experiments Experiment carried out in the field requires careful planning and coordination. Higher contingencies in terms of budget and time must be considered. Controlling and monitoring the changing parameters on site could also involve other parties and the law. Security of instrumentation must be taken seriously. As with other experiments, the purpose of field experiment is to collect data for the research. In the field, it could be harder to control or to limit the various influences from natural conditions. For example, if one is dealing with the ground, the variation in water table is hard to control because the water movement in soil extend to distance locations - something that could not be control can only be observed but it is still a research – but not considered experimental research. Astronomers study the sky by observation. What is happening in the sky could not be control. It can only be observed. Based on the observation, scientist and researchers will be able to make some conclusion and theories.


Figure 3: Experimental set up and monitoring in the field

Numerical Model Computer numerical model is another method to carry out experiments. Presently there are various computer codes that can be utilized to construct a model. One of them is Finite Element Code (FEM). A code is basically assembly of FEM instructions that has been pre-program to do certain things. Another popular code in engineering investigations is the CFD (Computational Fluid Dynamic) code. Back then, researchers must be able to write their own FEM or CFD program in order to construct a computer numerical model of their investigation. Fortunately today, some codes are packaged into software that can be utilized to construct a model. However, some researchers still prefer to write their own code because it will allow more freedom of decision in their experimentation. However, the availability of package software enables researchers to focus on experiments instead of writing programs. Using the FEM or CFD code to construct a model, a researcher will be able to control the various input parameters and study the output – the cause and effect. In this case, the quality and accuracy of the output or data or observation is as good as the input data. In most computer numerical modeling, a realistic input data must be first obtained from laboratory testing of the material involved in the studies. The model must also be calibrated against known or previously recorded event or case.

Figure 4: FEM mesh and output for studies of soil and a retaining structure


DATA COLLECTION Experiment is carried out for researchers to collect data. These data then can be analyzed or processed to produce meaningful conclusion. There are four major ways to collect data: surveys, observation, computer simulation and experiment. In addition to laboratory and field experiments, this paper considers computer model simulation as an experiment. Other computer simulation can be statistical; 2D/3D vector/scalar/graphical; and binary. This section will further discuss the method of collecting data from experiments in the area of engineering and built environment. In experiment, one or more independent variables can be changed and the outcome is recorded. If the independent variable cannot be controlled, it is not an experiment instead it is an observation (although it is still the act of collecting data).

Instrumentation and Sensors Instrumentation is a system used to control, measure and transmit information or data during the experimentation. Typical instrumentations include hardware for transducers and software for data processing and storage. Transducer is a device that converts a physical parameter sensed by its sensor into an analog electrical signal. Some common transducers and their application are described in the following table. Table 1: Common transducers in built environment research applications Transducers

Strain gage

LVDT (Linear Displacement Variable Transducer) Load Cell Pressure cell Temperature transducer/meter Accelerometer

Piezometer Sound meter Light meter

Description This is the most basic form of transducer. It operates on the principle of electrical resistance. It can detect positive or negative strain of the object the gage is bonded to. It can be bonded to metal, concrete, plastic etc. It can be used to construct other type of transducers such as load cell, pressure cell etc. LVDT can be used to measure displacement or movement of components in the research relative to its position. This is basically an electronic version of dial gage but with more capabilities because the movement can be detected by computers in a very short time interval. Load cell is used to measure force in tension or compression. Load cell with low and high range capacity are available for various types of loading. This transducer measures fluid or soil pressure. This is usually a stand- alone transducer. But in specific research that requires measurement of temperature or heat continuously, it can be connected to a data logging system. Accelerometer measures acceleration with respect to gravity (g). This is commonly used in research related to vibration, earthquake, impact, blast and speed. Piezometer is used to measure liquid or water pressure underground in the field. It utilizes pneumatic or strain gage systems. Vibrating wire (VW) piezometer is more popular now for pore water pressure. Measures level of environmental noise Measures light intensity


Data logging Transducers described above produce analog electrical signal that need to be converted to digital signal for it to be able to be used in digital computer processing. This can be done through the use of specialized hardware and software called datalogger. In some situation, if the analog signal is too small or too noisy, it has to go through another hardware called amplifier to be filtered and amplified first. There are two general class of datalogger. One is static datalogger and the other one is dynamic datalogger. The choice of use depends on the type and quality of data required. If the required data is very sensitive to time such as impact, vibration and other high speed phenomena, the dynamic datalogger is required. Static datalogger is sufficient for test such as load, pressure and temperature test. Data capture interval for static datalogger is usually only up to one second interval. However, in the case of dynamic datalogger the interval can be set to micro or nano second (usually in terms of hertz i.e. 1000hz, 5000hz or 25000hz – cycles per second).

CONCLUSION To experiment is to try, to look for and to confirm (Srinagesh, 2009) quantitatively. Experimental research in engineering and built environment requires specific instrumentation to control, predict and measure the cause and effect. The researcher must be able to know what kind of qualities and properties to be measured and can be measured with current existing technology. Then, the experiment can be done in laboratory, in the field or using computer model or a combination of those.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The author would like to thank Dr Kwan Wai Hoe, Adhilla Ainun Musir and Abadini Integras Engineers Sdn Bhd for providing some pictures to be included in this paper.

REFERENCES Lab General (2011). A brief introduction to civil engineering labs. SIUE Department of Civil Engineering. Hong, L.Y. (2005). Research methods in engineering and science. Curtin University of Technology, Australia. Krawinkler, H. and Zhu, B. (1993). US/PRC Workshop on experimental methods in earthquake engineering. EEC, Stanford University. Srinagesh,K. (2009). Principles of Experimental Research. Butterworth-Heinemann. Thiel, D. (2009). Research methods in electrical engineering (slides). Griffith University, Brisbane , Australia.


Econometrics Modelling for Real Estate Research Ting Kien Hwa Centre for Real Estate Research, Faculty of Architecture, Planning & Surveying, Universiti Teknologi MARA, 40450 Shah Alam, Selangor, Malaysia E-mail address: [email protected]

ABSTRACT Many real estate issues can be explained using economics and finance theories. Econometrics serve as a useful statistical tool that allow the issues to be modelled. This paper highlights some key issues relating to the use of regression models in research particularly in terms of the reliability of regression models i.e. internal and external validity, and another aspect discussed is the validation of regression models. Keywords: regression, internal validity, external validity, model validation

INTRODUCTION Econometrics is the development of statistical methods for estimating economic relationships, testing economic theories, and evaluating and implementing government and business policy (Wooldridge, 2003).

(a) (b) (c) (d)

According to Stock and Watson (2003) econometrics is the: science of testing economic theories set of tools used for forecasting future values of economic variables the process of fitting mathematical economic models to real-world data the art and science of using historical data to make numerical, or quantitative, policy recommendations in government and business.

Real estate economic model Often a real estate economic model is constructed to test economic theories relating to real estate. An economic model consists of mathematical equations that describe various relationships. For example, to examine consumption decisions in housing economics a set of demand equations are created. In a demand equation, the quantity demanded of each housing commodity depends on the price of the goods, the price of substitute and complementary goods, the consumer’s income and the individual’s characteristics that affect taste. These equations can form the basis of an econometric analysis of consumer demand (Wooldridge, 2003).

STEPS IN FORMULATING AN ECONOMETRIC MODEL Wooldridge (2000) describes how to carry out an empirical study in Chapter 19. The following provides a general guide on how to formulate an econometric model:


1. Formulating a general statement of the problem The general statement of the problem is generally formulated in a form of theoretical model. The model will be guided by economic or real estate theory. A good example is the use of the hedonic model :

y = f (x1, x2, x3, x4, …. )

2. Formulation of an estimable theoretical model Selection of the independent variables shall be guided by theory or past studies. Care must also be taken on the functional form of the model. This is guided by the relationship of the independent variables with the dependent variable which could be non-linear.. 3. Collection of data The sources of real estate data varies depending on the type of research being conducted. For real estate data the most common source are from Valuation and Property Services Department and National Property Information Centre (NAPIC). Other related data are from the Statistics Department, MITI, etc. For research on indirect property such as listed property shares and REITs, data are frequently obtained from Bursa Malaysia, Securities Commission and various international financial data providers such as Datastream, Bloomberg, Thomson Reuters etc. Before estimating the model, a check on the data can be carried out using descriptive statistics to help to identify whether there are any data entry errors. 4. Model estimation Some data modification might be necessary before estimating the model e.g. transforming the data into normal distribution. One common method to normalise data is to convert the data into natural logarithmic values. 5. Statistical evaluation of the model The resultant regression needs to be diagnose to ensure that there is no violation of the basic assumptions of regression such as multicollinearity, heteroscedasticity, autocorrelation, model specification errors etc. Another important aspects of the regression model to be examined are to see whether the signs and size of the parameters are within the expectations of the theory. 6. Use of model for analysis Upon satisfactory evaluation of the model, the regression model can then be used for analysis and interpretation of results.

SELECTED ASPECTS OF REGRESSION MODELLING ISSUES Model building in this paper refers to constructing a model that will provide a good fit to a set of data and the model subsequently can be used to predict the future values of the dependent variable. Regression analysis using econometrics principles is one of the most widely used statistical tools for estimation and prediction. While the model could fit in all the data into the model and satisfy all statistical


requirements for model adequacy such as adjusted R square, partial F tests etc. however the model may fail to take into account new data. The model failed to be used as successful predictors of the independent variable when new data are applied. Hence forming an adequate regression model is only the first step in model building. The next step is to assess the validity of the regression model by carrying out model validation. This paper will address two issues commonly faced in econometrics modelling i.e. determining the reliability of the model and model validation.

RELIABILITY OF ECONOMETRIC MODELS An econometric model needs to be evaluated in terms of internal and external validity. A study is internally valid if the statistical inferences about causal effects are valid for the population being studied. A study is externally valid if its inferences and conclusions can be generalized from the population and applied to other population.

Internal validity A study based on multiple regression is internally valid if the estimated coefficients are unbiased and consistent and if the standard errors are consistent. Threats to internal validity include: (a) Omitted variables (b) Misspecification of functional form (nonlinearities) (c) Imprecise measurement of the independent variables (errors-in-variables) (d) Sample is chosen non-randomly from the population (e) Simultaneous causality between the independent and dependent variables. The above threats introduce correlation between the independent variables and the error term which causes the OLS estimators to be biased and inconsistent. Table 1 shows the solutions to the threats.


Table 1: Threats to internal validity and its solutions Threats to internal validity (a) Omitted variables

Solutions (i) Apply economic theory (ii) Apply expert knowledge

(b) Misspecification of functional form

(i) Identify a possible linear relationship;

(nonlinearities)

(c) Imprecise independent variables)

measurement variables

specify a nonlinear function and estimate its parameters by OLS of the (errors-in-

(i) Get an accurate measure of independent variables

(ii) Using instrumental variables regression

(iii)

(d) Sample is chosen non-randomly from

where another variable that is correlated with the actual value x; but is not correlated with the measurement error. To develop a mathematical model of the measurement error and to use the model to adjust the estimates.

(i) Apply appropriate sample selection process

the population

(e) Simultaneous causality between the independent and dependent variables

(i) Use instrumental variables regression (ii) To design and implement a randomised controlled experiment in which the reverse causality is nullified

External validity (a)

(b)

Threats to external validity include: Differences in population Inferences and conclusions to the population studied may not be applicable to the population of interest. The causes may be due to the population under study was different from the population of interest. The differences could be due to population characteristics, geographical differences etc. Differences in settings The differences in setting include the differences in the institutional environment, differences in law or differences in the physical environment.

The threats to external validity are best to be dealt with through study design i.e. before the data collection stage.


TECHNIQUES OF MODEL VALIDATION Model validation examines to what extend the fitted regression model will perform when new future data are applied to the model. The following are five model validation techniques: (a) Examining the predicted values If the predicted values of the dependent variable is unreasonable or non-sensical it may indicate that the form of the model is incorrect. (b) Examining the estimated model parameters Check whether the relative size and sign of the model parameters fit with theory or rational expectations. (c) Collect new data to validate the regression model By comparing the predicted values to the observed values, the accuracy of the model predictions can be assessed using measures such as mean square error and the mean squared prediction error. (d) Cross-validation (data splitting) The regression is validated by splitting the original sample data into two parts. One part is used to estimate the model parameters and the second half used to assess the fitted model’s predictive ability. Data splitting can be done randomly.

CONCLUSION Much care and detailed thought need to be exercised before and after the process of econometric modelling. Correct and valid interpretation of results and recommendations can only be obtained from reliable and valid regression models.

REFERENCES Greene, W. H. (2000). Econometric analysis, Prentice-Hall International Inc. Gujarati, Damodar N. (1995). Basic Econometrics, McGraw-Hill, 3rd edition. Gujarati, Damodar N. (2011). Econometrics by Example, Palgrave Macmillan. Johnston, J and DiNardo, J. (1997) Econometric methods, McGraw-Hill, 4th edition. Koop, Gary (2009). Analysis of Economic Data, Wiley. Mendenhall, W. and Sincich, T. (2003). A Second Course in Statistics: Regression analysis, PearsonPrentice Hall, 6th edition. Stock, J. H. and Watson, M. W. (2003). Introduction to Econometrics, Addison Wesley. Wooldridge, Jeffrey M. (2000). Introductory Econometrics, South-Western College Publishing.


Persian garden: cultural sustainability Nazanin Nafisi , Prof, Yusoff Abas University technology Mara( UITM) Faculty of built environment E-mail address corresponding author: [email protected]

ABSTRACT The Iranian garden as a perfect construction demonstrates a close connection between the cultural and natural background and also indicates adoption and alignment between man and nature. In the Iranian culture and tradition of garden construction, there is a direct relationship with its natural and physical background as well as biological elements. Iranian architects use simple and available methods for creating open architectural spaces. In addition, desirable conditions that took physical and spiritual factors into consideration were provided. Parks and landscapes in future cities can be designed and constructed based on the architectural techniques used in Iranian gardens which are typical examples of hot and arid regions. In this study, the attributes of Iranian garden as it affects the creation of green spaces were investigated through observation method. In addition, this study also assessed the characteristics of a Persian garden using a descriptive approach. Keywords: Persian garden, ecological design,

INTRODUCTION The enclosed garden, which came to symbolize the Garden of Eden. Verbal images and metaphors for Paradise had a great impact over the course of Islamic civilization [1]. Because Koran inspired artists as a logical source and provided content with its messages to be expressed [2]. In Islam it is forbidden to depict human and animal images. This conservatism led artists to attach religious meaning or symbolism to their works [3]. Forms, shapes, objects, scenes and even letters and numbers of Islamic art are symbolic. All art has hidden significance [4]. For more than three thousand years, the Persian garden has been the focus of Iranian imagination, influencing the country's art as well as literature [5]. The Old Testament describes Pleasure gardens as sacred enclosures rising in terraces planted with trees and shrubs, forming an artificial hill such as the Hanging Gardens of Babylon. Persian gardens were places where shade and cool water could be privately enjoyed. They were places of spiritual solace, meeting places for friends and formal adjuncts to the houses or palaces they surrounded. The people of Iran have always desired to have a symbol of the heavens referred to as the paradise represented by the way they have structured their gardens. The gardens have remained green throughout the seasons despite the little water tapped from the melting snow on top of the mountains streaming down the valley. What has fascinated most is the art of creating the gardens in conceptual patterns and landscape. There are small gardens owned mostly by individuals or a family and due to inadequate supply of water, they are unable to transform into plantations [6]. As the author analysed the characteristics of the Persian gardens, it became obvious that various studies have been carried out from different backgrounds. To this end, elements like soil and plants have been used to bring out a spectacular pattern [7].

i.

Plants


The Koran narrates the importance of trees in our environment. The act of cutting down trees is highly condemned by the Holy Book. Iranians follow the teachings of the holy Koran which describes the green trees in paradise. Given the fact that adequate water supply is an issue in Iran, the need to use little out of the available water for gardening purposes is of great importance and has contributed largely to the nature of a typical Persian garden [8]. In Mahan, one of the uses of trees is to serve as ornaments, in addition, since the area is characterised by harsh climates, trees are mostly planted along the streets for fruits, shade and many more. Furthermore, beautiful flowers with attractive scents which signify purity are of great use especially in palaces and other high profile places. Along the streams, trees are planted to capture the water from the melting snow on top of the mountains [9]. ii.

Land

A variety of land levels are exhibited in the Mahan garden. The area is characterised by steep slopes that make it hard to allow water run down the gardens smoothly. A waterfall set on a steep slope can be used as a mechanism to channel water to the fields to grow crops and cool down the environment in the area. iii.

Water

Water that flows freely down the slopes draws a lot of interest from the Iranians. It is a significant element that makes gardens to thrive in an environment. Water can become conceptual, functional as well as aesthetic elements of the gardens. As described earlier, water flows through qanats channels that pass underground. Though, a large section of the land does not have access to water supply, the little land that has access to water forms a spectacular view in the otherwise unappealing landscape [10]. The emphasis on geometry is to determine the axis using different forms. For example, the axis is formed by the paths that lead to the gardens as well as those that surround the gardens which are squared [11]. The Mahan land is characterised by soils that are fertile and this promotes gardening. Mild winds are also experienced in this area. Most of the water used in the Mahan is sourced from Tigaran which supplies water to this barren and arid land [12]. Streams of water flow from the mountains close to Tigaran with a qanat supplying water to the garden [13]. As stated earlier in this paper, a steep slope leads to easy flow of water which is an advantage to the area since water flows from a higher level. The irrigation has made it possible to grow crops in the gardens [14]. Before embarking on this study, research questions on Persian Garden were circulated and the responses were obtained. The responses were then addressed in the study. Some of the questions were comprehensive enough to involve all areas addressed by this study such that the aims and objective of the study can be understood by all irrespective of areas of specialisation.


CONCLUSION Buildings in Iranian architecture have been designed based on culture, religion, traditions and in response to climate and environment of each area and lifestyle. historical Persian gardens as natural urban area fulfil many social functions and psychological needs of citizens, which make these city’s a valuable municipal resource, and a key ingredient for city sustainability. The technological and systematic function of the garden have been make a sustainable pattern, where can be a symbol of a sustainable historic garden, Studying of history of gardening in Iran can introduce a new path to architects that how those traditional building could find suitable responses to people's demands at that time and lead them to create a better architecture appropriate for this period of time. Iranian garden construction features can be illustrated as follows: the importance of garden construction is a greenbelt and its pleasing effects against Iran’s dry and desert climate have doubled. The roles of land and position in the function and type of the garden are very significant in Persian garden. Regular water flow is the main element in Persian garden. Garden irrigation and how to use water for ornamentation is important in Persian garden. In desert regions, there are many dry areas besides the many forests; therefore water comes as the principal element in the Persian garden. The underground water canals are built on slopes to facilitate either natural or artificial flow of water (waterfalls). It is assumed that this style of irrigation is about a thousand years old. This style works in the best way and is widely used even in modern gardening styles. The underground water tunnels, called Qantas are built to irrigate the garden and wells are then connected to Qantas for drawing out water. Trees are planted in a ditch called a jub, to prevent water evaporation and allow quick access of water to the tree roots. Finally, the Persian gardens basically serve for relaxation and recovery.

REFERENCES Sheila S. Blair and Jonathan M. Bloom, introduction to Images of Paradise In Islamic Art, ed. (Hanover: NH, 1991), p. 11. Isma’il R. al Faruqi and Lois L. Faruqi, The Cultural Atlas of slam (New York: Macmilln Publishing Company, 1986), p. 180. Walter B. Denny, “Reflections of Paradise in Islamic Art,” in Images of Paradise In Islamic Art, ed. Sheila S. Blair and Jonathan M. Bloom (Hanover: NH, 1991), p. 33. Faruqi, The Cultural Atlas of slam, p. 175. Tehran: Tarbiat Modares University press. MK. Pirniya. 1995. Persian Gardens. Tehran: Abadi. 15, 4-10 Kiani , Malik. Iranian Architecture during the Islamic Period. Tehran: Tehran Publishers, 2004. Print. Khansarik, Mont. The Persian Garden: Cohoes of Paradise. Iran: Mage Publisher, 2009. Print. Hob, House. Garden of Persia.Nazar: Tehran Publishers, 2006. Print. Turner, Tom. Garden History, Philosophy and Design, 2000 BC–2000 AD. New York: Spon Press, 2005. Print. Carroll, Maureen. Earthly Paradises: Ancient Gardens in History and Archaeology. London: British Museum Press, 2008. Print. Mansoori, Ayah. An Introduction to the Aesthetic of Iranian Gardens.Nazar: Nazar Institute Publishers. 2005. Print. Barati, Newton. Gardens and Construction of the Gardens in the Iranian Culture.Nazar: Nazar Institute, 2006. Print. Tavakoli, Newton. Structures and Historical Recognition of Iranian Gardens. Iran: Islamic Azad University Publishers, 2007. Print.


A Review on Current Above-ground Biomass and Carbon of Hevea Brasiliensis Rosnaini Hasana, Halmi Kamaruddina and Zulkiflee Abdul Latifc abc Department of Surveying Science and Geomatic Faculty of Architecture, Planning and Surveying Universiti Teknologi MARA(UITM) 40000 Shah Alam Selangor MALAYSIA E-mail address corresponding author: [email protected] [email protected] [email protected]

ABSTRACT Forests are the largest carbon pool on earth. It acts as a major source and sinks of carbon in nature. Thus, it has a potential to represents a chief component in the mitigation of global warming and adaptation to climate change. Estimation of the forest carbon stocks will enable us to assess the amount of carbon loss during deforestation or the amount of carbon that a forest can store when such forests are regenerated. Forest ecosystem is one of the most important carbon sinks of the terrestrial ecosystem. During the process of photosynthesis, forest’s vegetation takes up the carbon dioxide. Then, it removes the carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and stores the carbon in the plant tissues, forest litter and soils. Thus, forest ecosystem plays a very important role in the global carbon cycle by sequestering a substantial amount of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. Rubber plantation is one of the tropical forest and contribute to economy by producing the timber and furniture manufacturing. By estimating the biomass and carbon of rubber plantation using the technology of synthetic aperture radar (SAR), it will improve the accuracy of the biomass. Keywords: biomass; hevea brasiliensis; carbon stocks; synthetic aperture radar

INTRODUCTION Forest plays an important role in the global carbon cycle as carbon sinks of the terrestrial ecosystem. Forests carbon stocks are generally not measured directly however many authors assume the carbon concentration of tree parts to be 50% or 45% of the dry biomass. During the photosynthesis, plants take up carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, converting it into carbohydrate and releasing oxygen into the atmosphere. When these plants or trees die or are burnt, the carbon stored in them are released back into the atmosphere. This natural cycling of the carbon is maintained and controlled by a dynamic balance between biological and inorganic processes since the geological history of earth (Vashum, 2012). The carbon dioxide concentration in the atmosphere is continuously being measured and recorded since 1957 (Keeling, 1989).


A forest can be defined as an area with high density of trees (Maurice et al, 2006), hence forest reserve is a very important way in order to protect the forest from illegal encroaches by irresponsible parties so that the flora and fauna together with the variety of ecosystems will be reserved. Rubber plantation is part of forest plantation. The rubber plantation can be considered as significant contributors towards reducing global warming through carbon sequestration. Carbon sequestration is a process that removes carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. Simply put, sequester means to lock transiently. As far as rubber plantation is concerned, carbon is sequestered in plant parts, products, litters, debris and soil. Total carbon sequestered in rubber plantation ranged between 235 tonne/ha/30 years and 574 tonne/ha/30 years. As part of carbon strategies, Malaysia must adhere to the Kyoto Protocol mechanism which takes into consideration the effects of carbon sinks and sources, as well as for addressing issues related to fossil fuel emissions. The rising tide of environmental consciousness has put rubber cultivation in favourable light. Atmospheric pollution from the release of greenhouse gases, especially carbon dioxide, from the combustion of fossil fuels and the depletion of forests, especially the tropical rain forests, have been viewed with great concern. Studies have shown that rubber trees convert carbon dioxide at a rate comparable to if not better than that of the natural forest. The potential of natural rubber for sequestering the carbon from the atmosphere to support the ecosystem is widely recognised and adopted for establishing new forests or for reforestation purposes. Besides being environmentally friendly, natural rubber trees are a renewable resource where rubberwood can be extracted on a shorter cycle without endangering the environment. Rubber plantations Rubber trees also known as Hevea brasiliensis originating from Brazil have been planted in many countries over the past 100 years. Most rubber tree plantations are located in South and Southeast Asia and some also exist in tropical West Africa. Its location is within the equatorial zone between 10N and 10S in areas with continuous twelve-month rainfall. On the other hand, the expansion of rubber plantations plays an important role in altering regional environments that substantially affect human wellbeing and ecosystem services. For example, large-scale land surface change affects climate, carbon stocks, and biodiversity. The rubber tree is indigenous to the Amazon forests of Brazil. Mature rubber trees in the Amazon forest are much larger than the trees that one is so familiar with in Malaysia. The mature trees in its native habitat are about 25-30 metres tall with average girth of greater than 1 metre at breast height. The trees of Malaysian rubber plantations which are much smaller have been bred for the production of latex without taking into account the volume of wood produced. However, with the present scenario of increasing demand for rubber wood the criteria for breeding of rubber trees will include those for production of wood as well. Approximately about 97% of global natural rubber supply comes from Southeast Asia (Li & Fox, 2012). At the global level, it is estimated that at least 10 million hectares of rubber plantations exist. Thailand, Indonesia and Malaysia account for close to 65% of global natural rubber production in 2013. The vast majority of these are located in Southeast Asia (Indonesia, Thailand and Malaysia) and in China (FAO, 2010). Southeast Asia accounts for 97% of the world’s natural rubber supply, with the vast majority coming from Thailand (31%), Indonesia (30%), and Malaysia (9%).

Estimation of Biomass and Carbon


Biomass is defined here as the total amount of live organic matter and inert organic matter (IOM) aboveground and belowground. It is expressed in tonnes of dry matter per unit area. Most direct biomass estimations by means of remote sensing make use of regression because of the complexity of the forest structure, the spatial and even seasonal variability of tree shapes, densities and crown structures. These regressions are often only accurate for a certain forest type or on large scales where the variability is statistically balanced (Dong et al, 2003). Biomass is the fourth largest energy source in the world includes firewood plantations, agricultural residues, forestry residues and animal wastes (Reddy, 1994).A study has been done when 5 trees were felled and the biomass of each component of the tree including main stem, branches, leaves, twigs and roots were estimated separately using volume, weight and density. Allometric Equations Allometric equations were used to calculate the aboveground biomass from volumetric or structural dimensions and most of them are based on tree diameter at breast height (DBH). The allometric equation that is used for rubber can be expressed by below equations;

AGB=exp [-2.134+2.530)*In(D)] (For diameter limit